Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Christopher helm
london
Like so many ocean sailors, I have a huge respect for these incredible birds,
which circle Antarctica over the most inhospitable oceans in the world. I
hope that through the images and information in this book those of you
who have felt the sheer presence of these birds can re-live it, and those who
havent can begin to experience it.
Dame Ellen MacArthur
Published 2007 by Christopher Helm, an imprint of A&C Black Publishers Ltd, 36 Soho
Square, London W1D 3QY
Reprinted 2008
Electronic edition 2010
Copyright 2007 artwork by Derek Onley
Copyright 2007 text by Paul Scofield and Derek Onley
The right of Derek Onley and Paul Scofield to be identified as the authors of this work has
been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988.
ISBN (print) 978-0-7136-4332-9
ISBN (e-pub) 978-1-4081-0877-2
ISBN (e-pdf) 978-1-4081-3579-2
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or used in any form
or by any means photographic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or information storage or retrieval systems without permission of the
publishers.
Commissioning Editor: Nigel Redman
Project Editor: Jim Martin
Designer: Julie Dando, Fluke Art, Cornwall
Visit www.acblack.com/naturalhistory to find out more about our authors and their books.
You will find extracts, author interviews and our blog, and you can sign up for newsletters
to be the first to hear about our latest releases and special offers.
CONTENTS
List of species and subspecies
Preface
11
Acknowledgements
11
12
14
Identification
19
Conservation
25
29
Seabird topography
31
Colour plates
32
Species accounts
122
Albatrosses
122
Fulmarine petrels
143
Prions
151
157
Gadfly petrels
161
Procellaria petrels
187
Shearwaters
191
Diving-petrels
215
Storm-petrels
218
References
237
Index
238
plate no.
1, 2
1, 2
1, 2
Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on higher-latitude islands of southern ocean except new Zealand.
tristan da Cunha and Gough i., ranging at sea through south Atlantic.
b) Royal albatrosses
Diomedea sanfordi Northern Royal Albatross
1, 3
1, 3
Tropical E Pacific; breeding confined to the Galpagos Is.; range to adjacent seas as far as S America.
NW Pacific. Breeds mainly on Tori-shima (Japan), ranges S and E.
Central and western N Pacific. Most breed on NW Hawaiian Is. with some in S Japan. Ranges SE to equator.
Central N Pacific and off Baja California. Ranges from Japanese seas N to Bering Sea, E to Pacific coast of
n America.
d) Mollymawks
Thalassarche melanophris Black-browed Albatross
7, 9
7, 9
8, 9
8, 9
8, 9
8, 9
Circumpolar s hemisphere, tristan da Cunha group and Gough i., ranging at sea through s Atlantic.
Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on lower-latitude islands of s indian ocean.
T. b. bulleri (southern Bullers Albatross) Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeds on the snares and
solander around stewart is.
T. b. ssp. nov. (northern Bullers Albatross) Breeds on sisters and Forty-Fours in Chatham is. and on
three Kings islands north of new Zealand. subspecies yet to be formally named.
e) Sooty albatrosses
Phoebetria fusca Sooty Albatross
10
10
11
11
12
12
13
13
13
13
14
27
b) Prions
Pachyptila vittata Broad-billed Prion
26
26
26
26
new Zealand and se Atlantic, in warmer subantarctic waters just north of subtropical convergence.
Breeds SW Indian Ocean, occurs throughout cooler circumpolar waters except SE Pacific in winter.
endemic to st paul is. range at sea unknown.
Circumpolar southern Ocean, in colder waters but rarely reported in central S Pacific.
26
27
27
15
15
15
17
17
17
d) Gadfly petrels
i) Cookilaria petrels
Pterodroma axillaris Chatham Islands Petrel
23
23
23
23
24
22
22
24
22
22
Pacific Ocean; breeds in S New Zealand, foraging south to ice edge; migrates to NW Pacific.
Subtropical west and central N Pacific.
Alejandro Selkirk I. (Mas Afuera), Juan Fernndez Is. Range at sea in Pacific poorly known.
17
16, 17, 25
20, 25
16
16, 20, 25
16
16
Tropical Pacific.
18
18
18
20
18
18
21
21
21
Alejandro Selkirk I., Juan Fernndez Is., dispersing over the tropical and subtropical waters of E Pacific.
Central and sW indian ocean, breeding only on runion i.
Central N Pacific, breeds on higher Hawaiian Islands.
Central E Pacific; breeds on higher Galpagos Islands.
Breeds on Bermuda; moves n into the Atlantic.
n Caribbean and western n Atlantic. Breeds on higher C Caribbean islands; moves up Gulf stream
as far as north Carolina.
Jamaica. probably extinct.
14
14
19
19
14, 19, 21
21
21
19
subtropical ne Atlantic.
madeira is.
e) Procellaria petrels
Procellaria aequinoctialis White-chinned Petrel
28
28
29, 30
Little and Great Barrier Is., New Zealand; winters in E tropical Pacific.
29
29, 32
f) Larger shearwaters
Calonectris diomedea Corys Shearwater
33
33
33
15, 30, 32
Warmer waters of Pacific except SE Pacific. Breeds only on Poor Knights I. near New Zealand;
migrates to N Pacific.
32
29, 30
32
32
Subtropical Indian and SW Pacific Oceans; migrates to N Pacific and NW Indian Oceans.
E Pacific; migrates to N Pacific.
Atlantic and indian oceans; breeds only on tristan da Cunha and Gough i. migrates north.
Circumpolar in warm and subantarctic waters; migrates north mainly into Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
14, 31
31
30
Circumpolar in colder waters; breeds only in Tasmania; migrates north into arctic Pacific and Bering Sea.
Tropical and subtropical Pacific.
g) Manx-type shearwaters
Puffinus puffinus Manx Shearwater
35
35
35
34
36
36
36, 37
36, 37
Colder waters of SW Pacific, and Gough I. and Tristan da Cunha Is. in Atlantic.
P. a. assimilis sW Pacific. Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island.
35, 37
3437
37
37
37
34, 37
34
34
30
38
38
38
38
humboldt current.
39
40, 45
45
40
Circumpolar subantarctic.
44
41, 45
41, 45
44
39
42
40
39
43
43
42
43
42
42
44
42
10
PREFACE
This book covers the 137 currently accepted species of the avian order Procellariiformes, ubiquitous denizens
of the oceans of the world. the common name for the entire group is tubenoses, a reference to their external
tubular nostrils, which are often very evident on the upper mandible. the order is usually divided further into
four families: the albatrosses, diomedeidae; petrels and shearwaters, the procellariidae; the storm-petrels,
hydrobatidae; and the diving-petrels, pelecanoididae.
the procellariiformes are an ancient group that have been recognisable in the fossil record for more than 35
million years. the order includes some of the worlds commonest birds, such as Wilsons storm-petrel. Yet the groups
very existence is scarcely known to the general public, due mainly to the fact that petrels and albatrosses are almost
exclusively marine birds, spending the majority of their lives at sea and only coming to land in order to breed.
Before the 1980s, observation and identification of petrels had been limited mostly to those who lived and
worked at sea, and was hampered by the absence of a good field guide. The landmark publication of Peter
harrisons Seabirds: an identification guide by Croom helm in 1983 began the rush to sea. in recent years, the
advent of pelagic birdwatching trips and eco-tourism that reaches the poles and the southern oceans has
seen the identification of seabirds become a frontier of birding. Many questions have been answered since the
publication of Harrisons guide, but a number of identification issues remain unresolved, and there are cases in
this book where we had to admit that separation of a species at sea is extremely difficult or even impossible given
our current knowledge of the group. indeed, even our understanding of what constitutes a species is still in a
state of flux. Bird taxonomy cycles through periods of lumping and splitting of species. The current trend is
to split, stimulated by enthusiastic use of genetic research, and nowhere is this more apparent than among the
albatrosses; the 14 traditionally accepted species have been split, by some, into as many as 27 separate species.
in this book we have tended to be conservative and have leant toward the adage that if you cant recognise it at
sea then dont separate it.
This book is for birders, birdwatchers and others who go to sea and who wish to find and identify the birds
that they see there, whether flying alone through storms, feeding en masse in the sun with dolphins, tuna and
gannets, or paddling around at the back of a boat waiting for a handout. It is aimed mainly at identifying flying
birds and we concentrate on those aspects of plumage, moult, morphometrics and biology that help with this.
For example, we include features such as egg-laying dates to give an indication of the time of year the species
can be found near land, but we omit details of incubation shifts by males and females. At times we have to
discuss plumage in some detail, but we do not go into the meticulous feather-by-feather detail that may enable
identification of birds in the hand. We include descriptions of characteristic flight styles but rarely mention voice.
most petrels are silent during the day at sea except when they congregate in groups; in our experience, voice is
not useful in the separation of any species of albatross or petrel. We recommend that if you wish to find out more
about the lives of albatrosses and petrels you take a look at Warham (1990, 1996) or Brooke (2004).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the following people who helped in many ways, by providing such things as accommodation, money, cups of tea, pub lunches, information, photographs, references, permission, discussion, opinions
and encouragement, and for doing so cheerfully and generously: sandy Bartle, Kevin Bartram, sharon Birks,
mike Carter, George Chance, Joanna Cooper, robert prys-Jones, rose delany, euan dunn, david eades, Jim
enticott, dominique Filippi, Brian Gill, Judy Grindell, mike imber, david James, robert Kirk, mary leCroy,
douglas J. long, dick newell, Gary melville, Colin miskelly, Gwenda pulham, tim reid, Chris robertson, ilka
soehle, paul sagar, sav saville, larry spear, Brent stephenson, paul sweet, Graeme taylor, Alan tennyson,
Caz Thomas, Kath Walker, Dick Watling, Eric Woehler, and J. Weick; to all the others we are sure we have
forgotten over the last six years, our apologies.
special thanks to nigel redman and Jim martin at Christopher helm for their help and advice, and for
guiding the book skillfully to publication; thanks also to editors tim harris and John Jackson, and to designer Julie
dando. We would also like to thank the following museums and their staff for allowing us access to their collections
and providing us with space in which to work: the museum of new Zealand te papa tongarewa; Auckland,
Canterbury and otago museums, new Zealand; the natural history museum, tring; the California Academy
of sciences, san Francisco; the American museum of natural history, new York; and Burke museum, seattle.
We would like to point out that many texts in this book do not agree with the conventional wisdom and
contradict published identification texts that many birders accept as the truth. These differences of opinion are
based on many hours of observation at sea and detailed examination of museum specimens. We may be wrong
in some cases and we accept that any inaccuracies here are our own. We would love to hear from anyone (c/o
the publishers) who disagrees with us and welcome a vigorous debate. That is the only way field identification
can progress.
11
GENETIC RESEARCH
data of a molecular nature, mainly the analysis and comparison of nuclear and mitochondrial dnA, became
commonplace about 15 years ago and have added to the information available from traditional methods. it
should be stressed, however, that these molecular techniques do not mean that a researcher can clip off a bit
of a bird, whether alive, recently dead on the tideline, or long dead in a museum tray, stick it in a machine and
get a printout of the species. the technique essentially involves comparing genetic material, much as traditional
taxonomists compared morphological data, and coming up with a measure of the degree of separation. then,
employing some vigorously debated figures about the rate of molecular evolution, statistical techniques are used
to arrive at a phylogenetic tree. or, to be honest, several trees; the techniques are a long way from being as cutand-dried as some biologists would suggest. however, genetic research has unquestionably made valuable contributions to our understanding of seabird phylogeny; we now recognise the importance of convergent evolution
in the group, for example, where birds have evolved similar morphologies and behaviours in response to similar
environmental cues, but do not share a recent common ancestor. it is also possible, using genetic material such
as mitochondrial dnA that mutates at a known rate over the course of millions of years, to quantify the degree
of genetic difference between two samples. This allows us to date with a degree of confidence major events in
the seabird lineage, such as the divergence of the ancestors of modern storm-petrels and albatrosses some 10
million years ago.
Both traditional and molecular techniques come up with measures of the degree of relationship between
the birds in question. traditional taxonomists might arrive at what appears to be a complex array of features
such as bill measurements, foot colour, and timing of moult and breeding, compared with the apparently neat
percentage distances of molecular researchers (e. g. genetic distances within the genus Thalassarche range from
1.66% to 3.15%), but the next step is essentially the same; they have to decide on a degree of difference that will
be used to define genera, species, super- and subspecies, and, indeed, whether they are even going to recognise all
of these categories. At this point, having perhaps plodded through a number of user-unfriendly scientific papers
in order to understand the intricacies of molecular techniques, it would seem quite legitimate for the ordinary
birder to quietly despair or yell out loud in anger biologists cant even agree on what a species is!
SPECIES CONCEPTS
there are several opinions as to what constitutes a species. perhaps the simplest in concept, if not in name, is the
phylogenetic species Concept, as summarised by Cracraft (1983). it gives species status to any group of birds
that are morphologically distinguishable. in this scheme of things the pale-faced subantarctic race of Fairy prion
would become a full species, Pachyptila subantarctica, equal in status to the big, dark-billed Broad-billed prion
P. vittata; but for its english name, all trace of the closer relationship with Fairy prion would be lost. thus the
psC conceals a lot of useful information; several authors have tried to deal with this problem and subsequently
added to the confusion.
An alternative approach is the Biological species Concept, as advocated by ernst mayr, which maintains
that species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from one another.
At first glance, this seems a more sensible point of view as a statement of what everyone understands as a
species; albatrosses are obviously different from storm-petrels. In molecular terminology, there is no gene flow
between the populations. For the majority of cases the BSC works well. It does, however, run into difficulties with
populations that have recently diverged and may still interbreed, or are morphometrically or genetically similar
but have ranges that do not overlap, a frequent occurrence with albatrosses and petrels that nest on isolated
islands. this problem led biologists to expand the BsC into a multidimensional Biological species Concept
(mBsC), which allows the combination of similar populations into polytypic species.
there is a political element to this debate. in developed countries, conservation funding has been
forthcoming for endangered species, especially if they can be shown to be endemic. For example, the promotion
of the shy Albatross that breeds in Bass strait to full species status (as White-capped Albatross T. cauta) would
allow the Australian government to fund research and conservation efforts. this is much less likely to happen if
12
the taxon remains a subspecies of Shy Albatross, which also nests in New Zealand. According this taxon specific
status would be an understandable and worthy move given the dearth of conservation funding, but it would not
necessarily reflect well on scientific integrity, nor would it help our understanding of the debate.
it was the adoption of the narrowest psC that led robertson and nunn (1998) to increase the number
of albatross species from 13 to 24, and to happily accept nucleotide distances of less than 1% as indicative
of specific species. Recent workers and reviewers, however, have tended to view the same albatrosses through
fuzzier MBSC glasses, and have rejected any distances of less than 1% as indicative of specific status, ending up
with 13 to 22 species.
Even when there is agreement on the definition of a species, the criteria for raising a group of birds to
species status vary considerably between authors. For example, for many years the Atlantic members of the
genus Calonectris have been lumped together under the name Corys shearwater (C. diomedea). this despite the
fact that the birds from the Cape Verdes are obviously a lot smaller, have slimmer, greyish rather than yellow
bills, and breed later and entirely separately from the rest. Most authors now accept that Cape Verde Shearwater
should be raised to species status (C. edwardsii), though Brooke (2004) is not entirely convinced. there are also
differences between those populations of Corys shearwater that breed in the mediterranean and those that
breed on the Atlantic islands; those from the mediterranean are smaller on average, with paler underwings and
paler heads. Most authors accept that these populations warrant subspecific status, but only the most enthusiastic
splitters make a case for full species status. the only genetic work carried out so far on this group is by penhallurick and Wink (2004) and unfortunately they did not include the Cape Verde birds. They interpreted their
results for the Atlantic and Mediterranean populations as not warranting specific status but other workers in the
field have used what appears to be the same or even a lesser degree of genetic difference as evidence to support
such status.
CONCLUSIONS
there is no doubt that genetic work has added new information to the taxonomic debate, but interpretations
of the data still remain a matter of opinion; some have been dogged by poor science, and are far from being
the revolution that enthusiasts have claimed. the debate is not over, but it is also worth remembering that the
taxonomic status of the majority of albatrosses and petrels had remained much the same for 70 years, and those
that have changed have, in most cases, been recognised as different species or as a subspecies for some time.
there have not been that many surprises!
Amidst all this debate we had to make some broad decisions on taxonomy and on which taxonomic sources
to follow after all, field guides are about identifying birds to species. So for much of this book we have followed
Brooke (2004), only departing substantially when we get to the smaller shearwaters, where we have adopted
many of the recommendations of Austin et al. (2004).
13
ALBATROSSES (DIOMEDEIDAE)
Albatrosses are big, far bigger than all other procellariiforms bar the giant petrels. they weigh between 2 and
9kg and have wingspans of between 1.8 and 3.5m. Unlike the other three families, they have separate nostrils
on either side of the bill.
the long, narrow wings with low wing-loading (low weight-to-wing area ratio) are ideal for extended gliding
flights, and they fly huge distances in search of food. Albatrosses feed by landing on the sea and grabbing prey
at or near the surface, and all but the sooty albatrosses are attracted to fishing boats. Rather than occupying
burrows, they nest on the surface.
Snowy Albatross
separate nostrils
Following molecular studies by nunn et al. (1996) and nunn & stanley (1998), it is now generally accepted
that the albatrosses can be divided into four genera. These are the North Pacific albatrosses (Phoebastria), the great
albatrosses (Diomedea), the mollymawks (Thalassarche), and the sooty albatrosses (Phoebetria).
it is also generally agreed that the genus Phoebastria consists of four species, laysan, Waved, short-tailed and
Black-footed Albatrosses, while Phoebetria contains just two, the sooty and light-mantled Albatrosses. however,
the make-up of the other two genera is more contentious. robertson and nunn (1998) suggested increasing
the number of species in Diomedea and Thalassarche from 10 to 18. this scheme was widely adopted despite the
fact that supporting evidence remained unpublished for some time. in this guide we have accepted six species
in Diomedea; snowy, new Zealand, tristan, Amsterdam island and northern and southern royal Albatrosses,
and nine in Thalassarche: Black-browed and the very similar but yellow-eyed Campbell Albatrosses, shy, salvins
and Chatham islands Albatrosses, and both indian and Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatrosses. however, we treat
Bullers Albatross and the darker-headed birds from the Chatham islands as one species. Grey-headed Albatross
remains, as always, as one species.
STORM-PETRELS (HYDROBATIDAE)
storm-petrels are the smallest of all the oceanic birds, weighing from 20g (a third less than a house sparrow)
to just over 100g, with wingspans of 3256cm. they have relatively short inner wings, a large area of primaries
and a low wing-loading so they can glide well yet remain manoeuvrable. they feed by picking small prey off the
surface of the sea, fluttering and swooping low over the sea, and often pattering their feet upon the surface. Most
breed in natural holes and crevices rather than digging burrows, and all but the Wedge-rumped storm-petrel on
the Galpagos visit their breeding grounds only at night.
1
Grey-backed Storm-petrel
Leachs Storm-petrel
recent molecular data has supported the retention of all the species and the southern-hemisphere genera, but
more work is required.
DIvING-PETRELS (PELECANOIDIDAE)
Common Diving-petrel
1
Fulmarine petrels
Prions
Cape Petrel
the prions are a distinctive group of small, blue-grey petrels of the cooler southern oceans. they weigh between
90 and 240g. All have distinctive bills with fine filters called lamellae along the edge of the upper mandible, and
a gular pouch. These are used to filter out plankton in the manner of a baleen whale. Prions feed by sitting on
the sea or by flying low over the surface, often using their
feet to bounce off waves not unlike a storm-petrel. At
sea, all but slender-billed and Fulmar prions are often
highly gregarious and can be seen in huge flocks, but
they rarely follow ships or feed around fishing vessels.
prions nest in burrows and crevices. Fulmar prions can
be seen on the breeding grounds during the day but all
others visit only at night.
Slender-billed Prion
most authors accept that Fairy and Fulmar prions
form a separate grouping from the rest but taxonomists
agree about little else. the situation is complex;
morphometric measurements overlap a lot and each
island population of the same species is slightly
different, so much so that earlier authors regularly
named prions by the island the specimens came from.
the situation may become clearer when good samples
of genetic and morphometric data are available from
known breeding birds on a wider range of islands, and
more details of breeding biology (notably of hybridisation) are better known. For this book, we recognise
seven species in one genus, Pachyptila, and mention
Broad-billed Prion
seven further subspecies.
1
Gadfly petrels
The term gadfly petrel has been used to describe a diverse group of longwinged, fast flying, medium-to-small, highly pelagic species of temperate
and tropical oceans. All feed on the wing, and they can even catch flying
fish. They also alight on the sea and scavenge or grab prey at or near the
surface. species that breed in the cooler oceans tend to nest in burrows or
crevices and visit their colonies by night, while those in the tropics are more
likely to nest on the surface and be active at the colony during the day.
Gadfly petrels rarely feed around fishing vessels.
We have used the term gadfly petrel to refer solely to species in the
genus Pterodroma but other authors also include the genera Lugensa, Pseudobulweria and Bulweria. the genus Lugensa consists of only one species,
Kerguelen petrel, which, despite being only relatively recently removed
from Pterodroma, appears to be quite distinct and with no obvious close
affinities.
the genus Bulweria has been recognised as distinctive for a fair while
and contains two species, Bulwers and Jouanins petrels. Both are dark,
long-winged and long-tailed tropical species that have characteristic bills
with less obvious tubular nostrils than the Pterodroma petrels.
like Bulweria, the genus PseudoTahiti Petrel
bulweria occurs in warmer seas, and
Bulwers Petrel
its species are long-winged and longtailed, with deep, heavy bills. the
genus includes four species, Fiji and mascarene petrels, the larger tahiti
petrel, and the very similar but smaller Becks petrel.
the genus Pterodroma contains 3035 species, all of which have relatively
short, strong bills with prominent nasal tubes and a hooked tip. they range
in plumage from entirely dark, through several species that have dark and light phases, to a distinctive group that
are white underneath and pale grey above with a dark m mark across the open wings. the smaller members of
this distinctively marked group are often collectively called the cookilarias.
Great-winged Petrel
Stejnegers Petrel
Baraus Petrel
Kermadec Petrel
the pterodromas, especially those from the warmer oceans, are neither well-known nor well-studied, and
several new species have recently been discovered rather than promoted purely on the basis of molecular and
taxonomic re-evaluation. these include the henderson petrel, ostensibly a dark form of herald petrel but which
breeds separately from all the light forms on henderson atoll in the pitcairn Group, and a small form of Whitenecked Petrel, Vanuatu Petrel, which was described from old museum specimens and a more recent storm-blown
corpse from Australia.
Current taxonomic discussion centres on the long-assumed relationship between the north Atlantic Feas
and Zinos petrels with the southern ocean soft-plumaged petrel (Feas actually seems to be more closely related
to Cahow than Soft-plumaged Petrel), and the specific status of the polymorphic Herald/Trindade group that
breeds on widely separated islands in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. We have accepted all the recent
splits and recognise a total of 35 species in the genus Pterodroma.
1
Brooke (2004) includes the five members of the genus Procellaria among the shearwaters, but although they
possess the ability to dive, their bills are deep and strong with large hooked tips and prominent nasal tubes, more
like the pterodromas. the Procellaria are the largest of the burrowing petrels, ranging in weight from 600700g
for parkinsons petrel to 1.5kg for White-chinned petrel.
Shearwaters
the two genera of shearwaters, Calonectris and Puffinus, are small to medium-sized shearwaters with relatively
long, slim bills that have less prominent nostril tubes and shallower hooks on the tips than the pterodromas.
the smallest shearwaters weigh 150g and the largest more than 1kg, with many species being in the 300400g
range. All dive for food to some extent; Corys shearwater rarely reaches 5m under the surface, but sooty and
short-tailed shearwaters are capable of depths of 70m and swim well underwater, propelling themselves on
half-open wings. those that dive well, especially the smaller Puffinus species, have compressed, water-resistant
plumage, narrower, more streamlined bodies, flattened tarsi, and short, narrow wings with stiffer, stronger
primaries. these adaptations all facilitate swimming and chasing prey underwater. the larger species, especially
Wedge-tailed and Bullers shearwaters and those in the genus Calonectris, have broader wings and longer tails, are
much more manoeuvrable, and take much of their food on the wing or by shallow plunge-diving. many of the
shearwaters feed around fishing boats. Shearwaters that breed in temperate areas dig burrows and visit colonies
by night, but a few in the tropics nest on the surface and are present at colonies by day.
Streaked Shearwater
Fluttering Shearwater
Flesh-footed Shearwater
A version of the smaller, manx-like, brown or black-and-white Puffinus shearwater occurs throughout the
worlds temperate and tropical oceans, nesting on many oceanic islands and archipelagos and on islands on
continental shelves. they have provided taxonomists with many hours of amusement, caused much constructive
discussion and bitter controversy, and even generated a little in the way of research funds. one set of labels on
a brownish, rather faded and admittedly intermediate looking specimen (in a well-known museum that should
perhaps remain nameless) had no fewer than seven pencilled amendments culminating in atrodorsalis?.
once everyone, more or less, agreed that there was a relatively easy-to-identify manx-type group of species,
discussion moved on to centre around what became known as the little/
Audubons shearwater complex. the little end of the spectrum was
characterised by black upperparts, a short tail, white undertail, smallish
Westland Petrel
bill and steep forehead; the Audubons end by brown upperparts, long tail,
dark undertail, biggish bill and sloped forehead. it was the intermediates,
notably from the Atlantic islands, plus poorly studied representatives from
far-flung Pacific and Indian Ocean islands, distant from the centres of
taxonomic debate in europe and the UsA, that caused the controversy.
recent molecular studies, especially those by Austin et al. (2004), suggest
that this emphasis on the characters differentiating little from Audubons
was misleading, as were many of the island species and subspecies, and
that the group was better looked upon as three biogeographic groups
from the north Atlantic, southern oceans including Australasia, and
the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans respectively. Intriguingly, one of
the consequences of this research is that little shearwater characteristics
(black upperparts, short tail etc.) appear to have evolved separately and
convergently in the northern and southern hemispheres, and are not an
indication of a close relationship.
1
The Little/Audubon group. Left Little characteristics; centre intermediate; right Audubons. Genetic studies have shown
that these morphometric characteristics do not truly reflect specific status.
We agree with many of Austin et al.s (2004) recommendations; see the main text for details. We have decided
to include a total of 10 species from the former little/Audubons shearwater complex. together with the manxtype group this makes 16 smaller Puffinus shearwaters, and 28 species of shearwaters in total (three in Calonectris
and the rest in Puffinus).
IDENTIFICATION
Away from their breeding grounds, from the shore or at sea, the usual view of an albatross or petrel is fleeting
and in flight. Things get a little easier if members of the species are attracted to ships, and an outing on a fishing
boat or, even better, a pelagic birding trip will bring many species in close enough to allow excellent views of
birds in flight and on the water. This is especially true of many of the albatrosses and a fair number of the
shearwaters, but many of the storm-petrels and gadfly petrels, especially those from warmer seas, are rarely
attracted to ships and remain elusive. in the main text we mention those species that are attracted to boats and
to chum, that enticing concoction of oily, smelly, fishy stuff thrown off the back of boats by pelagic birders to
attract seabirds close enough to allow identification.
In this guide we concentrate on the identification of birds in flight. This section deals with some of the
problems and pitfalls associated with assessing a bird at sea. Identification of many albatrosses and petrels is not
easy and there is no simple substitute for comparative experience. the best observers often identify a bird by
jizz, a term birders use to describe the general impression created by a birds outstanding features, shape and
relative proportions. it can be looked upon as the arty side of birding. it is the aspect of a bird that allows an
experienced birder to identify a species from a brief glance out of the corner of their eye without quite knowing
how they do it. Equally, it allows the less scrupulous to mumble jizz and claim an identification based on the
most fleeting of glimpses and on the slightest of pretexts.
1
a picture of a flying albatross and you can see that the near wing is narrower and smaller than the far wing
not a natural state of affairs. Add to these difficulties all those related to weather and lighting (see below
under Conditions) plus a cameras shortcomings in faithfully reproducing colour and contrast, and those single
photographs can result in many hours of entertaining yet often fruitless debate.
the immediate reaction of seabird experts to mystery photos these days is to ask for more information. how
big was it? What was its underwing, upperparts, rump like? How did it fly? Almost inevitably the information is
not forthcoming and here we would like to make a plea. please, please take the time to observe the birds and take
notes as well as looking through a camera lens. A few more seconds of observation of that mystery Pterodroma you
photographed and you would have known whether it had a white rump, if that really was a pale nape or whether
it was just a bright patch of light contrasting with the dark underwing shadow. photographs are helpful but they
cannot stand alone and require good observation and documentation if they are to be really useful.
CONDITIONS
Weather, lighting and sea conditions can alter the appearance of a bird. For example, in dull and rainy weather
many seabirds will look dark against the sea and sky, even when your binoculars are not misted up. Bright sun
increases the contrast between lighter and darker areas, shadows can appear as dark plumage features, and
sunlight glinting on dark feathers, especially worn ones, can make them appear very pale. in bright sunny
conditions, light reflecting off the surface of the sea can make all underparts look pale; this can make things
especially difficult when trying to see the pattern on the underwing of a Pterodroma petrel. the diagnostic dark
bars on the mainly white underwing of cookilaria petrels can be lost in a white glare and the subtle pale patches
on the base of the primaries of murphys petrel can look almost as white as those on herald petrel. the direction
of the light is also important. Back-lit birds will look darker, plumage details will be obscured, yet light may shine
through spread wing- and tail-feathers
and make them appear paler than
Cooks Petrel
they actually are. light from the side
or from behind the observer is usually
best, but it can also wash out details
and make everything look pale.
Wind strength can dramatically
alter the way a species flies, and
diagnostic flight patterns may no
longer apply. For example, in high
winds the characteristic low, fluttering
flight of the smaller shearwaters can
turn into speedy, wheeling arcs, more
Murphys Petrel
like the typical flight of a Pterodroma;
in calm conditions, a Kermadec
Petrel can fly with strong wingbeats The same Cooks Petrel, back-lit on the left, lit from the side on the right. Murphys
not unlike a skua.
Petrel with light reflecting off the sea.
SIzE
The Procellariiformes are quoted as having the greatest range in size of any avian order. The smallest species,
least storm-petrel, weighs a mere 2834g and has a 32-cm wingspan, while the largest, snowy Albatross, weighs
11kg and has a wingspan of up to 3.6m. thus the largest is 25 times greater in wingspan and 274 times heavier
than the smallest.
despite this, and due to a lack of landmarks on the ocean surface, judging the distance an object is from a ship
at sea is fraught with difficulty. Because of this, among many other reasons (not least of which is seasickness), even
the most experienced of observers may have difficulty estimating the size of a bird at sea. If at all possible, the best
thing to do is to compare an unknown bird to another identifiable species visible at the same time. Experienced
observers often get an idea of size by a feeling for the flight style of a bird. Albatrosses, for example, wheel slowly
above the horizon on motionless wings, while smaller species appear suddenly and disappear just as swiftly.
Size often varies a lot within a species. Males are often considerably larger than females, and in the few
species where size is a useful identification feature this can lead to errors. For example, exercise caution when
using size to differentiate the wandering and royal albatross species and the black Procellaria petrels, as there is
considerable interspecific overlap and intraspecific variation. Often it is the proportions, such as bill length,
robustness of head, or overall length, that are more useful than length or wingspan alone. Size is often one of
the first things inexperienced observers try to assess, but it is usually better to concentrate first on the plumage
features, style of flight and proportions almost anything else, in fact, apart from size if you are to make the
most of a fleeting encounter.
20
PLUMAGE
Plumage variation, phases and morphs
twenty or so of the petrel and
albatross species regularly show some
from of plumage variation that can
be easily seen in the field, but only
half of these are usually considered
to have distinct phases or morphs.
those that show a wide range of
plumages from light to dark with a
full range of intermediates include
one fulmarine petrel, the northern
Fulmar; four gadfly petrels, the
herald, trindade, Kermadec and
Collared petrels; one shearwater,
Wedge-tailed shearwater; and two
storm-petrels, White-bellied and
polynesian. examples of lesser
degrees of variation include the
Wedge-tailed Shearwater; light, intermediate and dark morphs.
southern Giant petrel which has a
relatively common white phase, all other variation in the dark phase being age-related. the soft-plumaged
petrel has a very rare dark phase and there are a few intermediates in museum collections, but there have been
no recent records of such birds at sea. museum specimens of Atlantic petrel also show a surprisingly wide range
of plumages, including almost entirely dark birds but, as with soft-plumaged petrel, these are rarely recorded
at sea nowadays. Both may be cases of selective collecting resulting in an over-representation of unusual birds
in collections; alternatively, the specimens may have been taken from more variable populations that are now
extinct. elliots storm-petrel comes in dark and lighter-bellied forms, but these are geographically separated and
are usually regarded as subspecies, while the Pacific forms of Leachs Storm-petrel show a cline of increasingly
dark-rumped birds, correlated with the distance south that they breed along the American coast.
From an identification point of view it is always necessary to be aware of the wide range of plumages among
these variable species, but in only a few cases does identification become difficult or impossible. The dark phases
of White-bellied, polynesian and leachs storm-petrels have to be remembered when trying to sort out an
all-dark storm-petrel, but range and jizz coupled with a fair amount of experience should allow identification.
on the other hand, some intermediate phases of Collared petrel may not be distinguishable from Goulds petrel;
similarly, the henderson petrel does not appear to be distinguishable at sea from the dark phases of herald and
trindade petrels.
21
difficult to distinguish between the two species but there are no difficult identification consequences, except
that a wholly dark juvenile giant petrel may at first glance be confused with a variety of other dark petrels and
albatrosses. Size and the distinctive giant petrel shape should soon distinguish them.
immature or darker
adult Northern
Giant Petrel
adult Grey-headed
Albatross
juvenile
Northern Giant Petrel
immature
Grey-headed Albatross
Adult and young mollymawks, such as Grey-headed Albatross, have similar plumages.
Giant petrels have a range of plumages, like the great albatrosses.
other petrels exhibit only minor differences between juveniles and adults. Juveniles of several species of dark
shearwater and storm-petrel tend to have small white tips and narrow fringes to the feathers, especially of the
upperparts. Juvenile Pterodroma petrels tend to have broader, paler fringes to feathers; cookilarias especially can
look very pale, as can young prions. In general, juvenile plumage does not cause many identification difficulties
at species level although the recent discovery that juvenile huttons shearwaters have a paler underwing that
approaches that of the sympatric Fluttering shearwater suggests that further study may be warranted.
Juvenile Little Shearwater
Juvenile Little Shearwater with white tips to coverts; pale juvenile Cooks Petrel; juvenile Fairy Prion.
22
(A) Dark feathers become browner and paler most dark feathers
are bleached by sunlight and abrasion and can even result in unusual pale
patches and panels, especially on the upperwings. these rarely cause many
identification problems but less extreme bleaching could make it difficult to
separate the blacker upperparts of tropical shearwater from the browner
tones of Arabian shearwater, for example.
fresh
worn
(B) Pale or white feather tips wear off in juvenile or fresh plumage
several of the shearwaters and storm-petrels have narrow white fringes or
tips to the dark feathers of the upperparts. in the case of shearwaters this
(A)
rarely causes any identification problems but in storm-petrels, especially
those where identification relies on the extent and distinctness of the pale
Fluttering Shearwater
crescentic upper wingbar, this could cause confusion.
Some of the greyer or paler phases of gadfly petrels can have broad
pale fringes to upperpart feathers in fresh plumage, and this can make
fresh
birds appear very pale. Where identification includes assessment of subtle
differences in colour and tone, as for example in the cookilaria group, these
pale, often juvenile, birds can cause problems.
worn
Relying on narrow fringes to any feathers for identification is not
recommended and can be misleading. For example, differences in the extent
of white feathers on the scapulars can be diagnostic in diving-petrels; even
the peruvian species with the most extensive white markings can lose them
(B)
completely with wear.
(C) Grey feathers become darker and browner the pale grey
feathers of many Pterodroma petrels become darker and browner with wear.
the upperwing is especially likely to become dark and the diagnostic m
mark across the open wing is often obscured, or disappears completely.
Back and head feathers can take on a scalloped appearance and can cause
Peruvian Diving-petrel
identification problems, especially amongst such similar species as the small
cookilaria petrels. The effect of wear can vary between individuals and flocks of the same species may show a
wide variety of plumages.
worn
Cooks Petrel
fresh
Murphys Petrel
fresh
worn
(C)
(D)
Atlantic Petrel
(E)
fresh
worn
(D) Dark feather tips wear off to reveal pale bases to feathers many petrels have white or pale bases
to dark feathers, but in most species it is only in extreme cases of plumage wear that they are revealed as pale
patches. A few species, such as the Antarctic petrel and the dark, immature wandering albatrosses regularly
become pale and patchy due to this form of abrasion, but in only a few species, such as the odd pale-chinned
Atlantic Petrel, is it likely to cause identification problems.
(E) Greyish or silvery sheen on fresh dark plumage wears away in fresh plumage many pterodromas have
a greyish or silvery sheen on the feathers, especially on the back, rump and scapulars. At sea these can appear pale
and can contrast with darker feathers, resulting, for example, in a more obvious m mark across the upper wing. the
sheen disappears with wear and the plumage may become browner with the m marking less distinctive.
23
MOULT
We have attempted to summarise published information. moult data for many petrels is lacking, yet in many
cases detailed study of the moult of individuals of difficult-to-identify species may be helpful in separating them,
especially when they are in wing moult at different times of the year. We believe that body moult is far more
prevalent than most authors suggest, and many species begin body moult whilst breeding. in many cases the state
of moult, and especially body moult, can be used to separate adult from immature birds, and subsequently assist
with identification. In most species body moult, apart from occasionally resulting in a rather scruffy, mottled
appearance, rarely causes identification problems.
the speed with which wing and tail feathers are moulted varies between species. Generally speaking, those
that rely on flight to search for food replace their feathers more slowly than those that dive for food. Thus
albatrosses replace flight feathers in groups; up to five generations of flight feathers can be identified along the
wings of a wandering albatross.
An immature Black-browed
Albatross with old, worn
outer primaries will be
3647 months old.
several of the mollymawks can be aged by close examination of old and new feathers. in some cases,
immature Grey-headed and Black-browed Albatrosses, for example, the distribution of new and old feathers in
the wing can aid identification.
Giant petrels have such an extended moult of flight feathers that it can sometimes be difficult to see a bird
with a complete set of wing feathers. At the other extreme, diving-petrels lose and replace almost all their wing
and tail feathers within a few weeks.
Pterodroma petrels like soft-plumaged petrel, and the broader-winged shearwaters like Corys, can have
substantial gaps in their wings yet still fly, whereas the fulmarine Antarctic Petrel can look distinctly pale and
scruffy and can be seen sitting around in flocks on the ice while moulting.
Soft-plumaged Petrel
Antarctic Petrel
Elliots Storm-petrel
Corys Shearwater
From the point of view of identification, petrels in wing moult can cause confusion at first glance because
they fly somewhat differently or look a different shape to normal.
2
White-faced
Storm-petrel
in moult.
CONSERvATION
in terms of extinctions, the petrels and albatrosses appear to have fared relatively well in the 10,000 or so years
since the last Ice Age. Studies of subfossil remains suggest that only around half a dozen or so have become
extinct in that time; five shearwaters from the Canaries, St Helena and New Zealand, and a gadfly petrel
from hawaii. in historical times only the Guadalupe storm-petrel has apparently become extinct (though the
Jamaican Petrel is either extinct or very nearly so); given that storm-petrels are notoriously difficult to find and
the potential breeding habitat is rugged and tropical, the Guadalupe storm-petrel may well return like the
recently rediscovered new Zealand storm-petrel. Compare this record with the extinction of 3040 species of
land birds since the arrival of polynesian peoples in new Zealand alone, plus a further nine species since the
colonisation of the islands by europeans, and the petrels look to be survivors.
Brooke (2004) gives the conservation status for 125 species of petrel and albatross based on the series of
iUCn categories that assess the level of threat of extinction. Five categories range from least concern, which
suggests everything is generally alright at the moment, to critical, which indicates imminent extinction (a
category that interestingly includes Guadalupe storm-petrel). the criteria for these categories are complex and
consist of considerably more than an estimate of numbers. For example, Black-browed Albatross is one of the
commonest albatrosses with an estimated three million breeding pairs, yet it is classified as endangered because
studies have shown declines of up to 17% over the last two decades, a level that will inevitably lead to extinction
if not halted. table 1 below summarises the criteria for the three main categories of concern. Brooke uses two
additional categories; near threatened, which is defined as those species that are close to qualifying for the
threatened categories, and data deficient which hopefully is self-explanatory, but unfortunately includes some
of the more interesting species like Hornbys Storm-petrel that occur in less accessible and less affluent parts of
the world.
Rapid decline
Small range fragmented,
declining or fluctuating
CRITICAL
ENDANGERED
vULNERABLE
Extent of occurrence
<100 km2 or area of
occupancy <10 km2
Extent of occurrence
<5,000 km2 or area of
occupancy <500 km2
Extent of occurrence
<20,000 km2 or area of
occupancy <2,000 km2
2
Procellaria
Shearwaters
Endangered
Vulnerable
10
10
Near Threatened
Least Concern
21
33
Total
13
10
14
11
31
25
12
10
13
51
41
21
125
100
1
3
1
13
Data Deficient
Total
Storm-petrels
Bulweria &
Pseudobulweria
Diving-petrels
Pterodroma
Prions
Albatrosses
Critical
Fulmarine
petrels
IUCN
CATEGORY
21
Table 2. Conservation status of main groups of petrels and albatrosses (based on taxonomy of Brooke, 2004).
A quick glance at the summary of the conservation status of petrels and albatrosses (table 2) shows that
far from being survivors, almost half are in trouble, and one in ten species are threatened with extinction in the
near future if nothing is done. some groups seem to be faring better than others, though only one, the prions,
seem to be doing well. on the other hand, 18 of the 20 albatross species are in the vulnerable, endangered
or critical categories, and the other two are approaching the same status. Pterodroma petrels also seem particularly susceptible with two-thirds in the threatened categories. shearwaters and storm-petrels appear to be of
intermediate concern, but there is little data for several species. What has brought these birds to this perilous
state?
2
with rat holes in the side of the nest, cattle and sheep grazing in the background and a pile of cat scats in the
foreground.
many of the settlements on the smaller, more remote islands in the colder seas were abandoned by the
depression of the 1920s but the rotting wharves and ships of the whalers remained, as did the cattle, sheep,
rats and cats. On larger islands like New Zealand and in warmer tropical seas, settlements flourished and the
remaining seabirds were further threatened by introduced predators. mustelids, for example, were brought into
new Zealand to deal with the rabbit plague; they promptly turned to native birds. mongooses behaved similarly
in the Pacific. More recently on the more developed islands like Hawaii, the few remaining petrels now have
to deal with the consequences of affluence, urban expansion, roads, and lights that attract rare, newly fledged
chicks at night. By the 20th century a safe, predator-free, island nesting site was very much the exception rather
than the rule.
PROBLEMS AT SEA
Compared with the land, the sea has, until quite recently, been a relatively safe and predator-free environment
for an albatross or petrel. smaller species may be caught and eaten by gulls, skuas or the occasional roving
falcon, and, judging by the loss of feet, perhaps predatory fish, and they also come off badly in encounters with
larger species when competing for food. notwithstanding the occasional use of seabirds as bait and the small
numbers of birds that were trapped in nets and drowned, the rise of commercial fisheries in the 19th century
was beneficial for several species of seabird. Not only did fishermen clean and gut their catch at sea and toss
the offal overboard, the large nets and lines also caught huge amounts of unwanted, unsaleable by-catch, which
added to the fast-food supply for those seabirds that learnt to follow fishing boats. The well-documented spread
of the Northern Fulmar through the North Atlantic in the first half of the 20th century has been attributed to
the increase of food available from the fishing fleet, and it is clear that many seabirds, including some relatively
rare species like Westland and spectacled petrels and shy Albatross, obtain at least some of their food from
around fishing vessels.
it was not until the late 1970s and 1980s, when the combination of an increase in the worldwide demand for
fish and the demise of traditional fishing grounds due to overfishing led to the adoption of large, industrial-scale
fishing techniques, that seabirds began to be caught in numbers that affected their ability to survive. The first of
these new techniques was drift nets, huge ones and lots of them. Greenpeace estimated that about 50,000km2
of net were set each night in the North Pacific in the 1980s, and the number of birds caught was probably of
the order of half a million per year, the estimate for 1992. drift netting in the open oceans ceased in 1992 but
it was replaced by long-lining; this has become a serious threat to the survival of many seabirds, particularly
albatrosses.
LONG-LINING
Long-lining is mainly used to catch tuna, swordfish and Patagonian Toothfish. It involves setting thousands
of baited hooks on lines up to 130km long. An estimated one billion hooks are set annually. Albatrosses and
petrels grab the baited hooks as the lines are set or retrieved, become hooked and drown. tens of thousands
of seabirds are killed in the southern ocean every year and in the new Zealand region alone approximately
65,000 albatrosses and petrels have been killed in the last 20 years. 6,000 deaths per year are estimated in
Argentine waters, mostly Black-browed Albatross and White-chinned petrel. All the species of albatross have
been recorded as killed by long-lines, and other species regularly caught include giant petrels, White-chinned,
Grey and spectacled petrel, Cape petrel and sooty shearwater. there is now some international agreement on
measures to prevent this slaughter but illegal fishing vessels, which are estimated to make up about one third of
the worlds fishing fleet, do not abide by these rules, nor by those aimed at making the fisheries more sustainable.
An estimate of the seabird by-catch from pirate fishing in the four years before 2000 was between 105,900
and 257,000 birds, a horrifying figure that includes 21,90068,300 albatrosses, 5,00011,000 giant petrels and
79,000178,000 White-chinned Petrels. Some more recent estimates suggest illegal fishing accounts for up to 10
times more deaths than licensed vessels.
With long-lived, slow-breeding birds like albatrosses, it does not take much of an increase in adult mortality
to cause a slow decline in numbers that eventually ends in extinction. on Bird island, Croxall et al. (1990) found
that the annual adult survivorship for Wandering Albatrosses need only fall 3%, from 96% to 93%, for a decline
to extinction to start. the death of as few as a couple of hundred albatrosses is all it takes to send some island
populations into decline. similar predictions have been made for Grey petrel and several of the mollymawks,
where imbalances in the sex ratios due to differential mortality of males and females on long-lines have also
contributed to the declines. in addition, there is evidence of a substantial reduction in the rate of recruitment
of young birds into breeding populations. For example, the rate for Grey-headed Albatrosses fell from 36% per
year in the 1960s to 5% in the 1980s.
2
OTHER THREATS
In addition to long-lining, fishermen also threaten albatross and petrel populations through overfishing, both
directly by taking vast amounts of the birds prey species, and indirectly by taking species at the top (seals,
whales, tuna) or near the bottom (small fish and squid) of the food web. Albatrosses and petrels have also suffered
from other indirect effects of human activity. organochlorines have been implicated in eggshell thinning in
Black-footed Albatrosses, while plastic debris has been found in the stomachs of prions, Antarctic petrels and
even laysan Albatross chicks, but bigger problems are likely to arise with the effects of global warming on
sea level, the ocean currents and ecosystems. opinions differ as to the scale of the consequences of warming,
and predicting the effects on seabirds is complex. At the simpler end of the scale a rise in sea level is going to
submerge seabird breeding sites on low atolls in tropical waters, but more serious effects are likely to arise from
changes in ocean temperature, water circulation and plankton production. For example, an increase of 0.50C
in the temperature of the California Current has led to a 70% reduction in plankton biomass. similarly, a 20C
warming of the north sea in the last 20 years has led to a dramatic change in the plankton fauna, the likely
cause of a dearth of sandeels and an almost complete failure of seabird breeding in the area over a number of
years since 2000.
support and join conservation organisations like Birdlife international as well as those in your own
country.
tell everyone you know and meet about the problem most people have no idea what is going on.
encourage awareness of the environment by taking kids, friends and even your relatives out birding.
Do not buy fish caught from an unsustainable fishery or in a manner that endangers seabirds.
Walk rather than drive, think local rather than global birding, and help reduce Co2 emissions, global
warming and sea level rise.
2
this gives key features as shown on the illustrations. each species on a plate is given a number (14, for example)
and then further divided up by letters. the combination of numbers and letters corresponds with those on the
plate opposite.
two measurements are included in the species
headers that may help with identification at sea.
these are wingspan (WS) and total length (TL), given
in centimetres. For a wider range of sizes see the main
systematic text.
the page number refers to the entry for this species in
the systematic text.
long-winged and short-tailed with long, relatively thin bill. see also plate 23:5.
1b
1c
1d
1e
Underparts At all ages underwing white with narrow black trailing edge and tip and small black tick
mark at carpal;. crown and nape pale grey, not extending downwards as collar; small black eye-patch.
Underparts, bright light At all ages cap can look quite dark; outer tail feathers white.
Adult fresh plumage, upperparts head same pale grey as back; m mark conspicuous; dark tip to tail.
Adult worn plumage, upperparts head darker than back; wings darker and m less obvious.
Juvenile fresh plumage, upperparts Very pale with white fringes to feathers of upperparts.
2a
2b
2c
Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cooks
and slightly larger tick mark; crown and nape grey, extending down onto side of breast as short collar;
eye-patch black.
Fresh plumage upperparts medium-grey with head, on average, slightly darker than back; dark tip to tail.
Worn plumage upperparts Upperwings almost entirely dark with little trace of dark m; head darker
than back.
Relatively short-winged with long, quite broad tail. Fairly easily identified by lack of dark tip to tail.
3a
3b
Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cooks
and larger tick mark at carpal. dark eye-patch joins to dark grey crown and is separated from partial grey
collar by white crescent on ear-coverts.
Upperparts Crown and nape slightly darker than back; rump and tail grey without dark tip.
relatively small and slim with narrow wings, long tail and small bill.
a
the caption text contains a number of crossreferences, allowing the reader swift access to possible
confusion species. these are in the format of plate:
image number; for example, this cross-reference
(24:1e) takes the reader to Goulds petrel, species 1
on plate 24.
Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cooks
and larger tick mark at carpal; crown and nape very dark with small dark grey partial collar separated from
eye-patch by white crescent on ear-coverts.
b-c Underparts, moulting Underwing varies from as light as Cooks (22:1b) to almost as dark as Goulds
(24:1e); shape of collar and dark hood also variable.
d Fresh plumage, upperparts Crown and nape much darker than back; broad, dark tip to tail; dark
m obvious.
e Worn plumage, upperparts much darker with less contrast between head and back and less
conspicuous m.
Systematic text
2
orange shading
indicates breeding
range, covering all
main breeding islands.
Green shading is
range at sea.
Lastly, we would like to say that this book is no way the final word on seabird identification but is intended to
promote open discussion and an exchange of information, preferably of a friendly and enthusiastic nature over
cups of tea or a beer or two. We hope you will take this book into the field, write all over it, redraw the pictures,
stick in extra sketches and contribute to a better edition in ten years time. And if you prefer to treat your books
with a little more reverence, then maybe you can buy another copy for your bookshelf.
30
SEABIRD TOPOGRAPHY
forehead
nostrils
primary coverts
primaries
upper mandible
carpal
secondaries
lores
lower mandible
secondary-coverts
sulcus
axillaries or armpit
undertail-coverts
breast
vent
belly
flanks
back or mantle
uppertail-coverts
nape
rump
crown
tail
ear-coverts
scapulars
forehead
carpal
humerals
naricorn
secondaries
nostril
culminicorn
maxillary unguis
primaries
primary coverts
chin
ramicorn
throat
latericorn
mandibular unguis
31
See p.122
The interpretation of genetic differences within this group varies. Three or four species have been suggested:
Snowy Albatross Diomedea exulans breeds on South Georgia, Prince Edward Island, Crozier Islands, Kerguelen
Islands and Macquarie Island; Tristan Albatross D. dabbenena breeds on Gough Island and the Tristan da Cunha
group; and New Zealand Albatross D. antipodensis breeds mainly on Antipodes Island and Auckland Islands
with a few on Campbell Island, New Zealand. Some authors also separate the New Zealand birds into two species:
Antipodean Albatross D. antipodensis and Gibsons Albatross D. gibsoni.
All species fledge dark brown with white only on face and underwings and become paler as they age, resulting
in a wide range of plumages. Almost every wandering-type albatross you see will have a different plumage. 1a-c
show examples of the range of plumages. See Plate 2 for the full range and further discussion of identification.
Close up, told from both royal albatrosses and Amsterdam Island Albatross by plain pink bill. However, a few
mainly darker-plumaged birds from New Zealand and Tristan have a dark smudge on the bill at the tip of the lower
mandible, which may cause confusion with Amsterdam. At a distance all darker birds are indistinguishable from
Amsterdam Island Albatross. Paler birds are not easy to tell from Southern and Northern Royals.
1a Adult Snowy, upperparts Body white with a few vermiculations on the upperparts; tail with a few small
dark marks, especially towards centre; upperwing white with black only beyond carpal and towards trailing
edge.
1b Adult New Zealand (gibsoni), upperparts Body white with thin brownish or black lines (vermiculations)
on upperparts; tail tipped dark; upperwings mostly black with a white central panel.
1c Immature upperparts First moult after fledging, upperparts dark brown with white face and scruffy pale
marking on neck. Underparts white with a dark breast-band.
1d Head All species in the group have plain pink bill with no dark line on cutting edge.
See p.127
Recent genetic studies suggest that former northern and southern subspecies of Royal Albatross should be given full
specific status. Southern upperwings become whiter with age; Northern upperwings remain dark. Young Southerns
have dark upperwings like Northerns. Fledglings and immature Southerns can be difficult to separate
Close up, distinguished from the wandering group and Amsterdam Island Albatross by plain pink bill with a
thin black line along the cutting edge. Note, though, that this is not always easy to see. At a distance, royals of both
species are not easy to tell apart from similarly patterned birds in the wandering group. See Plate 3 for a discussion
of identification.
2a Adult Southern, upperparts White body and white on upperwing similar to adult Snowy.
2b Adult Northern, upperparts White body and dark upperwings. Some retain a few dark marks on the
outer tail.
2c Head Both species have pink bills with thin dark line along cutting edge.
Recognised by most authors as a separate species. Very rare. Total population c.120. Breeds only on Amsterdam
Island. Fledglings dark brown with white only on face and underwing, becoming a little whiter with age.
Close up, told from similarly plumaged dark-brown albatrosses in the wandering group by bill with thin
black line on cutting edge and dark tip. Note, however, that a few darker-plumaged Tristan and antipodensis New
Zealand Wandering Albatrosses can have dark marks on the tip of the lower mandible. At a distance, when bill
details cannot be seen, they are indistinguishable from darker birds in plumages AC in the wandering-type group
(see Plate 2:16).
3a
3b
3c
3d
32
Adult upperparts Mostly dark brown with variable amounts of white on neck and back.
Adult underparts Paler bird with faint breast-band.
Adult underparts Some birds retain a complete breast-band.
Head Bill pale pink with thin dark line on cutting edge and darker tip.
1c
1a
1b
2a
1d
2b
2c
3a
3c
3b
3d
See p.124
See p.124
See p.125
See p.126
The plumage sequence of all species in the wandering albatross group is similar, fledging dark brown with white
underwing and face, and becoming paler with age. Apart from newly fledged juveniles almost every wandering-type
albatross you see will have a different plumage, but in each species a certain range of plumages will predominate.
The result of all this variation is that it is almost impossible to assign an individual bird to a species, although you
may be able to say what it is not, or what it is likely to be. Neither can you rely on distribution to indicate species.
Although they are limited to a few islands for breeding, all species have occurred throughout the southern oceans.
All are monotypic apart from New Zealand Wandering, which has two races (nominate antipodensis and gibsoni). See
main text (pp.122123) for discussion of plumages and identification of species but remember that you can rarely
assign an individual bird to a species with any certainty. This plate depicts eight typical plumages based on museum
specimens and photograhs from known locations. Note that although we have called the plumages AH this series
does not show the progression of an individuals plumage from dark juvenile to whiter adult.
12 Plumage A juvenile Plumage shown by Snowy, both New Zealand races, Tristan, Amsterdam
34
56
78
10
11
12
Head, neck, body and tail entirely chocolate-brown except for striking white face. Underwing as adult except
for wider dark margin between carpal joint and base of outermost primary and small chocolate-brown
patch at base of inner leading edge of wing.
Plumage B Plumage shown by Snowy, both New Zealand races, Tristan, Amsterdam
Like juvenile but with white mottling appearing on hindneck. Belly and flanks mostly white with broad
brown breast-band and mostly dark undertail-coverts.
Plumage C Plumage shown by both New Zealand races, Tristan, Amsterdam
Like juvenile but with white mottling appearing on hindneck, saddle, rump and uppertail-coverts. Belly and
flanks mostly white with faint brown breast-band and dark on undertail-coverts.
Plumage D Plumage shown by Tristan, both New Zealand races
Head and neck mostly white except for brownish crown and mottling on sides of neck. Body mostly white
with brown and grey vermiculations and blotches on saddle and rump. Some have brown shading on flanks
and most retain indistinct breast-band. Tail white with black sides and tip. Upperwing mainly blackishbrown with variably sized white blotch on centre of innerwing. Underwing like plumage C; pre-axillary
notch still present but may be paler.
Plumage E Plumage shown by Snowy , New Zealand antipodensis and gibsoni, Tristan
Similar to D but head and body whiter and breast-band absent or made up of very faint vermiculations; tail
whiter with dark sides and tips of outermost feathers usually retained. Upperwing mainly blackish-brown
with more white, especially on centre of innerwing. Underwing similar to last but lacks pre-axillary notch.
Plumage F Plumage shown by Snowy, New Zealand gibsoni, Tristan
Similar to E but upperwing considerably whiter, especially distinct white patch on centre of innerwing.
Plumage G Plumage shown by Snowy, New Zealand gibsoni , Tristan
Similar to F except head and body mostly white; tail mostly white, usually with dark outer feathers. On
upperwing, white central patch behind elbow linked to white of back, forming white wedge extending from
body into innerwing and leaving broad black leading and trailing edges. Underwing as plumage D but black
leading edge between carpal joint and base of outermost primary thinner and not continuous.
Plumage H Plumage shown by Snowy, Tristan
Head, neck and body white. Tail white; black tips to tail feathers retained on some. Inner upperwing predominantly white with black tips to entire trailing edge, and some dark-tipped feathers on central underwing
close to body. Black on coverts increases towards elbow and outer upperwing predominantly black; some
darker patches and mottling on outer half of inner wing-coverts, creating chequered transition between
white inner forewing and dark trailing edge and outer wing. Underwing white with black flight feathers
forming thin, dark trailing edge and large dark tip.
13 Adult male Snowy, head Bill entirely pink. Head white but close up some can be seen to still retain thin
14
34
14
8
6
11
12
10
13
Northern Royal is a large albatross that breeds in the Chatham Islands, with a few at Taiaroa Head, South Island,
New Zealand.
1a Adult upperparts Upperwings black, scapulars patchy black and white; head, back, rump and tail white
but some retain dark on outer tail feathers; underwing white as Southern.
1b Juvenile upperparts Upperwings dark with thin pale edges to feathers; body white with variable amounts
of dark markings on crown, back, rump and tail; underwings white as adult.
1c Adult bill At all ages, pink with thin dark line along cutting edge. Some adults retain a few small dark
feathers on the crown.
Southern Royal is the larger of the two royal albatrosses. It breeds on Campbell Island and on the Auckland
Islands. Juvenile same as that of Northern. Bill same as Northern.
2a Adult upperparts Head, back rump and tail white; upperwings black with white on inner wing extending
back from leading edge as triangle, broadest near body.
2b Adult underparts Underparts white; thin dark trailing edge and small dark tip to underwing; dark border
on leading edge of underwing beyond carpal slightly variable.
2c Immature upperparts Upperwings black, some thin, grey wavy lines on scapulars, rest white. Very similar
to adult Northern.
2d Immature upperparts Head, body and tail white, rarely retaining any dark feathering on crown or tail;
upperwing in early stages of whitening with a few white feathers on innerwing.
A royal albatross with white on the upperwing is a Southern. Newly fledged juveniles of both species look very
similar, but Northerns tend to have more dark markings on head, back and tail. However, there is much variation
and they are inseparable in the field. Immature Southerns (2c) can have black upperwings like adult Northerns
(1a); they are impossible to tell apart at a distance and even close up can be difficult. Birds with dark spots on crown
or dark feathers in tail are likely to be Northerns. The scapulars and base of the upperwing tend to look scruffier
on Southerns (2c) with more vermiculations than Northerns (1a). Birds with entirely white bodies, heads and tails
and dark upperwings can be of either species, but with practice size may help. Southern Royals are larger than
Northerns: bills 17.3cm (16.519.0cm) and 16.4cm (15.417.2cm), wing length 68.5cm (64.770.7cm) and 63.8cm
(61.466.0cm), respectively. Note, however, that there is considerable variation within a species as well. The extent
of the dark border on the leading edge of the underwing from carpal to primaries (2b) has been used to separate
the two species. Northerns, it is suggested, have bigger dark margins. This feature appears, however, to be related
to age and sex. This means that immature Southerns (2c), especially females, the very birds with dark upperwings
you would want to distinguish from Northerns (1a), may have wide margins as well. A few hybrids nest at Taiaroa
Head, New Zealand. They are indistinguishable from Northerns.
For separation of royals from the many wandering-type albatrosses with similar plumage, see main text on
pp.128129.
36
1b
1a
1c
2d
2b
2c
2a
Very rare, medium-sized albatross with a huge bill, short tail and long but relatively broad wings. Total population
c.1,200, breeding mainly on two small islands, Tori-shima and Seikaku near Japan and Taiwan, respectively. Size
and shape, huge pink bill, white underparts and smudgy-to-neat black-and-white upperparts unlike anything else
in north Pacific. Dark young birds are similar to Black-footed Albatross but are easy to distinguish when bill has
become pale. Recently fledged birds with dark bills are best told by longer, larger bill, head shape, dark feathering
at base of bill (though a few show a trace of white) and dark around eye. Check also wandering group of albatrosses,
which have a similar plumage progression (Plates 1 and 2).
1a Adult upperparts Head white with golden wash on crown and nape. Back and rump white, tail black.
Upperwings black-and-white. Huge pale pink bill with bluish tip. Underwings white.
1b Older immature, upperparts Small dark cap; back and rump almost completely white; upperwing shows
patchy version of adult pattern.
1c Immature upperparts Upperparts, crown dark; collar, back and rump mottled brown and white; upperwing dark except for white patch and few isolated coverts.
1f Younger immature underparts Underparts dark-brown, whiter on throat, around base of bill and belly.
Underwing dark, lighter at base of primaries.
1g Juvenile on sea Newly fledged birds are entirely dark brownish-black and retain dark bill and legs for up to
six months.
A smaller, darker albatross, breeding mainly in the northwest Hawaiian group with small numbers on islands off
Japan. Wings long and narrow, although they do not always look so! Normal adults are unlike anything else in
the north Pacific, but the very rare pale birds can be confusing at first glance. Dark juveniles are best told from
dark-billed newly fledged Short-tailed Albatrosses by head shape, shorter, stockier bill and white feathering at base
of bill and behind eye.
2a Adult upperparts Rather scruffy grey-brown with white uppertail-coverts and paler face. Bill pinkishgrey.
2b Adult underparts Scruffy grey-brown with lighter belly and undertail-coverts. Underwing mainly dark,
paler on bases of primaries.
2f Juvenile on sea Entirely dark brown except for narrow whitish band at base of bill and spot behind eye. Bill
and legs dark.
38
1d
1f
1a
1c
1b
1e
2b
2d
2a
2c
2e
1g
2f
Medium-large albatross with a very long bill. Young birds have completely white heads. The only albatross
regularly in the tropics around the Galpagos Islands and Ecuador coast. Unlikely to be confused with any other
species.
1a Adult upperparts Upperwing and tail brown; back and rump brown, barred white increasing intensely
towards tail; head white, washed golden buff on nape and back of crown.
1b Adult underparts Huge yellow bill; head white; lower breast and belly brown, finely barred white.
Underwing dark on inner wing, paler, smudged brown on outer wing.
Smaller, relatively slightly built, black-and-white albatross with a bill that appears rather long and slim. The commonest albatross of the north Pacific, breeding on many widespread islands. Juvenile very similar to adult but bill
slightly duller and head lacks grey wash. Somewhat gull-like. Half as big again as the largest dark-backed gull, with
a black tail, much bigger bill and strong gliding flight. Has occurred very rarely in the south Pacific. Distinguished
from similar Black-browed (7:1), Campbell (7:2), Southern Bullers (8:3), Indian and Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatrosses (8:12) by bluish-tipped pink bill, underwing pattern and dark on back which extends well down onto rump.
See Plate 7:3 for comparison with Black-browed Albatross.
2a Adult upperparts White head with dark eye-patch and variable grey wash on cheeks; dark upperwings, the
dark on the back extending down onto white rump; bill pinkish with a pale bluish tip.
2b Adult darker bird, underparts White except for a few dark feathers on undertail; underwing with broad
dark borders and tip, white central panel with extensive dark patches and streaks.
2c Adult lighter bird, underparts White; underwing with larger, cleaner, white central panel.
40
1a
1b
2a
2c
2b
The largest of the group. Breeds in Bass Strait, Tasmania and the New Zealand region. Some authors suggest that
adults of the two subspecies, cauta from Australia and steadi from New Zealand, can be separated by cauta having
more yellow on top of bill, but this seems to be a subtle and inconsistent difference.
1a Adult underparts White with a narrow black border to underwings, white bases to primaries; narrow black
1b
1c
1d
1e
border to the leading edge does not always join up with small black patch at base. Upperparts as immature (1b);
head and rump white, wings dark and back paler, silvery grey, the dark rarely extending to the rump.
Older immature, upperparts Upperparts and head as adult. Small dark spot on tip of lower mandible of
bill is the last immature feature to go.
Young immature, upperparts Grey on head extends to collar; bill grey with dark tip and lower mandible.
Adult head White with dark eye-patch and very pale silvery-grey wash on cheeks and ear-coverts. Bill pale
grey on sides, yellow on top and tip, no dark on tip.
Immature head White with variable smudgy grey wash, bill grey with dark tip. Head becomes whiter and
bill paler over several years.
Slightly smaller than Shy, slightly larger than Chatham Islands Albatross. Breeds on Snares Is. and Bounty Is., New
Zealand. Attains adult plumage over several years but not always in consistent sequence. Immatures can have pale
heads with thin dark collars as 2b, or dark grey cheeks and paler hindnecks as 2d. Bill colour and pattern variable,
even pinkish as 2d, but always dark-tipped.
2a Adult underparts As Shy but head pale grey; underwing has dark bases to primaries and narrow black
border to the leading edge often does not quite join up with small black patch at base; back only slightly paler
than wings, the dark often extending a little way onto the rump.
2b Immature upperparts Same as adult except for paler head with darker, scruffy grey collar and grey,
dark-tipped bill.
2c Adult head Pale grey, whiter on forehead and crown, dark eye-patch; bill greyish, paler yellow on the top
with a dark spot on the end of the lower mandible
2d Immature head Variably smudged with grey, bill variably grey with darker tip.
Smallest of the group. Breeds only on The Pyramid, Chatham Is., New Zealand.
3a Adult underparts As Shy but head dark grey, bill yellow; underwing with dark bases to primaries and
narrow black border to the leading edge usually joins up with small black patch at base; back only slightly
paler than wings, the dark often extending some way onto the rump.
3b Juvenile upperparts Similar to adult but head paler scruffy grey and bill very dark.
3c Adult head Dark grey, slightly paler on forehead and crown; bill yellowish with dark tip to lower mandible.
3d Immature head Paler than adult; bill dark grey with trace of more yellow adult colouring and dark tip to
both mandibles. Immature plumages poorly known.
Adults are relatively easy to separate. Shy has a white head with barely noticeable pale grey wash on cheeks and
pale bill. Salvins has a pale grey head and pale bill with dark tip. Chatham has a dark grey head and yellowish bill
with dark tip. Birds of any age with pale bases to the primaries on the underwing will be Shy but note that others,
especially Salvins, can show a trace of white, and birds with very worn, faded, brownish feathers can be a problem.
Assessment of this feature needs good views and comparative experience. Young birds with scruffy greyish heads
and greyish bills with dark tips are more difficult. Shy has pale bases to the primaries, back is paler than upperwings
and the dark usually does not extend onto the rump. Both Salvins and Chatham have dark bases to the primaries.
Further identification is often impossible unless there are some traces of adult bill colour. A small break in the
underwing border next to the basal patch and dark on the back extending only a small way onto rump suggest
Salvins; no break and dark extending onto the rump suggests Chatham, but both features vary. With practice, size
can help: Chatham is noticeably smaller than Shy, less convincingly so than Salvins.
42
1a
3a
2a
3b
2b
1b
1d
1e
1c
2c
2d
3c
3d
The commonest and most frequently encountered of the smaller albatrosses of the colder southern oceans.
1a Adult underparts Small, compact albatross with clearly defined black and white underwing; head white
with small dark eyebrow; eye dark; bill yellowish-orange.
1b Subadult upperparts As adult except for dark spot on the bill tip, the last immature character to go. Adult
plumage attained over 36 years.
1c Older immature underparts Underwing almost as white along centre as adult; faint grey collar and bill
still pale pinkish with dark tip.
1d Older immature head White with even larger dark eye-brow and eye-patch; eye brown; bill pale pink with
dark remaining on tip and behind nostrils.
1e Young immature underparts Underwing lightens along centre; variable grey collar; bill pale pinkish with
dark tip.
1f Young immature head White with slightly larger dark eyebrow and eye-patch; eye brown; bill dark with
variable paler patches, in this case on lower mandible and base.
1g Juvenile underparts Underwings dark; head white with variable amounts of patchy grey, usually forming
a thin indistinct collar.
1h Juvenile head White with very small dark eyebrow and patch; eye brown; bill dark.
Breeding restricted to Campbell Islands, but disperses widely; one of the commonest mollymawks in New Zealand
waters. Juvenile and immature same as Black-browed. Campbell fledges with brown eyes, which slowly turn yellow.
Most have at least a trace of colour by second year but it is often hard to see. Close up, adult Campbell Albatross is
easily told from Black-browed by yellow eye, but young birds with brown eyes are indistinguishable. At a distance,
the darker underwing of Campbell is not a useful ID character since immature Black-browed can have a similar
pattern.
2a Adult underparts As Black-browed except for underwing darker and more untidy toward the base.
2b Adult head Bill orange and head white as Black-browed but eye pale yellow and dark patch in front of eye
slightly larger.
Close up, adult Black-browed and Campbell Albatrosses are distinguished from all other mollymawks by orange
bills. At a distance, adults of both species told from similar Indian and Atlantic Yellow-nosed and Bullers Albatrosses (8:13) by broad, distinctively shaped border to leading edge of underwing, and from Grey-headed (8:4) by
white head. Young birds with scruffy heads and dark underwings can be told from both species of yellow-nosed
albatross and Bullers Albatrosses by darker underwing, but are not easy to distinguish from young Grey-headed
Albatross. Compare also larger Shy and Salvins Albatrosses (6:12), which both have narrow black borders to white
underwings.
Included here for comparison. A common small albatross of the north Pacific that has occurred a few times in the
Southern Hemisphere. See also Plate 5:2.
3a Adult underparts Similar to Black-browed and Campbell Albatrosses, but slightly smaller, less heavily built,
with slimmer pinkish bill tipped bluish-grey. Underwing is patchier black and white, and the dark on the back
extends well down onto the rump.
44
2a
1a
1b
3a
1g
1e
1c
2b
1d
1f
1h
2a Adult upperparts Head and rump white. Back, wings and tail dark. Underparts as Atlantic (1a).
2b Adult head White with small black eye-patch; bill black with one yellow line on top.
Close up, Atlantic Yellow-nosed told from Indian by larger black eye-patch and grey wash on cheeks. The shape
of the base of the yellow stripe on the bill is not a reliable ID feature. Immature Atlantic birds with adult-looking
bills can have white heads and small eye-patches similar to adult Indian. At a distance, Atlantic and Indian are
indistinguishable unless grey wash on cheeks can be seen. Both told from Bullers and Grey-headed by whiter heads,
and from Black-browed and Campbell (7:12) by narrow dark borders to underwings. Yellow-nosed albatrosses
look slim-bodied and small-headed with long, rather slender bills. Pale-headed individuals of the shy group (6:12)
have similar narrow black borders to underwing but are much larger, longer-winged and heavier-looking, especially
around head and neck, and have pale bills. Compare also Laysan Albatross (5:2).
Two subspecies, Southern Bullers T. b. bulleri and Northern Bullers T. b. ssp. nov. Close up, separated from both
yellow-nosed albatrosses by two yellow lines on bill, and from Grey-headed by broader rounded base to the upper
yellow line on bill. At a distance, dark leading edge of the underwing is narrower than Grey-headed and slightly
wider than both yellow-nosed species. Bullers is heavier looking than yellow-nosed and has a grey head, though this
can be hard to see on paler-headed birds in some lights. Salvins (6:2) and Chatham Islands (6:3) Albatrosses, which
also have grey heads, have very narrow black borders to the underwings and pale bills and are larger and longerwinged, though darker-headed Northern Bullers can look very similar to Chatham Islands Albatross at first glance.
3a Adult Southern (nominate), underparts Underwing white with a black border, broader along the leading edge; head pale grey with white cap.
3b Adult Southern (nominate), head Pale grey with whitish forehead; bill black with yellow lines top and
bottom, the top one broadly rounded at base.
3c Adult Northern (ssp. nov.), upperparts Head darker grey. Apart from a few scruffy-headed individuals,
Northern birds are often distinctive even at a distance, but differences in bill pattern are not reliable ID
features.
Close up, separated from both yellow-nosed albatrosses by two yellow lines on bill, and from Bullers by narrower
base to yellow line on top of bill. At a distance, from yellow-nosed albatrosses and Bullers by broad, dark leading
edge to underwing, and from Black-browed and Campbell (7:12) by grey head. Grey-headed is slightly larger
and heavier looking, especially around the head and neck, than both yellow-nosed species, less obviously so than
Bullers. Salvins (6:2) and Chatham Islands (6:3) Albatrosses, which also have grey heads, are larger and longerwinged and have very narrow black borders to white underwings and pale bills.
4a Adult underparts Underwing white with black border, broader and distinctively shaped on the leading
edge; head grey.
4b Adult upperparts Head grey with small paler forehead; dark wings and tail; white rump.
4c Adult head All-grey; bill black with yellow lines top and bottom, the top one rounded and narrow at the base.
5a Adult underparts Identified by underwing with broad black leading edge, white head and orange bill.
46
4a
3a
1a
5a
3c
4b
2a
4c
1b
2b
3b
At fledging the plumages of these two species are almost identical, and both have brown eyes. Most Campbell eyes
show some yellow by their second year, which is the only known way to tell them apart, but you need a good, close
view to see it. Individuals attain adult plumage, white underwings and orange bills at different ages, and the state
of moult is a better indication of the precise age of a bird. Told from Bullers and both yellow-nosed albatrosses by
dark underwing, but difficult to distinguish from Grey-headed. Black-browed and Campbell have paler heads than
Grey-headed at fledging, but can look very similar in second year when both can have dark underwings with a dash
of white, pale heads with darker collars and bills with dark tips. In these plumages they are often impossible to tell
apart at a distance, but birds with whiter heads and narrow pale collars are likely to be Black-browed or Campbell
and their bills are usually paler, brownish rather than blackish. Check for traces of adult bill pattern close up. Blackbrowed and Campbell bills are slightly longer and slimmer than Grey-headed, which look deeper at the base.
1a
1b
1c
1d
Juvenile underparts Underwing dark; head looks white with a trace of a greyish collar.
Immature underparts Underwing whitens with age starting at the centre; scruffy collar can be marked.
Juvenile head Bill dark grey or grey-brown with a darker tip; dark eyebrow and eye-patch small.
Immature head Bill gradually becomes orange, the dark tip is the last to change; eyebrow and eye-patch
increase in size.
Told from Bullers and both yellow-nosed albatrosses by dark underwing. At fledging, head usually much greyer
with whiter cheeks than Black-browed and Campbell, but can look very similar in second year. See Black-browed/
Campbell above for discussion of differences.
2a
2b
2c
2d
Juvenile underparts Underwing dark; head looks grey with white cheeks.
Immature underparts Underwing lightens with age starting at the centre; scruffy collar can become darker.
Juvenile head Bill dark grey with a black tip.
Immature head Bill remains dark, developing traces of adult pattern.
Takes several years to attain adult bill and head pattern. Immature and intermediate stages are undescribed. Darkerheaded young birds may be of the northern subspecies but plumage not well-known, and probably inseparable
until adult. Told from Black-browed, Campbell and Grey-headed by white underwing. Underwing pattern similar
to both yellow-nosed albatrosses but has greyer head, more obvious dark eye-patch and paler bill with dark tip.
3a Juvenile underparts Underwing white with black border, wider along leading edge; head patchy grey.
3b Juvenile head Bill grey or brownish-grey with a darker base and tip; small dark eye-patch.
4a
4b
4c
4d
48
Juvenile underparts Underwing as adult but border slightly wider and scruffier; head entirely white.
Immature underparts Underwing as adult; head white.
Juvenile head Bill black or very dark, black eye-patch very small or almost absent.
Immature head Bill black with a trace of adult pattern; small black eye-patch.
1c
1b
1a
1d
2a
2c
2b
2d
3a
3b
4c
4a
4b
4d
1a Adult upperparts Wings, head and tail dark; back and underparts paler grey.
1b Juvenile upperparts As adult but pale grey back, and sometimes underparts, have dark patchy scalloping;
thin line on sulcus is indistinct, black or grey.
1c Adult underparts, worn plumage or moulting Can have dark mask rather than completely dark head.
1d Adult head Bill black with a thin blue line on sulcus.
Dark-backed albatross of the warmer Southern Ocean. Extremely rare in the Pacific.
50
1a
2a
1b
2c
2b
1c
1d
2d
1a Adult underpartsPale;headwithdarkercap;underwingusuallydusky.
1b Adult headBillpinkishwithadarkerreddishtip;eyepale.
1c Immature or darker adult, upperpartsUpper-andunderpartsscruffygrey-brown;paleronface,cheeks
and throat, cap remaining darker. Most whiten first on face, cheeks and throat. One of several variable
plumagesattainedinthechangefromall-darkjuveniletopaleadult.
1d Juvenile upperpartsCompletelydarkbrownishblack,eyedarkasSouthern;billhasdarkerreddishtip.
AfewjuvenileshaveentirelypinkbillsasillustratedandareindistinguishablefromSouthern.
Circumpolarbirdof colderSouthernOcean,generallywithgreenishtiptobill.
2a
2b
2c
2d
52
2f
2a
1a
2d
2g
1c
2e
2b
1d/2h
1b
2c
The only other petrels anywhere near as pale in the southern oceans are White-headed Petrel (19:1) and Grey
Petrel (32:4). Southern Fulmar has white (not dark) underwings and a prominent white patch on the upperwing. It
is more likely to be confused with gulls, but white patch on the upper wing and gliding flight on stiffly held wings
are distinctive. Unlikely to be seen with Northern Fulmar as ranges do not overlap, but Southern is paler and
cleaner-looking than light-phase Northern, and has a slimmer pink bill with a dark tip.
1a
1b
1c
Underparts White with very narrow dark border to underwing. Bill pink with black tip and blue nasal
tubes.
Upperparts White head, pearly grey back, rump and tail. Upperwing pearly grey with dark trailing edge
and outerwing. White patch on inner primaries and coverts.
Wheeling in distance Underparts look entirely white at a distance.
Occurs in a wide range of plumages but most birds are pale. Three subspecies generally recognised: the nominate
glacialis is restricted to high-arctic North Atlantic, auduboni occurs in the low Arctic and temperate North Atlantic,
and rodgersii occurs in the North Pacific. North Atlantic birds of both races are pale or dusky bluish-grey, while
rodgersii are more variable; whiter birds can have dark patchy markings and darker birds can be almost black. Pale
birds look like gulls but have short stubby bills, pale patches on the outer wings and they glide a lot more on narrow,
straight, stiffly held wings. At a distance darker birds can look like all sorts of petrels and shearwaters, and it is useful
to learn to recognise Northern Fulmars stocky shape and stiff-winged flight.
2a
Pale phase (auduboni), underparts White with narrow dark border to underwings. Small dark patch in
front of eye. Bill pale yellow tinged pink and blue with darker marks towards the tip.
2b Pale phase (auduboni), upperparts Head white; back, rump and tail grey. Upperwing grey with dark
trailing edge and outerwing. White patch on inner primaries and coverts. Tail same colour as rump on
Atlantic birds, darker on Pacific rodgersii.
2c-d Dark phase (nominate), underparts Washed a rather uniform dusky bluish-grey.
2e Dark phase (rodgersii), upperparts Often patchier than Atlantic races, with a darker tail.
2f Dark phase (rodgersii), upperparts Can be almost black with reduced white patch on upperwing.
2g Dark phase (rodgersii), on water Can be almost black.
2h Pale phase (rodgersii), on water Can have patchy dark markings.
3a
54
Feas Petrel in distance This could be confused for a dark-phase Northern Fulmar in drizzle.
2a
1a
2c
1c
3a
2e
2d
2f
2b
1b
2g
2h
Unmistakable, medium-sized stocky petrel. Juveniles like adults. Flight consists of short glides on stiff wings interspersed with brisk bursts of shallow wingbeats. The northern subspecies australe from the New Zealand region is
possibly distinguishable at sea in fresh plumage. The only other petrel as boldly patterned is Antarctic Petrel. Cape
Petrel is black rather than brown-and-white, and is chequered and spotty on the upperparts unlike Antarctic, which
is dark brown with a clear-cut, well-defined white wing-bar, rump and uppertail.
1a Underparts (nominate) White with black head, dark tail and narrow black border to underwing. Looks
white with a black head at a distance.
Unmistakable, medium-sized stocky petrel. Juveniles like adults. Flight consists of long glides on stiff wings interspersed with brisk bursts of shallow wingbeats. The only other petrel as boldly patterned is Cape Petrel. Antarctic
is browner, less spotty and patchy, with a clear-cut white wing-bar, rump and uppertail.
2a Underparts White with dark head, dark tip to tail and narrow dark border to underwing. At a distance looks
white with dark head.
2b Fresh plumage, upperparts Dark brown with clear-cut white wing-bar and lower rump.
2c Worn plumage or in moult, upperparts Can be very pale scruffy brown.
Two almost identical, white, small-medium small-billed petrels. Juveniles like adults. Look long-winged and fly
erratically, with brisk, shallow wingbeats and little gliding but can also look like fat, white domestic pigeons! The
taxonomic separation into two species is subject to much debate and they are only separable at sea with some difficulty when present together. Greater is slightly larger, stockier, marginally whiter and tends to have slightly bigger
(yet still small) dark patch around eye. However, identification as Snow Petrel is rarely a problem although single
pale birds well north of usual range could be albino or leucistic forms of other species (Sooty Shearwater, 31:1, is
perhaps the most likely, also Cape Petrel).
56
1c
1b
1a
2c
2b
2a
3b
3a
A large, dark, long-winged petrel with heavy black bill. Very similar to Grey-faced (with which sometimes considered conspecific). Widespread throughout southern oceans but rare off southern South America. Juvenile similar
to adult.
1a Underparts Entirely dark brown, slightly paler around base of bill with silvery wash over outer flight feathers, which can look like a pale patch in strong light.
A large, dark, long-winged petrel similar to Great-winged (with which sometimes considered conspecific), nesting
only in New Zealand. Grey-faced is slightly larger than Great-winged with a heavier bill, but unless the pale face is
seen well it is very difficult to distinguish between the two. Juvenile Grey-faced has darker face like Great-winged,
and is impossible to separate from that species unless age of bird can be decided upon by state of plumage or
moult.
3a Adult fresh plumage, underparts From Great-winged and Grey-faced by dark head, paler underparts,
white patches on underwing and long wedge-shaped tail.
Medium-sized, bull-necked and big-headed with steep forehead, narrow wings and squat body tapering to rounded
or slightly wedge-shaped tail. Circumpolar in colder waters throughout southern oceans. Size, jizz and flight often
the best way to identify this species. Close up, told from similar-sized dark-phase Soft-plumaged by longer, narrow,
pale leading edge to inner underwing and more extensive silvery sheen on outer underwing.
4a Fresh plumage, underparts Dark slaty-grey, head often appearing darker than underparts; underwing
dark with thin white leading edge to inner wing and reflective silvery gloss to flight feathers, but whole of
underwing often just looks dark.
4b Fresh plumage, upperparts Entirely dark, slaty-grey.
4c Worn plumage underparts, strong light Can look brownish with strong colour contrasts on the underwing.
4d Worn plumage, upperparts Brownish-grey; plumage wear and moult can result in pale patches on wing.
Small, stout-bodied, compact Pterodroma with short, rounded tail and short neck. Dark phase is very rare; although
it has only been recorded from South Atlantic and Indian Oceans, it is likely to be found in both races. Illustrations
are based on specimens of P. p. mollis from Gough Island. Similar to Kerguelen Petrel. Great-winged, the other
all-dark petrel in range, is a larger, heavier, longer-winged bird. See Plate 19:4 for pale and intermediate phases
of Soft-plumaged Petrel.
5a Dark phase, underparts Entirely dusky grey-black, usually with small pale patch around base of bill and
ghostly trace of light-phase pattern
5b Dark phase, upperparts Dusky grey-black, usually with hint of dark M marking across open wings.
6a Upperparts Sooty Shearwater is larger, barrel-bodied with narrow wings, longer thinner bill and typical
shearwater gliding flight, regularly interspersed with short bursts of brisk, stiff wingbeats.
58
2a
3a
1a
1b
6a
2b
4d
4c
4a
5b
4b
5a
A slim, long-tailed, dark petrel with pale crescent on upperwing, widespread in tropical regions. Best distinguished
from all other dark petrels and shearwaters in range by all-dark, giant storm-petrel-like appearance and flight,
stubby little bill and pale crescent on upperwing. Remarkably similar in jizz and coloration to Brown Noddy, which
has longer, pointed bill, uniform, dark brown plumage, and lacks any pale bar on upperwing.
A relatively large, long-winged and long-tailed, very dark petrel with a very large-looking bill, which is held pointing
downwards in flight. Breeds solely on Socotra and islands off southern Oman, dispersing widely in Indian Ocean.
Larger, heavier, longer-winged with a much bigger bill than Bulwers, lacking the pale crescent on upperwing
except when plumage very worn. Mascarene has shorter, square-ended tail and paler underwing. May be difficult
to tell from Great-winged (14:1) and experience of Jouanins long-winged, long-tailed, heavy-billed jizz may be
necessary.
2a
2b
2c
2d
Fresh plumage, upperparts Almost entirely dark with only a trace of paler crescent on upperwing.
Underparts, bright light Entirely dark with paler silvery reflection off underwing only in bright light.
Worn plumage, upperparts Can have pale wing-bars in worn plumage.
Head Large, heavy, distinctive Bulweria bill.
Medium-sized, relatively long-winged petrel with short, robust, black bill. Tail shorter and more square-ended than
Bulweria petrels. Confusable dark species in range include Jouanins Petrel, Wedge-tailed Shearwater, darker-phase
Trindade (25:2) and possibly Great-winged (14:1) Petrels. Trindade has relatively well-defined white patches on
outer underwings; Great-winged has longer wings, less silvery underwings, grey (not pink) legs, and in stronger
winds flies in more typical, soaring Pterodroma manner.
4a Dark phase, underparts Larger than Jouanins and Mascarene Petrels with broader wings, pale patch on
underwing at base of primaries, slimmer bill and lazier flight, low over the water.
60
1c
2d
3c
1a
2a
3a
1b
3b
2c
2b
4a
A medium-large, dark petrel with a distinctive long, wedge-shaped tail, long, broad wings and large, stout bill.
Best distinguished from other all-dark Pterodroma except Great-winged (14:1) and Grey-faced (14:2) by jizz, with
distinctive long wedge-shaped tail, long, broad wings and stout, long bill. Great-winged and Grey-faced have dark
underwings lacking Providences prominent white patch on outer wing. See also Plate 14:3.
1a Underparts Pale face; head darker than underparts; underwing dark with large pale patch on outer wing.
1b Fresh plumage, upperparts Back and rump have slaty-grey cast; indistinct dark M across open wings.
1c Worn plumage, upperparts More uniform grey-brown.
Medium-sized Pterodroma with long, broad wings, short squarish tail and relatively short, stubby bill. Easily told from
everything else by pale bases to shafts of primaries on upperwing, but note that on the darkest of juveniles these
may be hard to see. Can look like Arctic Skua at first glance. See Plate 20:3 for pale phase and Plate 25:3 for
complete range of plumages. The two races, neglecta and juana, are not separable at sea.
2a Dark phase, underparts Head and body dark, usually paler around bill; underwing dark with large white
patch on outer wing, paler panel on inner wing and narrow white line along inner leading edge.
2b Dark phase, upperparts Entirely dark except for obvious white bases to shafts and feathers of outer
wing.
2c Very dark juvenile, underparts White patch on outer underwing reduced and similar to Herald Petrel;
upperwing with white only on bases of shafts of 34 primaries.
Medium to large, heavy-bodied petrel with relatively short, narrow wings and rather small-looking bill. Murphys
Petrel is greyish rather than brown like many other dark petrels, shows an inconspicuous dark M across open
upperwings and has dark underwing, although reflective nature of primaries may make it appear to have pale
patches on outer wing.
3a Fresh plumage, underparts Greyish cast to dark plumage; underwing dark with somewhat paler patch on
outer wing due to light reflecting off bases of primaries.
3b Fresh plumage, upperparts Greyish, almost scalloped cast to back; head often looks darker; indistinct
dark M mark across open wings.
Plumage of dark-phase Herald Petrel appears to be exactly the same as Hendersons Petrel and there is no known
way of telling them apart at sea. Medium-sized, slim, long and narrow-winged petrel with relatively long tail, usually held tightly closed in flight and appearing quite pointed. Both species are very similar to dark-phase Trindade
Petrels (25:2) of Indian and Atlantic Oceans. Best told from Murphys by white patch on outer underwing; from
Kermadec by lack of pale bases to primaries on upperwing; and from Providence by smaller size and bill, and
slimmer jizz. See Plate 20:2 for pale phase and Plate 25:1 for complete range of plumages.
4a Underparts Head and body dark-slaty or chocolate-brown , usually paler on throat and lores. Underwing
dark with diffuse white patch on outer wing, greyish paler panel extending onto inner wing and narrow white
line along inner leading edge.
4b Fresh plumage, upperparts Some have greyish cast to back, rump and secondary coverts, hinting at dark
M mark across open wings.
4c Worn plumage, upperparts Entirely dark chocolate-brown.
62
2c
3d
1a
3a
2a
4a
3b
1b
2b
4c
1c
3c
4b
A medium-sized petrel with very long, narrow wings held straight and at right angles to body, with flight feathers
appearing to curl up at wing-tips. Long body and long tapering tail, long neck and small head make heavy bill look
especially large. In range, difficult to distinguish from Phoenix; could be confused with pale phases of Herald and
Kermadec (20:3) Petrels and possibly with Wedge-tailed Shearwater (32:2). Tahiti is probably best distinguished
from all by long, straight-winged jizz and distinctive flight. The two races, rostrata and trouessarti, are not separable
at sea.
1a Underparts Head dark; breast, belly and undertail white, slightly scruffy around edges; underwing dark with
slightly paler central panel, especially on innerwing.
1b Upperparts Dark except for slightly paler sides to rump and uppertail, especially obvious in worn plumage.
1c Head Large, deep and heavy bill characteristic of Pseudobulweria.
Medium to small Pseudobulweria, essentially a small version of Tahiti Petrel, known almost entirely from museum
specimens.
2a Upperparts Dark except for slightly paler sides to rump and uppertail, especially obvious in worn plumage.
Underparts as Tahiti.
Medium-sized Pterodroma with similar plumage and range to Tahiti but Herald-like jizz and typical Pterodroma flight. In
range difficult to distinguish from Tahiti; could be confused with pale phases of Herald and Kermadec (20:3) Petrels and
possibly Wedge-tailed Shearwater (32:2). Herald and Kermadec have white patches on outer underwing; Kermadec
has white flashes on upperwing; Wedge-tailed Shearwater is larger and broader-winged with lower, more leisurely
flight. Magenta Petrel (19:3) from southern Pacific is very similar but is slightly larger and heavier and has whiter
undertail-coverts.
3a Underparts Head dark with indistinct whitish throat; breast and belly white; undertail white, dark at tip;
underwing usually looks dark but has thin white line along inner leading edge, somewhat paler bases to
primaries and paler panel extending onto central inner wing.
3b Upperparts Entirely dark.
3c Head Standard Pterodroma type bill; white chin and throat.
Small, poorly known Pseudobulweria that probably looks like a small all-dark Tahiti Petrel with a shorter, squarer
tail. Known only from Gau Island in Fiji. Smaller than any other all-dark petrel or shearwater in range except for
Bulwers (15:1) and dark-phase Collared Petrels (24:2). Also known as MacGillivrays Petrel.
Included here for comparison. See also Plate 16:4 for dark phase, Plate 20:2 for pale phase and Plate 25:1 for a
complete range of plumages.
5a Pale phase, underparts Can look very similar in jizz and plumage to Phoenix Petrel, less so to Tahiti, but
has dark undertail and dark underwing with obvious pale patch on primaries and outer coverts.
64
5a
3a
1a
4a
4b
3b
1b
3c
2a
4c
1c
1a Underparts White; underwing white with dark line from carpal extends about halfway towards body; bases
of primaries pale in 90% of birds; underwing can look entirely white at a distance and in strong light.
1b Fresh plumage, upperparts White collar separates darker cap from pale grey back; broad white edges
to feathers of back, narrower ones to tail and secondary coverts; dark M mark across upperwings reasonably
obvious, much more so in some lights than others.
1c Worn plumage, upperparts Upperwings almost entirely dark; back darker, obscuring dark M mark; rump
and uppertail-coverts can show white patches; collar can be a rather scruffy grey-white and crown very pale.
2a Fresh plumage, underparts Underwing same as White-necked but bases of primaries dark.
3a Underparts White; underwing white with very small dark line from carpal and a broken black line from
carpal to primaries; underwing often looks entirely white.
3b Upperparts Pale grey back joins grey cap; upperwings mostly dark, dark M not obvious; amount of white
on uppertail-coverts varies to the extent that some may almost appear to have white rumps.
3c Upperparts Upperwings can show dark M in some lights and plumages; back, neck and cap can be very
pale, making dark patch behind eye stand out.
White-necked and Vanuatu can be distinguished from Juan Fernandez by white collar, except in a few cases of
birds in very worn plumage when the larger dark underwing patch from the carpal should help. Note, however,
that underwing of all species can look white at a distance and in strong light. Juan Fernandez has a heavier-looking
bill. Vanuatu is 10% smaller than both and has dark bases to the primaries on the underwing. Note, however, that
c.10% of White-necked do also, which would make size rarely easy to judge the only reliable criterion. All three
species are paler and greyer than both Galpagos and Hawaiian, especially around the head.
4a Underparts White, with most having some dark markings on the axillaries and flanks. Underwing white with
dark primaries and trailing edge and broad dark line from carpal extending well in towards body. Very dark
head and sides of breast contrast with white forehead and throat, although all can vary.
4b Fresh plumage, upperparts At sea usually looks very dark but in fresh plumage feathers have a greyish
sheen that can make the back and rump look paler grey.
4c Worn plumage, upperparts Very dark brownish-black; sides of rump and uppertail-coverts can show
white patches.
At sea both Hawaiian and Galpagos Petrels look dark above and white below with broad dark bar on underwing
and dark hood. Separating them is not easy and is complicated by changes in plumage with wear and considerable
variation in head pattern. Galpagos looks longer-winged and longer-tailed and has a heavier bill, and a bird with
dark markings on the flanks is likely to be Galpagos. More knowledge of timing of moult might help separation
of these species. In all states of plumage, both species look darker, more black-and-white than White-necked, Juan
Fernandez and Vanuatu, and have very dark hoods.
66
3a
1a
4a
5a
1b
5b
4b
3b
4c
3c
2a
1c
5c
Plate 19: PTeroDroMa Petrels WIth dark underWInGs and WhIte bellIes
1. White-headed Petrel Pterodroma lessonii
Large robust Pterodroma with long wings and long, wedge-shaped tail. Heavy-bodied with bull neck, stout bill and
rounded head. White head and dark underwing unlike anything else, but check equally pale Mottled Petrel (23:4)
and Southern Fulmar (12:1). Circumpolar in colder subantarctic waters.
1a Underparts Head and body white with black eye-patch and pale grey half collar; underwing dark with
white line along inner leading edge and slightly paler bases to primaries and outer coverts.
1b Underparts At any distance looks basically white with entirely dark underwing.
1c Upperparts Pearly grey, dark on upperwings forming a poorly defined M mark across open wings.
Large, heavy, long-winged Pterodroma with bull-necked appearance, rounded head, stout bill and tapering midlength, slightly wedge-shaped tail, and some variability in plumage. Also known as Schlegels Petrel. Endemic to
Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island, dispersing widely in South Atlantic. Magenta very similar in plumage and jizz
but slightly smaller with narrower tail and white (not dark) undertail-coverts. Soft-plumaged can look dark-headed
in poor viewing conditions. Lighter phases of Trindade Petrel (25:2ab) have white patches on outer underwing.
2a Underparts Head dark with whitish throat. Lower breast and belly white and undertail dark. Underwing
entirely dark with the usual slightly paler bases to primaries, obvious only in strong light.
2b Dark bird, underparts A few birds are entirely dusky on breast and belly.
2c Worn plumage, underparts Pale bases to feathers can show through on upper breast and throat.
2d Upperparts Entirely dark.
Medium-large bulky looking Pterodroma with proportionally long wings and quite long, slightly wedge-shaped tail.
Very rare, breeding only on Chatham Island. Magenta looks very similar to Phoenix (17:3) but is slightly larger and
heavier and has whiter undertail-coverts. See Atlantic Petrel for separation from that species.
3a Adult underparts Head dark with paler throat; breast, belly and undertail white with very few darker
feathers at tip; underwing dark, paler and greyish on flight feathers.
Small, stout-bodied, compact Pterodroma with short, rounded tail and short neck. Widespread in South Atlantic,
southern Indian Ocean and southwest Pacific. More southerly nominate mollis generally has a paler face and neck
and narrower breast-band than more northerly race dubia. In good light, combination of upperwing pattern and
dark underwing diagnostic but mistaken for many other species in poor conditions see text. Similar to Northern
Hemisphere Feas and Zinos (21:45), but most Soft-plumaged have complete grey breast-band. See text for exceptions. See Plate 14:5 for rare dark phase.
4a Pale phase, underparts (nominate) White with complete grey band across upper breast. Underwing
usually looks uniformly dark but close up in good light can be seen to have thin white line on inner leading
edge and silvery wash to flight feathers and coverts.
4b Pale phase, underparts (nominate) A few birds lack complete breast-band. Wing moult can make dark
underwing look patchy.
4c Intermediate phase, underparts (nominate) Dusky wash and mottling on head, flanks and undertail.
Present in museum collections but there are no recent records at sea or from breeding grounds.
4d Pale phase, upperparts (nominate) Crown grey; small black eye-patch; grey upperwing darker with
indistinct M marking across wings.
68
2c
2b
2a
3a
1a
2d
1c
3b
1b
4b
4a
3c
4d
4c
Plate 20: larGer PTeroDroMa Petrels of the PacIfIc and IndIan oceans
1. trindade Petrel Pterodroma arminjoniana pale phase
Medium-sized, long, narrow-winged petrel with relatively long tail, usually held tightly closed in flight. Slightly
heavier and more robust than Herald. Kermadec has white flashes on upperwing. See also Tahiti, Becks, Phoenix
(17:13) and Magenta (19:3). See Plate 25:2 for complete range of plumages.
1a Pale phase (Round Island form), underparts White; rather pale scruffy breast, flanks and undertail;
underwing, forewing dark; large white patch on outer wing, paler panel extending onto inner wing; narrow
white line on inner forewing.
Medium-sized, slim, long- and narrow-winged petrel of the Pacific with relatively long tail, usually held tightly
closed in flight and appearing quite pointed. See Plate 16:4 for dark phase and Plate 25:1 for complete range of
plumages.
2a Pale phase, underparts Belly, throat and lores white; breast, flanks and undertail dark; underwing as
Trindade, tending to be darker on the inner wing.
2b Pale phase, upperparts All but the very lightest phases are dark with grey cast in fresh plumage, browner
when worn; a few show a trace of dark M.
2c Intermediate phase, underparts Darker on head and throat, but lores usually remain pale.
Medium-sized Pterodroma of the Pacific with long broad wings, short squarish tail and relatively short, stubby bill.
Kermadec Petrel has the widest range of plumages of all the polymorphic Pterodroma petrels, each so-called phase
or morph grading into the others. At all ages and in all plumages Kermadec is best identified by pale bases to
primaries on upperwing. See Plate 16:2 for dark phase and Plate 25:3 for complete range of plumages. The two
races, neglecta and juana, are not separable at sea.
3a Pale phase, underparts Palest birds have head and underparts almost entirely white except for pale brown
mottling on crown, collar and flanks, darkening on undertail; underwing variable but always has a large
white patch on outerwing, paler panel extending onto centre of innerwing and narrow white line on inner
forewing.
3b Pale phase, upperparts Palest birds have greyish-fawn scalloping on white back, darkening on rump;
upperwings darker with prominent white bases to shafts and outer flight feathers.
3c Intermediate phase, underparts As pale phase but darker cap, breast-band, flanks and undertail; underwing variable, often similar to light phase.
3d Juvenile intermediate phase, underparts At all ages, intermediate phases are darker on head, breast
and flanks. As illustrated, many (but not all) juveniles have less prominent and more poorly defined white
patches on outer underwing, similar in shape to those of Herald Petrel.
The medium-sized Indian Ocean representative of a group of otherwise large, long-winged, long-tailed petrels of
the Pacific that includes White-necked and Hawaiian Petrels. Baraus is the only large petrel with this underwing
pattern in Indian Ocean. It is smaller than similar White-necked (18:1), Juan Fernandez (18:3), Galpagos and
Hawaiian (18:45), with darker undertail-coverts.
4a Underparts White but for dark cap, greyish partial collar and some dark mottling on undertail-coverts;
underwing white with dark mark from carpal extending about halfway to body.
4b Upperparts White forehead; black cap contrast with paler back; rump quite dark, only slightly paler than
tail; wings mostly dark but usually paler on outer secondary-coverts.
4c Upperparts Some birds are paler on back and wings resulting in more definite M shape across open wings;
rump usually remains dark so that M does not appear to join so obviously across lower back.
70
4a
3a
1a
4b
3b
2b
3c
4c
2a
3d
2c
Large, long-winged, long-bodied, heavy-billed, Pterodroma of tropical and subtropical waters of the western North
Atlantic. White nape and rump unlike anything else. Scruffy birds may look a bit like Cahow.
1a Underparts White except for dark cap and small pale partial collar; underwing white with broad dark
trailing edge and tip and prominent dark mark at carpal extending well towards body.
1b Upperparts Dark cap separated by white nape from dark back and upperwing with vague trace of dark M
mark across open wings; prominent white rump and dark tail.
1c Upperparts Rarely nape and upper rump can be mottled dark, not unlike Cahow; in worn plumage
upperwings and back more uniformly dark.
Medium-sized, long-winged Pterodroma of warmer North Atlantic, also known as Bermuda Petrel. Similar jizz to
Black-capped but has smaller bill and weighs less. Black-capped has white nape and rump. Cahow may have a few
paler, smudgy patches on rump similar to scruffy Black-capped but they are unlikely to be as extensive and nape
is always dark.
2a Underparts White with dark cap joined to dusky almost complete breast-band; underwing as Black-capped
with larger dark mark from carpal extending further towards body.
2b Upperparts Entirely dark, slightly paler on back and wings, enough in fresh plumage to show dark M mark;
lower rump, uppertail may have a few paler patches.
Like a dark form of Black-capped but possibly shorter in wing and tail. Very rare, probably extinct, Jamaican
endemic. Unlike anything else.
Small Pterodroma with wedge-shaped tail, like a slightly smaller, slimmer Feas, with a finer bill. Very rare endemic
to Madeira.
4a Underparts As Feas but dark eye-patch stands out more from paler head and underwing usually more
uniformly dark.
4b Upperparts As Feas but with paler crown contrasting less with grey back and less distinct dark M.
Small, heavy-bodied Pterodroma with wedge-shaped tail. Very similar to Zinos and Soft-plumaged, but with a
heavier bill.
5a Underparts White with pale grey partial breast-band adjoining dark eye-patch; underwing dark with triangle of white on inner leading edge and pale bases to primaries that show up as white patch in some lights.
5b Upperparts Small white forehead; dark cap to below eye contrasts with pale grey upperparts (with dark M
across open wings) and darker tip to tail.
6a Underparts (nominate) Very similar to Feas and Zinos but most have a completely dark grey breast-band,
paler crown with consequently more obvious dark eye-patch, darker grey uppertail and tail that is rounded
rather than wedge-shaped, making jizz more compact.
72
3a
2a
1a
1b
2b
6a
1c
5b
4b
4a
5a
Long-winged and short-tailed with long, relatively thin bill. See also Plate 23:5.
1a
1b
1c
1d
1e
Underparts At all ages underwing white with narrow black trailing edge and tip and small black tick
mark at carpal;. crown and nape pale grey, not extending downwards as collar; small black eye-patch.
Underparts, bright light At all ages cap can look quite dark; outer tail feathers white.
Adult fresh plumage, upperparts Head same pale grey as back; M mark conspicuous; dark tip to tail.
Adult worn plumage, upperparts Head darker than back; wings darker and M less obvious.
Juvenile fresh plumage, upperparts Very pale with white fringes to feathers of upperparts.
2a
2b
2c
Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cooks
and slightly larger tick mark; crown and nape grey, extending down onto side of breast as short collar;
eye-patch black.
Fresh plumage, upperparts Medium-grey with head, on average, slightly darker than back; dark tip to tail.
Worn plumage, upperparts Upperwings almost entirely dark with little trace of dark M; head darker
than back.
Relatively short-winged with long, quite broad tail. Fairly easily identified by lack of dark tip to tail. Also known as
Mas a Tierra Petrel.
3a
3b
Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cooks
and larger tick mark at carpal. Dark eye-patch joins to dark grey crown and is separated from partial grey
collar by white crescent on ear-coverts.
Upperparts Crown and nape slightly darker than back; rump and tail grey without dark tip.
Relatively small and slim with narrow wings, long tail and small bill.
4a
Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cooks
and larger tick mark at carpal; crown and nape very dark with small dark grey partial collar separated from
eye-patch by white crescent on ear-coverts.
4b-c Underparts, moulting Underwing varies from as light as Cooks (1b) to almost as dark as Goulds (24:1c);
shape of collar and dark hood also variable.
4d Fresh plumage, upperparts Crown and nape much darker than back; broad, dark tip to tail; dark
M obvious.
4e Worn plumage, upperparts Much darker with less contrast between head and back and less
conspicuous M.
74
1b
4b
4c
2a
1a
3a
4a
1c
2b
3b
4d
1d
4e
1e
2c
Slightly larger and bulkier than most cookilaria petrels, with long, relatively broad wings, rather short, rounded
outerwing and longish tail.
1a Underparts Underwing white with broad dark trailing edge and tip and prominent, broad dark tick mark
extending over halfway towards body; dark eye-patch merges into dark grey crown; grey collar extends well
down onto upper breast.
1b Upperparts Typically, head darker than back; wings mainly dark with no prominent M; lower rump pale
grey; tail with dark tip.
1c Upperparts Some, possibly young, birds are much paler on head back and wings and small dark eye-patch
and dark M across open wings show up well.
1d Underparts, bright light Dark bar on underwing shows up well even at a distance in bright light.
2a Underparts Underwing has large dark bar extending to body on axillaries. Dark eye-patch merges with grey
crown and nape; broad, grey partial collar.
2b Upperparts Head slightly darker than back; wings dark but paler inner primaries result in more of a dark
M than many Black-winged; dark tip to tail.
3a Underparts Underwing has broad dark bar extending from carpal well towards body and a large dark patch
on outerwing; very dark cap emphasises white forehead; short dark collar.
3b Upperparts Dark cap contrasts with pale grey back; upperwing dark, paler on secondaries and coverts
generally and not showing distinct dark M; tail has broad dark tip.
Black-winged, Chatham Islands and Bonin Petrels are all best identified by extent and pattern of dark markings
on underwings.
Largest and most distinctive of the cookilarias. Best told by large size and dusky patch on belly.
4a Underparts Underwing has broad dark bar extending from carpal well towards body. Dusky patch on belly.
Dark eye-patch joins dark grey crown that is variably mottled and flecked with white.
4b Worn plumage, upperparts Head darker than back, wings mainly dark; tail pale grey without dark tip.
4c Fresh plumage, upperparts Juveniles and freshly moulted adults have white tips to feathers of head back
and wing-coverts resulting in a very pale bird with small dark eye-patch and obvious dark M mark across open
wings.
4d Dark-bellied individual, underparts Extent of dark on belly varies and looks different in different
lights.
5a Underparts, bright light Underparts, especially underwing, can look almost entirely white from a distance.
Proportionally longer-winged and shorter-tailed with longer, thinner bill than most cookilarias.
76
trinidade
Petrel
trinidade
Petrel
1a
2a
3a
1b
2b
3b
1c
4a
4b
5a
1d
4d
4c
Two subspecies: nominate is very rare and breeds only on Cabbage Tree Island, off the south-east coast of
Australia; P. l. caledonica (New Caledonia Petrel) breeds in the tropical west Pacific. Both are small and compact with
relatively short, broad wings and long rounded tail. Flight in light winds reported as languid with more horizontal
gliding than most cookilarias, but similar in stronger winds. The very dark hood extending unbroken to the sides
of the breast distinguishes Goulds from all other cookilarias except the whitest Collared Petrels. Both subspecies of
Goulds have rounder tails than Collared, and caledonica appears to have lighter bases to the primaries and whiter
outer tail feathers. Pale Collared often has a hint of a white crescent behind the eye. These are fine distinctions
and may not be useful in the field barring exceptional views. The two subspecies of Goulds are unlikely to be
separable at sea but on average caledonica seems to be paler than nominate, with a narrower dark tip to the tail,
whiter underwing and more white on outer tail feathers. Recent work on Cabbage Tree Island suggests that the
nominate may vary more than previously thought, so even these differences may not hold.
1a Underparts (caledonica) Dark hood extends unbroken from below eye to sides of breast; underwing white
1b
1c
1d
1e
1f
with broad dark trailing edge; distinct dark line from carpal extends almost to body; wing-tip dark; bases of
primaries whiter.
Tail (caledonica) White on two outer tail feathers.
Underparts (nominate) As caledonica but often slightly darker, especially on bases of primaries.
Tail (nominate) Whitish only on outermost tail feathers.
Fresh plumage, upperparts (nominate) The broad dark M and dark head contrast with the grey back;
dark tip to tail variable; caledonica similar.
Worn plumage, upperparts (caledonica) Upperwing almost completely dark brown and contrast between head and back reduced. Nominate similar.
WS c. 55cm TL 28cm
See p.168
A small, compact petrel with a wide range of plumages, relatively short, broad wings and rather long graduated,
quite pointed tail. Bill looks short and slight. Birds with dark underparts or complete breast-bands are unlike
any other cookilaria but compare Black-winged Petrel (23:1), which can have a prominent collar that nearly
encompasses neck. Lighter birds are told from all but Goulds by their very dark hooded heads. See Goulds for
differences.
2a Light phase, underparts Dark hood contrasts with white underbody; can have a hint of a white crescent
2b
2c
2d
2e
2f
2g
78
behind the eye but can also look like caledonica Goulds; underwing on paler birds is white with a broad dark
trailing edge, dark primaries and a distinct black line extending from the carpal almost to the body.
Intermediate phase, underparts Dark hood extends as smudgy collar onto breast.
Intermediate phase, underparts Complete breast-band and dark smudges on underparts.
Dark phase, underparts Underbody completely dark except for throat; underwing suffused with pale grey
or brown.
Fresh plumage, upperparts The broad dark M and very dark head contrast with the grey back; broad
dark tip to tail. All phases similar.
Worn plumage, upperparts Upperparts, especially upperwing, much darker brown. All phases similar.
Dark phase may always be as dark on the upperparts.
Tail Outer feathers almost entirely dark. All phases similar.
1b
1d
1a
1e
1c
1f
2g
2b
2a
2e
2c
2f
2d
Smallest and slimmest of this group with long, narrow wings, long quite pointed tail and relatively short, slim bill.
1a Pale phase, underparts Underbody white with smudgy incomplete breast-band, barred undertail-co-
verts, pale lores, forehead and eyebrow; underwing dark with white patch on outerwing, slightly paler panel
extends onto central inner wing and narrow white line on inner forewing.
1b Intermediate phase, underparts Belly, throat and lores white, breast, flanks and undertail dark; underwing similar to pale phase but pale patch on base of primaries tends to be slightly smaller.
1c Dark phase, underparts Body all-dark except for paler chin and lores; underwing can have a very small
pale patch on base of primaries but retains thin white line on inner forewing; Henderson Petrel apparently
identical.
1d Upperparts All but the very lightest phases are dark with a grey cast in fresh plumage, browner when worn.
A few show a trace of dark M.
1e Head Bill shorter (c.26mm) and less robust than Trindade; lores pale.
Similar shape to Herald but slightly larger and heavier built with broader wings and tail. A range of plumages
similar to Atlantic birds also occur in the Round Island (Indian Ocean) population, but dark phase from Round
Island appear to rarely, if ever, have pale throat. See also Plate 20:1.
2a Pale phase underparts, Atlantic Similar to pale phase Herald but lores usually darker and underwing has
paler, almost white central panel to innerwing.
2b Intermediate phase underparts, Atlantic Most intermediates in museum collections are smudgier
underneath than Herald, have dark lores and paler panel on inner underwing.
2c Dark phase underparts, Atlantic Entirely dark except for pale chin; underwing dark on innerwing with
reduced pale patch on outerwing yet retaining thin white line along inner forewing.
2d Pale phase underparts, Round Island Breast-band faint, underwing very pale; upperparts have pale
back and collar similar to pale phase Kermadec.
2e Dark phase underparts, Round Island Entirely dark body, including throat; underwing similar to dark
phase from Atlantic.
2f Head Bill longer (c.31mm) and heavier than Herald; lores dark in all but the lightest birds.
Relatively heavily built and long-winged with rather short, square-ended tail and short, stubby bill. Widest variation
in plumage of polymorphic Pterodromas with full range of intermediates. The two races, neglecta and juana, cannot be
separated at sea. Juveniles sometimes separable from adults.
3a Pale phase, underparts White except for pale smudgy markings on flanks, sides of breast and cap.
Undertail darker. Underwing has large white patch at base of primaries extending right onto outer primary,
white leading edge to inner wing, dark axillaries, the rest of the coverts brownish, darker towards forewing.
3b Intermediate phase, underparts Head dark, whiter around base of bill; undertail and flanks dark; belly
white. Underwing similar pattern to pale phase but darker.
3c Dark phase, underparts At all ages, head and body entirely dark; underwing mostly dark with white
line retained along inner leading edge, and white patch on outer wing. Many (but not all) juveniles have less
prominent white patches on outer underwing, similar in shape to those of Herald Petrel.
3d Intermediate phase, upperparts All but the palest phases are dark with pale bases to quills and feathers of
outer primaries. Very pale birds have white heads and pale scalloped backs. Note that upperparts of all phases
are very similar.
3e Head Bill looks short (c.30mm) and stubby.
80
1c
1a
1b
1d
1e
2b
2c
2a
2f
2e
2d
3c
3d
3a
3b
3e
Largest prion; huge black bill and steep forehead obvious even at some distance.
1a Underparts At all ages underparts and underwing very white; extent of grey collar on sides of breast
varies.
1b Adult fresh plumage, upperparts Head strongly marked; forehead, crown and ear-coverts very dark;
small white supercilium; all ages have well-defined dark M on upperwing; narrow black tip to tail.
Smaller than Broad-billed, slightly larger than Salvins but not noticeably so in the field. Plumage and blue bill like
Salvins.
2a Bill Broad and blue, lamellae show at base; length 3.1cm, width 1.8cm.
Slightly smaller than Broad-billed, head less heavy looking and paler; bill blue. See also Plate 27:3.
3a Worn plumage, upperparts At all ages, M on upperwing brownish from wear; forehead and crown grey;
ear-coverts dark; obvious white supercilium.
4a Underparts White, with grey collar on side of breast often dark and well-defined.
4b Upperparts Head usually well-marked with dark eye-patch and ear-coverts and clear white supercilium.
Well-defined dark M on upperwing; narrow black tip to tail.
4c Bill Blue, broad at base but not strikingly so; length 2.7cm, width 1.4cm.
4d Head Lamellae barely visible at base of bill.
The smallest and palest of the prions with narrow black tips to tail. All ages similar.
5a Underparts Underparts and underwing white; looks very pale, with indistinct collar.
5b Upperparts Head appears pale with a broad, long white supercilium and a narrow black eye-patch; crown
and forehead pale grey but adults darker than juveniles; M shape on upperwing relatively faint.
5c Bill Blue, looks narrow and straight-sided from above; length 2.5cm, width 1.1cm.
5d Head Lamellae not obvious at base of bill.
82
1c
1b
1d
1a
2a
3a
3b
3c
4c
4b
4a
4d
5b
5c
5a
5d
Plate 27: PrIons WIth broad black tIPs to taIl and blue Petrel
1. fairy Prion Pachyptila turtur
Smaller prion with small, rather rounded head, short, stubby bill and broad dark tip to tail. Juveniles paler than
adults. Southern birds (race subantarctica) paler than northern ones of nominate race.
1a Underparts Very pale underneath; grey around head and sides of breast merges softly into white underparts. Underparts of races and similar.
1b Adult upperparts (nominate) Pale grey above; dark M well-defined; broad dark tip to tail; dark eye-patch;
small white supercilium and dusky forehead and crown.
1c Juvenile upperparts (nominate) Very pale blue-grey; many feathers tipped white; head especially pale,
dark limited to small patch in front of eye.
1d Adult upperparts (subantarctica) Dark tip of tail extends onto outer tail and to almost half of central tail
feathers.
1e Adult head (nominate) Dark eye-patch and ear-coverts; small white supercilium; dusky forehead and
crown.
1f Adult head (subantarctica) Very pale, blue-grey and white head, dark confined to small patch in front of
eye; looks like juvenile nominate.
Smaller prion, very similar to Fairy Prion, although slightly bigger with a heavier bill. Juveniles and newly moulted
adults paler. The two races, crassirostris and flemingi, are not separable at sea.
2a
2b
2c
2d
Underparts Very pale with more than half having a pale blue-grey wash over belly and undertail.
Upperparts Similar to northern Fairy Prion; size of dark eye-patch varies.
Head Bill deeper than Fairy Prion.
Bill Heavier, with a larger tip than Fairy Prion; length 2.3cm, width 1.3cm.
Fairy and Fulmar Prions are separated from all others by larger amount of black in tail (compare 1d and 3a), which
is reasonably obvious at sea even in poor conditions. Separating Fairy and Fulmar Prions at sea is very difficult and
usually impossible. The heavier bill of Fulmar Prion is apparent in the hand but very good views and considerable
practice are required at sea. Extent of pale wash on undersides difficult to assess at sea due to light. Distinctive
barrel roll flight of Fulmar Prion when approaching ship and habit of sitting on the sea near floating objects may
help.
Included here for comparison. Larger, with heavier head and bill than Fairy and Fulmar Prions. See also Plate
26:3.
Small fulmarine petrel; looks similar to larger prions. Juvenile similar to adult. White-tipped tail makes identification
easy when compared with the prions.
4a Underparts Underparts and underwing white, contrasting with dark head and collar on side of breast.
4b Upperparts Pale grey above with obvious dark M mark, contrasting dark head and white tip to tail; bill slim
and black.
84
1b
1c
1a
1e
2a
1g
2b
1f
2d
2c
4b
4a
1d
3a
4c
Large, heavily built, long-winged Procellaria with stout bill. Feet project slightly beyond rather short, slightly wedgeshaped tail. Easily identified by white on head. Endemic to Tristan da Cunha.
1a
1b
1c
1d
Large, heavily-built, long-winged Procellaria with stout bill. Feet project slightly beyond rather short, slightly wedgeshaped tail. Best identified by pale tip to bill. Circumpolar throughout Southern Ocean.
2a Fresh plumage, upperparts Upperparts entirely sooty-black; white throat often reduced to a few feathers
and not always visible at sea.
2b Fresh plumage, underparts Underparts dark, browner in brighter light with a slightly paler outer
underwing.
86
1d
1a
1e
2a
2d
2e
1b
2c
2b
1c
Smallest of the dark Procellaria petrels but due to longer neck and smaller head, bill can look large. Some juveniles
separable from adults when details of bill can be seen well. Endemic breeder to New Zealand, dispersing to eastern
tropical Pacific.
1a
1b
1c
1d
Large, heavily built, long-winged Procellaria with stout bill. Some juveniles separable from adults when details of bill
can be seen well. Endemic breeder to New Zealand, migrating to coastal Chile.
2d Juvenile female head Bill smaller and whiter than adult with black tip. Only slightly larger than
Parkinsons.
Included here for comparison. A large all-dark shearwater, slightly smaller than Parkinsons with smaller head,
slimmer body, narrower wings and thinner, longer-looking bill. See also Plate 30:1.
Included here for comparison. The other stout-bodied, long-winged member of the genus Procellaria. See also
Plate 32:4.
4a Underparts Dark cap, undertail and underwing; white chin, breast and belly.
88
1c
1a
1d
2a
2d
2c
3b
1b
2b
3a
4a
A large, all-dark, rather heavy-looking shearwater with long, quite broad wings, rounded tail and long, stout bill.
Looks more like dark Procellaria petrels than many of the shearwaters. When seen, colour of bill and feet diagnostic.
Heavy build, for a shearwater, and dark underwing useful for separation from Wedge-tailed, Sooty and Short-tailed
Shearwaters (31:1-2). Difficult to tell from dark Procellaria petrels (see plate 29 for comparison).
1a Underparts Dark brown with paler, reflective bases to flight feathers that may give the appearance of
whitish patch in strong light; legs pink but not always visible as often tucked up in belly feathers.
Medium to large polymorphic shearwater with long, broad wings, long, wedge-shaped tail and slender bill. Flight
leisurely, low over the sea. Best recognised by slim build, tail shape and flight. See Plate 32:2 for lighter phases.
2a Dark phase, underparts Dark brown with paler, reflective bases to flight feathers that may give the appearance of whitish patch in strong light; bill and legs dark.
Compact, small to medium, dark shearwater with relatively short, rounded wings, slender bill and short, rounded
tail. Smaller than Sooty (31:1) or Short-tailed (31:2) with underwings generally darker than Sooty and lighter than
Short-tailed. Smaller and shorter-tailed than Wedge-tailed; larger than Heinroths with no white on belly and dark
legs. Also known as Kiritimati Shearwater. Breeds widely in tropical and subtropical Pacific.
3a Underparts Dark brown-black with underside of flight feathers and coverts washed with white showing in
flight, in strong light, as silvery flash; bill and feet dark.
Very small, short-tailed shearwater with long, very slender bill and somewhat variable plumage. Much smaller than
all other dark species in range. Darker underparts than similar-sized Tropical Shearwater. Endemic to Bismarcks,
Bougainville and Solomons.
4a Pale phase, underparts Dusky black-brown with paler chin and belly. Underwing dirty white, dark on tip,
trailing edge and axillaries. Darker birds usually retain paler throat but underwing and especially belly much
duskier brown. Bill dark; legs and feet pinkish.
4b Upperparts Uniform sooty-brown in both darker and paler birds.
Included here for comparison. Smallest of the dark Procellaria petrels. See Plate 29:1.
5a Adult upperparts Larger and more heavily-built with a stouter bill than the dark shearwaters. Bill pale
yellowish with darker tip.
90
5a
2a
1a
2b
1b
4a
3a
3b
4b
Medium-large, bulky-bodied shearwater with long, narrow wings, and feet barely projecting beyond tail in flight.
Separable from all other dark shearwaters and petrels by silvery flash on underwing, jizz and flight, although a few
Short-tailed Shearwaters may also have pale underwings. Widespread in all oceans.
1a Underparts Dark, chocolate-brown with paler panel on underwing formed by whitish coverts; legs and feet
pinkish-black.
Medium-sized shearwater with long, narrow wings that look slightly rounded at tips; feet often projecting beyond
tail in flight. All but the few birds with whitish underwings are separable from Sooty Shearwater by the dark underwings. Dark-billed and smaller and less bulky than the dark Procellaria petrels and Flesh-footed Shearwater (30:1).
Larger with darker underwing than Christmas Island Shearwater (30:3). Shorter-tailed, narrower- and straighterwinged than dark-phase Wedge-tailed Shearwater (30:2). Jizz and flight often the most useful features. Breeds in
southern Australia; transequatorial migrant to north Pacific.
2a Underparts Dark chocolate-brown, often darker on head; underwing dark, with coverts only very slightly
paler; legs and feet pinkish-grey.
2b Underparts A few birds have paler panel on underwing like Sooty Shearwater.
2c Upperparts Entirely dark chocolate-brown; in worn plumage cap and collar look darker.
2d Fresh plumage, upperparts Greyish tone to brown plumage can make young or freshly moulted adults
look darker and blacker.
92
2b
1b
2a
1a
1c
2c
1d
2d
Medium-large shearwater with long, broad wings, very long wedge-shaped tail and leisurely flight. Breeds only in
New Zealand; widespread in Pacific.
1c Worn plumage, upperparts Usually browner, darker and less neat in worn plumage.
2. Wedge-tailed shearwater Puffinus pacificus paler phases WS 98cm TL 46cm See p.194
Medium-large shearwater with long, broad wings, very long wedge-shaped tail and leisurely flight. Occurs in pale,
intermediate and dark phases. Best told from all but Bullers Shearwater by long-tailed, broad-winged jizz and
leisurely flight. From Bullers by darker underwing, lack of dark M mark on upperwing and generally less neat,
scruffier plumage. See Plate 30:2 for dark phase. Widespread in tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans.
2a Pale phase, underparts Mainly white but with dusky undertail and short collar. Underwing white with
broad dark trailing edge and tip and variable amounts of dark feathering on inner wing.
2b Pale phase, upperparts Mostly grey-brown with broad pale fringes to feathers resulting in scalloped effect,
especially on back and scapulars. Dark cap and tail. Dark border to wing but no obvious dark M mark across
open wings.
2c Intermediate phase, underparts As pale phase but duskier on underparts and more dark markings on
underwing.
Large, heavy, big-headed, long-tailed shearwater with broad, long wings and long, slender bill. Combination of
dark belly patch, dark cap and pale collar, and white rump patch diagnostic. Breeds South Atlantic; transequatorial
migrant to North Atlantic.
3a Underparts White with variably dusky belly patch and darker undertail-coverts. Underwing mainly white
with dark border and characteristic complex pattern of dark feathering on innerwing. Bill black.
3b Upperparts Small dark cap separated from brown back by pale collar. White U-shaped patch on lower
rumpuppertail. Pale fringes to feathers in fresh plumage.
Robust, heavy-bodied, almost podgy bird, with wedge-shaped tail; very long, narrow wings usually held stiff and at
right angles to body. Dark underwing and shorter, stubbier bill separate Grey Petrel from the large Bullers, Great,
Corys (33:2) and Pink-footed Shearwaters. White-headed Petrel (19:1) has dark underwings but is smaller with dark
M mark across upperparts and stout black bill. Circumpolar in colder southern oceans.
4a Underparts White with grey undertail. Underwings uniformly dark grey. Bill olive-yellow with dark tip.
4b Fresh plumage, upperparts Pale sooty-grey with darker tail, forehead, crown and area around eye. White
fringes to feathers of back and rump.
Large, stocky, big-headed shearwater with long, broad wings and round-ended tail. Plumage variable. Paler birds
have similar scruffy, brown plumage to Corys Shearwater (33:2), but Corys has yellower bill and white undertailcoverts. Cape Verde Shearwater (33:3) is smaller and slimmer with a greyish bill. Pale-phase Wedge-tailed Shearwater has longer tail and shorter, broader wings more angled back from carpal. Widespread in eastern Pacific.
5a Paler bird, underparts Mainly white with scruffy brownish edges to dark cap; dusky undertail and underwing with dark border and tip, and variable dark feathering on innerwing; legs and feet pink.
5b Darker bird, underparts Darker and smudgier, especially on throat, upper breast and flanks; broader dark
margins to underwing.
5c Upperparts Grey-brown; darker on head, tail and wings. Pale fringes to feathers of back, rump and scapulars in fresh plumage. Bill pink with dark tip.
94
2c
1a
4a
2a
3a
4c
1b
2b
4b
3b
5c
5a
5b
1c
The western Pacific member of the group. Large, broad-winged shearwater with small head and long neck. Similar
to Corys in flight and jizz but head smaller and neck longer; upperparts more scaly and head distinctly whiter.
1a Underparts White body and undertail. Head basically white, variably streaked dark brown becoming
increasingly heavy towards the neck and hind crown, highlighting white eye-ring. Underwing mainly white
with broad dark trailing edge and tip, and some variable dark markings on coverts.
1b Upperparts Mostly grey-brown with broad whitish fringes to feathers resulting in scalloped effect. Head
distinctly pale and streaked. Tail and flight feathers darker with a trace of dark M across upperwings in fresh
plumage. Bill horn-coloured with darker tip.
Large, heavy-bodied, broad-winged shearwater with large bill. Two subspecies: larger borealis breeds in the Atlantic;
the nominate diomedea breeds in the Mediterranean. White underparts and large yellowish, dark-tipped bill best
distinguishing features. Most borealis can be told from diomedea by larger dark tip to underwing and darker head.
2a Underparts (borealis) White with smudgy edges to cap. Underwing white with broad dark trailing edge and
large dark tip due to dark bases to primaries.
2b Upperparts (borealis) Rather scruffy, pale grey-brown with whiter fringes to feathers; darker head,
especially around eye; dark tail with narrow whitish patch across base; indistinct dark M mark across open
wings.
2c Head (borealis) Bill pale yellow with darker tip.
2d Underparts (nominate) White as borealis with smaller dark tip to the underwing due to paler bases to
primaries.
2e Upperparts moulting (nominate) Similar to borealis but usually paler on the head and small dark
eye-patch. Moulting birds can have strange-looking patterns of dark on light on upperwings with pale,
bleached coverts and patches of new dark and old pale flight feathers.
Medium-sized shearwater with quite broad wings, longish wedge-shaped tail and long, slim bill. Smaller and
slimmer than Corys with greyish bill.
3a Underparts Similar pattern to nominate Corys with slightly more, darker markings on underwing and
undertail.
3b Fresh plumage, upperparts Head dark-capped in fresh plumage, quickly becoming pale brown, much as
rest of upperparts and similar to nominate Corys.
3c Head Bill slim compared with Corys and greyish with darker tip.
96
1a
2a
2d
3a
1b
2b
3b
2e
2c
3c
Medium-small shearwater mostly occurring off the west coast of Central America, with comparatively long,
rounded tail, stout bill and short neck. In flight, feet frequently project beyond the tail. In range relatively easy to
identify by scruffy brown and white plumage and no obvious white patches extending up onto sides of rump.
1a Underparts Underparts mostly white with brownish undertail, almost complete brownish breast-band,
white throat merging into darker head. Underwing mostly white with broad dark trailing edge and tip and
variable dark smudging on inner wing. A few darker birds have dark head and neck, and (more rarely) underparts washed pale grey.
1b Upperparts Dull brown, slightly darker on head.
Small shearwater of the west coast of Central America, intermediate in size and jizz between larger Manx-type
and smaller Little-type shearwaters.
2a Underparts White throat and underbody with dark undertail. Division between white underparts and dark
head slightly blurred. Underwing white with dark border and tip, and black lines on inner wing often more
extensive than illustrated.
2b Upperparts Black rather than brown, with obvious white patches extending up onto sides of rump.
Smaller shearwater of the tropical Pacific, very similar to Townsends (with which considered conspecific by some
authorities). Townsends tends to have more dark markings on underwing and a shorter tail with more uniformly
dark undertail-coverts. Newells has more white on the centre of the undertail. Facial pattern more sharply
demarcated in Newells with more prominent white crescent, curling up behind eye. Adult Townsends moult wings
SeptemberNovember, Newells in DecemberFebruary. It is not known how the two races, the nominate newelli
and the recently reassigned myrtae, differ.
3a Underparts (nominate) White throat and underbody with dark undertail, whiter in the centre. Division
between white underparts and dark head is sharp. Underwing white with dark border and wing-tips, and a
few variable black lines on inner wing.
3b Upperparts (nominate) Black rather than brown with white patches extending up onto sides of rump.
A small, long-tailed, roundish-winged shearwater of the Caribbean. Some variation in darkness of plumage, especially on head and underwing. See Plate 37 and text (p. 206) for discussion of taxonomy and identification.
4a Underparts (nominate) White with dark undertail; underwing white with broad trailing edge and tip and
variable darker markings on inner wing.
4b Upperparts (nominate) Dark brown; small white patches curl up to sides of rump.
4c Head Dark cap reaches to eye but is streaked white on ear-coverts; lores white; prominent white eye-ring is
wider in front of eye.
A small, shortish-tailed, round-winged shearwater with some variation in darkness of plumage. See Plate 37 and
text (p. 206) for identification and taxonomic status.
5a Underparts (with collar) White with dark cap to below eye; broad dark collar; dark undertail; underwing
white with broad trailing edge and tip, and variable darker markings on inner wing. Similar to Audubons (4a).
5b Underparts (without collar) White with dark cap to below eye; almost no collar; dark undertail; underwing dirty-white with broad trailing edge and tip, and variable smudgy markings on inner wing.
5c Head Cap typically solid dark, extending well below eye and cleanly defined from white throat; lores dark.
98
3a
2a
1a
3b
2b
1b
4b
4c
4a
5c
5a
5b
Small, long-winged shearwater with comparatively long, stout bill and long tail. Breeds North Atlantic, wintering
in central and southwest Atlantic.
1a Underparts White, including undertail. Demarcation between dark cap and white throat quite sharp; small
white crescent curls up behind eye. Underwing mainly white with darker trailing edge and tip, and variable
dark feathering on the inner wing.
1b Darker bird, underparts Dark cap under eye adjoins partial smudgy collar without white crescent behind
eye. More dark marks on inner underwing.
1c Fresh plumage, upperparts Brown-black. White patches do not extend far up onto sides of rump.
1d Worn plumage, upperparts Paler brown; secondary coverts become especially pale.
Close relative of Manx from central and eastern Mediterranean. Slightly smaller with pot-bellied jizz. Toes project
beyond shorter tail in flight.
2a Underparts White as Manx but with dusky undertail, smudgier division between dark cap and throat, and
more dark marks on inner underwing.
Close relative of Manx from western Mediterranean, dispersing into Atlantic. Slightly larger with pot-bellied jizz.
Toes just project beyond shorter tail in flight. Some variation in darkness of plumage.
3a Underparts Scruffy white, darkest on sides of breast, flanks and undertail. Underwing similar, darkest in
armpit.
3b Darker bird, underparts Underparts almost entirely dark, paler on belly and central underwing.
3c Upperparts Brown; paler than Yelkouan.
Macaronesian Shearwater is the small, round-winged, short-tailed shearwater of the eastern North Atlantic,
formerly regarded as one of the Little Shearwater group. See also Plate 37 and text (p.206) for discussion of
taxonomy and identification.
4a Underparts White; dark cap reaches just to, or just above eye; underwing very white with narrow dark
border and pale bases to primaries; bill bluish; forehead rounded.
4b Upperparts Black rather than brown; in worn plumage secondary coverts show as paler wing-bar.
P. l. boydi is the small, long-tailed shearwater of the Cape Verde Islands, which has long been the subject of taxonomic debate. Following Austin et al. (2004) we have included it in an assemblage of the small shearwaters of the
Caribbean and North Atlantic under the name Audubons Shearwater, P. lherminieri. See also Plate 37 and text
(p.206) for discussion of taxonomy and identification.
5a Underparts (boydi) White except for dark on undertail-coverts. Underwing with broader dark border and
tip than Macaronesian Shearwater. Dark cap reaches below eye.
100
3b
1b
1a
2a
4a
3a
4b
1c
2b
3c
5a
1d
Small, short-bodied shearwater of Australasian seas with rather short wings and bill and rounded forehead. Some
juveniles identifiable in fresh plumage with good views.
1a Underparts White, including undertail, with short, rather smudgy partial collar; underwing white with
narrow dark border and tip and a few smudgy dark marks on inner wing.
1b Upperparts Dark blackish-brown; white patches extending up onto sides of rump more obvious in some
than others.
1c Worn plumage, upperparts Pale brown with bleached, patchy appearance, often with pale panel in wing
when in moult.
1d Juvenile, fresh plumage, upperparts Upperparts blacker with narrow white fringes to upperwingcoverts.
1e Darker birds, underparts Darker birds have more extensive dark collar and more dark markings on inner
underwing, not unlike young Huttons.
Small to medium-sized shearwater of Australasian seas with long neck and body. Flat-headed with long slim bill.
Moderately long wings and broad tail with feet projecting well beyond tail tip. Some juveniles and immatures
separable with good views.
2a Underparts Head dark with paler chin and almost complete breast-band. Rest white except for smudgy
brown thighs and edges of undertail. Underwing white only in centre with broad dark borders and tip, and
most of innerwing and axillaries dark.
2b Upperparts Dark brown. Some juveniles and immatures paler (see 2d).
2c Worn plumage, upperparts Can become very scruffy pale brown with bleached coverts that look like pale
wing-bar.
2d Juvenile and immature, underparts In some birds, underparts, especially head and underwing, can be
paler than adult, not unlike darker Fluttering. Upperparts as adult.
A small, compact, short-winged, short-tailed shearwater of the southern Pacific Ocean. See also Plate 37 and
text (p.206) for discussion of taxonomy and identification. Four races recognised, the nominate assimilis, tunneyi,
kermadecensis and haurakiensis. All are similar but some birds separable by small variations in pattern of white on
head.
3a Underparts (kermadecensis) All races mostly white; underwing white with narrow dark border and tip.
Dark cap extends down just to eye in race kermadecensis.
A small, compact, short-winged, short-tailed shearwater of the subantarctic Pacific and southeast Atlantic Ocean.
Plumage very similar to Little Shearwater; distinguishable mainly by pattern of dark on face. See also Plate 37 and
text (p.206) for discussion of taxonomy and identification.
4a Upperparts Slate-black with narrow white fringes to coverts and feathers of back.
4b Head Dark cap extends to just below eye.
102
3a
2a
1a
3b
2b
1b
2c
4a
1c
3c
1d
2d
4b
1e
1a Underparts In all races, undertail white; underwing white with narrow dark border; slight dark collar; legs
bluish with pink webs.
1b Head (kermadecensis) Dark cap barely reaches eye; lores white. In all races bill short, forehead rounded.
2a Head Dark cap extends below eye but lores mainly white; bill more robust than Little; forehead rounded.
3a Underparts Undertail white; underwing white with narrow dark border; not much of a dark collar; legs
blue and black.
3b Head Dark cap does not or barely reaches eye; lores white; bill short and slim; forehead rounded.
4a Underparts Undertail white, darker towards tip; underwing white with broad dark border and some dark
marks on inner forewing; some with extensive dark collar others with little (as illustrated); legs blue.
4b Head Dark cap does not or barely reaches eye; short white supercilium; lores white; bill short; forehead rounded.
Underparts (nominate) Undertail dark; underwing white with broad dark border and variable amount of
dark markings on inner wing; dark collar absent; legs pink and black.
Paler form (nominate, Bahamas), head Cap just reaches eye; lores white; white eye ring wider in front
and over eye; bill long and robust; forehead flatter.
Darker form (nominate, Bermuda), head Cap extends well below eye but streaked white below and on
ear-coverts; lores mostly dark; thin white eye ring.
Underparts (boydi) Undertail mainly dark; underwing white with broad dark border and some dark marks
on inner forewing; dark collar relatively large and apparently blue legs.
Head (boydi) Dark cap reaches below eye; small white crescent curls up behind eye; lores mostly white; bill
short and robust; forehead squarer than Macaronesian Shearwater.
6a Underparts (dichrous) Based on a specimen from Samoa. Undertail dark; underwing white with broad
dark border and variable but extensive dark markings on inner wing; dark collar quite pronounced. Undertail
can be white in Runion birds, partly dark in Aldabran; legs blue and black, webs pinkish.
6b Head (bailloni) Black cap extends well below eye but streaked white below and on ear-coverts; lores dark;
thin white eye-ring; bill long and slim; forehead flatter.
7a Paler form, underparts Undertail dark; underwing white with broad dark border and some dark markings
on inner wing; dark collar small and smudgy; broad white eye-ring; legs pink and black.
7b Darker form, underparts Undertail dark; underwing with broad dark border and variable but extensive
dark markings and brownish wash; flanks smudgy-brown; dark collar quite pronounced.
7c Darker form, head Solid dark cap reaches well below the eye; lores dark; thin white eye-ring and small
white crescent curling up behind eye; bill long and quite robust; forehead flatter.
8a Underparts (nominate) Undertail dark; underwing with broad dark border and variable but extensive dark
markings and, often, brownish wash; flanks smudgy-brown; small, smudgy collar; legs pink.
8b Head (nominate) Solid, medium-brown cap reaches well below the eye; lores dark; very thin white eye-ring;
bill long and robust; forehead flatter.
3b
4b
1b
1a
3a
2a
4a
9
5d
5e
5b
5a
5c
10
6a
6b
8a
7c
7b
7a
8b
Medium-sized, comparatively slim diving-petrel with short, rounded wings and comparatively long tail. Legs may
trail behind tail. Circumpolar in southern oceans.
1a Underparts Dull white with smudgy border between dark cap and whitish throat and dusky collar. Underwing dusky-white with broad grey trailing edge and tip.
1b Upperparts Black with thin white fringes to tips of scapulars forming broken line down back.
1c Fresh plumage, upperparts Sides of face and ear-coverts dusky-grey, merging with black cap. Thin white
fringes to tips of scapulars, flight feathers and coverts.
Small, comparatively slim diving-petrel with very short rounded wings and comparatively long tail. Legs do not
trail beyond tail. South Georgia Diving-petrel is extremely difficult to separate from Common. South Georgia has
whiter underwing, more obvious white crescent behind eye and, in fresh plumage, more obvious white stripes down
both sides of back, easiest seen when the bird is sitting. Common is, on average, duskier around face and sides of
breast. In the hand, shape of underside of bill diagnostic.
2a Underparts White with quite sharp demarcation between dark cap and white throat; short, wide dusky
collar; underwing white with pale grey flight feathers.
2b Fresh plumage, upperparts White crescent curling up behind eye; white borders to scapulars form two
distinct lines down back; white fringes to tips of inner flight feathers and coverts.
2c Bill, underside Base with converging sides and relatively pointed arch.
Large, fat diving-petrel with very short, broad, rounded wings, comparatively short tail and short, stout bill. Legs
long often held hanging below body and may trail behind tail.
3a Underparts White with dark cap; dusky ear-coverts and short dusky collar; underwing white with grey flight
3b
3c
3d
3e
feathers.
Fresh plumage, upperparts Black with prominent white stripes on scapulars.
Worn plumage, upperparts Entirely brownish-black.
Fresh plumage, upperparts Prominent scapular stripes formed by long white tips to feathers.
Bill, underside Base with converging sides and relatively pointed arch, but longer than other species.
Small, short, compact diving-petrel with short, broad, rounded wings and comparatively long tail. Legs rarely
trail behind tail. Magellanic, which may overlap with Peruvian in central Chile, has a distinctive white crescent
extending up from throat, behind eye, to rear of crown. Magellanic is also noticeably smaller with shorter wings,
proportionately longer tail and feet rarely trailing beyond tail.
4a Underparts White with sharp demarcation between dark cap and white throat and conspicuous white
crescent that extends well up towards back of neck.
4b Worn plumage, upperparts Entirely dark brownish-black with white scapular stripe worn away.
4c Fresh plumage, upperparts White tips and outer webs to scapulars and some back feathers forming
mottled white stripes down both sides of back; white fringes to tips of inner flight feathers and many coverts.
4d Bill, underside Base with converging sides and relatively pointed arch like South Georgia Diving-petrel.
106
3a
1a
2a
4a
3b
1b
4b
3c
2b
4c
2c
1c
1d
3d
3e
4d
Small storm-petrel with short, narrow wings. Flight fluttering and busy. Widespread in Atlantic Ocean.
1a Upperparts Dark sooty-brown, lacking obvious pale crescentic wing-bar; white rump.
1b Underparts Dark sooty-brown with white wrapping down around the sides of rump towards the vent;
underwing dark with broad, whitish central panel.
1c Pattering Whilst pattering on sea surface wings held up in a steeper V than Wilsons.
Small, long-legged storm-petrel with comparatively narrow wings and square or slightly notched tail. Feet project
beyond tail in flight. The three races, nominate oceanicus, exasperatus and chilensis, are not separable at sea. Widespread, mainly in Southern Hemisphere.
2a Upperparts Dark brown, with paler, crescentic wing-bar and white rump which wraps down around the
sides almost to the vent.
2b Underparts Dark brown except for white sides to rump; wings short from body to carpal.
2c Pattering When foraging wings held horizontally or in a shallow V; yellow webs of feet diagnostic but rarely
visible at sea.
Medium-sized, stocky storm-petrel with quite broad wings and square tail. Feet do not project beyond tail in flight.
Also known as Band-rumped Storm-petrel. Widespread in Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
3a Upperparts Dark sooty-brown with pale crescentic wing-bar not reaching forewing, and white rump broader
than it is long.
Medium-sized, long-winged storm-petrel with long, forked tail. Four races are recognised: nominate leucorhoa is
widespread in Northern Hemisphere in both Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; chapmani, cheimomnestes and socorroensis
occur off Pacific coasts of North and Central America. Atlantic birds have white rumps varying only in extent of
dark central stripe. See also Plates 40:1, 42:5 and 43:2 for Pacific and dark-rumped birds.
4a Upperparts (nominate, Atlantic) Dark blackish-brown, paler on back; broad pale crescentic wing-bar
reaches forewing at carpal; white rump longer than it is broad.
108
1b
2b
2a
1a
4c
3b
4b
4a
3a
1c
3c
2c
Medium-sized, long-winged storm-petrel with long, forked tail. Four races are recognised: nominate leucorhoa is
widespread in northern hemisphere in both Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; chapmani, cheimomnestes and socorroensis
occur off pacific coasts of North and Central America. Extent of white on rumps of Pacific nominate, cheimomnestes,
and socorroensis variable but most are white; chapmani mainly dark-rumped. See also Plates 39:4, 42:5 and 43:2.
1a Upperparts (nominate, North Pacific) Dark blackish-brown, paler on back; broad pale crescentic wingbar reaching forewing at carpal; white rump longer than it is broad. Broad dark central stripe on rump.
1b Dark phase, upperparts (chapmani) Rump dark; pale crescentic wing-bar prominent; slightly smaller,
shorter, rounder wings and tail than white-rumped birds.
Large, fork-tailed storm-petrel; almost certainly extinct. Stockier than Leachs with broader wings and shorter,
forked tail. Most likely to look like a large, fork-tailed Madeiran Storm-petrel. In the hand has longer, stouter bill
than Leachs but due to overall larger size this may not be a useful character at sea.
2a Upperparts Blackish-brown or slaty-black; white rump extends to lateral tail-coverts and onto underside
towards vent, and is divided by variable greyish or pale-brown central stripe. Feathers of lower back and
uppertail-coverts thinly tipped white. Scruffy pale upperwing bar does not extend to carpel. Blacker specimens
may be in fresh plumage.
Small delicate, square-tailed and long-legged storm-petrel found mainly in tropical and subtropical Humboldt
Current. Feet extend beyond tail in flight. Two races are recognised, nominate gracilis and galapagoensis. See also
Plate 45:4. Also known as White-vented Storm-petrel.
3a Upperparts Dark sooty-brown with small paler crescentic wing-bar and white rump. Upperparts of the
races very similar.
3b Underparts (galapagoensis) Dark with small smudgy pale patch on belly and lighter sides to rump; underwing dark with paler central panel.
3c Underparts (gracilis) Paler than galapagoensis; paler, better-defined belly; narrow dark line joining dark
flanks to undertail.
A small to medium, robust storm-petrel of the eastern tropical Pacific, with slightly forked tail and short legs that do
not extend beyond tail in flight. The two races, nominate tethys and kelsalli, are not separable at sea.
4a Upperparts Sooty-black with small pale crescentic wing-bar and large white rump that extends almost to tip
of tail and down around sides towards vent.
Diminutive, short-winged, broad-tailed storm-petrel with short legs that protrude slightly beyond tail in flight.
Circumpolar in the subantarctic.
5a Upperparts Black, with grey wash across back and upperwing-coverts; grey rump and uppertail. Narrow
white fringes to wing-coverts and feathers of back and rump.
5b Underparts Dark head, clean white underbody with barred undertail. Underwing white with broad dark
border and tip.
110
1a
1b
2a
4a
4b
3b
3c
3a
5a
5b
Medium-sized, compact storm-petrel of subtropical regions of the Southern Hemisphere, with relatively short,
broad wings, square tail and feet rarely projecting far beyond tail. Plumage very variable, but most are light phase;
darker birds mainly from Lord Howe. Four races are currently recognised nominate grallaria, segethi, titan and
leucogaster but taxonomy is controversial. See Plate 45:2 for another form of intermediate phase with streaks on
underparts, similar to New Zealand Storm-petrel (45:1).
1a Pale phase, upperparts In all races, dark with white rump, slightly paler crescentic wing-bars and thin
whitish fringes to feathers of back and scapulars in all but very worn plumage.
1b Pale phase, underparts In all races, head dark, neatly demarcated across upper breast from clean white
1c
1d
1e
1f
1g
1h
underparts. Undertail dark, feathers with white tips. Underwing has clear white central panel with only a few
dark marks on outer primary-coverts.
Pale phase, underparts In all races, underwing white, cleaner than Black-bellied Storm-Petrels with pale
bellies (2c).
Intermediate phase, upperparts (nominate) Dark except for smudgy white rump and paler fringes to
feathers on back.
Intermediate phase, underparts (nominate) Smudgy, broad dark tips to feathers especially on flanks
and vent. Underwing with dusky wash.
Dark phase, upperparts (nominate) Entirely dark on upperparts with a few paler fringes to feathers,
especially on rump.
Dark phase, underparts (nominate) Dark except for slightly paler panel on central underwing and
belly.
Upperparts (titan) Larger with more prominent white fringes to feathers of back and secondary-coverts in
fresh plumage. Otherwise as pale phase.
Medium-sized, stocky storm-petrel of the Southern Hemisphere, with relatively short, broad wings, square tail
and feet usually projecting beyond tail. Variation limited to extent of dark on central belly stripe and duskiness
of underwing. See also Plate 45:3 for another form of intermediate plumage, with streaks on the underparts,
similar to New Zealand Storm-petrel. Two races are currently recognised nominate tropica and melanoleuca but
taxonomic status of melanoleuca is controversial; the races are not separable at sea.
2a Upperparts Sooty black with white rump and faintly paler, crescentic wing-bar, limited mainly to secondary
coverts. Any white tips to fresh feathers quickly wear off.
2b Underparts Head dark with pale, mottled throat. Broken black line down centre of white belly joining dark
undertail to dark breast. Underwing white in centre with broad dark borders and tip and coverts on outerwing
smudgy black-brown.
2c Paler bird, underparts No dark central belly stripe. Underwing duskier than in White-bellied (1c).
2d Darker bird, underparts Central belly stripe broader and more complete, underwing duskier. Flanks tend
to remain white.
Black-bellied can often be difficult to distinguish from paler White-bellied because it is difficult to see whether there
is a dark belly stripe when birds are flying or foraging low over the sea. Black-bellied has duskier, less clean-cut
underwing, and the division between dark breast and pale belly is consistently lower on the breast than in Whitebellied. The extension of the feet further beyond the tail in Black-bellied is not always helpful as it seems to vary
between populations, and birds often fly around with their feet tucked up in their belly feathers! Darker forms of
White-bellied tend to have darker flanks and paler bellies, whereas darker Black-bellied have the opposite; dark
belly and pale flanks. See Plate 45 for comparison with New Zealand Storm-petrel.
112
1d
1g
1h
1e
1f
1b
1c
1a
2c
2b
2d
2a
A large all-dark storm-petrel with a forked tail, very similar to Markhams. Flight in calmer conditions relatively slow
with deep wingbeats and long glides; when feeding, twists and dips down to surface of the water like a marsh tern.
1a Upperparts Dark, sooty-black. Pale crescent on upperwing does not reach leading edge at carpal.
1b Fresh plumage, upperparts Pale wing-bar narrower, confined to pale tips of secondary-coverts. Some
birds have white bases to the primary shafts.
1c Underparts Entirely dark, sooty-black becoming browner with wear. Underwing dark, can look paler and
greyer on primaries in strong light.
A medium-sized, all-dark storm-petrel with a forked tail; smaller than Black with which it often associates, about
the same size as Leachs. In sustained flight wingbeats shallow, wings barely raised above the horizontal. In worn
plumage, at any distance and in many lights, looks completely dark like Black and Least, and is best identified by
size and flight.
2a Upperparts Dark, ashy-grey, darkest on primaries, becoming browner with wear; pale crescent on upperwing
reaches leading edge at carpal; sides of rump can look paler.
A tiny, all-dark storm-petrel with a wedge-shaped tail and narrow pointed wings. Flight bat-like with constant, deep,
quick, wingbeats; rarely glides. Relatively easily identified by size and flight.
A large all-dark storm-petrel with a forked tail, very similar to Black. Flight in calmer conditions more fluttering
than Black with shallower wingbeats and long glides. In higher winds, like Black with deeper wingbeats. The best
distinguishing feature between Black and Markhams appears to be the extent of the pale crescent on the upperwing.
4a Upperparts Dark, sooty-black becoming browner with wear. Pale crescent on upperwing reaches forewing
at carpal. Reported as browner than Black, but this is unlikely to be a useful ID feature due to the effects of
plumage wear. A few birds have white bases to the primary shafts.
O. l. chapmani is the mainly dark-rumped race of Leachs Storm-petrel from the southern part of the species range
in the eastern Pacific. Most chapmani are completely dark. Medium-sized and fork-tailed. Flies with wings angled
back, but smaller than other Leachs and flight may not be as strong and bounding more fluttery and erratic with
quicker wingbeats. See Plates 39:4, 40:1 and 43:2 for other races and plumages.
5a Upperparts (chapmani) Dark with pale crescent on upperwing that reaches forewing at carpal and becomes more prominent as plumage wears. Rump all-dark.
A medium to large, stocky looking, pale grey storm-petrel of the northwest Pacific. Flight quite direct with rather
shallow wingbeats. Easily identified and more likely to be confused with phalaropes than storm-petrels.
6a Upperparts Pearly-grey; large pale wing crescent contrasts with darker flight feathers and forewing.
6b Underparts Pearly-grey; darker on underwing-coverts and dark patch around eye.
114
2c
3b
1c
2a
3a
1a
5a
6b
4a
2b
1b
6a
A medium-sized, all-dark storm-petrel with a moderately forked tail. Smaller than Matsudairas and Tristrams,
about the same size as Leachs. In flight looks long, yet rather broad-winged. The wings are not angled back as far
as Leachs and the wing-tips are rounder. The wingbeats are deep and the shortish tail is usually held closed. Close
up, the bill is short and heavy and the white bases to the primary shafts may be visible, sometimes as a faint pale
patch. Underparts similar to Matsudairas, completely dark, becoming browner with wear. Where size is difficult
to assess may be difficult to tell from other all-dark storm-petrels. Check wing and tail shape, relatively heavy bill,
indistinct pale crescent on upperwing and, close up, white bases to primary shafts.
1a Fresh plumage, upperparts Plumage dark, brownish-black. Pale crescent on upperwing not prominent,
not reaching forewing at carpal. Most birds have white bases to the primary shafts but these are only visible
close up and are unlikely to be useful for identification at sea at any distance.
1b Worn plumage, upperparts Plumage as 1a but browner with a larger and paler crescent on upperwing.
1c Head Bill relatively short and heavy.
A medium-sized, all-dark storm petrel with a moderately forked tail. Dark-rumped individuals may be present in all
four races of Leachs Storm-petrel that occur off the Pacific coast of North and Central America (nominate leucorhoa,
cheimomnestes, socorroensis and chapmani), but they are rare in all but chapmani. Bird illustrated is a dark-rumped bird of
unknown race from the south of the range. Leachs is smaller than Matsudairas and Tristrams, similar in size to
Swinhoes. Dark-rumped birds have not been recorded outside the eastern Pacific, but are likely to be hard to tell
from Swinhoes. Look for flight style, pale crescent on upperwing and thinner, longer bill. See Plates 39:4, 40:1 and
42:5 for other plumages.
2a Upperparts Dark with pale crescent on upperwing that reaches forewing at carpal and becomes especially
prominent as plumage wears. Bases to the shafts of the outer primary feathers dark, but note that a few whiterumped birds have white shafts, so they could possibly occur in dark birds as well!
2b Head Bill thinner and slightly longer than Swinhoes.
A large, all-dark storm-petrel with a deeply forked tail, larger than Swinhoes and Leachs, about the same size as
Tristrams but lighter. In moult or worn plumage the bases of the primary shafts of other species of all-dark stormpetrels can be revealed and may look like the pale patch on Matsudairas, but most Matsudairas can be identified by
the prominent white bases to the primary shafts and smaller, not particularly prominent pale upperwing crescent.
3a Fresh plumage, upperparts Dark, becoming browner with wear. Pale crescent on upperwing not prominent. White bases to the primary shafts usually present, showing as small pale patch, even at a distance.
3b Worn plumage, upperparts Pale crescent on upperwing larger and paler, not reaching forewing at carpal.
3c Underparts Completely dark, becoming browner with wear.
A large, long-winged, all-dark storm-petrel with a deeply forked tail, larger than Swinhoes and Leachs, about the
same size as Matsudairas but heavier. Bill relatively small and slight. Flight is a mixture of fluttering wingbeats,
steep banking turns and periods of gliding, wings held slightly angled back in flight and in a slight upward V when
foraging. Feet do not extend beyond tail. Underparts similar to Matsudairas, completely dark, becoming browner
with wear. Relatively easy to identify in fresh plumage, more difficult in worn plumage. Look for large prominent
pale crescent on upperwing, vestiges of pale sides to rump and relatively small bill.
4a Fresh plumage, upperparts Dark with large pale crescent on wing reaching forewing at carpal. Greyish
back is paler than head resulting in a hooded appearance. Sides of rump usually paler.
4b Worn plumage, upperparts More uniform dark black-brown with less contrast between back and head
but larger, paler upperwing crescent.
116
3c
1a
3a
4a
1b
1c
3b
4b
2a
2b
A large, distinctive, fork-tailed storm-petrel of the eastern Pacific. Unmistakable. Also known as Ringed Stormpetrel.
1a Upperparts Grey back and rump; dark cap, tail and wings, with prominent pale crescent on wings.
1b Underparts White with clear-cut dark breast-band and dusky underwing.
A large, common storm-petrel of the temperate and subtropical seas of the Southern Hemisphere and central
Atlantic. Combination of face pattern and white underparts unlike anything else. Wing shape distinctive. Six races
are recognised; they vary slightly in size and rump coloration, but are unlikely to be separable at sea due to the
confusing effects of moult and wear.
2a Fresh plumage, upperparts Dark cap and eye-stripe, white supercilium. Dark flight feathers and tail.
Upperwing and back grey-brown; rump grey, feathers narrowly tipped white. Whitish tips of secondary
coverts form thin pale crescent on upperwing.
2b Worn plumage, upperparts Generally browner. White tips to feathers of rump, back and upperwing
lost.
2c Moulting, upperparts Pale, almost white patches on rump and very pale crescent on upperwing.
2d Underparts White except for dark flight feathers and tail.
The largest of the storm-petrels, also known as White-throated Storm-petrel. A rare and poorly known stormpetrel of the tropical Pacific. Plumage variable. Most birds from the north are pied and most of the darkest birds
come from Samoa and Tahiti, but melanism occurs in all populations. A full range of intermediate birds occur. In
all phases, size, flight and foraging behaviour distinctive. Pied phase combination of white underparts with dark
breast-band, white rump and white on underwing unlike anything else. Dark birds similar to other large, dark
storm-petrels, although rarely in same range, and best identified by size, flight and foraging behaviour.
3a Pied phase, upperparts Dark cap, flight feathers and tail. Back and wing-coverts paler brown with white
crescent on wing and white rump.
3b Pied phase, underparts White with dark breast-band and undertail. Underwing white with dark flight
feathers and leading edge.
3c Intermediate phase, upperparts Darker overall; no pale collar; white rump with central dark streak.
3d Intermediate phase, underparts Dark breast-band broader, dark streaks extending onto flanks and lower
breast; more dark coverts on underwing.
118
1b
2b
1a
2a
2c
2d
3c
3e
3b
3d
3a
A small to medium-sized, slim-winged, long-legged storm-petrel not unlike Wilsons in jizz, flight and foraging
behaviour. Formerly known from only three 19th century museum specimens collected off New Zealand, until recently
rediscovered in the Hauraki Gulf, North Island, New Zealand. Smaller than Black-bellied; slimmer and longerlegged than both Black-bellied and White-bellied, with a different distribution of dark streaks on underparts.
Larger and less smudgy underneath than Elliots.
1a Upperparts Dark with white rump and inconspicuous paler crescentic wing-bar. Feet extend well beyond
tail.
1b Underparts Museum specimens: dark streaking confined to breast, flanks and thighs. Undertail, dark
feathers tipped white. Underwing with dark smudgy centres to coverts on outer wing.
1c Underparts Birds recently sighted in Hauraki Gulf have wide variations in amount of dark streaking on
underparts. On some, dark streaking extends over belly from breast to undertail, and underwing duskier with
darker secondary coverts.
1d Head Museum specimens have pale, mottled chin and throat.
1e Breast feathers Feathers forming streaks on breast have dark centres on tips.
Medium-sized, compact storm-petrel with relatively short, broad wings, square tail and feet rarely projecting far
beyond tail. Illustrations are of smaller museum specimen with some streaking on underparts from off the coast of
Chile; probably segethi, but other races likely to have similar forms. See also Plate 41:1.
2a Underparts Clear demarcation between dark and light on upper breast. Dark streaking mainly extends
towards flanks. Undertail, dark feathers with white tips. White on underwing relatively clean-looking with
darker centres only to outer primary-coverts.
2b Head Head larger and forehead steeper than New Zealand; bill slightly deeper; chin and throat dark.
2c Breast feathers Feathers forming streaks on breast have dark bases or subterminal spots.
Medium-sized, stocky storm-petrel with relatively short, broad wings, square tail and feet usually projecting beyond
tail. Broader-winged, stockier and slightly larger than New Zealand Storm-petrel with dark streaking on underparts
mainly on centre of breast and belly. Legs, especially toes, rather short but usually extending beyond tail in flight.
See also Plate 41:2.
3a Paler bird, underparts In all races, head and upper breast dark with pale, mottled throat. Dark streaking
mainly confined to centre of upper breast and belly. Undertail dark, feathers with white tips. Underwing
relatively scruffy with many of the outer coverts dark-centred.
3b Paler bird, underparts In all races, dark streaking on belly can be hard to see, yet underwing can look very
dusky.
Small, delicate, square-tailed and long-legged storm-petrel found mainly in tropical and subtropical Humboldt
Current. Feet extend beyond tail in flight. Smaller and smudgier underneath than New Zealand Storm-petrel. Note
that separation of races at sea is very difficult and their non-breeding ranges overlap. Allocation of illustrations
(which were based on photographs: 4a off the Galpagos, 4b off the coast of Arica, Chile) to race is probably
correct but not certainly so. See also Plate 40:3. Also known as White-vented Storm-petrel.
4a Underparts (galapagoensis) Head, undertail and flanks dark with smudgy edges; whiter lower breast and
belly. Underwing mostly dark, paler in centre.
120
2b
1d
1e
2c
1a
1b
2a
1c
3b
4a
3a
4b
albatrosses
Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA sequences (Nunn et al. 1996; Nunn & Stanley 1998) indicate that
the albatrosses comprise four major groups, which are best recognised as genera: the great albatrosses (Diomedea),
the North Pacific albatrosses (Phoebastria), the mollymawks (Thalassarche) and the sooty albatrosses (Phoebetria). The
same studies indicate that the sooty albatrosses are most closely related to the mollymawks. Here we have chosen
to use the species limits originally suggested by Robertson & Nunn (1998) as modified by Brooke (2004) and by
Burg & Croxall (2004).
Wandering albatross
Following Brooke (2004) and Burg & Croxall (2004), we recognise four species: Snowy Albatross Diomedea exulans;
New Zealand Albatross D. antipodensis; Tristan Albatross D. dabbenena; and Amsterdam Island Albatross D. amsterdamensis. Two subspecies of New Zealand Albatross are recognised: D. a. antipodensis (Antipodean Albatross)
breeding on Antipodes I. and in small numbers on Campbell I. and Chatham Is.; and D. a. gibsoni (Gibsons
Albatross) breeding on Auckland Is.
Members of the wandering albatross groups plumages are variable and complex, though as a general rule
plumage becomes whiter with age. In the past, when all wandering albatross were considered a single species,
two schemes were developed to try and describe individuals; Harrisons seven stages and Gibsons plumage index were developed to describe the appearance of individuals and to help explain the way plumage
changes with age. These schemes vary in their execution: Harrisons tries to pigeonhole an individual into
a particular category whilst Gibsons attempts to provide a framework to describe an individuals plumage
quickly and in detail.
This scheme, first published by Harrison (1979) and used in Harrisons Seabirds: an Identification Guide (1985) is still
widely used by pelagic observers. It was based on the idea that plumage gradually becomes paler with age and that
all wandering albatross populations may attain the white snowy plumage with age. The scheme is also somewhat
stylised with few birds ever as clear cut as the illustrations in Harrison suggest. More importantly, the new taxonomy
of the group is based in part on the facts that not all populations achieve the snowy plumage and females rarely
become as white as males. Furthermore, not all species progress in a linear sequence through the stages, with New
Zealand and Amsterdam Island Albatross populations never attaining Stage 7 plumage and Snowy missing some
stages altogether. For these reasons we do not recommend using Harrisons method.
122
Plate 2 attempts to depict these eight typical plumages, based on museum specimens and photographs from
known locations. Note that although we have called the plumages AH this series is not meant to indicate the
linear progression of an individuals plumage from dark juvenile to whiter adult.
A) Plate 2: 12 Juvenile Head, neck, body and tail entirely chocolate-brown except for striking white face.
Underwing, as adult except for wider dark margin between carpal joint and base of outermost primary and
small chocolate-brown patch at base of inner leading edge of wing.
B) Plate 2: 34 Like juvenile but with white mottling appearing on hindneck. Belly and flanks mostly white
with broad brown breast-band and mostly dark undertail-coverts.
C) Plate 2: 56 Like juvenile but with white mottling appearing on hindneck, saddle, rump and uppertailcoverts. Belly and flanks mostly white with faint brown breast-band and dark on undertail-coverts.
D) Plate 2: 78 Head and neck mostly white except for brownish crown and mottling on sides of neck.
Body mostly white with brown and grey vermiculations and blotches on saddle and rump. Some have brown
shading on flanks, and most retain indistinct breast-band. Tail white with black sides and tip. Upperwing
mainly blackish-brown with variably sized white blotch on centre of inner wing. Underwing like previous
plumage; pre-axillary notch still present but may be paler.
E) Plate 2: 9 Similar to D but head and body whiter and breast-band absent or made up of very faint vermiculations; tail, whiter with dark sides and tips of outermost feathers usually retained. Upperwing mainly
blackish-brown with more white especially on centre of inner wing. Underwing similar to last plumage but
lacks pre-axillary notch.
F) Plate 2: 10 Similar to E but upperwing considerably whiter, especially distinct white patch on centre of
inner wing.
G) Plate 2: 11 Similar to F except head and body mostly white; tail mostly white, usually with dark outer
feathers. On upperwing, white central patch behind elbow linked to white of back, forming white wedge
extending from body onto inner wing, leaving broad black leading and trailing edges. Underwing as D but
black leading edge between carpal joint and base of outermost primary thinner and not continuous.
H) Plate 2: 12 Head, neck and body white. Tail white; black tips to tail feathers retained on some. Inner
upperwing predominantly white with black tips to entire trailing edge and some dark-tipped feathers on
central area, close to body. Black on coverts increases towards elbow and outer upperwing predominantly
black; some darker patches and mottling on outer half of inner wing-coverts, creating chequered transition
between white inner forewing and dark trailing edge and outer wing. Underwing white with black flight
feathers forming thin dark trailing edge and large dark tip.
As mentioned above the five taxa do not all attain the whitest plumage, nor do they all pass through every stage.
Below is a summary of the typical plumages attained by the different species and subspecies of wandering
albatross. Note that every population examined appears to show exceptions to these rules; for example, a female
in plumage 11 has been found breeding on Antipodes Island. This suggests that some gene flow still occurs
between these species. In all species males are whiter than females of the same age.
PlumaGes
ImaGes
1&2
3&4
5&6
7&8
10
11
12
snowy
&
&
&
breeding
tristan
&
&
&
breeding
?breeding
&
breeding
New Zealand
(Gibsons)
&
&
&
breeding
breeding breeding
&
&
breeding ?breeding
breeding breeding
breeding breeding
&
&
breeding
breeding breeding
New Zealand
(antipodean)
&
breeding
amsterdam
Island
&
breeding
breeding breeding
&
&
breeding breeding
123
snowy albatross
Diomedea exulans
Plates 1, 2
tristan albatross
Diomedea dabbenena
Plate 2
taxoNomy Formerly considered a subspecies of wandering group but molecular work suggests it is sufficiently
DIstrIbutIoN Fewer than 2,500 pairs breed biennially in the Tristan da Cunha group (Inaccessible, and formerly
Tristan da Cunha) and Gough I., ranging at sea through South Atlantic (between at least 23S and 42S) to west
coast of South Africa and to within c.300km of the coast of Brazil, although as yet there are only six records for the
latter country. Also recorded from south-west Indian Ocean and once from southeast Australia.
beHavIour Similar to other wandering albatrosses.
124
Plates 1, 2
125
sexual dimorphism in breeding pairs, with majority of females having streaks on back, more vermiculations on
underparts and a dark cap (similar to plumage D), whilst males are whiter bodied and have just a few streaks on
the head (plumage E).
D. a. antipodensis attain plumages A, B, C, D and E, breeding in A, B, C, D and E. Typical breeding male is
plumage C with dark brown crown cap commonly extending to ears and very little white on upperwing, whilst
female commonly breeds in plumage B.
moult aND Wear Dark chocolate-brown of fresh plumage becomes paler with wear and can look disordered
and blotchy due to pale bases of feathers being visible. Moult poorly studied, but assumed to be similar to
Snowy.
IDeNtIFICatIoN By far the majority of birds in New Zealand waters are this species. There are no simple
plumage features to distinguish New Zealand Albatross from other wanderers but a very white bird (plumage
H) is unlikely to be a New Zealand and a bird with almost entirely dark upperwing and whiter body (plumages
E and F) is unlikely to be Snowy. New Zealand Albatrosses usually have some vermiculations on white plumage
whilst Snowy, even those in plumage E and F, have fewer vermiculations and much cleaner demarcation between
white and dark areas. New Zealand Albatross best distinguished from Snowy by smaller size and shorter bill with
less bulbous tip. This is especially useful for birds on the water behind boats but is convincing only with direct
comparisons and experience. On the whole antipodensis and gibsoni impossible to tell apart at sea although paler
birds are more likely to be male gibsoni. Tristan probably indistinguishable as is a similar size and occurs in many
of the same plumages. See Tristan, however, for possible differences in juvenile. Amsterdam Island Albatross,
similar to darker-plumaged New Zealand Albatross, is only identifiable at close range by dusky tip and thin dark
line along cutting edge of bill. Note, however, that a few New Zealand Albatrosses have darker bill tips and can
have or appear to have dark lines to cutting edge of upper mandible. Whiter birds with all-dark upperwings look
like Northern Royals at a distance but closer up can be seen to have more vermiculations on body, darker tail
and often dark smudgy markings on head, back and rump unfortunately not unlike juvenile royals! Juvenile
royals rarely have a pronounced dark cap, are whiter underneath, have less dark in tail, a thin dark line on bill
and a different jizz.
Plate 1
126
royal albatrosses
Plate 3
127
Southerns have some white on the upperwing especially on the fringes of the inner upperwing-coverts around the
elbow region. The scapulars and base of the upperwing tend to look scruffier on Southerns with more vermiculations than Northerns. Birds with dark spots on the crown or dark feathers in the tail are likely to be Northerns,
but birds with entirely white bodies, heads and tails and dark upperwings can be either species. However, with
experience the slighter build of Northern Royal (see Southern jizz) allows identification of most birds seen in
New Zealand. Southern Royals are larger than Northerns; note though that there is considerable variation
within the species and some overlap. The extent of the dark border on the leading edge of the underwing from
carpal to primaries has been used to separate the two species. Northerns, it is suggested, have broader dark
margins. This feature, however, appears to be related to age and sex, which means that immature and especially
female Southerns, the very birds with dark upperwings you would want to distinguish from Northerns, can have
wide margins as well.
The few hybrids nesting at Taiaroa Head, New Zealand, are indistinguishable from Northerns, but there is
no information on the small number nesting elsewhere.
Plate 3
128
moult aND Wear Dark plumage becomes browner with age. Wing-moult poorly described but probably similar
to wandering albatross group.
IDeNtIFICatIoN See Northern Royal for separation from that species. Southern Royal from wandering
albatrosses: Juvenile and immature Southern Royals with dark upperwings can look very similar to some plumages
of New Zealand Albatross. In general, however, wanderers with upperwings as dark as these Southern Royal
plumages are much scruffier looking as they have a lot more brownish markings and vermiculations on head and
body. However, adult Southern Royal Albatrosses can look very similar to the whiter plumages of the wandering
albatross group. When you can see the bill clearly there is no problem. Royals have thin dark lines along the
cutting edge, wanderers do not. As a general rule, Southern Royals have whiter bodies than wanderers with
similar patterned upperwings. All but the whitest of wanderers retain thin wavy grey or black lines (vermiculations) on the scapulars back, rump and hindneck and in darker birds these can even form a pale band on the
sides or across the breast. Similarly, dark marks on the crown are likely to persist, as are dark marks on the tip
of the tail, especially on the central feathers. The white on the upperwing of Southern Royals extends back in a
triangle from the leading edge of the wing, unbroken except for a few, if any, small black feathers. A bird with a
line or two of small black feathers extending along the leading edge breaking up the white will be a wanderer, as
will one with an obvious patch of white surrounded by black.
The most difficult birds to tell apart are Southern Royals and wanderers, particularly Snowy Albatrosses,
with large areas of white on the upperwing. The dark on the upperwings of wanderers often looks like a fine
checkerboard pattern, whereas that of Southern Royals has a more uniform look. Birds with virtually white
inner wings and almost all of the secondaries white are likely to be Snowys, since Southern Royals inner wings
never become as white, some dark always being present on the secondaries and secondary coverts. With practice
jizz may be the best way to identify royals. In flight royals have a hunchbacked look with a longer, more wedgeshaped tail. Royals wings are slightly broader than wanderers especially towards the base, and the proportions
(e.g. body to carpal, carpal to tip) are different as well. This makes wanderers, especially the large Snowys, look
relatively longer and thinner winged. Royal bills look slightly longer and straighter than those of wanderers, less
bulbous at the tip and tending towards yellowish rather than rosy pink. None of these differences are particularly
pronounced and it requires a lot of experience to tell the groups apart by jizz alone.
Waved albatross
Phoebastria irrorata
Plate 5
129
vermiculated pattern on hindneck, rump and uppertail-coverts. Paler lower rump patch, still heavily vermiculated, contrasts with chocolate-brown tail. Upperwing chestnut-brown without vermiculated pattern,
but with prominent lemon-white shafts to primaries. Undertail chocolate-brown. Underwing has dark edges
and armpit, white centre and fine grey-brown vermiculations on armpit and white coverts.
Juvenile and immature Like adult but juvenile head white without yellow wash and wider, darker (almost
black) vermiculations, especially on back. Vermiculations narrow with age and yellow wash increases on
head. Bill horn-coloured with dusky tip becoming yellower with age.
moult aND Wear Yellow wash on head fades during breeding season. Dark plumage becomes browner with
age. Wing moult poorly described but probably similar to wandering group.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Generally unmistakable in range. As vagrant could be mistaken for Laysan but combination of
massive yellow bill, dark underbody and darkish rump diagnostic.
short-tailed albatross
Phoebastria albatrus
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Extremely rare northeast Pacific
Plate 4
130
black-footed albatross
Phoebastria nigripes
Plate 4
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN North Pacific. Commonest albatross
laysan albatross
Phoebastria immutabilis
Plate 5
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Commonest albatross of north Pacific. Breeds Laysan, Midway and other northwest Hawaiian
islands (Kure east to Kauai, Niihau, Nihoa, Moko Manu); Torishima (Izu Is.); Ogasawara Is. (Muko-jima). Small
numbers on Guadalupe I. and Revillagigedo Is. (Clarion, San Benedicto, Rocas Alijos) off Baja California. At
sea ranges from 28N55N from Japanese seas north to Bering Sea, and east to Pacific coast of North America,
where regular but rare. Southern limit poorly defined. Non-breeders wander widely over much of north Pacific,
131
black-browed albatross
Thalassarche melanophrys
otHer Name Black-browed Mollymawk
taxoNomy Black-browed Albatross taxonomy used
Plates 79
132
Evangelistas), Falkland Islands (12 sites), South Georgia, South Sandwich Is., Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is.; Heard
I. and McDonald Is., Macquarie I. and Bishop and Clerk Is.; Antipodes I., Campbell I., and Snares Is. Forages
generally north of breeding islands. Disperses northwards from breeding colonies to continental shelf waters
off Australia (to 28S on west coast and 24S on east coast), New Zealand (to subtropical waters N of 4648S),
South Africa (to 15S on west coast) and South America (to 20S on eastern shelf). The commonest vagrant
southern albatross in Northern Hemisphere, recorded from the Faeroes, Britain, Greenland, Iceland, Norway,
Ireland, USA and North Africa.
beHavIour Gregarious at sea, often in vast numbers behind trawlers and fishing boats. Readily attracted to chum.
JIZZ Medium-sized albatross with comparatively long wings, short tail and short neck. Broader-winged and
longer-necked than Grey-headed, Bullers or Pacific but not as long-necked as either species of Yellow-nosed.
sIZe TL 8096cm; W 5056cm; WS 210250cm; WT 2.94.6kg. Considerably smaller than the shy albatrosses
but larger than any other dark-backed Thalassarche albatross except Campbell. Female averages smaller than
male in most measurements and overall weight, but considerable overlap in all of these.
PlumaGe Medium-sized, black-and-white, pale-headed albatross with dark back and black-and-white underwing
on which the extent of white varies with age. At all ages, eye blackish-brown. Hybrids with Campbell recorded
on Campbell I. but not known how these may differ in plumage.
Adult White with black upperwings, back and tail. Prominent black eyebrow which does not reach base of
bill. Underwing white with broad black leading edge, narrow trailing edge and dark wing-tip. Fully adult
bird has only a few dark feathers in the outer underwing-coverts. Bill yellowish-orange, redder at tip during
breeding. Legs and feet blue-grey, tinged pinkish.
Juvenile Predominantly white-headed with small grey-brown eyebrow, some smudginess around eye (but little
on lores) and distinctive grey nape and collar formed by dark feather tips to the sides of the neck and upper breast.
Collar becomes dusky-brown and is reduced or even lost with wear. Underwing mostly black, appearing entirely
so at a distance, but close up a paler central panel is visible in the inner wing, which is formed by broad grey edges
to central coverts. Feather edges become paler grey-brown with wear, making pale panel more obvious. Bill at
fledging mostly dark, grey-black, becoming paler over the first 18 months; variable horn-coloured and brownishyellow patches develop at base and on lower mandible, but the cutting edges and tip remain dark.
Immature Following post-juvenile moult, similar to worn juvenile, but central panel of underwing becomes
increasingly white. By 4th year extent of white on underwing can be similar to adult but with some dark
streaks in the centre of inner and outer wing formed by dark centres and tips to coverts. Any grey wash on
head or collar lost. Dark eyebrow increases in size, extending onto lores to become similar in size to that of
adult. Bill similar to older juveniles but by 3rd year paler and yellower at base. Older, pre-breeding birds
separable from adults by duller yellow bill, usually with some black smudginess on tip of upper mandible and
a few more dark feathers on underwing.
moult aND Wear Black feathers of adult become browner with wear. Grey wash on neck and nape of juvenile
and immature either becomes dirty brown or is lost. Wing-moult complex and with study many immature birds
can be aged. Not all flight feathers moulted in a single year. Adults that successfully raise a chick retain considerably more flight feathers than those whose nests fail.
IDeNtIFICatIoN It is often helpful with the smaller mollymawks to try to establish the age of an individual before
trying to decide upon the species. Adults can be separated from all other mollymawks except Campbell Albatross
by combination of white head, black brow, orange bill and white underwing with broad dark borders, especially
along the leading edge. Adults separable from Campbell by dark not yellow eye, larger dark eye patch and darker
inner underwing, although the last should be used with caution as immature Black-browed can also have similar
pattern to underwing. Range is useful as Campbell is rare outside New Zealand waters. Young birds separable from
similar-sized Bullers and Yellow-nosed and larger Shy, Salvins and Chatham by dark underwing. Juvenile and
immature impossible to separate from Campbell. Young Black-browed with darker underwings, darker bills and
scruffy greyish collars can be difficult to distinguish from young Grey-headed (for which see). See also Laysan.
Campbell albatross
Thalassarche impavida
Plates 7, 9
October) restricted to main Campbell I. and Jeanette Marie I. in the Campbell group. Has been recorded ashore
on Kerguelen Is. In non-breeding season disperses through the south Pacific, the Tasman Sea and Ross Sea,
mainly between 2448S; one record from the Indian Ocean.
beHavIour Gregarious at sea; likely to forage in large numbers behind trawlers and fishing boats. Readily
attracted to chum.
JIZZ Same as Black-browed Albatross. Medium-sized albatross with comparatively long wings, short tail and short
133
neck. Broader winged and longer necked than Greyheaded, Bullers or Pacific but not as long necked as
either species of Yellow-nosed.
sIZe TL 7890cm; W 4954cm; WS 210246cm;
WT 2.23.8kg. Very slightly smaller on average than
Black-browed but larger than any other dark-backed
Thalassarche and considerably smaller than the shy
group. Female averages smaller than males in most
measurements and overall weight, but overlap is considerable.
PlumaGe Medium-sized, black-and-white, paleheaded albatross, with dark back and underwing on
which the extent of white varies with age. Adult eye
straw-coloured. Hybrids with Black-browed recorded
on Campbell I. but not known how these may differ. Plumage as Black-browed, differing only in larger triangular
black eye patch, which extends farther in front of eye and nearly reaches base of bill, and darker underwing.
The coverts, especially of the the centre of the underwing are darker and virtually separate the continuous white
central strip found on Black-browed into two distinct panels. Bill may have an orange, not reddish, tip to the
upper mandible. Juvenile and immature as Black-browed.
moult aND Wear Black feathers of adult become browner with wear. Grey wash on neck and nape of juvenile
and immature is either lost or becomes dirty brown. Moult not studied but probably identical to Black-browed.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Adults very similar to Black-browed, only confidently separable by Campbells yellow eye. Juveniles
and immatures not separable from Black-browed. See Black-browed for further discussion of separation of adults
from that species and also for separation of young birds of both species from other immature mollymawks.
shy albatross
Thalassarche cauta
Plate 6
134
between great albatrosses and the smaller mollymawks. On average female smaller than male in all measurements. T. c. steadi averages larger than the nominate in most measurements, but weights overlap considerably
and only males are consistently heavier.
PlumaGe Black-and-white albatross with black upperwings and tail, paler greyish-black back and white
underparts and underwings. Underwing the whitest of all mollymawks with all ages having only narrow black
leading edge and tip and very narrow trailing edge. Small black round patch, or thumb mark, where front of
underwing meets body; black wing-tip relatively small compared to other shy albatrosses, with large amounts
of white visible on bases of primaries. Striking narrow line of bright orange skin at base of bill, especially on
sides of upper mandible and along gape, visible when feeding. When birds agitated this orange gape line is visible
under the white cheek feathers. Legs and feet fleshy blue-grey, becoming reddish on land during breeding season
due to vascular dilation. Adults, juveniles and immatures differ only in head and bill colour.
Adult Head white with silvery-grey wash on ears extending to below eye and sides of face, sometimes as
far as crown but never on forehead and throat. This grey wash is always present but in strong light may be
difficult to see. Dark eye highlighted by prominent black eyebrow that begins at eye and extends in a narrow
triangle nearly to bill. Sides of bill horn-coloured with bright yellow tip to upper mandible. The only difference between the two subspecies said to be colour of bill: New Zealand birds said to have fairly uniformly
horn-coloured bill with less intense yellow tip to upper mandible; Tasmanian birds have a pale yellow dorsal
plate which is especially intensely coloured near base and yellowish cutting edge to upper mandible. Some
adults of both subspecies may have a darker, smudgy tip to the lower mandible, usually considered a feature
of immatures.
Juvenile At fledging head, nape sides of neck and lower throat pale grey extending onto crown and forehead,
resulting in collared, hooded appearance. Grey on forehead and sides of neck wears off rapidly and becomes
mottled and ill-defined but always has more grey than adult. Dark tip to underside of wing often slightly more
extensive than adult, but bases of primaries rarely as dark as Salvins or Chatham Islands Albatrosses. Bill
at fledging varies; usually virtually black with even darker tip to upper and lower mandible, but others are
lighter brown with smudgy black tip.
Immature Maturation a process of gradual lightening of the grey on the head and development of colour
on the bill. Greyish-horn bill colour develops in patches during 3rd or 4th year, though tips of both mandibles
remain black until almost adult.
moult aND Wear Grey on head becomes less prominent with wear in birds of all ages. Moult poorly understood
but appears to be similar to great albatrosses with a biennial moult of primaries, alternating moult of outer primaries one year with inner primaries the following year. Moult continues during breeding season and body
moult may begin during chick-rearing.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Shy easily separated from all other mollymawks by considerably greater size, mostly white head
and underwing and paler grey, not black, back. Separated from wandering and royal albatrosses by smaller size,
grey (not white or mottled) back and grey (not pink) bill. Adult Shy distinguished from Salvins and Chatham
Islands Albatrosses by pale bill, lacking dark tip (though note exceptions), and white head. Features useful at all
ages are slightly larger size (quite distinctive with experience) and whiter bases to primaries, resulting in smaller
dark tip to underwing. Shy is more likely to have a gap in the narrow dark leading edge to the underwing just
above the thumb mark, and less likely to have grey of back extending far down onto rump. In some lights even
adult Shy may appear dark headed, and tip of underwing should always be used in conjunction with head coloration to clinch identification. Probably only possible to distinguish between adult breeding nominate and steadi,
and then only by direct comparison at close quarters, an unlikely event as foraging ranges of breeding birds do
not appear to overlap. On average nominate has a smaller bill and body and during courtship most have yellow
wash at the base of the bill, especially on the dorsal surface. Fewer breeding nominate have any dusky tip to the
lower mandible. Non-breeding, immatures and juveniles of two subspecies indeterminable at sea.
Plate 6
Sometimes considered a subspecies of Shy Albatross. Given the differences in biology and recent molecular
work, we have chosen to treat these taxa as separate species following Brooke (2004).
DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand breeding endemic (eggs AugustSeptember), migrating to Chilean and Peruvian
waters in austral winter. Sole breeding ground is The Pyramid (Chatham Is.). Adults seen ashore on Albatross
I., Tasmania and unsuccessful breeding attempt on the western chain of Snares Is. During breeding mainly
forage between 3848S in waters south and east of the Chatham Is. but may travel as far west as Tasmania
and are increasingly commonly seen in New Zealand off Kaikoura and rarely in outer Hauraki Gulf. Majority
of population winter in mixing zone between the Humbolt Current and the Magellanic Current off central
135
salvins albatross
Thalassarche salvini
Plate 6
molecular work we have chosen to treat these taxa as separate species following Brooke (2004).
DIstrIbutIoN Majority breed on Bounties (eggs early to mid-November) with smaller numbers on western
chain of Snares Is., where they breed one month earlier; a few pairs on Crozet Is. and isolated pairs have
attempted to breed on Chatham Is. and Kerguelen Is. Forages north of breeding islands. Disperses throughout
southern oceans but majority appear to winter off central Chile, possibly slightly further north than Chatham
Islands Albatross. Recorded in southwest Indian Ocean, east to western South America at 1450S, where very
common, and rarely into South Atlantic.
beHavIour Flies by use of dynamic soaring; wings become more curved in rough weather. Gregarious at sea,
and vast numbers seen around fishing boats on Chatham Rise. Attracted to chum at Kaikoura.
JIZZ Medium-sized shy albatross with long, broad wings, short thick neck and comparatively short tail; bill large
but not as proportionately massive as that of a great albatross; feet may extend beyond tail in flight.
sIZe TL 90cm; W 5560cm; WS 250cm, WT 3.34.9kg. Averages larger than Shy Albatross in most mea-
136
Grey-headed albatross
Thalassarche chrysostoma
Plates 8, 9
137
PlumaGe Black-and-white mollymawk with grey hood; underwing dark at fledging, lightening with age, similar
to Black-browed; eye brown with white lower eyelid; legs and feet flesh-coloured.
Adult Hood grey, sharply demarcated from white underparts with marginally paler forehead and crown,
small black triangle in front of eye and white teardrop behind and below eye. Back, mantle and upperwing
uniformly black-brown, merging with hood. White shafts to outer primaries show on upperwing. Rump
and uppertail-coverts white, contrasting with dark grey tail which also has cream or white feather shafts.
Underwing with white central panel framed by broad black leading edge with diffuse streaked pattern on
greater primary-coverts and elbow region, large dark wing-tip and narrow black trailing edge similar to
Black-browed. Bill glossy black with yellow dorsal surface and narrow yellow line three-quarters of way
along base on lower edge of lower mandible. Reddish tinge to hook of upper mandible most noticeable in
breeding season.
Juvenile Hood paler than adult, usually with whitish cheeks; eyebrow smaller and less conspicuous; and
white tear drop behind eye indistinct in paler face. Underwing mostly black, with slightly paler grey central
panel to inner wing. Bill dark blackish-grey with dark tip
Immature Head paler and scruffier than adult, often with face, forehead and crown wearing to white,
but hindneck darker with mixture of brown and grey feathers extending as collar to throat and upper neck
to form a pattern similar to immature and juvenile Black-browed. Underwing gradually lightens to adult
pattern. Bill darkens with age apparently rather variably. In some, tip becomes pale first, followed by dorsal
surface of bill and finally narrow yellow line along base of lower mandible. In others, dorsal surface and base
of line on lower mandible lighten first and tip remains dark. Intermediates between white-faced immature
and dark-hooded adult have not been recorded, suggesting moult into adult head pattern happens rapidly.
moult aND Wear With wear grey hood of adult becomes paler, especially on face. As biennial breeder
moult similar to wandering albatrosses, alternating moult of outer primaries one year with inner primaries the
following year. Moult continues during breeding season and body moult assumed to be more extensive during
sabbatical years.
IDeNtIFICatIoN With experience, stocky, narrow-winged jizz distinctive, even at distance. Adult combination of
black, yellow-striped bill, grey hood and broad dark borders to underwing different from all other mollymawks.
Young birds separable from similar-sized Bullers and the two yellow-nosed, and larger Shy, Salvins and Chatham
Islands Albatrosses by dark underwing. However, immature and juvenile difficult to distinguish from similar-aged
Black-browed and Campbell, which have similar dark underwings, dusky bill and scruffy greyish markings on
head and neck. At fledging, Grey-headed tends to have a darker grey head than Black-browed and Campbell,
with white cheeks. Older 2nd- or 3rd-year birds with some white on underwing, dusky collar and dull bill with
dark tips are the most difficult to identify. Moult can help but is complicated. For example, birds with three outer
primaries freshly moulted (and black) contrasting with the brown inner primaries are probably Grey-headed as
Black-browed and Campbell moult all flight feathers annually. Grey-headed tends to have darker, broader collar
and darker bill, while Black-browed and Campbell are paler-headed and start to attain an orange tinge to bill
earlier. Older birds with more white in underwing tend to have bill approaching adult colours black in Greyheaded and yellowish in Black-browed and Campbell.
Plates 8, 9
Cunha and Gough replaced by T. c. carteri in the Indian Ocean. Recent molecular studies have considered this
form sufficiently distinct to warrant specific status and this view followed here, following usage of Brooke (2004).
DIstrIbutIoN South Atlantic. Breeds (eggs mid-Septemberearly October) on Tristan da Cunha group and
Gough I. Foraging during breeding season near breeding islands or to shelf off western coast of South Africa.
Some disperse north to 15S off West Africa, others west to east coast of South America, where common along
coast of Uruguay and Argentina to 45S. Second commonest vagrant albatross in North Atlantic after Blackbrowed, reaching Canada, USA, Norway and Bay of Biscay. Occasionally found in Indian Ocean and Australasia. Single record of a bird ashore on Chatham Is., New Zealand.
beHavIour Gregarious in vicinity of breeding islands and may follow ships but shy and less likely to forage
behind fishing boats due to competition from larger albatrosses. Frequently seen foraging amongst shearwaters
and cetaceans.
JIZZ Small, slender albatross with slender neck, small square head, slim body, long narrow bill and narrow
pointed wings.
sIZe TL 7182cm; W 4552cm; WS 180-200cm; WT 1.872.84kg. Marginally larger than Indian Yellow-nosed
but not obviously so at sea. The yellow-nosed albatrosses are the smallest southern albatrosses in all dimensions
and weight. Female probably smaller than male in most measurements.
138
Plates 8, 9
139
JIZZ Small, slender mollymawk with slender neck, small square head, slim body, long narrow bill and narrow
pointed wings.
sIZe TL 200cm; W 4550cm; WS 176cm; WT 1.752.93kg. May average smaller than Atlantic Yellow-nosed,
but data limited.
PlumaGe All ages similar to Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross.
Adult Head mostly white, any grey wash confined to cheeks, dark eye-patch small.
Juvenile and immature Similar to Atlantic; head white, dark eye-patch very small; bill black at fledging,
becoming yellow on top over 3 to 5 years.
moult aND Wear Dark back and wings may become browner as feathers age. Moult unknown but thought to
be similar to other mollymawks that breed annually.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Adults and young of the two species of yellow-nosed albatross are relatively easy to tell from
other small mollymawks but can be very difficult to tell from each other. Small, slim jizz with small head, longish
neck and slim-looking bill often distinctive enough to separate both species of yellow-nosed from all other Thalassarche even at a distance. Adult Indian with whiter head most likely to be confused with Black-browed and
Campbell. Best separated by slender build, combined with narrow dark border to white underwing. Adults of
both species have black bill with only one yellow stripe (along the top), whilst Bullers and Grey-headed have
yellow stripes on lower mandible as well. Young birds of both species are usually separable from young of other
small mollymawks by combination of white underwing with narrow dark border, white head and black bill.
Adult Indian usually separable from Atlantic Yellow-nosed but young birds almost identical. See Atlantic Yellownosed for discussion of differences.
bullers albatross
Thalassarche bulleri
otHer Name Bullers Mollymawk
taxoNomy Two subspecies: Southern Bullers T. b.
Plates 8, 9
140
nostrils. Underwing as adult but may have slightly more smudgy black, especially on outer wing. With wear
grey hood becomes whiter, especially on crown and face, until almost white-headed.
Immature Not well known. Likely to be similar to juvenile but grey hood closer to adult in colour and
uniformity, and any collar less pronounced. Like juvenile, wear makes crown and face whiter thus making
collar more prominent. Bill slowly becomes darker on sides, and pale yellowish-brown dorsal surface to upper
mandible develops first. Yellow line at base of lower mandible last colour to show, usually in fifth year.
moult aND Wear Dark back and wings may become browner as feathers age and grey hood may fade slightly.
Moult poorly described but thought to be similar to other annually breeding mollymawks.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Only adults of two subspecies separable at sea, and then only if seen well. Adult Northern
has dark grey hood and indistinct white forehead, compared with medium bluish-grey hood and white cap of
Southern. Darker head of Northern most prominent on lores at base of bill, where some appear sooty-grey.
Separation of worn birds is difficult and only birds in fresh plumage regularly separable. Some cannot be identified in the hand. Measurements indicate that Northern has deeper bill and, in most, the yellow stripe on lower
mandible is narrower. Variation in plumages makes separation of young impossible.
Adult Bullers may be confused with other grey-headed mollymawks, especially Grey-headed which has
similar bill pattern and is best told from all by underwing pattern; white with broader, tidy, dark leading edge and
narrow trailing edge. Grey-headed has shorter neck and tail and deeper bill than Bullers with much broader,
scruffier dark leading edge to underwing. Close up sitting on the water, Bullers has wider yellow stripes on bill,
especially at base of top. Immature Grey-headed, Black-browed and Campbell provide the greatest challenge
but all have dark or partially dark underwings; Bullers underwings are neatly white with black border at all ages.
Most are also separable, with experience, using the distinctive jizz of each species. However, remember that
juveniles can look slimmer and less typical than adults of the same species. However, when sitting on the sea
there are very few features to distinguish them although shape and colour of bill and pattern of grey on head and
collar can help. Bullers bill looks relatively long and thin and is never completely black but mostly dull greyishyellow with darker tip. Black-browed and Campbell usually have much whiter head than Bullers and Greyheaded, often developing white cheeks on otherwise scruffy grey head. All three, however, can have a varied
array of dusky collars. A feature that has been mentioned is that juvenile Bullers may have distinctive pale, scaly
fringes to scapulars and inner upperwing-coverts, but this feature may simply be true of the fresh plumage of
any newly fledged mollymawk and we recommend that more study is needed before relying on this. Some ages
of Shy, Salvins and Chatham Islands Albatrosses can appear to have bicolored bills and have scruffy dark hoods
like immature Bullers but are distinctly larger and longer-winged than Bullers and have much narrower dark
borders to underwings. Both yellow-nosed are noticeably smaller, more lightly built and slimmer-billed, with
whiter heads and narrower, dark borders to leading edges of underwings.
sooty albatrosses
sooty albatross
Phoebetria fusca
Plate 10
141
cliffs of breeding islands, and sometimes at sea, in astonishing tight formation, inches away from one another.
JIZZ Medium-sized albatross with small, slender body, long, narrow wings and long, pointed, wedge-shaped tail.
Along with Light-mantled, most accomplished and manoeuvrable fliers of all the albatrosses; flight effortless,
rarely flapping wings.
sIZe TL 8489cm; W 4954cm; WS 203207cm; WT 1.83.03kg. Sooty smaller than Light-mantled in most
measurements. Similar size and wingspan to giant petrels but considerably lighter.
PlumaGe Uniform sooty-brown albatross. Eye brown; legs and feet greyish-flesh, sometimes with blue shade.
Adult Dark chocolate-brown with uniform dark-greyish wash in fresh plumage and sides of face and ear
slightly darker but never contrasting strongly with back and underparts like Light-mantled. In strong light,
contrast enhanced, but in cloudy conditions or at any distance appears uniformly dark. In very worn plumage
slightly paler areas especially nape to upper mantle may be bleached paler and browner. Partial white eyering, broken only in front. Conspicuous straw-white shafts to outer primaries and tail feathers, visible even at
distance. Bill black with narrow orange racing-stripe along sides of lower mandible (sulcus).
Juvenile and immature Similar to adult, but, when fresh, feathers of nape and mantle have ghostly pale
edging resulting in a dappled effect. Bill, including sulcus, entirely grey-black; eye-ring pale brown or grey;
and shafts of outer primaries and tail brown. Due to pale feather bases, some immatures in heavily worn
plumage have distinct paler collar from nape onto neck-sides which may extend to upper mantle. Sulcus
gradually lightens, becoming orange by 5th year.
moult aND Wear Fresh dark brown feathers fade to chocolate-brown. Heavily worn immatures may have
distinct paler collar. Moult poorly documented but probably similar to other species that breed biennially,
alternating moult of outer primaries one year with inner primaries the following year. Moult continues during
breeding season and body moult assumed to be more extensive during sabbatical years.
IDeNtIFICatIoN In most cases easily distinguished from Light-mantled by dark, not light, grey body. See Lightmantled for further discussion. May be confused with immature giant petrels, which are also uniformly dark.
However, Sooty Albatross is dark-billed and considerably less heavy with long, narrow wings, whilst giant petrels
have massive pale bill, massive bodies, and are bull-necked with short tails. In light winds giant petrels have
flapping flight typical of petrels and in strong winds, although they soar, giant petrelss flight never appears as
effortless as Sooty Albatross.
light-mantled albatross
Phoebetria palpebrata
otHer Name Light-mantled Sooty Albatross
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in southern oceans,
Plate 10
142
more uniform, with paler parts difficult to pick out. Individuals vary; some are slightly darker, tinged browner
and less contrasting. As plumage wears, pale areas, especially nape and neck to mantle, bleach paler and
buffer. Upperwing dark slate-brown, primaries darker, outer primaries and tail with straw-white shaft. White
eye-ring broken only in front of eye. Posterior part of eye-ring broad and noticeable at moderate distances.
Bill black, with bluish sulcus on sides of lower mandible.
Juvenile and immature Similar to adult, but some juveniles have darker, scalloped markings on back.
Bill, including sulcus, entirely grey-black; eye-ring pale brown or grey; and shafts of outer primaries and tail
brown. As feathers have pale bases, some heavily worn immatures may have paler collar from nape onto
neck-sides but never as extensive or as obvious as Sooty Albatross. Sulcus gradually lightens, becoming blue
by 5th year
moult aND Wear Fresh dark brown feathers fade to chocolate-brown. Some birds in very worn plumage can
have a dark bandit face mask, paler throat, nape and crown. Moult poorly documented but probably similar
to other species that breed biennially, alternating moult of outer primaries one year with inner primaries the
following year. Moult continues during breeding season, and body moult assumed to be more extensive during
non-breeding years.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Given good views and in duller light easily separated from Sooty Albatross by contrast between
pale body and dark head and wings. In strong light, contrast between body and wings may be difficult to judge
but jizz often useful. Sooty Albatross has shorter, thinner looking wings and flatter forehead than Light-mantled.
In flight Sooty looks more angular, even reptilian. Close up, colour of sulcus diagnostic but difficult to see and
only present in full adults. A few immature or moulting Sooty Albatross have paler, scruffy collars but even
the palest-collared Sooty has a darker back than Light-mantled, and even the scruffiest Light-mantled has a
paler back and underparts than Sooty. May be confused with giant petrels, which can look similar in some
plumages. Light-mantled is dark-billed and considerably less heavy with long, narrow wings whilst giant petrels
have massive pale bill, massive bodies, and are bull-necked with short tails. In light winds giant petrels have
flapping flight typical of petrels and in strong winds, although they soar, giant petrels never appear as effortless
as Light-mantled.
FulmarINe Petrels
The two species of giant petrels, along with the Northern Fulmar and seven species of petrels from the Southern
Hemisphere, form this distinctive high-latitude group, which is believed to be most closely related to the albatrosses. They are distinguished from all other petrels by their prominent nostrils, most noticeable in the giant
petrels. In general they are stocky with long narrow wings and tails and large bills. The exact relationship of the
snow petrels is debatable and it is possible they are more closely related to the Kerguelen Petrel. Blue Petrel is
included in this group but some studies suggest it is more closely related to prions.
Plate 11
143
JIZZ Massive, barrel-bodied, albatross-sized petrel, with protruding neck and humpbacked appearance, relatively
short tail and narrow pointed wings. Huge, bulbous bill with remarkable single nostril tube. Typically flies with
stiff wings.
sIZe TL 85100cm; W 46.057.7cm; WS 150210cm; WT 3.85.0kg. Larger and heavier than Northern Giant
Petrel. Female smaller in most measurements and weight.
PlumaGe Polymorphic: albino, white and typical grey-brown phases. Typical phase fledges entirely dark,
becoming progressively paler and more mottled over many years. Juveniles of white phases similar to adults. Eye
generally dark but with paler iris (similar to Northern) in some adults. Bill yellowish-horn with greenish tip. Legs
and feet dull flesh-grey. Hybrid population on Gough I. apparently has similar plumage to Northern except for
greenish bill tip.
Typical phase adult Mainly mottled grey-brown with paler, almost white throat, face, nape, forehead and
crown, resulting in a white-headed appearance contrasting with darker underparts. Diagnostic white leading
edge to inner upper- and underwing. Incorrectly assumed to be variable due to lack of knowledge of plumage
differences with age and sex. Full adult plumage may not be attained until as late as 13th year; males of
similar age are considerably whiter than females.
Juvenile Uniformly glossy grey-black but with wear and sun-bleaching quickly becomes brown; bill palehorn or pinkish-yellow, with indistinct pale green tip. A few birds have bill entirely pinkish-yellow, lacking
greenish tip. Eye dark and legs mainly grey.
Immature With each moult slowly becomes a paler, heavily mottled grey-brown. Becomes especially paler
around head, commencing on face and throat. Often breeds in immature plumage.
White phase Uncommon (10% of birds fledged on Macquarie I.). Entirely white with exception of a few
scattered dark brown feathers on body, wing and, rarely, flight feathers; juvenile and immature indistinguishable from adult except for those adults with paler eyes.
Albino Very rare (c. 1% of birds fledged on Macquarie I.) and possibly fatal as only immatures are known.
All-white with uniform pink bill and pink legs and feet.
moult aND Wear Body moult prolonged; all plumages can look heavily mottled with worn brown and fresh
grey feathers. Adults begin wing moult while raising chicks. Moult rapid after leaving breeding grounds with
some individuals having only 23 outer primaries during July.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Size and jizz, especially huge bill, usually identifies birds as one of the giant petrels. White
and albino phases unmistakable though could possibly be confused with extremely white adult male Snowy or
Southern Royal Albatross, both of which have broad, dark trailing edge to upperwing. Separation of all but
a few juvenile Southern from Northern simple if colour of tip of bill is seen: Southern is greenish, Northern
reddish. The bill-tip of a few young birds, especially those just fledged, can lack any greenish tinge and they may
not be separable from Northerns. The contrast between Northerns pink bill and dusky, red bill-tip is visible at
surprisingly long range compared with Southerns greenish bill-tip. At a distance, when bill details cannot be
seen, adult Southern has a white head, mottled belly and white leading edge to inner upperwing and underwing
whereas Northern retains darker cap to head but has a paler belly. Younger Southern just developing white face
may not be separable from Northern until it develops white leading edge to inner upperwing and underwing in
3rd or 4th year. For separation from sooty albatrosses see those species.
Plate 11
144
anything thrown from a boat. Often follows ships for offal. Where the two species breed together Northern not
commonly found feeding on seal corpses due to competition with larger, more aggressive Southern and diet seems
to be more pelagic. Whilst common on beaches in subantarctic, never comes ashore in temperate areas in winter.
JIZZ Massive, barrel-bodied albatross-sized petrel, with protruding neck and humpbacked appearance, relatively
short tail and narrow pointed wings. Huge, bulbous bill with remarkable single nostril tube. Typically flies with
stiff wings.
sIZe TL 8095cm; W 4756cm; WS 150210cm; WT 3.85.0kg. Smaller and lighter than Northern Giant
Petrel. Female smaller in most measurements and weight.
PlumaGe Single dark morph. Fledges entirely dark becoming progressively paler and more mottled over many
years. Bill pinkish-horn with dusky-red tip. Legs and feet dull flesh-grey often with bluish tinge. Iris brown
at fledging, pale yellow in many adults. Hybrid population on Gough I. apparently has similar plumage to
Northern but greenish tip to bill.
Adult Mottled brown crown and nape with ill-defined whitish face (especially white around bill) and throat.
Feathers immediately surrounding eye often remain dark, resulting in a spectacled appearance and white
throat often appears to be bordered by sooty collar. Rest of underparts mottled silvery grey-brown, paler than
scruffy, grey-brown upperparts. Never has white inner leading edge to upperwing, and underwing usually relatively dark.
Juvenile Uniformly glossy, grey-black but with wear and sun-bleaching, quickly becomes brown. Bill pale
horn or pinkish-yellow, with indistinct red tip. Bill-tip colour usually stronger, contrasting more with rest of
bill than Southern; thus if colour on bill-tip difficult to see then bird is more likely a Southern. A few birds
have entirely pink bills and are therefore indistinguishable. Eye dark and legs mainly grey.
Immature Similar to adult. Throat first area to become paler. Throat, face and belly become paler with
successive moults, taking about 78 years to attain adult plumage.
moult aND Wear Body moult prolonged and at all ages can look heavily mottled with worn brown and fresh
grey feathers. Adults begin wing moult whilst raising chicks and once breeders leave breeding grounds moult
becomes rapid with some individuals only having 23 outer primaries during July.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Very similar to Southern Giant Petrel. Northern has dusky-reddish tip to bill, no white leading
edge to inner upperwing and does not develop as white a head. See Southern for further discussion of differences.
Best told from all other large petrels and albatrosses by size and jizz, and especially the massive, bulbous bill.
Northern Fulmar
Fulmarus glacialis
Plate 12
145
sIZe TL 4350cm; W 3033cm; WS 101117cm; WT 4501,000g. Similar in size but heavier than Flesh-footed
and Pink-footed Shearwaters. Smaller than larger gulls and Great Skua.
PlumaGe Polymorphic petrel with dark and light plumage phases and a range of intermediates. Ratios of light
to dark and intermediate morphs vary between populations. Pacific Northern Fulmars show a wider range of
light and dark phases than Atlantic populations. Bill variable; mandibles yellow-grey or blue-grey; tips of both
mandibles yellow; nasal tubes generally darker than rest of bill. Dark blotches common on bill, especially in
darker-plumaged individuals. In dark-morph all-black bills recorded.
Light morph Head and neck white, with small dark patch in front of eye visible at close range. Rest of
upperparts slate-grey, tail darker in Pacific birds. Outer upperwing bordered by diffuse dark grey trailing edge
with blackish outer primaries and tips of secondaries; inner primaries mostly white, forming a diagnostic pale
patch contrasting with the black outer primaries. Underwing predominantly white with back tips to outer
primaries and faint black trailing edge, especially to outer underwing.
Dark morph Uniformly dark smoky-grey; pale wing patch absent in darkest individuals.
Intermediate morphs In reality, variation is continuous from lightest to darkest morphs, yet the following
system of four categories is widely used to classify Northern Fulmars in the hand and at longer range:
LL (double light): Head, neck, and underparts white, except for small dark patch in front of eye; white on
head may be tinged with yellow in Atlantic.
L (light): Crown of head, nape, and hindneck grey, grading into grey of mantle. Breast white; remainder of
underparts may be white, light grey, or flecked with grey.
D (dark): Head, neck, and underparts light or medium grey; breast in most cases lighter, but never white.
DD (double dark): Almost uniformly dark or very dark grey; wings almost as dark as their tips.
There is little change with age but juvenile feathers can be narrowly fringed paler, especially on mantle and inner
upperwing-coverts. Immatures and failed breeders moult earlier so will appear worn early to mid-summer and
freshly moulted by late summer.
moult aND Wear Crispness of grey and black plumage lost with wear and bleaching, black becoming brown.
Adults begin body moult when chicks hatch and primary moult during late chick rearing. Undergo rapid primary
moult at end of breeding season which may leave individuals flightless or nearly so.
IDeNtIFICatIoN At a distance, lighter morphs may be confused with grey-backed gulls, but stocky jizz and stiffwinged flapping and gliding flight close to sea surface should identify most. Darker morphs at a distance may be
confused with Pink-footed or Flesh-footed Shearwaters among other species. However, should be distinguishable
from all petrels at close to moderate range by jizz and stubby, yellowish bill, although this may be dark in darkest
individuals. Pale window on primaries diagnostic in light and intermediate morphs.
southern Fulmar
Fulmarus glacialoides
otHer Name Antarctic Fulmar.
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar throughout colder waters
Plate 12
146
PlumaGe Single gull-like colour morph. White underparts and head, and pale blue-grey upperwing and back.
Outer upperwing bordered by broad black trailing edge with black outer primaries and tips of secondaries; inner
primaries mostly white, contrasting strongly with the black outer primaries and forming a diagnostic pale patch
on outer wing. Underwing predominantly white with black tips to outer primaries and faint black trailing edge
(especially to outer underwing). Eye large and dark. Bill bicoloured, with pinkish mandibles with black tips, and
nasal tubes blue-grey. Legs and feet greyish-pink. Little change with age but juvenile may have feathers narrowly
fringed slightly paler, especially on mantle and inner upperwing-coverts and will appear worn early in summer.
Immatures and failed breeders moult earlier, thus appearing worn in mid summer and many freshly moulted
by late summer.
moult aND Wear Crispness of grey and black plumage lost with wear and bleaching, black becoming brown.
Adults begin body moult when chicks hatch and primary moult begins during late chick rearing. Undergo rapid
primary moult at end of breeding season, which may leave individuals flightless or nearly so.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Similar to Northern Fulmar. Although never recorded together should be separable on bill and
rump coloration. In Antarctic waters the only large, predominantly grey-and-white bird. On wintering grounds
may be confused with smaller grey-backed gulls at distance, but stocky jizz, petrel-like flight and bill colour
should identify most.
antarctic Petrel
Thalassoica antarctica
Plate 13
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in cold waters of southern
147
Cape Petrel
Daption capense
Plate 13
Plate 13
taxoNomy Subject of considerable debate. Treated here as separate from Greater Snow Petrel based on dif-
ferences in size, weight and behaviour that are greater than between many other forms of petrel regarded as a
single polytypic species. The two forms hybridise in eastern Antarctica.
DIstrIbutIoN Breeds on coasts and up to 300km inland in Antarctica, the Peninsula, South Georgia and
148
Plate 13
taxonomy Subject of considerable debate. Treated here as distinct from Lesser Snow Petrel, based on
differences in size, weight and behaviour that are greater than between many other forms of petrel regarded as
a single species. The two species hybridise in eastern Antarctica.
diStriBution Coastal eastern Antarctica. Pure Greater colonies (eggs NovDec) known only from the Balleny
Is. Status of those at Proclamation I., South Sandwich, Cape Hallet and Cape Hunter confused. Forages in
open pack-ice. Disperses north at sea during non-breeding season but never seen alive far from pack-ice. Mixed
colonies at Pointe Geologie Archipelago, Terre Adelie, Peterson Is., Ardery I. For map see Lesser Snow Petrel
above.
Behaviour As Lesser Snow Petrel.
Jizz As Lesser but more barrel-chested, stockier and somewhat longer-winged with stouter bill.
Size TL 3540cm; W 28.531.1cm; WS 8495cm; WT 317570g. Lesser apparently smaller than Greater in all
measurements without overlap. Females smaller than males in weight and most measurements. Hybrids intermediate in measurements.
Plumage As Lesser but small dark patch immediately behind the eye slightly larger, and dark shafts to the outer
primaries less prominent. Faint grey vermiculations on plumage less extensive.
moult and wear As Lesser Snow Petrel.
identiFiCation See Lesser Snow Petrel.
149
Kerguelen Petrel
Lugensa brevirostris
Plate 14
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar
in colder waters
throughout southern oceans. Breeds (eggs October)
on Gough I. and islands of Tristan da Cunha group,
Prince Edward, Marion, Crozet Is. and Kerguelen
group. During breeding, forages south of breeding
grounds and is common along ice edge. Disperses
north and south throughout southern oceans from
pack-ice north to 40S, but less common in south
Pacific and south of South America. Irregular vagrant
to South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Records
from off Brazil (24S), Somalia and Red Sea.
beHavIour Solitary, very rarely following ships.
Never seen behind fishing boats and not attracted to
offal or chum. In stronger winds, flight unique, flying up to 30 m above water in wide, effortless arcs. Often glides
well above sea facing into the wind, maintaining position with slight jerks of the wing almost like a Kestrel Falco
tinnunculus or other falcon, and quite unlike any other petrel. In lighter winds, soars like other petrels but still
adjusts position with slight jerks of the wing and can alter flight direction abruptly like storm-petrel.
JIZZ Remarkably similar to snow petrels. Medium-sized petrel, bull-necked and big-headed with steep forehead,
extremely large eye and long, narrow wings. Squat little body tapers to rounded or slightly wedge-shaped tail.
sIZe TL 3336cm; W 246272mm; WS 8082cm; WT 357g. Marginally smaller than Soft-plumaged but a fair
bit smaller than all other dark petrels and shearwaters in southern oceans. Female slightly smaller than male.
PlumaGe Head, upperparts and upperwing dark slate or sooty-grey; back, mantle and underparts slightly paler
than wings and tail. Appears black or dark brown at a distance. Underwing slate-grey, similar to underparts,
but with pale white leading edge to inner wing formed by pale fringes to feathers. This white patch is widest at
point where wing meets body and tapers to elbow. Flight feathers and coverts of outer wing have silvery sheen,
appearing as a pale wing-tip in bright light. Darker feathers around eye may appear like a mask and in strong
light whole head may appear hooded. In worn plumage, white bases of feathers of chin and throat may show.
Bill black; eye brown; legs and feet brown to grey. Young birds may be recognized by worn plumage during early
breeding season and freshly moulted appearance in late summer.
moult aND Wear Slate-grey feathers wear to greyish-brown. Body moulted during chick rearing, flight feathers
immediately following breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Rare, slightly larger dark-morph Soft-plumaged Petrel likely to look very similar; the rarity of
reports of dark-morph Soft-plumaged may be due to misidentifications as Kerguelen. With experience, jizz and
bizarre flight pattern useful but Kerguelen does not always fly in the diagnostic manner. Kerguelens stouter
and shorter bill, pale leading edge to inner underwing and more extensive silvery sheen on underwing helpful
but only visible in good viewing conditions. Great-winged Petrel and other dark petrels and shearwaters all much
larger and heavier; Kerguelen appears grey rather than brownish except in very worn plumage and has a bullnecked appearance with steep forehead. In general Kerguelen flies higher above water than the other species
although Great-winged is also prone to fly high; dark shearwaters usually fly much lower.
blue Petrel
Halobaena caerulea
Plate 27
taxoNomy Monotypic. Affinities of genus debatable. Given similarities in appearance to prions status as close
relative seems plausible, but other studies suggest a close relationship with the fulmarine petrels.
DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar throughout colder waters of southern oceans; generally found south of the Ant-
arctic Convergence. Breeds (eggs SeptemberOctober) on South Georgia, Prince Edward, Marion, eastern
islands of Crozet group, Kerguelen, Macquarie, and Diego Ramirez and Cape Horn group in southern Chile.
Forage near breeding grounds during summer. Non-migratory but in winter may disperse northward as far as
20S to southern Australia, New Zealand and southern South America where common to 40S in Chile and
southern Argentina. Also occurs in southern Peru and South Africa in winter.
beHavIour Gregarious, often in flock with prions and occasionally other species. Occasionally follows ships but
rare around fishing boats and difficult to attract to chum.
JIZZ Looks like large prion with small petrel-like bill. Flight similar to Broad-billed Prion but, unlike prions, soars
like a gadfly-petrel.
sIZe TL 2632cm; W 19.823.3cm; WS 6271cm; WT 152251g. Slightly larger than Broad-billed Prion and
150
thus noticeably larger than all other prions. Significantly smaller than any other blue or grey-and-white
petrel of southern oceans. Female marginally smaller
than male in some measurements.
PlumaGe Grey-blue upperparts with white-tipped tail
highlighted by very narrow black subterminal band.
Forehead, face throat and ear-coverts white. Black
crown extending around eye, dark nape and broad
half collar give white-throated appearance. Distinct,
dark M marking across upperwing. Underparts and
underwing white. Eye dark; bill mostly black with blue
lower mandible; legs and feet blue with flesh-coloured
webs. Young birds may be recognised by worn
plumage during early breeding season and freshly
moulted appearance in late summer.
moult aND Wear Grey-blue feathers wear to bluish-brown. Body moulted during chick-rearing, flight feathers
immediately following breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Easily separated from all prions and petrels by white tip to tail, which may be visible in poor
light even at a distance. If tail not seen well then separated from prions by combination of white forehead, dark
cap without any white around the eye, black bill and pure white undertail. Smaller than any cookilaria petrel,
with pure white underwing.
PrIoNs
Relationships between prions are unresolved and require further study. Here we have recognised seven species,
but DNA work has yet to done and opinions are likely to change.
Prions are easily distinguished from all but Blue Petrel by diagnostic plumage pattern, unique jizz and
behaviour. However, they are one of the most difficult groups of petrels to separate at sea and in many cases,
even with perfect views, identification to species may not always be possible.
All species have a distinctive plumage of virtually pure white underparts and blue-grey upperparts, with broad
darker markings on wings and rump forming an M across extended wings in flight. Prions always have a black tip
to the tail, but the width of this varies with species. Broadly speaking, prions can be separated into two groups,
the Fairy and Fulmar Prions with a broad dark tail-tip, and the whalebirds, which have a narrow black tip.
Facial patterns also vary between species but all have a white supercilium and white patch below and in front
of the eye. All species have an unusual bill structure, which is modified to each species particular foraging techniques. In general, the bill is broader than other petrels at the base and becomes pointed at the tip, appearing
triangular from above. The hooked bill-tip, so characteristic of other petrels, is very small, and the nostrils are
almost an afterthought. All species have a ridge of lamellae, similar to that of a baleen whale, along the cutting
edge of the upper mandible, which filters plankton. This is most developed in Broad-billed Prion and least so
in Fulmar Prion. All prions also have a skin pouch (a gular pouch similar to pelicans) at the base of the bill that
may be used during the filtration process. Eyes are always dark and legs and feet are bright blue with grey or
flesh-coloured webs. Bill colour varies with species and is an important identification feature.
Prion wings are shorter than those of most petrels and always appear pointed. They are held out stiffly from the
body and are slightly bowed, even during gliding. The tail is exceptionally long for a petrel and is generally said
to be gently rounded or wedge-shaped, but in some individuals appears square.
2)
3)
Fulmar Prion
Fairy Prion
Slender-billed Prion
4)
Broad-billed Prion
5)
Salvins/MacGillivrays Prion
Antarctic Prion
151
Salvins and MacGillivrays are indistinguishable in the field, but the bill of MacGillivrays is intermediate
in size between Salvins and Broad-billed Prions. Thus this key summarises what an observer should do with
every prion they see: look at the tail first, then the face and then the bill. With this mantra, prion separation becomes
a lot easier!
However, there are still some pitfalls:
The tail-tip is not always easy to see. The broad dark tail-tip of Fairy and Fulmar Prions is readily
separable from the narrow tail-tip of the whalebirds, but this feature is difficult to assess in swiftflying birds, and when the tail is in moult may be impossible to determine. Unfortunately wintering
prion flocks off New Zealand, Australia and South America contain mostly moulting birds, thus
separation is problematic.
Some races of some species differ significantly. Fairy Prions of the race subantarctica are more
similar to Fulmar Prions than commonly believed, and some may have blue on undersides.
Appearance varies depending on distance and light conditions. The apparent darkness of the
collar varies with light conditions. A collar that appears dark in dull light may be virtually invisible
in strong light. Also, light does not always allow the bill colour to be seen. Only exceptional views
(or proximity to breeding islands) will allow whalebirds to be confidently identified.
male
Female
length
width
length
width
27.632.8
13.417.4
27.132.0
13.517.0
24.51.0
11.515.5
25.230.0
11.015.5
20.424. 3
22.424.2
20.423.4
9.210.0
11.4
10.510.8
19.423.4
22.223.0
19.022.7
9.010.3
11.4
9.910.3
unsexed
length
width
31.337.4
18.724.3
29.532.5
24.730.1
23.027.3
20.323.9
15.719.2
11.513.5
9.312.5
10.612.5
broad-billed Prion
Pachyptila vittata
otHer Name Broad-billed Dove-petrel
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand and south-east Atlantic
Plate 26
152
Size TL 2530cm; W 18.122.5cm; WS 5766cm; WT 170237g. Largest of all prions, only slightly smaller
than Blue Petrel. No significant difference in sexes.
Plumage Typical prion (see introduction to group, p.151). Narrow black tip to tail may extend onto outer tail
feathers. Undertail white with blackish central streak. Darker head than other prions, with only narrow white
supercilium above and behind eye. Hind-neck bluish-grey, extending to sides of neck and sides of upper breast
and forming a broad partial collar. Prominence of collar and limited amount of white on face add to darkhooded appearance. Young birds paler on head. Huge bill is broad, deep and duck-like; sooty-grey, appearing
black at sea. Baleen-like lamellae may be seen given exceptional views. Young birds may be recognised by comparatively worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted plumage in late summer.
moult and wear Upperparts usually wear to dull grey and M fades to brown; prior to moult, bleached
upperwing may appear to have white patches. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers immediately after breeding.
identiFiCation Blue Petrel has white tip to tail. Distinguished from other prions by combination of larger size;
large head; massive all-dark bill unlike any other prion; steep forehead giving baseball cap-like appearance; darkhead; pronounced collar and narrow dark tail-band (broad in Fairy and Fulmar Prion). Salvins/MacGillivrays
most difficult to separate and probably only possible given exceptionally good views. Look especially for blue,
not black, bill; otherwise range helpful during summer. With practice by far the easiest of the prions to identify
by size, flight and large-headed jizz. See also key and bill measurements above.
Salvins Prion
Pachyptila salvini
Plate 26
billed Prion
taxonomy Monotypic.
diStribution Southwest Indian Ocean breeding
153
macGillivrays Prion
Pachyptila macgillivrayi
Plate 26
antarctic Prion
Pachyptila desolata
Plate 26
Icebird, Whalebird
154
slender-billed Prion
Pachyptila belcheri
Plate 26
Fairy Prion
Pachyptila turtur
Plate 27
155
beHavIour Very gregarious but rarely follows ships. Large flocks will fly across a ships bow, ignoring it completely, yet may play in large ships bow-wake, soaring on air pushed up by ships forward movement. Rarely
attracted to fishing vessels or chum.
JIZZ Small-billed prion with low, rounded forehead, short, broad, round-tipped wings and long, rounded or
wedge-shaped tail. Flies close to surface of sea with wings held at right angles to body, quick, flickering indistinct
wingbeats and sudden changes of direction. When foraging, faces into wing with wings slightly bowed, jumping
from wave to wave with legs dangling down. In strong winds, flies by dynamic soaring but usually lower to the
water than gadfly petrels.
sIZe TL 2328cm; W 16.818.9cm; WS 5660cm; WT 88175g. Smallest of all prions.
PlumaGe Typical prion (see introduction to group, p.151) with bluer upperparts than whalebird prions and
a broad dark tail-tip that extends a third to halfway up tail. Head pale and poorly marked, with short, white
supercilium and short, often indistinct dusky eye-stripe. Feathers of face and crown similar colour to rest of
upperbody. With wear, eye-stripe can be virtually lost, giving very white-faced appearance. Underparts white
with indistinct pale grey-blue sides to breast that are lost with wear. Some individuals (especially those in subantarctic New Zealand) may have blue wash on parts of underside and even underwing. Underwing generally white
with indistinct grey trailing edge. Black undertail mark obvious and may be more pronounced at tip, forming
T-shaped undertail marking. Bill pale blue and rather stubby looking with relatively larger tip than all other
prions except Fulmar Prion. Juveniles and subantarctic birds are paler, especially around the face.
moult aND Wear Upperparts usually wear to dull grey and M fades to brown; prior to moult, bleached
upperwing may appear to have white patches. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers immediately after breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Smallest prion. Broad dark tail-tip most useful identification feature, but combination of small
size, short stout bill, blue upperparts, indistinct collar and pale head, and in some cases almost white face,
separate it from most other prions, except Fulmar Prion. Separation from Fulmar Prion difficult but the latter
has bizarre flight pattern (for which see) and generally has a combination of longer, more massive bill, especially
the tip. Fulmar Prion upperparts often reported as lighter, M as less distinct, tip to underside of tail darker
and black tail band broader, but these are subtle, if correct, differences and may be due to geographical or age
variations. Fulmar Prion more likely to have blue wash on underparts, especially on undertail and vent, but
some Fairy Prions of race subantarctica in New Zealand waters also have this feature and it is also very difficult
to observe at sea.
Fulmar Prion
Pachyptila crassirostris
Plate 27
156
PlumaGe Typical prion (see introduction to group p.151) with bluer upperparts than whalebird prions and a broad
dark tail tip that extends way up tail. Head pale and poorly marked, generally with smaller white supercilium
than Fairy and indistinct blue-grey eye-stripe. Feathers of face and crown similar colour to rest of upperbody.
With wear, eye-stripe can be virtually lost, giving very white-faced appearance. Underparts white with indistinct
pale grey-blue sides of breast that are lost with wear. Many individuals have blue wash on rear underside, on
extreme examples extending onto underwing. Underwing mostly white with indistinct greyish trailing edge. Black
undertail mark obvious, often extending a third of way up undertail, often more pronounced at tip, forming Tshaped undertail marking. Bill short, stout and pale blue with proportionally the largest tip of any prion.
moult aND Wear Upperparts may wear to duller grey and M fades to brown; prior to moult, bleached
upperwing may appear to have white patches. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers immediately after breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Most easily recognised by bizarre loop-the-loop aerobatic play flights, unlike any other prion,
but unfortunately they do not always do this. Separation from Fairy Prion difficult, generally only reliably separable
if stouter bill can be seen. Fulmar Prion more likely to have blue wash on underparts, especially on undertail and
vent, but some subantarctica Fairy Prions also have this feature, and it is very difficult to observe at sea.
bulwers Petrel
Bulweria bulwerii
Plate 15
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN A species of tropical waters. Breeds
157
beHavIour Very gregarious but rarely follows ships. Large flocks will fly across a ships bow, ignoring it completely, yet may play in large ships bow-wake, soaring on air pushed up by ships forward movement. Rarely
attracted to fishing vessels or chum.
JIZZ Small-billed prion with low, rounded forehead, short, broad, round-tipped wings and long, rounded or
wedge-shaped tail. Flies close to surface of sea with wings held at right angles to body, quick, flickering indistinct
wingbeats and sudden changes of direction. When foraging, faces into wing with wings slightly bowed, jumping
from wave to wave with legs dangling down. In strong winds, flies by dynamic soaring but usually lower to the
water than gadfly petrels.
sIZe TL 2328cm; W 16.818.9cm; WS 5660cm; WT 88175g. Smallest of all prions.
PlumaGe Typical prion (see introduction to group, p.151) with bluer upperparts than whalebird prions and
a broad dark tail-tip that extends a third to halfway up tail. Head pale and poorly marked, with short, white
supercilium and short, often indistinct dusky eye-stripe. Feathers of face and crown similar colour to rest of
upperbody. With wear, eye-stripe can be virtually lost, giving very white-faced appearance. Underparts white
with indistinct pale grey-blue sides to breast that are lost with wear. Some individuals (especially those in subantarctic New Zealand) may have blue wash on parts of underside and even underwing. Underwing generally white
with indistinct grey trailing edge. Black undertail mark obvious and may be more pronounced at tip, forming
T-shaped undertail marking. Bill pale blue and rather stubby looking with relatively larger tip than all other
prions except Fulmar Prion. Juveniles and subantarctic birds are paler, especially around the face.
moult aND Wear Upperparts usually wear to dull grey and M fades to brown; prior to moult, bleached
upperwing may appear to have white patches. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers immediately after breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Smallest prion. Broad dark tail-tip most useful identification feature, but combination of small
size, short stout bill, blue upperparts, indistinct collar and pale head, and in some cases almost white face,
separate it from most other prions, except Fulmar Prion. Separation from Fulmar Prion difficult but the latter
has bizarre flight pattern (for which see) and generally has a combination of longer, more massive bill, especially
the tip. Fulmar Prion upperparts often reported as lighter, M as less distinct, tip to underside of tail darker
and black tail band broader, but these are subtle, if correct, differences and may be due to geographical or age
variations. Fulmar Prion more likely to have blue wash on underparts, especially on undertail and vent, but
some Fairy Prions of race subantarctica in New Zealand waters also have this feature and it is also very difficult
to observe at sea.
Fulmar Prion
Pachyptila crassirostris
Plate 27
156
mascarene Petrel
Pseudobulweria aterrima
Plate 15
becks Petrel
Pseudobulweria becki
Plate 17
159
IDeNtIFICatIoN As plumage is so similar, Becks may not be distinguishable in the field from Tahiti unless seen
together, or with another petrel species when the difference in size may be assessed. Becks is quite small. At
29cm long it is a similar size to Black-winged Petrel, though longer-winged and only slightly larger and much
longer-winged than Heinroths Shearwater, both of which occur in the same area. Tahiti Petrel, however, at
39cm is slightly larger than Phoenix Petrel. See Tahiti Petrel for plumage differences from those species.
tahiti Petrel
Pseudobulweria rostrata
Plate 17
160
Fiji Petrel
Pseudobulweria macgillivrayi
Plate 17
gaDFly Petrels
A monophyletic group of small to medium-sized, mainly tropical and subtropical seabirds with the following
features in common: short, comparatively deep-based black bills; long, relatively rounded, narrow or relatively
broad-based wings; tapering, slightly wedge-shaped tails. Plumage of many characterised by dark brown or black
primaries and median/greater coverts, which in flight form an open M that continues across the lower back and
rump. The underparts are largely white and the underwings variable. They fly with carpals held well forward,
and in moderate to strong winds typically have a remarkable, highly manoeuvrable flight consisting of rapid,
towering arcs and strong glides, appearing almost to bound through the air. They breed mainly on undisturbed
offshore islands and remote islets. Gadfly petrels are amongst the most truly oceanic of birds, coming to land
only to breed.
Given the complexities of identifying Pterodroma petrels, we have tried to limit our discussions to the principal
characters visible in the field, and have especially attempted to emphasise each species most pertinent and diagnostic characters and point out pitfalls and problems, in the hope that observers can use these in order to build
their own storehouse of impressions of the different forms.
The difficulties of identification at sea should never be underestimated; differences in face and underwing
markings are often difficult to see as birds fly past rapidly and erratically, often at distance and sometimes in
unhelpful weather and lighting conditions. The appearance of upperwings and upperparts varies considerably
according to light, distance and angle of view, plumage wear, bleaching and state of moult. Structural or jizz
differences are also difficult to appreciate because flight patterns vary in response to wind direction and strength.
Variation related to sex and age can be even more difficult to assess, as information is decidedly incomplete for
many forms and several species. Even measurements of a bird in the hand cannot always be reliably used to sex
or even identify some of these taxa, there being very considerable overlap in many measurements. In summary,
nothing compensates for time spent gaining field experience with this group.
Cookilaria petrels
These 10 (or 11) small to medium-sized gadfly petrels are so similar in plumage that here we have chosen to
give a generalised description of a typical member of the group and then highlight distinctive differences in the
plumage text. Identification of this group poses similar challenges to that of separation of the prions, and in
many cases, especially with less than perfect views, identification may only be possible to group. Range is useful
in separating some species but be aware that due to the difficulties in identification, vagrancy is poorly known.
Taxonomy of this group is also poorly understood, with the tropical species being especially confusing.
161
Compared to other petrels, wings are relatively short, and appear rather rounded. They are held stiffly out from
the body and are slightly bowed, even when gliding. The tail is long for a petrel and is usually described as gently
rounded or wedge-shaped, but in some individuals appears square. Flight typical of Pterodroma petrels with high
sweeping arcs, rhythmically rocking from side-to-side in a pendulum motion. In strong winds, flight fast and
swooping on bowed, angled wings.
Even in good light and calm conditions distinguishing features can be difficult to ascertain in fleeting sightings
of these fast-flying species. Experience and an ability to pick out the critical identification features quickly are
helpful. Things to look for when identifying cookilarias, in order of priority:
Underwing pattern
Crown and neck pattern
Forehead pattern
Comparative tail length
Presence or absence of dark tail-tip
Presence or absence of pale feathers on outer margin of tail
Conspicuousness of M marking across wings
Presence or absence of white supercilium
Much has been written about the comparative size differences of the 10 species, but with the exception
of Mottled, which is much larger, overall size is rarely much help in identification. However, the relative measurements of, for example, tail to wing can often give an idea of jizz and shape which in some cases, for example
long-winged, short-tailed Cooks, is a relatively easy way to identify a species. Comparison of size and proportions in the table below are mostly from Marchant & Higgins (1990).
SPECIES
Chatham Is.
Black-winged
Bonin
Mottled
Goulds
New Caledonia
Cooks
Pycrofts
Collared
DeFilippis
Stejnegers
TOTAL LENGTH
(cm)
WING
(cm)
WINGSPAN
(cm)
WEIGHT
(g)
TAIL LENGTH
(cm)
30
2830
3435
30
30
32
2530
28
30
29
2631
20.022.0
21.523.6
24.227.1
21.623.7
21.323.8
21.823.2
22.324.5
20.722.9
20.321.8
22.924.1
19.822.0
65
6371
85
6371
7071
165231
170200
315
204 (152308)
134220
9.19.8
9.910.5
10.1
65
53
71
66
53
175 (112250)
127201
8.510.2
9.29.6
8.79.3
8.810.2
9.3
10.1
9.710.7
Plate 23
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endangered petrel endemic to Chatham Is. Breeds (eggs December) only on South-East I.
although recently attempts have been made to reintroduce it to adjacent Pitt I. Probably forages southeast of
Chathams during breeding but not known whether migratory or dispersive.
beHavIour Probably solitary and highly pelagic.
JIZZ Medium-sized cookilaria. Jizz said to be similar to Black-winged but this is probably incorrect. Chatham is
relatively longer-bodied with shorter, narrower wings than Black-winged and is likely to look different at sea.
162
Black-winged Petrel
Pterodroma nigripennis
Plate 23
taxonomy Monotypic.
diStriBution Tropical and subtropical south Pacific
163
moult aND Wear Grey feathers wear to greyish-brown and head colour becomes similar to rest of body. M
marking on upperwing becomes less distinct. Adults moult body during chick-rearing and moult flight feathers
immediately after breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Dark mark on underwing longer and broader than on other cookilarias except Chatham
Islands, Bonin and Mottled Petrels. Chatham Islands Petrel has considerably larger dark patch on armpit, and
when underwing pattern seen well separation of two species is simple. For further features see Chatham Islands
Petrel. Bonin Petrel has a large, dark patch on outer underwing as well as inner and blacker head. Mottled is
considerably larger with a dusky belly patch. If the underwing is not seen well Cooks and Pycrofts may, with
practice, be identified by smaller size, narrower wings and shorter tails; De Filippis may be identified by longer
tail lacking dark tip; and Goulds and Stejnegers Petrels by much darker heads.
mottled Petrel
Pterodroma inexpectata
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to New Zealand. Breeds (eggs
Plate 23
164
and narrower-winged, with more buoyant, jerky flight; a dark cap that contrasts with grey mantle; and much
less obvious, narrower dark mark on inner underwing. Other than belly patch, useful distinctions from other
cookilarias include size and flight.
bonin Petrel
Pterodroma hypoleuca
Plate 23
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Subtropical western and central north
Pacific. Breeds (eggs JanuaryFebruary) in Northwestern Hawaiian islands, from French Frigate Shoals
to Kure Atoll, except for Gardner Pinnacles; also,
Volcano and Bonin Is. south of Japan. Disperses
widely over central and western Pacific to about
3540N from July through April. Hawaiian population move northwest towards Japan whilst majority
of Japanese population apparently moves north to
waters off Sanriku and east Honshu. Vagrants in
north Mariana Is., Taiwan, Japan and Sakhalin.
beHavIour Solitary and pelagic; does not follow
ships.
JIZZ Typical cookilaria flight, fast and erratic on downcurved wings with slightly bent elbows.
sIZe TL 30cm; W 21.623.7cm; WS 6371cm; WT 152308g. Intermediate-sized cookilaria similar to Blackwinged in dimensions but on average slightly heavier. Male slightly larger than female.
PlumaGe Typical cookilaria. Differs from other cookilaria species primarily by having underwing with distinctive triangular, smudgy-black patch on leading edge of the outerwing. The underwing has comparatively
broad black trailing edge and comparatively short black bar extending diagonally from elbow inward across
inner underwing. Forehead and front of crown generally mainly white, merging into grey-black crown, nape,
hindneck, and sides of face. Dark grey extends down sides of breast, forming partial collar. Rest of upperparts
dull blue-grey, feathers narrowly fringed white, creating faint scaly effect. In fresh plumage, back appears silverygrey with sooty-grey head, neck and flight feathers. Upperwing darker than back, and M mark on wings difficult to discern on dark wing. Black patch across lower back extends in obvious V on upper rump. Rump and
tail usually entirely blackish-grey, though in some as pale as back with darker tip. Legs and feet pink and black.
Young birds can also be recognised by relatively worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted
plumage in late summer.
moult aND Wear Grey feathers wear to greyish-brown, and head and wings becomes closer to rest of body in
coloration. Adults moult body during chick-rearing; flight feathers moulted immediately after breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Distinctive underwing pattern of broad black bar across inner wing and black patch on outer
wing, plus black crown, generally distinguish Bonin from other cookilarias. In addition, Black-winged has light
grey collar that extends further down breast; Chatham Islands Petrel has black underwing bar extending to base
of wing and axillaries; significantly larger Mottled has dark grey belly. Paler forms of Collared could look very
similar and best separated by underwing pattern. Cooks, Stejnegers and Goulds are smaller, have relatively
narrow black borders to white underwing, bluer-grey feet, and different head patterns. Galpagos is much larger,
darker above, with longer wings and narrower black border to white underwing. Hawaiian Petrel is larger, with
longer wing and browner upperparts lacking M mark.
Goulds Petrel
Pterodroma leucoptera
Plate 24
taxoNomy Two subspecies. Nominate leucoptera breeds in very small numbers off southeast Australia; race
caledonica, the New Caledonia Petrel, in New Caledonia. Separation at sea very difficult but differences in biology
suggest that they may well be separate species.
DIstrIbutIoN Southwest Pacific Ocean migrating to central eastern Pacific. Nominate leucoptera breeds (eggs
OctNov) only on Cabbage Tree I., New South Wales, though chicks have recently been transferred to nearby
Boondelbah I. Race caledonica breeds (possibly throughout year) only in the mountains of Grand Terre, New
Caledonia (at least six breeding sites of 100200 pairs are known between Mts Dzumac and Poya, at 400650m)
and perhaps Vanuatu. Probably forages south huge distances from islands during breeding season, as seen in
Tasman Sea to 45S, south of Tasmania in summer and east as far as South Australia. Migrates into tropical
Pacific after breeding to 10N and east to 90W, south of Galpagos.
165
Cooks Petrel
Pterodroma cookii
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand breeding endemic.
Plates 22, 23
166
be erratic, with sudden sharp changes in direction, steeper arcs and less gliding. May land briefly around pelagic
tour boats in calm weather but generally does not follow boats. Not attracted to trawlers
JIZZ Medium-sized, short-tailed, long-winged cookilaria. Body stout and bulky, with a short, wide neck and large
head.
sIZe TL 30cm; W 22.324.5cm; WS 6566cm; WT 220g. Larger than Pycrofts and smaller than caledonica
Goulds. Female smaller than male.
PlumaGe Typical cookilaria. Differs from other cookilaria species primarily in uniformity of upperpart coloration
with pale blue-grey head merging into similarly coloured back and rump. M marking obvious and highlighted
by pale flight feathers. Upper rump has some dark feathers but rarely as prominent as other species. Neck collar
indistinct, rarely reaching any distance down sides of neck. Indistinct variable narrow white supercilium may
extend from behind eye nearly to lores. Most have small dark eye-patch around, below and behind eye, but earcoverts pale as rest of crown. Tail has dark tip to central feathers that may be lost with wear, and inner web of
outer tail feathers is whitish, causing sides of tail to appear pale in some lights and at some angles. Underwing
has variable, but usually small, short black tick-mark at carpal. Legs and feet fleshy, tinged blue, with black toes
and darker webs. Newly fledged juveniles are very pale blue-grey, and young birds may be recognised by worn
plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted appearance in late summer.
moult aND Wear M marking across back becomes less prominent as upperwings darken. Grey feathers of
head and back become greyish-brown and in some birds crown can become darker than back. Adults moult
body during chick rearing, flight feathers immediately following breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN In northern New Zealand, separation on water from Pycrofts problematic. Typical freshplumaged Pycrofts has dusky-grey head, nape and mantle whilst the head and mantle of Cooks are generally
paler and have a distinctly blue tone. In worn plumage both species can have crowns darker than back. However,
plumage colour and tone varies with light conditions, plumage wear and moult and should never be used as the
sole source of separation. Pycrofts is slightly smaller overall with a shorter, less robust bill than Cooks. Close
up, Pycrofts can be seen to have a larger, more prominent white forehead while Cooks is more likely to show
a white supercilium and on the water, at very close range, it may be possible to distinguish Cooks pinker legs
from Pycrofts bluish-flesh legs. Pycrofts usually has a more noticeable dark eye-patch that extends further below
and behind the eye. Pycrofts collar is generally darker than Cooks and extends further down the sides of the
neck. In flight, jizz is useful: Pycrofts is 23cm shorter than Cooks and has shorter, slightly more rounded wings.
However, the most significant structural difference is in tail length: Cooks averages about 90mm; Pycrofts is
nearer 100mm on a smaller bird, thus relatively Pycrofts gives the impression of being all tail. Cooks best
separated from slightly larger Black-winged by underwing pattern. On migration, Cooks overlaps with most
other cookilarias; see those species for separation.
Pycrofts Petrel
Pterodroma pycrofti
Plate 22
167
similarly coloured back and rump. White forehead usually prominent and supercilium, if present, very short and
narrow. Neck collar reasonably wide, extending a little way down sides of neck but never complete. Very narrow
white supercilium above eye. Small dark eye-patch around, below and behind eye merging into ear-coverts
which are variable but usually paler, occasionally forming a pale notch. Upper rump usually has small triangle
of black feathers. Tail dark-tipped, and inner web of outer tail feathers smudged grey so that outer tail is less
likely to appear as pale as Cooks. Underwing has small, black tick-mark at carpal, which on average is slightly
more extensive than Cooks. Legs and feet fleshy blue with variable fleshy markings, and black toes and webs.
Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted appearance
in late summer.
moult aND Wear M marking across back becomes less prominent as upperwings darken. Grey feathers of
head and back become greyish-brown and in some birds crown can become darker than back. Adults moult
body during chick-rearing and flight feathers immediately following breeding.
IDeNtIFICatIoN For separation from Cooks see that species. For differences from De Filippis and Stejnegers,
both of which may occur in same areas on migration, see respective texts. Both Chatham Islands and Blackwinged Petrels are larger, have more obvious grey collars and far more extensive black markings and broader
dark trailing edges to underwings.
Collared Petrel
Pterodroma brevipes
taxoNomy The most confusing of all the cookilarias.
Plate 24
168
some Black-winged by complete brown collar, but Black-winged has larger dark tick-mark on underwing. Some
browner-bellied birds may be confused with Mottled but latter is considerably larger with paler upperparts and
large boomerang-shaped marking on underwing. Intermediate phases of Herald and Kermadec easily told by
pattern of underwing. Pale phase very difficult to separate from Goulds but Collared has wider black trailing
edge to underwing, smaller black tick-mark on elbow of underwing and dark inner webs to outer tail feathers.
De Filippis Petrel
Pterodroma defilippiana
Plate 22
stejnegers Petrel
Pterodroma longirostris
Plate 22
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Chilean endemic breeder. Only breeding (eggs NovemberDecember) at high altitude on Ale-
jandro Selkirk I. (Mas Afuera) in the Juan Fernandez group. Probably confined to area around Juan Fernandez
and adjacent Chilean coast (south to 49S) during breeding. Migrates to north-east Pacific in AprilJune. There
may be a clockwise movement through the north Pacific in late summer and autumn, with birds recorded off
California. Vagrant to New Zealand but no Australian records.
beHavIour Solitary, rarely following boats and not attracted to chum or offal.
JIZZ A small to medium-sized, long-tailed, small-billed cookilaria with relatively short, narrow wings. Flight
reported both as being the fastest of the group and also languid, having a slower and less erratic flight pattern
than De Filippis.
sIZe TL 28cm; W 21.623.0cm; WS 66cm; WT ?. Similar size to Pycrofts; smaller than Black-winged and
Cooks.
169
These six medium-sized gadfly petrels have similar plumage and jizz. Herald, Trindade and Kermadec Petrels
have pale phases. Identification of this group poses similar challenges to that of separation of the cookilarias, but
as long as the key features mentioned below are seen, then identification to species is possible:
SPECIES
Phoenix
Herald
Trindade
Henderson
Kermadec
Murphys
Providence
Phoenix Petrel
Pterodroma alba
TOTAL LENGTH
(cm)
WING
(cm)
WINGSPAN
(cm)
WEIGHT
(g)
35
3439
3740
35
38
40
40
26.529.1
26.530.0
27.530.9
28.0
27.630.9
26.529.0
29.632.3
83
88102
95103
?
92
97
95105
269
287 (260320)
393 (287460)
?
405 (310590
375435
500
Plate 17
taxonomy Monotypic.
dIstrIbutIon Tropical and subtropical central Pacific Ocean. Breeds (annually, no fixed breeding season) on
Canton I. (Phoenix group), islets of Ua Pou, Fatu Huku and Hatutaa (Marquesas group), Kiritimati (Line Is.),
Ono I. (Pitcairn group.). Status on Tuamotu and Tonga uncertain. Disperses into equatorial Pacific, north to
25N north of Hawaiian Is. and south-west to Kermadec group. A few sight records from Fiji, Kermadec group.
and near Galpagos Is.
170
Herald Petrel
Pterodroma heraldica
171
white tips. Mantle and back dark, ash-brown, with paler greyer edges visible to feathers at close range;
tail blackish brown. Upperwing darker than mantle, grey-brown, with faint M across wings and back only
in fresh plumage; primary shafts dark. Underwing dark brown and grey, with whitish patch on outerwing
formed by pale bases to primaries and coverts. Small dark crescent formed by tips to primary coverts varies
in size and sometimes absent. Extension of pale panel onto innerwing varies with paleness of greater coverts
and inner flight feathers. Thin white line on leading edge of inner underwing extending almost to carpal. Bill
black, eye dark brown and legs and feet pinkish and black.
Intermediate morph Generally as pale morph, but with darker head, upper breast and undertail-coverts,
and variable amounts of brownish-grey mottling and smudging on lower breast and belly but with relatively
clean-cut look and pale lores.
Dark morph M mark on upperwing rarely visible except on immatures and juveniles when slightly darker
M may be visible in certain lights. Head and body slate or chocolate-brown. Underwing usually darker with
dark innerwing and reduced, more broken pale patch on outerwing. Thin white line along leading edge of
innerwing still present. Legs and feet black. Throat usually patchy white and lores often still pale.
moult aND Wear Chocolate-brown feathers wear to paler sooty-brown. With wear, white on chin and throat
of darker birds becomes more obvious. Adults moult body feathers during chick-rearing, flight feathers at almost
any time of year following breeding and dispersal.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Separation of Herald from Trindade problematic but probably only an issue in western Indian
Ocean. Trindade is a larger, heavier, less delicate-looking bird with a deeper, more robust bill, but assessment of
such differences would require lots of experience. Lores, in all but the lightest Trindade, are usually dark, but
pale on Herald. Paler forms of Trindade tend to have more white on the innerwing than Herald. See plumage
above for other possible differences. It has been suggested that pale-morph Trindade has dark legs while Herald
does not, but this feature need further examination. In tropical northeast Pacific dark-phase birds are just as
likely to be Henderson as Herald. They are the same size and there are no known plumage differences. In all
plumage phases, all three species are distinguishable from Kermadec by the lack of white primary shafts on
upperwing, more delicate shape, longer and more pointed tail and more buoyant flight. Dark phases are blacker
than Murphys with obvious white patch, rather than reflective gloss on outer underwing. Dark phases are also
similar to Providence and Great-winged. Providence Petrel is considerably larger with a wedge-shaped tail, is
grey-brown rather than chocolate brown, and has a paler face yet often appears dark-headed or hooded. Greatwinged is much larger and longer-winged with entirely dark underwing, though in bright light reflection from
primaries may give the impression of pale patches.
In light winds, when not soaring in typical Pterodroma fashion, dark morph Herald (and Henderson) can
be mistaken for Sooty Shearwater or dark-morph skua, but absence of Sootys distinctive pattern of white on
underwing and skuas white on outer upperwing should separate them. See also Kerguelen and dark-morph
Soft-plumaged Petrels.
trindade Petrel
Pterodroma arminjoniana
taxoNomy See discussion under Herald Petrel.
DIstrIbutIoN Breeds on Round Island, near Mau-
Plates 20, 25
172
than Herald yet appear to have more white on inner underwings and bases of primary coverts.
Intermediate morph As Herald but Trindade tends to have smudgier underparts and dark lores.
Dark morph As Herald but Trindade tends to have dark lores and pale throat, although dark forms from
Round I. appear to have entirely dark throats. .
moult aND Wear As Herald Petrel.
IDeNtIFICatIoN See Herald Petrel.
Henderson Petrel
Pterodroma atrata
Plate 16
Kermadec Petrel
Pterodroma neglecta
173
winds, flight unhurried with deep wingbeats and long unhurried glides, banking in broad arcs. In stronger winds,
develops classic Pterodroma dynamic soaring, often high into air.
sIZe TL 38cm; W 27.630.9cm; WS 92cm; WT 370590g. Smaller than Providence but larger than Herald or
Henderson Petrels.
PlumaGe Polymorphic with pale and dark morphs and a wide variety of intermediate plumages. All morphs
show: white skua-like flash on outer upperwing formed by white shafts and bases to flight feathers; grey-brown
underwing with eye-catching white patch at base of outer flight feathers; and narrow white leading edge to
underwing between carpal and body.
Pale morph Head pale, with forehead, crown and nape variably mottled dirty white and light brown; some
have darker eye-patch. Mantle and back light brown with white edges to fresh feathers; tail blackish-brown.
Underparts white, with variable brown partial collar on sides of upper breast. Underwing variable but in
palest birds white can extend well down centre of wing towards dark armpit. Upperwing blackish-brown
with no M mark; flight feathers, other than white flash, black. Bill black; eye brown; and legs flesh-pink with
variable pink and dark feet and black toes.
Intermediate morph Continuous progression between light and dark morphs. Mantle and back darker
and more uniform brown. Upperwing as pale morph but underwing with more dark coverts. Underparts
variable, from white with dirty brown breast-band, through rather clean-cut dark breast and undertail and
white belly, to patchy grey-brown and white or entirely dark greyish-brown.
Dark morph Plumage entirely dark brown except for whitish scalloping on forehead, base of bill and chin.
Underwing darker, often with reduced white patch divided by dark tips to coverts; white patch especially
likely to be less prominent in juveniles. Legs and feet dark.
moult aND Wear Chocolate-brown feathers wear to paler sooty-brown. Any white tips to fresh feathers of pale
morph lost with wear. In dark morphs white on chin and throat becomes more obvious with wear. Adults moult
body feathers during chick-rearing and flight feathers at any time of year following breeding and dispersal.
IDeNtIFICatIoN White flash on upperwing the best way to identify all morphs of Kermadec, but note that in a
few dark, especially young, birds this flash may consist of little more than a few white feather shafts. White patch
on outer underwing reaches the forewing at base of primaries, except in young birds, and is larger and more
eye-catching than in all other similar petrels. Palest Kermadec has much whiter head than Herald or Trindade.
Long, broad-winged, square-tailed jizz reasonably distinctive with experience. Dark morph resembles many
other dark petrels and shearwaters and is best identified by white flash on upperwing.
murphys Petrel
Pterodroma ultima
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Tropical Pacific. Breeds (eggs MayJuly)
Plate 16
174
moult aND Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and M marking on back becomes less
prominent. Body moult occurs during chick-rearing. Flight feathers moulted following breeding and migration
(SeptemberJanuary).
IDeNtIFICatIoN Dark-phase Kermadec and Herald Petrels brown, not blackish-grey, and both have white
patches on the underwing, Note, though, that Murphys underwing can look pale in bright light due to reflective
nature of silvery underwing. Kermadec has white skua-like flash on outer upperwing. Providence also has white
patches on outer underwing, is larger, longer-winged and has a wedge-shaped tail and robust bill. Range of
Great-winged luckily rarely overlaps as very similar to Murphys, and both have mainly dark underwings. Greatwinged is larger, has especially long wings, browner plumage and different flight. Range of Kerguelen not known
to overlap but separated by significantly smaller size, pale leading edge to underwing, distinctive jizz and flight.
Providence Petrel
Pterodroma solandri
Plates 14, 16
These nine medium-to-large gadfly petrels pose similar identification challenges to those of separating the
cookilarias, but in most cases identification to species is possible. Range is useful in separating most species as all
are dispersive rather than migratory and ranges rarely overlap.
Things to look for when identifying large black-and-white pterodromas in order of priority:
Underwing pattern
Head pattern
Darkness of collar
Comparative tail length
Presence or absence of dark tail-tip
Conspicuousness of M marking across wing
175
SPECIES
White-necked
Vanuatu
Juan Fernandez
Baraus
Hawaiian
Galpagos
Cahow
Black-capped
Jamaican
TOTAL LENGTH
(cm)
WING
(cm)
WINGSPAN
(cm)
WEIGHT
(g)
TAIL
(cm)
43
40
43
38
43
41
36 (3538)
40
40
30.332.3
28.229.3
30.933.6
27.729.9
23.337.4
31.031.8
26.026.2
28.029.5
26.728.4
97100
?
97
96
98
102
9091
95
?
445 (380545)
?300350
495
400
448 (330629)
408421
?
?278
?
12.9 (12.114.0)
12.5
13.6
12.2
13.9
14.5
12.2
12.7
117
White-necked Petrel
Pterodroma cervicalis
Other name White-naped Petrel.
taxOnOmy Sometimes treated as conspecific with
Plate 18
176
vanuatu Petrel
Pterodroma occulta
Plate 18
Plate 18
177
moult aND Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and the upperparts become darker with
wear, showing less scaling and less conspicuous M, and the tail may also darken. White U-shaped mark on
rump becomes increasingly prominent with wear. Moults body during chick-rearing and flight feathers following
breeding and migration (MaySeptember).
IDeNtIFICatIoN Distinguished from similar White-necked by absence of white collar and smaller dark tickmark on leading edge of underwing. For separation from other species see White-necked Petrel.
baraus Petrel
Pterodroma baraui
Plate 20
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to Reunion I. Nests (eggs
Hawaiian Petrel
Pterodroma sandwichensis
Plate 18
taxoNomy Sometimes considered subspecies of Galpagos Petrel Pterodroma phaeopygia but differences in biology
DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to larger islands of Hawaii. Breeds (annually, eggs AprMay) at Puu Kole (southeast
Mauna Kea, Hawaii); southwest slope of Mauna Loa; in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park; Kumoa Gulch
(Lnai I.); Wailau Valley & Puu helo (Molokai I.); Waimea Canyon, (Kauai I.), Haleakal National Park
(Maui I.) and almost certainly elsewhere. Forages in Hawaiian waters (from South Point, (Hawaii) to French
Frigate Shoals in northwest Hawaiian Is. (May to Oct). Absent from Hawaiian waters about Nov to April. Disperses to pelagic equatorial waters of eastern tropical Pacific generally between 20N and 10S. In spring found
to 25N; in Jul and Aug to 50N in southern Gulf of Alaska but few between 120W to 130W and south of
10N, suggesting little overlap in at sea ranges of Galpagos and Hawaiian. W of 120W presumed Hawaiian
178
Galpagos Petrel
Pterodroma phaeopygia
Plate 18
179
and-white pterodromas. Has slightly different proportions than Hawaiian, which is longer bodied and heavier,
with shorter wider wings, shorter, deeper bill and a proportionately shorter tail.
sIZe TL 41cm; W 3132cm; WS 102cm; WT 408421g. Amongst the largest of the pterodromas. Little sexual
dimorphism.
PlumaGe Forehead, feathers around bill, lower cheeks, chin and throat white. Forehead generally mottled with
dark feathers. Black hood extends from crown to below eye to sides of neck, forming smudgy tabs on sides
of breast. In fresh plumage back grey, contrasting with black head and darker rump, upperwings very dark,
paler secondaries and triangle on inner leading edge forming dark M across open wings less conspicuous than
Hawaiian. With wear, upperparts quite quickly become more uniform dark, greyish black. Uppertail and rump
rarely appear uniformly black. Uppertail when spread may show narrow white edges. Underbody white with
narrow black edges to tail. Often has dark mottling on flanks near armpit. Underwing mostly white with broad
dark trailing edge and comparatively large dark tip. Leading edge of the outer wing dark with large dark tickmark extending from elbow halfway to armpit. Bill black, eye dark, legs and feet flesh-pink, the distal twothirds of the webs black. Long breeding season makes ageing using moult and wear differences impossible for
Galpagos.
moult aND Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and the upperparts become darker with
wear, showing less scaling and less conspicuous M. Tail may also darken. Black plumage of breeding adults
acquires a brownish tinge late in breeding season due to abrasion. Moult body during chick-rearing, flight
feathers following breeding and dispersal.
IDeNtIFICatIoN See Hawaiian Petrel.
Cahow
Pterodroma cahow
otHer Name Bermuda Petrel
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endangered Bermudan endemic.
Plate 21
180
black-capped Petrel
Pterodroma hasitata
Plate 21
Jamaican Petrel
Pterodroma caribbaea
Plate 21
181
This disparate group includes four large species (Grey-faced, Great-winged, White-headed and Atlantic) and
members of the soft-plumaged group of four small to medium-sized species. Similarities in flight and call
suggest that Magenta is more closely related to Soft-plumaged than Grey-faced, to which it has previously been
aligned.
Things to look for when identifying dark-underwinged Pterodroma petrels (in order of priority):
Head colour
Extent of collar
Presence of white chin
Colour of undertail-coverts
Comparative tail length
SPECIES
Great-winged
Grey-faced
White-headed
Magenta
Soft-plumaged
Feas
Zinos
Atlantic
TOTAL LENGTH
(cm)
WING
(cm)
WINGSPAN
(cm)
WEIGHT
(g)
TAIL
(cm)
3840
4043
4046
38
34
35
35
43
29.332.0
29.633.2
29.133.2
29.830.8
23.326.3
26.127.3
24.125.4
30.734.3
97
102
109
102
89
95
83
104
440680
595740
580810
423507
250380
275355
175231
440595
12.3
13.2
11.7
12.9
10.8
10.6
10.5
13.8
Great-winged Petrel
Pterodroma macroptera
Taxonomy Great-winged often considered con-
Plate 12
182
for separation from that species. other dark pterodromas separated by uniformity of Great-wings plumage,
long wings, heavy bodied, bull-necked jizz and rounded head, powerful soaring flight and stout black bill. In
bright light, silvery flashes on underwing due to reflection can look like white patches of other species. Kerguelen
best eliminated by its smaller size, distinctive jizz and flight, overall silvery wash and pale leading edge to inner
underwing.
Grey-faced Petrel
Pterodroma gouldi
Plate 14
White-headed Petrel
Pterodroma lessonii
Plate 19
taxoNomy monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in colder subantarctic waters. Breeds (eggs NovemberDecember) on Crozet I.,
Kerguelen Is., Macquarie I., Auckland Is. and Antipodes I., and perhaps Prince Edward I. and Campbell I.
Forages south of breeding grounds in summer to the ice edge. disperses north throughout southern oceans to
30S but commonest in south Pacific. Rare South Africa and western Australia, more numerous in south-east
Australia, new Zealand and southwest south America.
beHavIour Solitary; may do a fly-by of boats, approaching them briefly to investigate, but rarely follows
ships or is attracted to trawlers. Strong, slow flight with typical Pterodroma dynamic soaring and frequent short
mollymawk-like glides even in strong breezes.
183
winged and Grey-faced. Very long wings and proportionally long, wedge-shaped tail; heavy bodied with
bull-neck and extremely stout bill and rounded head.
sIZe TL 4046cm; W 29.133.2cm; WS 109cm; WT
580810g. Largest Pterodroma with dark underwings.
Males slightly larger than females.
PlumaGe Most of face white with ill-defined small,
dark eye-stripe extending only a short distance in
front of and behind eye. Back of crown and hindneck
variably light grey in some, forming an indistinct
partial collar down the sides of the neck which
merges with mottled grey mantle and uniformly grey
back and inner upperwing. Rest of upperwing darker
brownish-grey with poorly defined darker M marking. Underwing uniformly blackish-grey, appearing black at
distance; base of outer flight feathers slightly lighter. Bill black; eye dark; and legs and feet fleshy-pink with dark
outer webs and toes. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season.
moult aND Wear Upperparts wear to uniform blackish-brown. Adults moult body feathers during chickrearing and flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (MaySeptember).
IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of white head and dark underwing unique. Most likely to be mistaken for equally
pale Southern Fulmar which should be easily distinguished by white underwing and dark tips to upperwing. At a
distance, Mottled Petrel has so much white on the face that in bright light it can look very white-headed. It also
has similar back coloration and jizz, especially when flying away from boat. White-headed is slightly larger and
has all-dark underwing.
magenta Petrel
Pterodroma magentae
otHer Name Chatham Island Taiko
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Critically endangered New Zealand
Plate 19
184
dark grey-brown (not chocolate-brown) above, with a larger bill and a longer, wider wedge-shaped tail. Magenta
more likely to have white on face and even show a short, white supercilium. Underside of outer flight feathers
of Magenta more silvery and reflective, appearing as pale flash on outer underwing. Atlantic easily recognised
by dark undertail. Soft-plumaged may look dark-hooded in poor light but is smaller, more compact and has grey
upperparts with dark M marking across open wings.
soft-plumaged Petrel
Pterodroma mollis
185
Feas Petrel
Pterodroma feae
Plate 21
Soft-plumaged Petrel.
Subtropical north-east Atlantic.
Breeds (eggs JulyAugust) on Fogo, Santo Anto,
So Nicolau and So Tiago (Cape Verdes group),
Bugio (Desertas Is., Madeira) and probably Azores
Is. Probably forages near breeding islands during
summer. Disperses across North Atlantic, with records
from eastern USA, Canada, Britain and Ireland.
beHavIour Solitary or in small groups but may form
flocks more than of 200 birds when foraging over
tuna. Not attracted to boats. Frequently sits on sea in
calm weather. In light winds, flight low and gliding
with occasional bursts of up to eight rapid wingbeats; in high winds, dynamic soars with wings held in characteristic sickle shape.
JIZZ Small, heavy bodied Pterodroma with wedge-shaped tail. Like Soft-plumaged, short neck gives an overall
compact shape, though more pointed tail makes it look longer. Wings frequently held bent at elbow.
sIZe TL 35cm; W 26.127.3cm; WS 95cm; WT 275355g. Marginally larger than Zinos.
PlumaGe Grey upperparts with darker primaries and dark M shape across spread wings. Pale forehead, dark
crown to below eye and dark hindneck that contrasts with paler back. Rump and uppertail pale grey with slightly
darker tail-tip. Underparts white, pale grey collar rarely extending far onto upper breast. Underwing dark with
triangle of white on inner leading edge, and pale bases to primaries that show up as white underwing patch in
some lights. Bill black, relatively heavy and short.
moult aND Wear Upperparts wear to more uniform blackish-brown with paler face, less distinct collar and
more obvious eye-patch and forehead. When extremely worn may show pale wing-bar on upperwing due to
exposed pale bases to flight feathers. Body moult occurs during chick-rearing. Adults moult flight feathers following breeding and dispersal.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Soft-plumaged is similar but most have a completely dark grey collar, paler crown with consequently more obvious dark eye-patch, darker grey uppertail and tail that is rounded rather than wedge-shaped. A few
Soft-plumaged Petrels do not have complete breast-band. Zinos is very similar; see that species for differences.
DIstrIbutIoN
Zinos Petrel
Pterodroma madeira
otHer Name Madeira Petrel
taxoNomy Formerly considered a subspecies of
Soft-plumaged Petrel.
Plate 21
186
atlantic Petrel
Pterodroma incerta
Plate 19
ProCeLLaria Petrels
The five species of Procellaria petrels are generally considered intermediate between the Calonectris shearwaters
and Pterodroma petrels, and have features common to both. Grey Petrel is the only member of the group with
white underparts and is readily identifiable by a combination of grey-brown upperparts, white underparts and
dark underwing. The identification of the other four black Procellaria petrels is more problematic; they are difficult to distinguish from other all-dark petrels and shearwaters, and separation from each other and from Fleshfooted Shearwater is often very difficult, especially when details of head and bill cannot be seen.
Separating black Procellaria petrels from other petrels and shearwaters Both Sooty and Short-tailed
Shearwaters have longer, thinner bills and long, narrow, stiffly-held wings. Typical flight consists of short bursts of
rapid wingbeats between glides. Sooty has pale flashes on underwings.
nostril or nares
Grey-faced and Great-winged Petrels have stout, dark bills and, close
naricorn
up, the pale face of Grey-faced is diagnostic. Separation at a distance
culminicorn
depends on recognising the high arcing flight of the two dark
Pterodroma petrels and their longer, sickle-shaped wings. Dark
subtropical Pterodroma petrels are separable by the presence of
white flashes in the outer upper- or underwing.
maxillary unguis
Separating black Procellaria petrels from
each other and Flesh-footed Shearwater At a
distance, Parkinsons Petrel and Flesh-footed
Shearwater are c. 1015% smaller than Westland and
White-chinned Petrels. Spectacled is the same size as
White-chinned but may look slimmer. Parkinsons
collectively
ungues
sulcus
latericorn
mandibular unguis
ramicorn
187
more slender head and neck may allow recognition, as may Flesh-footed Shearwaters smaller head, slimmer
body, longer bill and narrower, shorter wings. Close up, Spectacled is easily distinguished by white patches on
head, although in some birds these are small. White-chinned can be separated by pale tip to bill. A few Parkinsons
and Westland Petrels can have very little dark on the bill-tip, but they very rarely look as pale as White-chinneds
bill-tip. When present, white on the chin is diagnostic but most White-chinned in the south Pacific have little or
no white on chin. Parkinsons is difficult to separate from Westland even under the best conditions; Parkinsons
is smaller, longer-necked and less bulky, and sits lower on water. Shape of bill is useful, Parkinsons having longer
nostrils and a shorter latericorn. On average, Parkinsons has more yellow on the distal edges of the ungues, so
there is often a yellow patch between them, creating the appearance of a black tip, rather than a black upper bill
surface. Flesh-footed Shearwater can be distinguished from all Procellaria petrels by pink (not black) feet; bill looks
longer and slimmer with smaller nostrils, and is pinkish-yellow with a darker tip.
White-chinned Petrel
Procellaria aequinoctialis
Plate 28
spectacled Petrel
Procellaria conspicillata
Plate 28
the area year-round. Disperse to southeast South America as far north as central Brazil and Benguela Current
of Namibia and southwest South Africa. Vagrant to Indian Ocean, where reported from Amsterdam I. and
Australia.
beHavIour Gregarious; frequently follows fishing boats and forages in the wake of trawlers, sometimes in
188
Parkinsons Petrel
Procellaria parkinsoni
Plate 29, 30
189
yellow, especially on proximal edges of ungues. Some juveniles have so little black on bill-tip that they are difficult
to tell from White-chinned. Ungues, sulcus and culminicorn gradually darken with age.
moult aND Wear When plumage is worn in JuneAugust, some individuals can appear two-toned with variably
brown coverts contrasting with darker flight feathers. Adults moult after breeding, immatures probably moult
24 months earlier.
IDeNtIFICatIoN See introduction to Procellaria petrels on p.187.
Westland Petrel
Procellaria westlandica
Plate 29
subspecies of Parkinsons.
190
Grey Petrel
Procellaria cinerea
Plates 29, 32
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in cold waters of southern
sHearWaters
larger shearwaters
The large shearwaters are separated into two genera, Calonectris and Puffinus. When seen well, Calonectris shearwaters can be separated readily from all other shearwaters and petrels by the combination of scruffy brown
plumage, pale underwing and undertail and presence of yellow or horn-coloured bill. Calonectris are most likely
to be confused with Grey Petrel, pale-phase Wedge-tailed Shearwater, and Pink-footed, Great and Bullers
Shearwaters, though ranges of some of these species do not overlap. The anomalous, medium-sized Christmas
Island Shearwater is tentatively included in this group.
SPECIES
Corys diomedea
Corys borealis
Cape Verde
Streaked
Wedge-tailed
Bullers
Flesh-footed
Pink-footed
Great
Sooty
Short-tailed
Christmas Island
TOTAL LENGTH
(cm)
WING
(cm)
WINGSPAN
(cm)
WEIGHT
(g)
TAIL
(cm)
c.46
48
34
48
4647
4346
4648
4648
4651
4046
4045
3538
33.935.2
35.838.0
29.832.1
29.332.4
27.331.0
28.530.9
30.934.0
32.134.2
32.134.2
26.031.8
26.128.8
24.026.0
113
125
122
9799
96102
110120
110117
108115
94105
95100
7181
605-1060
468538
320510
385490
533750
720
715950
650950
480800
354
11.513.0
12.114.0
11.313.1
13.213.7
11.914.5
11.913.7
10.611.2
11.412.2
10.912.6
8.610.1
7.49.1
8.89.5
191
When details of head, bill and feet cannot be seen, the large dark shearwaters are very difficult to tell apart and
can also be confused with the dark Procellaria petrels. With experience, the shearwaters have a different jizz, being
slighter and more likely to fly in graceful arcs in heavy winds, or shear low over waves in moderate winds.
Corys shearwater
Calonectris diomedea
Plate 33
Race diomedea (Mediterranean) Forehead and crown, area around eye and ear, dark grey, mottled white
around edges. In fresh plumage and in some lights looks to have distinct cap contrasting with hind neck
and back, but when plumage worn or light poor cap may not be apparent. Hind neck, sides of neck and
sides of breast, light sooty-grey brown. Chin and throat white with grey wash in fresh plumage. Mantle,
back, scapulars and uppertail grey-brown, scapulars with paler fringes when fresh; lower back, dark grey
brown; uppertail invariably has traces of pale U-shaped mark formed by pale tips to uppertail-coverts in
fresh plumage and pale bases to coverts that become more prominent in worn plumage. Tail dark brown.
Underparts including undertail white; dark tail feathers contrast with white undertail-coverts. Upperwing has
darker flight feathers; in fresh plumage, coverts may have pale fringes and an indistinct, dark brown M across
open wings grows more obvious. Underwing mainly white, with broad, dark trailing edge and dark wing tip
with paler bases to the primaries. Bill is horn-yellow with dark tip; eye dark brown; legs and feet variable, dark
to fleshy pink. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season (May) and may
be freshly moulted by November.
Race borealis (Atlantic) Darker on mantle and head than diomedea, usually looks dark capped. Underwing,
larger dark tip caused by dark bases to primaries.
moult aND Wear With wear, pale tips to feathers of mantle and wings lost, collar becomes less prominent and
brown plumage becomes lighter. When extremely worn may show pale wing-bar due to exposed pale bases to
flight feathers on upper wing. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers following breeding and
dispersal (NovMar).
IDeNtIFICatIoN Cape Verde Shearwater is smaller than Corys, with a slighter build and more shearwaterlike jizz. Bill slighter and darker showing less contrast between tip and rest of bill, appearing uniform grey at a
distance. Corys of the nominate race diomedia are slightly smaller than borealis with a less extensive dark tip to
the underwing, and usually a paler head. Great Shearwater has a faster wing beats, more obvious dark marks on
underwing, well defined dark cap, dark patch on belly and darker bill. Streaked Shearwater looks similar but has
a paler mottled head and grey bill, and its range rarely overlaps with Corys Shearwater. All other shearwaters
with white underparts are much smaller and darker on the upperparts. Immature gulls can look similar but fly
higher above the water and, in all but high winds, constantly flap wings.
192
Plate 33
streaked shearwater
Calonectris leucomelas
Plate 33
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN North-west Pacific. Breeds (eggs May
193
heavy towards the neck and hind crown, highlighting white eye-ring. Chin, throat and foreneck mostly white,
rarely streaked. Mantle, back, scapulars, rump and uppertail dark brown with white tips to feathers in fresh
plumage; uppertail has traces of pale U-shaped mark formed by pale bases to coverts that become more
prominent with wear. Tail dark brown. Underparts white, with variable dark brown partial collar from hindneck
onto sides of neck and upper breast; undertail white with narrow blackish tip. Upperwing has dark brown flight
feathers and paler coverts with white fringes and indistinct darker brown M when fresh. Underwing mainly
white, with black-brown flight feathers, dark smudge on leading edge of outerwing and broad dark tip. Bill, horn
with smudgy-grey tip; eye dark; legs and feet flesh-pink. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during
early breeding season (May) and may be freshly moulted by November.
moult aND Wear With wear, pale tips to feathers of mantle and wings lost, and brown plumage becomes
lighter. When extremely worn may show pale wing-bar due to exposed pale bases to flight feathers on upperwing.
Adults moult body during chick rearing, flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (NovemberMarch).
IDeNtIFICatIoN Resembles Corys Shearwater in jizz and plumage but weighs less and has longer, narrower
bill. Only in very poor views would separation be a problem as recognisable by paler head and pale fringes to the
feathers of the upperparts giving a greyer, scaly appearance. Diagnostic dark smudge on palm of the underwing
(white in Corys). Bullers Shearwater may occur in the same area but is recognised by slightly smaller size,
distinct M across back, lack of any dark markings on underwings and dark bill. Immature gulls can look similar
but fly higher above the water and, in all but high winds, constantly flap wings.
Wedge-tailed shearwater
Puffinus pacificus
and Indian Oceans. Breeding season varies considerably throughout range with southernmost birds
in Kermadec Is. breeding OctoberMay, those in
Hawaii breeding AprilNovember and some equatorial populations apparently having two peaks, with
individuals having either Northern or Southern
Hemisphere schedules. Weakly migratory, absent
from breeding islands during non-breeding season;
probably migrates to central northern and eastern
Pacific but migratory route poorly documented.
beHavIour Most commonly observed on shelf break.
Feeds solitarily or in small groups, diving to up to 30m in pursuit of fish, squid and krill. Rarely attracted to chum
and seldom observed behind fishing trawlers. Very leisurely shearwatering flight pattern of flap-flap-glide ...
flap-flap-glide. Flight more leisurely than most other shearwaters, more like that of Procellaria petrels.
JIZZ Head appears slightly rounded with a pronounced forehead joining a slender, comparatively long, dark bill.
Long broad wings, which appear to be slightly rounded at tips. Tail looks long and distinctly wedge-shaped at tip.
Dark feet occasionally show outside plumage or projecting beyond tail but more often than not they are tucked
up in feathers so identification using foot colour is impossible.
sIZe TL 4647cm; W 28.530.6cm; WS 9799cm; WT 320510g. Moderately sized shearwater with similar
dimensions to small dark-headed gulls. Male on average only slightly larger than female but measurements
overlap considerably.
PlumaGe Dimorphic.
Dark morph Dark brown all over. Freshly moulted birds and juveniles may appear almost black. All ages
have faintly reflective surfaces to underside of flight feathers that, from a distance in strong light, may look
like pale underwing feathers of Sooty Shearwater.
Pale morph Brown above with indistinct brown M across wings and back, darker on tail and cap. Upperparts
can have broad paler edges to feathers or appear almost uniformly dark brown. Underparts white with some
darker smudging under tail. Underwing white, broad dark trailing edge and darker tip with variable smudgy
markings in centre. Intermediate birds with dark smudgy sides to head, upper breast, flanks and undertail
also occur. Adult bill mostly dark brown with dark horn base to lower mandible. Flaking on nostrils and bill
tip can make these areas appear paler from a distance. Immature bill same as adult but usually smoother with
slightly paler edges to lower mandible. In hand, bill of fledglings can appear blue at base.
194
moult aND Wear Majority undergo leisurely moult of flight feathers one at a time during non-breeding
season. Therefore, seldom show large steps or gaps in flight feathers. Plumage wear and stage of moult
useful to age individuals and indicate their breeding areas. During non-breeding period, non-moulting,
fresh-plumaged birds would be juveniles, birds moulting their flight feathers adults. Birds late in their 1st
year appear worn when breeders are in fresh plumage. For example, in the Kermadec population birds in
worn plumage in period SeptemberNovember would be juveniles, whilst those that are in active wing-moult
in FebruaryApril would be 2nd-year birds from this or other populations that follow the Southern Hemisphere
breeding schedule.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Dark morph Among dark shearwaters and petrels most readily recognised by slight frame
and long wedge-shaped tail. Flesh-footed Shearwater readily distinguished in good light, even at a distance, by
pinkish bill and close up by flesh-coloured legs. Sooty Shearwater distinguished by silvery flash on underwing and
both Sooty and Short-tailed Shearwaters separated by shorter, less pointed tails and narrower, straighter wings.
However note that in strong light, like many other dark petrels and shearwaters, undersides of flight feathers
of Wedge-tailed Shearwater do reflect light, so care must be taken with this character. Typical Pterodroma flight
patterns can distinguish species such as Bulwers, Grey-faced, Great-winged and Kerguelen Petrels. The greatest
identification challenge is separating dark-morph Wedge-tailed from Christmas Island Shearwater. Christmas
Island Shearwater is slightly smaller than Wedge-tailed with short, rounded tail, a shorter, stubbier bill and proportionally longer, narrower wings.
Pale morph Best told from Bullers Shearwater by absence of well-defined M on back, smaller size with
proportionately longer bill, and dark trailing edge and tip to underwing. Great Shearwater has not been recorded
in same range but has well-defined dark cap, smudgy marking on underwing and belly and white crescent on
upper tail. See also Pink-footed Shearwater.
bullers shearwater
Puffinus bulleri
Plate 32
195
Flesh-footed shearwater
Puffinus carneipes
taxoNomy Sometimes considered to form a super-
Plates 29, 30
196
Pink-footed shearwater
Puffinus creatopus
Plate 32
197
Great shearwater
Puffinus gravis
Plate 32
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Breeds
198
Short-tailed
Shearwater
sooty shearwater
short-tailed shearwater
Flat-headed appearance
sooty shearwater
Puffinus griseus
Plates 14, 31
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Ubiquitous in all oceans. Breeds
(eggs NovemberDecember) on temperate and subantarctic islands of New Zealand, south-west South
America, Falkland Is., Tristan da Cunha group and
Australia. Forages from breeding grounds along
South Polar front. Transequatorial migration (May
to September); majority of population apparently
flies to waters off Japan in June, south of Aleutians in
July and the Californian Current in August, although
numbers at the last may be lower than in former years.
Small numbers, possibly from Falklands and Staten Is.
migrate to North Atlantic, reaching 60N.
beHavIour Most commonly observed in shelf and
littoral waters, sometimes feeding in wave break. However, also found in huge flocks along subantarctic frontal
zone. Not generally found in colder Arctic or Antarctic waters, the majority of dark shearwaters in Bering Sea
being Short-tailed, and early records of huge flocks along the Antarctic ice edge also likely to have been Shorttailed Shearwaters. Readily attracted to chum or offal, descending in large flocks on fishing trawlers. Huge flocks
are seen around breeding islands, especially in morning and evening. Feed in packs, leap-frogging one another
in noisy, frantic chaos and diving up to 60m in pursuit of fish, squid and krill.
JIZZ Medium-large, dark shearwater with typical shearwatering flight pattern of flap-flap-flap-glide down
into a wave trough then up out again then flap-flap-flap-glide. Wingbeats brisk. Head appears angular and
flattened with no obvious forehead adjoining long, narrow bill. Long but narrow wings make body appear bulky.
In flight, feet rarely project beyond slightly wedged-shaped tail.
sIZe TL 4046cm; W 26.031.8cm; WS 94105cm; WT 650950g. Deceptively large shearwater with similar
dimensions to larger gulls but less bulky. Male on average only slightly larger than female but considerable
overlap in measurements.
199
PlumaGe In worn plumage predominantly chocolate-brown with a slightly darker brown cap and collar. Freshly
moulted birds and juveniles have a greyish tone to dark brown plumage. All ages have pale panel on underwing,
mainly made up of white on primary-coverts and bases of outer secondary-coverts. Tips to secondary-coverts
are variably marked with brown giving appearance of three parallel brown stripes that join up with mostly dark
axillaries. Some authors have speculated that variation in amount of white on underwing may be due to age
but large sample of freshly fledged birds from Snares I. turned out to be similar to adults. Adult bill mostly dark
brown with dark-horn base to lower mandible. Flaking on nostrils and bill tip can make these areas appear paler
from a distance. Immature bill same as adult but usually smoother with slightly paler edges to lower mandible.
In hand, bill of some fledglings may look blue at base. Legs and feet, pinkish-black.
moult aND Wear Majority undergo flight-feather moult in Northern Hemisphere with large numbers of
feathers lost at once, creating large steps or gaps in wing and severely compromising ability to fly. In northern
summer, non-moulting fresh-plumaged birds will be juveniles; those moulting flight feathers will be adults. Birds
in worn plumage in SeptemberNovember and those that are actively in wing moult in FebruaryApril may be
2nd-year birds. Timing of moult can be useful in separating Short-tailed from Sooty Shearwater. Adult Sooty
Shearwaters moult body plumage from JanuaryMarch during chick-rearing whilst Short-tailed Shearwaters
wait until they reach the Northern Hemisphere in May. Thus birds with moulting, mottled body plumage during
JanuaryMarch are more likely to be Sooty Shearwaters and those moulting body plumage MayJuly are more
likely to be Short-tailed Shearwater.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Among dark shearwaters and petrels instantly separated from all but the few Short-tailed Shearwaters with whitish underwings by pale underwing flashes. See table for separation from Short-tailed. Some
individuals of Heinroths Shearwater may also have mostly dark underparts and pale underwings but this species
is only half the size of Sooty Shearwater. In most dark shearwaters and petrels, shiny surfaces to otherwise dark
underwing flight feathers and coverts can look like pale patches in strong, contrasting light. It is a good idea to
watch a bird for as long as possible to ensure that an apparently pale underwing is not just caused by reflection.
In good light, pale bill of Flesh-footed Shearwater and dark Procellaria petrels should be visible at considerable
distance; otherwise for dark procellarias, stout body and broad wings are helpful. At great distance flight pattern
can distinguish species such as Grey-faced, Great-winged and Kerguelen Petrel. Dark-phase Wedge-tailed
Shearwater can be recognised by long, narrow bill, long neck, wedge-shaped tail and dark underwings.
short-tailed shearwater
Puffinus tenuirostris
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Pacific and southern Indian Oceans.
Plate 31
200
primary-coverts suffused with variable brown speckling, and greater secondary-coverts variably marked brown.
A few birds have white on median and/or lesser secondary-coverts so underwing looks pale like Sooty. Bill dark
brown; legs and feet pinkish-grey.
moult aND Wear Majority undergo flight feather moult in Northern Hemisphere with large numbers of
feather lost at once, creating large steps or gaps in wing and severely compromising ability to fly. In northern
summer, non-moulting fresh-plumaged birds will be juveniles; those moulting flight feathers will be adults. Birds
in worn plumage in SeptemberNovember and those that are actively in wing moult in FebruaryApril are likely
to be 2nd-year birds. Timing of moult can be useful in separating Short-tailed from Sooty Shearwater. Adult
Sooty Shearwaters moult body plumage from JanuaryMarch during chick-rearing whilst Short-tailed Shearwaters wait until they reach the Northern Hemisphere in May. Thus birds with moulting, mottled body plumage
during JanuaryMarch are probably Sooty Shearwaters, while those moulting body plumage in MayJuly are
more likely to be Short-tailed Shearwater.
IDeNtIFICatIoN All but the few birds with whitish underwings are separable from Sooty Shearwater by dark
underwings. See table above for separation from Sooty. There are many other similar, all-dark petrels and shearwaters with dark underwings, and it is worth learning Short-taileds jizz: narrow-winged, stumpy-tailed and
short-billed, with gliding flight interspersed with short bursts of brisk wingbeats. Short-tailed is dark-billed, and
smaller and less bulky than the three dark Procellaria petrels and Flesh-footed Shearwater. Dark-phase Wedgetailed is longer in bill and tail, has broader wings held angled back at carpal and a more leisurely flight. Christmas
Island Shearwater tends to fly lower, is smaller with slightly broader wings and paler wash to flight feathers of
underwing, yet may be difficult to distinguish when ranges overlap in central Pacific.
Plate 30
201
less pointed than Short-tailed. In stronger winds, flight lower than Sooty and Short-tailed which fly in higher,
careening arcs. Differs from dark-morph Wedge-tailed by smaller size; darker brown overall plumage, narrower
wings with shorter tail; and stiffer, rapid wingbeats. In stronger winds Christmas Island flies higher than Wedgetailed which keeps close to surface of sea. Best separated from mostly dark Heinroths Shearwater by larger size,
dark underwing, absence of any white on belly and dark (not pink) legs and feet.
manx-type shearwaters
Slightly larger than the Little/Audubons group, these medium-sized shearwaters have brown upperparts (darkest
in Manx), white or scruffy pale brownish underparts and relatively small, inconspicuous white tabs that reach up
onto the sides of the rump. Newells and Townsends are sometimes considered members of this group, as they
have pinkish, not blue, legs, but we have included them within the Little/Audubons group as, in fresh plumage,
they have more prominent white tabs on the sides of the rump and blacker upperparts.
Range can help to identify members of this group:
Subtropical north Pacific = Black-vented
Subtropical, temperate south Pacific = Fluttering and Huttons
Atlantic, other than subantarctic = Manx and Balearic
Mediterranean = Yelkouan and Balearic
In order of importance, the most useful features for identification of the species in this group are:
Size is not overly useful as measurements often overlap, but length of wing and tail relative to each other and to
body length can be helpful:
SPECIES
TOTAL LENGTH
(cm)
WING
(cm)
WINGSPAN
(cm)
WEIGHT
(g)
TAIL
(cm)
3035
3036
3438
3538
3237
3638
22.624.3
22.024.3
23.425.4
23.125.2
18.022.1
20.323.3
7183
7388
8393
82
76
7278
350575
330485
472565
332 545
230415
242378
7.5
7.3
7.2
8.0
6.2
6.5
Manx
Yelkouan
Balearic
Black-vented
Fluttering
Huttons
manx shearwater
Puffinus puffinus
Plate 35
202
on rigid, straight wings, interspersed with short bursts of brisk flapping; during each flap wings usually rise above
the body. In strong winds flaps less and dynamic soars to 1015m above waves.
JIZZ Long-bodied, long-winged shearwater with long, relatively stout bill and comparatively long tail.
sIZe TL 3035cm; W 22.624.3cm; WS 7183cm; WT 350575g.
PlumaGe Forehead and crown brown-black, the dark colour extending to below eye and to base of bill, merging
seamlessly with dark upperparts, which contrast sharply with pure white underparts. Juveniles and fresh-plumaged
birds blacker. Chin, throat and lower cheeks white, usually with small white crescent extending upwards into
black behind ear. Small black thigh patch and thin, dark rim to undertail. When rump and uppertail are worn in
late summer, white may appear to extend upwards onto sides of rump, but rarely as noticeably as white tabs of
Audubons. Underwing entirely white except for indistinct, somewhat variably sized, triangle of dark feathers on
inner wing. Sexes similar though breeding adults, especially males, can have small white feathers in neck, crown
and nape (filoplumes). Bill black with lower mandible paler, greyish, or bluish-grey; eye dark; legs and feet pale
flesh and black.
moult aND Wear Dark plumage less prone than other members of the group to fade to brown, but adults
still browner than newly fledged juveniles. Adults begin slow wing-moult after transequatorial migration (SeptemberOctober) and finish by JanuaryMarch. Immatures begin moult earlier and can be easily recognised by
fresh plumage during breeding season.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Greatest challenge is separating Manx from Balearic and Yelkouan. Balearic is slightly larger
with shorter tail and projecting feet but is best separated by browner upperparts, smudgy-brown on underparts,
dark undertail, dusky inner underwing and dark partial collar. Yelkouan is intermediate in plumage between
Manx and Balearic and best separated from Manx by browner upperparts, dusky undertail and more distinct
dark triangle on inner underwing. In tropics Audubons may cause difficulties. Pure white undertail of Manx
usually diagnostic, but some Caribbean Audubons may show a pale undertail. Audubons usually shows white
tabs where the white of the undersides encroaches onto the rump. Only in worn Manx does this feature show
and it is rarely as prominent. Manx is about 10% larger with a proportionately shorter tail and longer wings,
has slower wingbeats, with longer periods of gliding and banking. Macaronesian Shearwater, the range of which
overlaps in parts of the eastern Atlantic, has a shorter bill and wings and more flapping flight, very low to the
water with wings held slightly bowed, rarely rising above body. Macaronesian also has white face.
yelkouan shearwater
Puffinus yelkouan
Plate 35
203
balearic shearwater
Puffinus mauretanicus
Plate 35
black-vented shearwater
Puffinus opisthomelas
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endemic Mexican breeding species.
Plate 34
204
PlumaGe Dull brown on crown and forehead extends below eye, merging with pale brown chin, throat, ears,
sides of neck and upper breast forming partial or occasionally complete collar or breast band. Dark head merges
seamlessly with dull brown back, upper wing, rump and uppertail. Underparts mostly white with brownish
undertail-coverts and variable amounts of brown mottling on flanks. Darker birds may show completely
brownish breast band, dark head and neck, and more rarely, underparts washed uniform, pale grey. Underwing
mostly white with broad dark trailing edge and tip formed by dark flight feathers and a narrower dark leading
edge. Armpit variably smudged brown with dark line running from inner hindwing towards elbow. Bill black; eye
dark; legs and feet light yellowish-flesh with paler webs.
moult aND Wear Brown plumage becomes paler and scruffier with wear. Breeders begin moult mid-May,
most in moult by mid-June and July. Non-breeders and immatures moult earlier and have fresh plumage during
breeding season.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Townsends and Newells are black- not brown-backed, with strong, neat demarcation between
upperparts and pure-white underparts and prominent white flank patches. Like Black-vented, Galpagos does
not have prominent white flank patches but can be recognised by smaller size and jizz: shorter, rather rounded
wings, longer wedge shaped tail and more fluttering flight. Manx rarely occurs in same range, is darker backed
with cleaner white underparts and whiter undertail.
Fluttering shearwater
Puffinus gavia
Plate 36
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endemic New Zealand breeder.
205
that Flutterings dark thigh patch, or moult, can make it appear as though it has white tabs at a distance. Little and
Subantarctic Little are smaller and blacker above, with shorter, stubbier, rounded little wings, a short tail and flight
more like diving petrel, regularly flapping wings and gliding short distances.
Huttons shearwater
Puffinus huttoni
Plate 36
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand endemic, breeding (eggs
The classification of this group has been one of the great problems in petrel and shearwater taxonomy.
Traditional taxonomies have been based on the extent of dark on the undertail-coverts, extent of dark on the
face, morphometrics (tail length in particular) and leg colour. Austin et al. (2004) provided a new molecular phylogeny that we have chosen to follow in the most part. However, there are some exceptions. Contra Austin et al.
we have chosen to recognise Subantarctic Little Shearwater Puffinus elegans as a separate species, due to its different biology and appearance. We also recognise Macaronesian Shearwater P. baroli based on the most recent
ruling by the BOU. Austin et al.s finding that Galpagos Shearwater P. subalaris may be more closely related to
Christmas Island Shearwater P. nativitatis is surprising, given the traditional taxonomic view that subalaris is a subspecies of Audubons. This taxon unquestionably deserves full specific status, but we include it here among the
Little/Audubons Shearwaters due to the similarality in jizz of this species to the members of this group.
206
Manx group, including P. newelli newelli and P. n. myrtae (formerly a race of Audubons)
Bannermans P. bannermani
P. bailloni dichrous (including nicolae, colstoni, polynesiae)
Tropical P. bailloni bailloni
Arabian
P. persicus persicus
P. persicus temptator
Heinroths P. heinrothi
Macaronesian P. baroli
Audubons
P. lherminieri lherminieri
P. lherminieri boydi
P. assimilis tunneyi
P. assimilis assimilis
Little
P. assimilis kermadecensis
P. assimilis haurakiensis
Thus we recognise:
Puffinus elegans Subantarctic Little Shearwater
Pacific and Atlantic.
Bollans Is., Antipodes I. and Star Keys, Chatham Is., New Zealand; Gough I., Inaccessible I.,
Nightingale I., Tristan da Cunha group.
P. assimilis Little Shearwater
Pacific Ocean
P. a. assimilis Lord Howe I. and Norfolk I.
P. a. kermadecensis Kermadec Is.
P. a. haurakiensis Islands off North Island of New Zealand.
Indian Ocean
P. a. tunneyi Amsterdam I. and St Paul I. and Roche Quille, as well as the Abrolhos group and other
islands off western Australia (in Leeuwin Current).
P. baroli Macaronesian Shearwater
Atlanctic Ocean Azores, Madeira, Canary Is., Desertas, Salvage Is.
P. lherminieri Audubons Shearwater
Caribbean/North Atlantic
P. l. lherminieri Bahamas and West Indies
P. l. loyemilleri Caribbean Islands to Venezuela
Atlantic Ocean
P. l. boydi Cape Verde Is.
P. bannermani Bannermans Shearwater
Pacific Ocean Bonin Is.
P. persicus Arabian Shearwater
Arabian Sea
P. p. persicus
Indian Ocean
P. p. temptator Comoro Is.
207
All are very similar; small, basically black-and-white shearwaters with thin, long, dark bills, white tabs on the
sides of the rump and short, relatively rounded wings.
Range is helpful for identification:
Tropical Pacific = Newells, Tropical, Galpagos, Townsends
Subtropical North Pacific = Newells, Townsends, Bannermans
Subtropical South Pacific = Newells, Little, Heinroths
Tropical Indian = Tropical, Persian
Subtropical Indian = Little, Persian
Atlantic (other than subantarctic) = Audubons, Macaronesian
Subantarctic = Subantarctic Little
Once the presence of white tabs on sides of rump is established, useful features in order of importance are:
extent of dark on undertail
extent of dark on face
tail length
leg colour
Size is not overly useful in the field but relative measurements of tail length to total length may help:
SPECIES
Subantarctic Little
Little
Macaronesian
Audubons
Bannermans
Arabian
Tropical
Galpagos
Newells
Townsends
Heinroths
TOTAL LENGTH
(cm)
WING
(cm)
WINGSPAN
(cm)
WEIGHT
(g)
TAIL
(cm)
2530
2728
28
2931
30
33
31
2931
3235
3436
27
17.019.7
17.119.5
17.019.0
18.021.6
20.621.9
20.0
18.721.3
18.120.3
22.324.9
22.023.8
19.0
5867
5867
5867
6973
71
69
69
63
7782
7278
226275
220260
6.37.3
6.67.0
6.77.8
8.7
7.8
6.97.4
7.48.6
6.37.7
8.28.4
7.6
197301
(130 fledgling)
210
168217
123225
342425
290358
Plates 36, 37
Keys and Little Mangere (Chatham Is.) and Antipodes I. and Gough I. and Tristan da Cunha group. Forages
208
little shearwater
Puffinus assimilis
Plates 36, 37
209
regularly overlap, except possibly with Tropical. Tropical is slightly larger and heavier with longer bill, wing and
tail, darker face, slightly browner (though still blackish) upperparts, dark undertail and a duskier underwing with
a broader dark trailing edge. Subantarctic Little can only easily be separated at close range, by darker face and
(usually) larger, dark collar.
macaronesian shearwater
Puffinus baroli
Plates 35, 37
audubons shearwater
Puffinus lherminieri
Plates 3437
taxoNomy See discussion above. We recognise three subspecies: P. l. lherminieri in north Caribbean; marginally
distinct P. l. loyemilleri in south and south-west Caribbean; and P. l. boydi on Cape Verde Is. Given the similarity of
boydi to nominate and loyemilleri, its inclusion within Macaronesian as suggested by Sangster et al. (2005), based
on Austin et al. (2004), is not recommended. See discussion above (p.206).
DIstrIbutIoN Tropical and subtropical Atlantic. Breeds year round. P. l. lherminieri breeds on Bermuda
(Bahamas), Saba Key, Virgin Is., Guadaloupe, Diserade, some Leeward Is. Rocher du Diamant, Martinique,
Bird Rock, Barbados, some smaller islets of the Grenadines (Lesser Antilles) and islets off Porto Rico. P. l. loyemilleri breeds year round on southwestern islets on Caribbean coast of Panama; islets off Providentia I., east of
Nicaragua, and Los Roques Is. off Venezuela. P. l. boydi breeds year round on Cape Verde Is. Probably mainly
sedentary but may move north and northeast into Atlantic. Recorded with increasing regularity off eastern
seaboard of US whilst records from Europe controversial.
beHavIour Generally solitary when searching for food but can form large foraging groups diving for prey. Often
seen on water. Not attracted to ships and rarely attracted to offal or chum. In light winds, flight 46 stiff wingbeats
followed by a short glide low over sea. In stronger winds, glides more often and flies higher above surface.
210
bannermans shearwater
Puffinus bannermani
Plate 37
211
arabian shearwater
Puffinus persicus
Plate 37
tropical shearwater
Puffinus bailloni
Plate 37
212
beHavIour Solitary and pelagic, generally ignoring boats. In light winds, flies with slower wingbeats than Little,
interspersed with low shearwatering glides; in stronger winds, glides rise and fall rhythmically.
JIZZ Similar to Audubons. Small compact shearwater with relatively short, broad, rounded wings.
sIZe TL 31cm; W 18.721.3cm; WS 69cm; WT 168217g. Smaller than Manx, similar to Audubons, slightly
larger than Little with comparatively longer wings, tail and bill.
PlumaGe Forehead, crown, hind-neck, mantle, back, rump and uppertail uniformly sooty-black. Black on head
extends to just below eye and includes dark feathering on ears and feathers against upper bill. Upperparts mostly
well demarcated from white underparts, but grey mottling on lower ear-coverts. Fore-neck, throat, breast and
flanks white with dark thigh patches and usually comparatively substantial mottled, black collar. Upperwings
black with white tips to feathers in fresh plumage lost with wear. Undertail colour variable within populations;
can be either entirely white (Runion) or entirely dark (majority of population on Seychelles) or intermediate
with paler central undertail (e.g. Aldabra). Underwing white, with dark trailing edge and tip due to dark flight
feathers, comparatively wide, slightly smudgy leading edge and variable dark markings on centre of inner wing.
Bill grey with blue base to upper mandible and mostly blue-grey lower mandible; eye dark; inner leg and toes
blue; rest of legs and feet black with pinkish webs.
moult aND Wear Browner when worn. Due to lack of breeding season, moult may be seen at any time of year
and thus not useful for ageing.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Difficult to distinguish from Arabian but Tropicals upperparts, in all but very worn plumage,
blacker, underwing likely to be lighter, and flanks usually white. Individuals with white undertail most difficult
to distinguish from members of the Manx group but smaller with shorter, rounder wing, blacker upperparts
and more prominent white tabs that reach up onto rump. Black of crown surrounds eye giving darker-faced
appearance than any species in Manx group. Especially good views may allow Tropicals bluish legs to be seen.
Those with partially dark undertails may be difficult to separate from Newells, but Tropical is smaller, rounderwinged with darker leading edge to underwing and more prominent collar. Those with dark undertail are smaller
and rounder-winged than Townsends but very difficult to distinguish from Audubons. Tropical has blacker
upperparts, except when plumage very worn, and dark face with dark feathering along edge of upper mandible.
However, exceptionally good views are required and in many cases individuals may not be identifiable. See
Galpagos for separation off Mexico.
Galpagos shearwater
Puffinus subalaris
Plates 34, 37
213
Newells shearwater
Puffinus newelli
Plate 34
townsends shearwater
Puffinus auricularis
Plate 34
Newells.
214
PlumaGe Chin, throat and lower cheeks white. Forehead, crown, ears, area immediately below eye to base
of upper mandible and nape blackish-brown with short, wide, mottled collar. Head merges seamlessly with
blackish-brown upperparts, upperwing and tail. Underparts white, with black thigh patch. White on flanks
extends as narrow tabs up onto sides of rump. Undertail blackish-brown with variable amounts of white around
vent and white fringes to feathers when fresh. Underwing mainly white, with broad dark trailing edge and tip
formed by dark flight feathers, narrow black leading edge and narrow, indistinct dark diagonal bar in centre of
underwing. Bill and eye black; legs and feet flesh with dark edges and pink webs.
moult aND Wear Black plumage becomes browner with wear. Adults moult SeptemberNovember. Nonbreeders and immatures may be recognised by earlier moult and fresh plumage during breeding season.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Difficult to distinguish from Newells. Townsends tends to have more dark markings on
underwing and has a shorter tail with more uniformly dark undertail-coverts. Newells has more white on the
centre of the undertail. When seen well, facial pattern more sharply demarcated in Newells with prominent
white crescent curling up behind eye and no dark collar. Moult also useful, with adult Townsends in wing moult
SeptemberNovember whilst Newells moult wing DecemberFebruary. Tropical Shearwater of the north-east
Pacific is smaller with short, rounder-winged jizz and in fresh plumage has white fringes to dark feathers of
upperparts. Black-vented is slightly heavier and thus more podgy-looking, lacks the white rump tabs, and is
much browner and scruffier on head, breast, undertail and underwing. Other members of Manx group lack the
white flank patches or tabs, have whiter undertail and slightly browner upperparts. Pale-morph Wedge-tailed is
larger, has browner, less uniform upperparts and leisurely flight. Pink-footed is much larger, also has browner, less
uniform upperparts and longer, broader wings.
Heinroths shearwater
Puffinus heinrothi
Plate 30
DIvING-Petrels
Diving-petrels are short, compact birds with very dense plumage. The tail and wings are short, and the latter are
rather paddle-like, presumably an adaptation to propulsion under water. Inshore, rather than pelagic, birds. Seen
at sea either singly or in small groups. At rest, float high on the water. In flight, they whirr along in straight lines
close to the water, travelling straight through waves without hesitation. Wingbeats faster than Little Shearwater.
When disturbed either dive or make a short flight then dive. Only likely to be mistaken for Little Shearwater.
Best recognised by extremely compact jizz and diagnostic flight which is described as like that of a bumblebee,
with constantly flapping, whirring wings.
215
Whilst size can be helpful for identification, four other features are usually more useful:
underwing colour
pattern of white behind ear
shape of white scapular stripes (only in fresher plumage)
tail length and projection of feet beyond the tail
SPECIES
TOTAL
LENGTH
(cm)
WING
(cm)
WINGSPAN
(cm)
WEIGHT
(g)
TAIL
(cm)
UNDErWING
SCAPULAr
STrIPES
Peruvian
22
13.014.4
202
3.7
Light grey
Broad long,
white feathers
Magellanic
19
12.013.4
160
(145163)
4.0
Light grey
Mottled broad
white feather tips
and outer webs
South
Georgia
20
11.211.9
32
118
(104130)
3.8
White
Common
23
11.213.2
35
154
(136168)
4.0
Grey
Faint narrow
white feather tips
Peruvian Diving-petrel
Pelecanoides garnotii
Plate 38
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to waters of the inshore
magellanic Diving-petrel
Pelecanoides magellani
Plate 38
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to Chile and southern Argentina. Distribution and population very poorly known but
beHavIour Generally solitary except in Chilean fjords where small flocks may form. Flies low and fast on
216
Plate 38
Common Diving-petrel
Pelecanoides urinatrix
Plate 38
taxoNomy At least six subspecies recognised: P. u. urinatrix in northern New Zealand and southeast Australia;
P. u. chathamensis in southern New Zealand (not subantarctic) and Chatham Is.; P. u. dacunhae on Tristan du Cunha
group and Gough I.; P. u. berard on Falklands; P. u. coppingeri in southern Chile; and P. u. exsul in rest of subantarctic.
217
storm-Petrels
The texts for the tropical storm-petrels were difficult to prepare.
Neither author has extensive experience in the northern Pacific and
most available information seems to be a rehash of previously published material. Many facts appear to be based on hearsay and some
oft-repeated information is definitely wrong. Photographs in the major
books on seabirds are frequently incorrectly assigned to species and
many photographs on the web are either definitely wrongly identified
or are simply ambiguous as to likely species. In particular, photos of the
white-rumped storm-petrels off the Galpagos and the dark forkedtailed storm-petrels of the western Pacific are frequently spuriously
identified. Many rare bird committee files were examined whilst preparing these texts, and we consider that there are a number of incorrectly identified species of storm-petrel on many national lists, and
a number of records where the local rare bird committee has made
judgments where we feel there is simply not enough information currently available to make an informed opinion.
218
small
Least
square-tailed
Hornbys
White-faced
Fork-tailed
White belly
Large
Swinhoes
Markhams
Matsudairas
Tristrams
Ashy
Black
Leachs
(dark phase)
Fork-tailed
black belly
White rump
small
Leachs
Guadalupe
Wedge-rumped
Madeiran
Wilsons
European
Polynesian
Black-bellied
White-bellied
Grey-backed
square-tailed
New Zealand
Elliots
summary of storm-petrel identification features (the pearly-grey Fork-tailed storm-petrel has been excluded from this table).
Species
TOTAL
WINGSPAN WEIGHT
LENGTH
(cm)
(g)
(cm)
TAIL
SIZE
TArSUS
(cm)
LENGTH
(cm)
FOrK DEPTH
(cm)
Wing bar
reaches
carpel?
Birds with
white shafts
to primaries?
Ashy
18.9
41.5
39
Med.
2.3
Med.
8.3
2.3
Moderate
Sometimes
None
Swinhoes
20.0
46.5
41
Med.
2.3
Med.
7.5
1.6
Moderate
No
All
Leachs (dark)
19.0
45.0
45
Med.
2.4
Med.
8.0
1.6
Shallow
Yes
None
Markhams
23.0
51.5
53
Large
2.4
Short
9.0
3.2
Deep
Yes
Few
Black
23.0
50.5
57
Large
3.2
Long
8.5
2.5
Moderate
No
Few
Matsudairas
24.0
56.0
62
Large
2.7
Med.
9.9
3.2
Deep
No
All
Tristrams
24.0
56.0
86
Large
2.8
Long
10.3
3.6
Deep
Yes
Very few
This table gives morphometrics and identifcation criteria for all-dark storm-petrels with forked tails.
southern storm-petrels
Wilsons storm-petrel
oceanites oceanicus
Plate 39
219
Georgia, South Sandwich Is., South Orkney Is., South Shetland Is., Bouvety I., Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., Heard
I., Macquarie I., Balleny Is., Scott Is. and Peter I.
beHavIour Most frequently seen foraging on the surface of the ocean, pattering with long dangling legs, but
also flies fast and swallow-like (though rarely for any distance), pausing frequently to patter. Often in groups,
easily attracted to boats using fish oil; sometimes seen behind fishing vessels hauling nets.
JIZZ Small, long-legged storm-petrel with square or slightly notched tail. Feet project beyond tail in flight. Wing
comparatively narrow and often described as sickle-shaped due to bend of wing being close to body. In fact, the
wings trailing edge appears straight in calm or in light winds, becoming more sickle-shaped as wind increases.
Whilst pattering on sea surface, wings held over back in a shallow V, never angled as steeply upwards as European
Storm-petrel.
sIZe TL 1519cm; W 13.616.2cm; WS 3842cm; WT 2850g. Small Oceanites storm-petrel. In the Southern
Hemisphere smaller than White-bellied and Wedge-rumped Storm-petrels, noticeably larger than nominate
Elliots but similar size to Galpagos subspecies. In the Northern Hemisphere slightly larger than European
Storm-petrel but noticeably smaller than Leachs and Madeiran Storm-petrels.
PlumaGe Dark brown, with paler, crescentic wing-bar on upperwing and obvious white rump, which wraps
down around the sides almost to the vent. Some individuals, especially those seen around Chile, can have smudgy
white patches around vent and even on lower belly. When seen from above, white on rump is V- or U-shaped
with black feathering of back intruding onto upper rump. Bill black. Legs and feet black with yellow webs.
moult aND Wear Grey wash over wing-coverts in fresh plumage. Pale bar on upperwing-coverts present all
year round but becomes more obvious in JanuaryMarch due to plumage wear. Extensive wing moult seen
AprilAug usually in northern wintering grounds.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Other confusable, small, dark storm-petrels with white rumps and mostly dark underparts are
European, Madeiran, Leachs, Wedge-rumped and Elliots. Wilsons combination of yellow webs and dark toes
is diagnostic but usually impossible to see in field. European is smaller, lacks obvious pale crescentic wing-bar on
upperwing but has whitish central panel on underwing and holds wings in more acute V when feeding. Madeiran
and Leachs are both larger. Leachs has a forked tail and larger pale crescent on upperwing. Leachs also has white
rump that is longer than it is wide that does not extend down sides towards vent, and often has a dark central streak.
Madeiran is best told by shorter legs, which do not extend beyond tail, longer wings from body to carpal, steadier
flight and different foraging behaviour. Wedge-rumped has a larger white rump, short legs that do not extend
beyond tail in flight and the wings are a different shape, longer from body to carpel but shorter from carpal to tip.
Elliots can be difficult to separate from Wilsons, especially off northern Chile where some Wilsons are more likely
to have smudgy pale patches on underparts. Elliots is small and slim, usually has slightly paler panel on underwing
and close up can usually be seen to have more scruffy white on the underparts. Nominate Elliots likely to moult
wings in southern summer and autumn, earlier than Wilsons.
elliots storm-petrel
oceanites gracilis
Plates 40, 45
Storm-petrel.
220
and more sickle-shaped than Wilsons, and the combination of relatively thin, long wings and longer body make
this species appear more delicate and slender-bodied, especially whilst feeding. In sustained flight has rapid
wingbeats, feet extending well beyond square ended tail.
sIZe TL 14-17cm; galapagoensis: W 13.014.6cm; WS 35-37cm; WT 17g; gracilis: W 11.713.2cm. Small, delicate
Oceanites storm-petrel. Nominate gracilis on average slightly smaller than Wilsons and Wedge-rumped, and considerably smaller than White-bellied Storm-petrels, all of which occur in the same waters. The larger Galpagos
subspecies is a similar size to Wilsons and Wedge-rumped.
PlumaGe A small black-and-white storm-petrel with a white rump. Underparts vary. Most have a pale belly; a
few are entirely dark.
Nominate Upperparts mostly sooty-black, darkest on crown, lower back, rectrices and remiges, fading to dark
brownish black when worn. White uppertail-coverts and some white tips to feathers of upper rump form a
well defined semicircular patch of white across the uppertail. Upperwings brownish-black with a paler crescent
consisting of a greyish stripe formed by the paler tips of the median-secondary coverts present all year, and
a more obvious pale brown patch developes by late summer due to wear, especially of the secondary coverts.
Juveniles and freshly moulted adults have small white tips to upperwing coverts and retrices. Underwing smokygrey, slightly paler in centre. Throat, chest, upper breast, sides of lower breast and flanks a pale brownishblack. Centre of lower breast, belly and vent white. Thigh patches brown, forming a narrow, well-defined line
between the white of the belly and rump. Boundaries between white and brown on the underside relatively
crisply divided except on the vent, where some birds may be smudged brown. Undertail-coverts brown, outer
ones streaked or smudged with white. Feet black with indistinct yellow patches on the centre of each web.
O. g. galapagoensis White belly patch usually smaller and smudgy around the edges, especially on the
flanks. Some birds have almost entirely dark underparts. Specimens in collections are generally a paler brown
than the nominate race but this may only be due to plumage wear.
In both races, comparatively small bill similar in dimensions to Wilsons, with prominent nostrils typical of
Oceanites. Nostrils of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults.
moult aND Wear
Nominate moult not recorded but, as a late winter and spring breeder, adults are likely to moult in summer
and immatures in spring.
O. g. galapagoensis Probably breeds in late autumn and winter so birds moulting wing and tail between
November and January are likely to be adults, whilst immatures would be moulting in spring.
IDeNtIFICatIoN One of the smallest storm-petrels, regularly occurring in the Humboldt Current and waters of
the Galpagos, where it can be confused with Wedge-rumped, Madeiran, White-bellied and Leachs Storm-petrels.
Except for the darkest birds, the pale belly should be visible even at a distance and the combination of pale belly,
dark underwing with slightly paler central panel, square tail and small, slender appearance should be diagnostic
with practice. Some White-bellied Storm-petrels from the Tasman Sea and New Zealand Storm-petrel may show
similar patterns on underparts, but none have been recorded from the eastern Pacific. See those species for identifcation. A few possibly, worn or immature Wilsons have whitish vents and belly markings and could look like darker
birds of the Galapagos race. Jizz, season and timing of wing-moult may help distinguish such individuals.
Plate 45
taxoNomy Until the recent spate of sightings, considered by the majority of authors to be a pale form
of Wilsons. Evidence from lice suggests it belongs to a
monospecific genus distinct from Oceanites.
DIstrIbutIoN An enigmatic storm-petrel until
recently known from three specimens collected off
eastern New Zealand in the 19th century. Recent
sightings near the Mercury Is. and in the Hauraki
Gulf, North Island, New Zealand, were thought by
many to be this species and the capture of several
birds (January 2006) has confirmed this.
beHavIour Recent sightings in the Hauraki Gulf
have mostly been of birds attracted to pelagic birding
boats by chum, with up to 20 birds seen at once. Other
behaviour at sea and breeding unknown.
JIZZ Medium-small, long-legged storm-petrel with square or slightly notched tail. Feet project beyond tail in
flight. Wing comparatively narrow and pointed, more like Wilsons than Black-bellied in shape. Foraging and
flight similar to Wilsons, pattering on sea surface with wings held almost horizontally or in a shallow V.
221
type storm-petrel. Smaller than Black-bellied and White-faced Storm-petrels, larger than Elliots and probably
slightly larger than many Wilsons. Similar size to the smaller of the White-bellied Storm-petrel subspecies.
PlumaGe Museum specimens: Head, breast and upperparts dark sooty-brown, with paler crescentic wing-bar on
upperwing and obvious white rump. Chin and throat white with dark tips to feathers. Underparts white with variable
amounts of dark streaking concentrated on lower breast, flanks and thighs. Pattern of dark and light on breast
feathers that forms streaks is different to Fregetta storm-petrels. Undertail-coverts dark with white tips. Underwing
white with broad dark leading edge, dark flight feathers and dark-centred, smudgy coverts, especially on the outer
wing. Bill black. Legs and feet black with dark webs. The birds observed and photographed in the Hauraki Gulf are
considerably more variable in the amount of dark streaking on the underparts than the three museum specimens.
moult aND Wear Not known. Pale crescentic bar on upperwing likely to become more obvious with wear, like
Wilsons.
IDeNtIFICatIoN At any distance would appear similar to darker-bellied White-bellied and paler Black-bellied
Storm-petrels. New Zealand has jizz, flight and foraging action more like Wilsons than the two Fregetta stormpetrels; slimmer build, longer, narrower wings and longer legs projecting well beyond tail in flight. Close up, the
distribution of the streaks on underparts, breast, flanks and thighs rather than central belly separates even the
darkest of birds from slightly larger Black-bellied. Separation from the darker forms of the polymorphic Lord
Howe White-bellied Storm-petrels likely to be extremely difficult. White-bellied usually has some white fringes
to the dark feathers on the back and scapulars, except when plumage is very worn. White-bellied has border
between dark breast and lighter belly, even in the darkest birds with the most ragged division, higher up on breast
toward throat than New Zealand. Legs, and especially feet, of White-bellied are shorter and more robust and
toenails are broad, flattened, and spade-shaped rather than long and thin. Jizz and foraging behaviour may well
be the easiest way to separate the two. Elliots is also long-legged, slim and rather Wilsons-like but is smaller with
darker underwing and smudgier dark markings on underparts.
Grey-backed storm-petrel
Garrodia nereis
Plate 40
with Oceanites.
222
White-faced storm-petrel
Pelagodroma marina
Plate 44
black-bellied storm-petrel
Fregetta tropica
Plates 41, 45
(circumpolar, colder Southern Ocean) and F. t. melanoleuca (Tristan da Cunha and possibly Gough Island).
However, the taxonomy of Tristan and Gough birds
is poorly understood.
DIstrIbutIoN Abundant storm-petrel of the subantarctic. Summer breeder, with breeding recorded from
South Georgia, South Orkney, South Shetland, Bouvetya, Prince Edward, Crozet, Kerguelen, Auckland,
Bounty and Antipodes Is. Disperses north in winter as
far as the equator.
beHavIour Forages with wings held flat, one foot
sliding through the water as body pivots; also rebounds
off sea surface, hitting it with breast and bouncing off
using feet. Flight erratic and indirect; moves in a zig-zag pattern as it quarters the ocean. Often in small groups
and easily attracted to boats using fish oil; sometimes seen behind fishing boats hauling nets.
223
JIZZ Medium-sized, stocky storm-petrel; wings broad at base, short and moderately rounded with a straight trailing
edge; tail square with feet normally projecting beyond tail in flight. Feet relatively short with spade-shaped toes
typical of Fregetta.
sIZe TL 20cm; W 15.418.3cm; WS 4546cm; WT 4363g. Medium-sized storm-petrel, slightly larger on
average than White-bellied, smaller than White-faced and larger than Wilsons. Grey-backed Storm-petrel is
considerably smaller.
PlumaGe Head black with variable whitish throat. Upperparts, breast, central line down belly to vent and
undertail sooty-black. Fresh dark feathers of back and upperwing-coverts may have pale tips, which quickly wear
away, unlike White-bellied. Pale crescentic upperwing bar present but only really obvious in birds in very worn
plumage. Rump and flanks white. Underwing dark with white central panel and some dark coverts making it
appear rather scruffy. Demarcation between the black breast and white belly low down on breast and irregular.
Black belly stripe variable, broader in some birds, patchy or even absent in a few.
moult aND Wear Juveniles and some adults may have pale tips to fresh coverts and back but these wear off quickly
and are rarely as extensive as on White-bellied. Secondary coverts on upperwing may wear pale brown, causing pale
crescentic wing bar to become more obvious. Wing-moult occurs MayJuly in subtropical wintering grounds.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Very similar in size and jizz to White-bellied; black belly stripe not always easy to see, and
sometimes absent. White-bellied also has dark-bellied forms! See White-bellied for differences. The common
names of the Fregetta storm-petrels are not helpful as presence of dark markings on the belly of a Fregetta stormpetrel is not diagnostic of Black-bellied. Bulkier than Wilsons and Elliots Storm-petrels, with whiter, though
somewhat smudgy underwing and more white on flanks and belly. For separation from New Zealand Stormpetrel see that species.
White-bellied storm-petrel
Fregetta grallaria
taxoNomy Four subspecies recognised: F. g. grallaria
Plates 41, 45
224
browner forming an indistinct pale upperwing panel. Wing moult occurs after protracted breeding season, thus
may be seen any time between FebruaryAugust.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Similar in size and jizz to Black-bellied, which is usually distinguishable by presence of black
line down central belly to black vent, but this can be surprisingly difficult to see at sea and some Black-bellied
have white underparts. Black-bellied feet usually, but not always, project beyond tail in flight; throat often whitish;
upperparts lack white feather tips but pale upperwing bar likely to be more obvious; white underwing-coverts
smudged brown. Demarcation between black breast and white belly on paler Black-bellied is further down
breast than White-bellied and usually slightly smudgy. Those darker forms of White-bellied confusable with
Black-bellied are usually dusky on flanks rather than central belly. Range can be useful: White-bellied is never
found in subantarctic waters and Black-bellied is only present in subtropical waters in late autumn, winter and
early spring. Separation of darker forms of White-bellied and New Zealand Storm-petrel dealt with under those
species. White-bellied is bulkier than Wilsons and Elliots Storm-petrels, with whiter underwing and usually an
entirely white belly.
Polynesian storm-petrel
Nesofregetta fuliginosa
Plate 44
but birds from Samoa and Tahiti are larger and the
rate of melanism is higher, suggesting that at least two
forms may deserve recognition.
DIstrIbutIoN A rare and very poorly known stormpetrel of the tropical Pacific, found from Sala y Gomez
in the east to Vanuatu in the west. Recorded at sea
between 25N and 30S but most abundant in the
waters of Kiribati. In recent years breeding has been
confirmed on Line and Phoenix Is., Austral Is., Society
Is., Gambier Is. and Marquesas Is., New Caledonia
and Sala y Gomez. Historically known to have bred
on Vanuatu, Samoa and Fiji. It is found year-round at
Christmas I. and in the waters off New Caledonia and Vanuatu, which suggests it is non-migratory.
beHavIour Non-breeding birds may be highly pelagic but breeding birds occur close inshore, even, at times,
feeding in atoll lagoons. Generally solitary and not attracted to ships but may be attracted to fish oil slicks. Breeds
throughout the year on Christmas I. and may do so elsewhere judging by its year-round occurrence.
JIZZ A large, heavy storm-petrel with a moderately forked tail. Foraging action is similar to White-faced stormpetrel but more forceful, gliding for 2030 seconds before using their strong legs and long paddle-like feet to
propel themselves off waves or the surface of the sea with considerable force, erratically changing direction after
each kick. The broad, rounded wings are held rigid and horizontal, rarely bent. This behaviour can continue for
long periods in both the open ocean and quiet lagoons. Sustained flight is typically fluttering, rarely fast or direct,
and they apparently prefer flying into or across, rather than with, the wind. Feet extend well beyond the tail.
sIZe TL 23.525cm; WS 51.5cm; WT 5686g. The largest storm-petrel, considerably larger than Swinhoes and
White and Black-bellied and slightly larger than Tristrams.
PlumaGe Plumage variable. Most birds from the north are pied and most of the darkest birds come from Samoa
and Tahiti, but melanism occurs in all populations and there are many intermediates.
Pied Phase Dark cap extends from the centre of the nape, down below the eye to the chin. Palest birds
have chin, throat and even lores white but most have these areas partly or entirely dark. In fresh plumage
upperparts sooty black-brown, palest on back and central wing, with a white rump and pale crescent on
upperwing formed by broad white tips to the greater coverts. Upperparts become much browner and paler
as plumage wears. Underparts white with a dark breast-band, variable in width. All but the palest birds have
a few dark flecks on the edges of the breast. Undertail-coverts dark, tipped white in palest birds. Underwing
white in centre with a broad dark border on forewing, dark primaries and secondaries and variable amounts
of smudgy brown on the primary coverts.
Intermediates Throat, breast and belly become more flecked and darker from the edges. Dark cap merges
with back. Rump becomes darker from centre outwards. On Phoenix and McKean every conceivable colour
variation between the normal form and totally dark individuals may be found.
Dark phase A specimen from Samoa had underparts and upperparts entirely sooty-black, lacking a white
rump and upper wing-bar; however, others may retain white wing-bar and rump.
Adult bill extremely robust, all-dark, unusually deep at the base for a storm-petrel with very prominent high
nostrils, similar to Fregetta. Nostrils of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults.
225
moult aND Wear Where studied, breeds all year round, indicating that moulting birds may be found at any
time of year.
Pied phase The combination of size, white underparts with dark breast-band, white upperwing bar and
rump, and broad forked tail should make identification easy, even at some distance. Confusion is only likely
with the similarly patterned Hornbys Storm-petrel where they occur together in the far eastern Pacific.
Hornbys is smaller with narrower, pointed wings, a grey rump, dark underwing and more of a contrast
between the paler grey back, black head and wings.
Intermediates As for the pied phase but the smudgy underparts are also a helpful feature.
Dark phase The rare, completely dark phase may be difficult or impossible to tell from the other large,
all-dark, fork-tailed storm-petrels of the Pacific (Black, Markhams, Tristrams, Matsudairas and Swinhoes),
but Polynesians larger size, broader, more rounded wings, highly distinctive foraging method and habit of
holding wings horizontally should all be helpful. In sustained flight, especially at a distance, the large Tristrams Storm-petrel may be the most difficult to tell apart but its flight is likely to be more purposeful, less
fluttering and its feet do not project feet beyond the tail.
Northern storm-petrels
european storm-petrel
Hydrobates pelagicus
Plate 39
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN The common storm-petrel of tem-
least storm-petrel
oceanodroma microsoma
Plate 42
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Subtropical eastern Pacific Ocean. Breeds in boreal summer along coast of Baja California only on
Islas San Benito. In the Gulf of California, where it is the most abundant seabird, probably breeds on all rat-free
islands. Majority disperse south to Central America, as far as Colombia, Ecuador and as perhaps down to northern
226
Peru. A few move north and are found in the large stormpetrel flocks of Monterey Bay in AugustOctober.
beHavIour In moderate winds Flight bat-like with
constant, deep, brisk wingbeats. Often found with
Black and Ashy Storm-petrels, sometimes in large
flocks. Wings held in steep V when feeding. Often
seen sitting on water, where it feeds by propelling
itself forwards, splashing breast against waves. Said
by some authors not to patter feet on water surface as
much as others.
JIZZ Very small size, with comparatively short, rounded
wings, and short wedge-shaped or rounded tail make
it look like a miniature bat. Feet do not extend beyond
tail in flight.
sIZe TL 13.515cm; W 11.812.5cm; WS 3236cm; WT 20g. Very small Oceanodroma storm-petrel. The smallest
procellariiform.
PlumaGe Entirely blackish-brown on head, upperparts, underparts and tail, with greyish-brown greater-coverts
forming paler crescentic upper wing-bar. Upper mantle may be slightly paler greyish-brown.
moult aND Wear Pale bar on upperwing-coverts present all year round but most obvious in late summer and
indicative of wear. Extensive wing moult seen OctoberDecember usually in southern wintering grounds.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Distinguishable from all other dark storm-petrels by small size, short, wedge shaped, unforked
tail and flight.
Wedge-rumped storm-petrel
oceanodroma tethys
Plate 40
227
extending almost as far as the notch in the slightly forked tail. Some white rump feathers have black shafts. Rest
of the tail is black. Upperwing brownish-black with pale white tips to coverts in fresh plumage and in juveniles.
Paler crescentic upperwing bar not very prominent but more so as secondary coverts wear to paler brown by
late summer. Underwing dark with bases of primaries only occasionally reflective, rarely giving a silvery effect in
strong light. Feet, toes and webs black. Heavy black bill similar in dimensions to European Storm-petrel with less
prominent nostrils typical of Oceanodroma. Nostrils of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults.
moult aND Wear Upperparts and most of underparts have a silvery gloss when fresh (fading to dark brownish
black). Recorded moulting July to October. As nominate is an early winter breeder, immatures likely to be
moulting in early winter and adults later. As kelsalli breeds earlier, in late autumn and winter, birds off South
America may have finished moult in spring and there is some evidence that wing moult may begin whilst nesting
is underway.
IDeNtIFICatIoN In range, the combination of white rump, dark belly, and medium size should eliminate all but
Wilsons, Madeiran, Leachs and darker-bellied forms of Elliots. Wedge-rumped has a larger white rump patch
than all four. Wilsons has a distinctive foraging, foot-trailing habit. Madeiran is heavier-bodied and squarertailed; Leachs is heavier, longer-winged with a more deeply forked tail; Elliots is smaller and slighter, and even
the darkest birds usually have some trace of white on the underparts.
madeiran storm-petrel
oceanodroma castro
otHer Name Band-rumped Storm-petrel.
taxoNomy Currently there are no accepted sub-
Plate 39
species, but the disjunct distribution suggests that subspecific status may be warranted for the Atlantic and
Pacific populations. In the Azores specific status has
been suggested for birds differing slightly in size, but
otherwise identical in appearance, which breed on the
same island at different times of the year.
DIstrIbutIoN An abundant storm-petrel with a
remarkably wide yet disjunct distribution, occurring
in the Atlantic and Pacific in both tropical and subtropical waters. Breeding in the Pacific is confirmed
on Hide-jama in Japan, Kauai in Hawaii, and at 15
colonies in the Galpagos. It has been recorded at sea
or as a beach wreck in the eastern Pacific from southern California to Peru and west to Hawaii and Japan, but
there are no records in the western Pacific south of the equator. Breeding in the Atlantic is confirmed from
islets off St Helena, Boatswainbird I. (near Ascension I.), 10 islands in the Cape Verde group, Anagu rocks off
Tenerife (Canary Is.), Desertas Is., Salvage Is., islets off Porto Santo in Madeira, 13 colonies around the Azores,
and on the Berlengas and Farilhoes islets off Portugal. Numerous other breeding populations are suspected or
likely. In the Atlantic recorded as a storm wreck from England south to the Gulf of Guinea and Sao Tom. Frequently recorded off northern Brazil and recorded as far north as Newfoundland in Canada.
beHavIour A pelagic species frequently seen far from land and rarely seen inshore except shortly before dark
and at dawn. Commonly feeds solitarily or in small groups, pattering feet on surface of water. Attracted to
refuse tossed overboard from boats and likely to be attracted to fish oil although they have not been recorded
around fishing vessels. On some islands (Galpagos, Madeira and Azores) most breeding occurs in two peaks
(mainly JuneSeptember and OctoberDecember) whilst in others breeding is unimodal i.e. OctoberJanuary
(Ascension I.); mid-JanuaryMay (Cape Verde Is.); and JulySeptember (Salvage Is.). In the North Atlantic the
timing of breeding varies considerably between islands.
JIZZ Wings quite broad, held less angled back at the carpal than Leachs and straighter along the trailing edge.
This, combined with short, stocky body and almost square-ended tail, gives it a more solid, less rakish look than
Leachs. In light winds flight is steady with slow rhythmic wing beats and little gliding. When feeding, patters feet
in typical storm-petrel manner but in a somewhat laboured and heavy fashion, wings held horizontal rather than
at a slight angle like Wedge-rumped and Leachs or in a sharp V like Elliots. Often progress in zig-zag pattern
low over the sea. Feet do not extend beyond tail. Bill relatively long and heavy.
sIZe TL 1922cm; W 14.817.0cm; WS 4449cm; WT 3367g. Robust Oceanodroma storm-petrel, a similar
size to Leachs, slightly larger than Wilsons, Wedge-rumped and Elliots storm-petrels that occur in the same
waters.
PlumaGe Medium-sized dark storm-petrel with a relatively narrow white rump that looks wider than it does long.
Upperparts and most of underparts sooty-black with a plumbeous gloss when fresh, fading to dark brownishblack when worn. Darkest on crown, lower back, rectrices and remiges. The white uppertail-coverts have variable
228
amounts of black on the tips and form a white semicircular band that extends onto the underparts and edges of
the vent almost encircling the tail. Bases of outer tail feathers white. Pale crescentic bar on upperwing not particularly prominent. Underwing dark but sometimes secondary underwing-coverts can be paler brown, forming
a paler stripe. All-dark, comparatively long, heavy bill with less prominent nostrils typical of Oceanodroma. Nostrils
of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults. Feet, toes and webs black.
moult aND Wear As plumage wears the secondary wing-coverts become browner forming a distinct palebrown crescent but this rarely extends as far as the forewing. Moult begins near the end of the breeding cycle,
probably 23 months after the eggs hatch and is generally completed before the following breeding season
although some birds may have incompletely grown P10 whilst incubating. With all the variation in timing of
breeding, plus immatures moulting a few months earlier than adults, it is possible to see a Madeiran Storm-petrel
at any stage of moult at any time of year.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of white rump and dark belly should eliminate all but Wilsons, Leachs, Wedgerumped, European and the dark-bellied forms of Elliots and White-bellied. Whilst feeding, Madeiran holds
it wings more horizontal than Wilsons, Leachs and Wedge-rumped. Wilsons is slightly smaller, shorter in the
wing from body to carpal, and the feet extend beyond the tail in flight. Leachs is longer-winged, has a forked
tail, a more prominent pale crescent on the upperwing which usually extends to the carpal, and the white rump
is longer, does not extend down around sides towards underparts and often has a dark central stripe. Wedgerumped has a larger white rump. Elliots is smaller and slighter and even the darkest birds usually have some
trace of white on the underparts. The rare, darker form of White-bellied has a different wing shape and flight.
leachs storm-petrel
oceanodroma leucorhoa
229
JIZZ Medium-sized but long tail can make Leachs look large when seen with other storm-petrels. In flight long
wings usually held angled back at carpal. Even in calm conditions or light winds, the wings trailing edge rarely
appears straight. Has unusually long inner wing bones giving the wing tip a hooked appearance. When foot-pattering, wings held out at shallow angle (1020). Strongly forked tail not always obvious as often held closed in
flight. Feet do not extend beyond tail.
sIZe TL 1822cm; W 14.016.7cm: WS 4548cm: WT 38-50g. Medium sized Oceanodroma. Larger than
European, smaller than Black.
PlumaGe Medium-sized, dark storm-petrel with prominent white rump that is usually longer than it is broad
and does not extend under the body. Dark blackish-brown, back often slightly paler; flight feathers and tail slightly
darker. Upperwing has prominent, broad pale crescentic wing-bar formed by greater secondary-coverts reaching
forewing at carpal. White rump usually, but not always, divided by variable median smudge, which becomes
more prominent in populations further south in Pacific, with completely dark-rumped birds common in populations off California and Mexico. Dark-rumped individuals absent from Atlantic. Bill strongly hooked, black;
legs and feet black.
moult aND Wear Fresh sooty-grey feathers of mantle and coverts become browner with wear. Primary moult
begins after adults leave colonies, usually in August and continues at least until April. Non-breeders collected in
central and eastern Pacific showed primary moult beginning earlier in July and ending OctoberDecember.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Distinguished at sea from Wilsons and European Storm-petrels by significantly larger size;
more bounding, less fluttery flight; longer, more pointed wings with relatively longer inner wing giving outer
wing hooked appearance; somewhat lighter brown back contrasting less with white rump; and long forked tail
concealing the short legs, resulting in longer, more slender appearance. White rump does not extend as much
onto undertail-coverts as in Wilsons and European Storm-petrels. Whilst feeding both Wilsons and European
hold wings in a higher V. Distinguished from Madeiran by longer white rump that does not extend down
around sides towards underparts, and often has smudgy dark median line, more obvious pale wing-bar, longer,
more deeply forked tail, longer, narrower, more angular wings and more erratic, bounding flight with deeper
wingbeats and fewer shearwater-like glides. Larger than Wedge-rumped with a considerably smaller white rump
patch. Dark-rumped forms of Leachs nesting off California and Mexico can be difficult to distinguish from
the other all-dark species in the region: Ashy, Black, Markhams and Least. Distinctive erratic, bounding flight
may be helpful but the smaller, dark rumped forms may not fly in so characteristic a way. Leachs is smaller than
Black and Markhams, larger than Least and a similar size to Ashy which has pale underwing coverts. In east
Asian waters, Leachs is only common storm-petrel with white rump, but if present, dark-rumped birds likely
to be almost indistinguishable from Swinhoes Storm-petrel. Swinhoes bill is shorter and heavier; base of outer
shafts of flight feathers are often white; flight may be slower, less swooping and worn birds show slightly paler
underwing-coverts. All dark Matsudairas and Tristrams are larger with longer, deeply-forked tails.
swinhoes storm-petrel
oceanodroma monorhis
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN An enigmatic, migratory species only
Plate 43
230
moult aND Wear As plumage wears all feathers become browner, and pale crescentic wing-bar likely to become
more obvious. Likely to moult on wintering grounds in Indian Ocean.
IDeNtIFICatIoN. In Pacific and Indian Oceans range overlaps with two all-dark storm-petrels, Matsudairas and
Tristrams. Both are larger than Swinhoes with more deeply forked tails. Tristrams has a larger paler crescentic
wing-bar and Matsudairas has more prominent white bases to the primary shafts, which can be seen relatively
easily at sea in good conditions. The all-dark storm-petrels of the eastern Pacific Black, Markhams, Ashy,
Least and dark-rumped Leachs have not been recorded in Swinhoes range. Black and Markhams are larger,
Least much smaller, and the similar-sized Ashy is greyer with paler panel on underwing. Dark-rumped Leachs
is likely to be most similar but it has more prominent pale wing-bars, a longer, slimmer bill and is likely to have
more erratic, dashing flight.
Guadalupe storm-petrel
oceanodroma macrodactyla
Plate 40
tristrams storm-petrel
oceanodroma tristrami
Plate 43
231
beHavIour Non-breeding birds may be highly pelagic but during breeding season can be seen inshore. Generally
solitary and not attracted to ships but may be attracted to fish oil slicks.
JIZZ A large, heavy, all-dark storm-petrel with a deeply forked tail. Foraging action consists of a pattering of feet
on the surface of the ocean similar to Wilsons but not sustained for long periods, unlike other storm-petrels.
Very long sickle-shaped wings generally held slightly bent in flight and at slight very angle when foraging. Feet
do not extend beyond tail in sustained flight. Flight is a mixture of fluttering wingbeats, steep banking turns and
periods of gliding.
sIZe TL 2426cm; W 17.219.2cm; WS 56cm; WT 70112g. The heaviest storm-petrel, considerably larger
than all other all-dark storm-petrels except dark-phase Polynesian. Slightly larger and considerably heavier than
Markhams.
PlumaGe Head, nape and neck black; rest of upperparts and underparts sooty-black with shiny greyish cast in
fresh plumage, especially apparent on back. Darker head gives distinct hooded appearance. As plumage wears
all feathers become browner and hooded appearance lost. Lighter greater secondary coverts form a broad, pale,
crescentic wing bar from the carpal to the base of the trailing edge of the wing. Some birds may have white
shafts to base of primaries but in those examined this was indistinct and may not show up as a field mark. Rump
generally paler than surrounding feathers and contrast becomes more obvious with wear. All-dark, typically
robust, Oceanodroma bill shorter than most species, with small nostrils that reach a third of the way down the bill,
unlike Markhams, which has an unusually long nasal tube that extends down half of bill. Nostrils of juveniles
and immatures are less prominent than adults.
moult aND Wear Where studied, breeds in winter; thus birds likely to moult in northern spring and early
summer (immatures several months earlier), but the timing may be different in unstudied populations.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of large size, dark plumage and forked tail is far from unique but when seen well
in fresh plumage Tristrams is reasonably distinctive with its dark-hooded appearance, greyish back and paler
sides to the rump. The pale crescent on the upperwing is the largest and most obvious of the all-dark stormpetrels but in worn plumage or in poor conditions Tristrams can still look completely dark, similar to the three
other large all-dark storm petrels that occur in the central or western Pacific: Matsudairas, Swinhoes and the
dark form of Polynesian. Identification can be difficult. Dark-phase Polynesian is large and bulky with broader,
more rounded wings, feet projecting well beyond the slightly forked tail and a very distinctive foraging flight,
kicking off the water with its huge feet. Swinhoes is slightly smaller, the pale crescent on the upperwing being
less obvious and not reaching the forewing at the carpal, and the tail is less deeply forked although this is often
hard to discern at sea. Close up, the bill should look relatively robust and deep and on most birds the bases of the
primary feather shafts are white, but again this may be difficult to see in the field. Matsudairas is a similar size
and shape to Tristrams but the pale panel on the upperwing does not reach the forewing and most birds have
white bases to the shafts of the primaries, at times distinct enough to appear as a white patch just beyond the
carpal. A few Tristrams also have white shafts but these are unlikely to be as obvious at sea.
There are five other all-dark storm-petrels that occur in the eastern Pacific which should perhaps be considered: Markhams; Black, Ashy, Least and the dark form of Leachs, chapmani. Least is tiny with an unforked
tail. Ashy is small, tending to greyish-black, especially in fresh plumage, and has pale underwing-coverts. The
dark form of Leachs is slightly smaller than Tristrams and is likely to fly in the fast, bounding erratic style of
the Leachs group, but it does have slightly shorter and rounder wings than most and its flight may not be as
distinctive. Both Black and Markhams are large and dark with forked tails and although slightly smaller than
Tristrams are likely to be difficult to separate. The pale crescent on the upperwing does not reach the forewing
at the carpal on Black but does so on Markhams. In the absence of any clear information about flight and jizz
the only way of separating Markhams from a dark, worn Tristrams would seem to be less obvious pale panel
on the upperwing, slightly larger bill and slightly smaller size. Check also Bulwers Petrel.
markhams storm-petrel
oceanodroma markhami
Plate 42
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN A very poorly known, but apparently abundant, storm-petrel of the southeast Pacific, found from
central Chile to Baja California. Recorded between 13 N and 26 S but commonest in cool waters of Humboldt
Current. Only confirmed breeding ground is Paracas peninsula, southern Peru, but given the abundance of the
species many other sites must exist. Except when visiting breeding grounds, entirely pelagic. Breeds southern late
winter and early spring (eggs late JuneAugust) possibly dispersing north after breeding.
beHavIour Highly pelagic but during breeding season can be seen inshore especially in evenings. Generally
solitary but has been seen in mixed species flocks with Wilsons, Elliots and Wedge-rumped Storm-petrels. Not
attracted to ships but may be attracted to fish oil slicks.
JIZZ A large, slim, all-dark storm-petrel with a deeply forked tail. Tail generally held closed or partially closed.
Feet do not extend beyond tail in flight. In calm conditions, flight slow, with relatively shallow wingbeats, fre-
232
matsudairas storm-petrel
oceanodroma matsudairae
Plate 43
233
bases to shafts of outer one to seven primaries forming small but diagnostic white patch on leading edge of
wing between carpal and wing-tip; underwing uniformly dark brown. Bill black; iris dark brown; legs and
feet black.
moult aND Wear In fresh plumage likely to have pale tips to feathers of upperparts typical of Oceanodroma.
Breeds in northern summer so wing-moult likely to occur after breeding during OctoberJanuary.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Range overlaps with two other all-dark species, Tristrams and Swinhoes. Distinguished from
Tristrams by white bases to primary shafts, often visible when flapping wings as well as when banking; less
obvious upperwing bar; and lack of Tristrams grey wash on upperparts. From Swinhoes by larger size and
slower, more deliberate flight. Swinhoes usually has pale bases to shafts of primaries, as do a few Tristrams but
they are rarely as distinct as Matsudairas. See also Black Storm-petrel and Bulwers Petrel.
black storm-petrel
oceanodroma melania
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Northeastern Pacific Ocean. Nests on
Plate 42
234
Matsudairas has relatively obvious white shafts at base of outer primaries but this feature is also present, though
usually less conspicuously, in a few Blacks, Markhams and Tristrams. Tristrams has a prominent pale wing-bar
extending to leading edge of wing and often appears paler on the back and sides of the rump.
ashy storm-petrel
oceanodroma homochroa
Plate 42
taxoNomy Monotypic.
DIstrIbutIoN Northeastern Pacific Ocean. Cali-
Hornbys storm-petrel
oceanodroma hornbyi
Plate 44
235
sIZe TL 24cm; W 15.716.9cm; WS ?; WT ?. Considerably larger than all other black-and-white stormpetrels.
PlumaGe Crown and nape blackish, extending to just below eye and across ear-coverts. Throat, chin and
forehead white and thin white collar across upper hindneck. Mantle, back, scapulars, rump and uppertail-coverts
grey, rump and uppertail-coverts can have paler tips to feathers. Uppertail blackish. Underparts white from dark
greyish-black breast-band to undertail. Upper inner wing-coverts dark greyish-brown; greater coverts whitish,
forming a conspicuous diagonal bar on upperwing from carpal to inner trailing edge; primary coverts, primaries
and secondaries blackish, enhancing diagonal bar. Underwing dark greyish-brown with no obvious paler central
coverts. Bill black; iris dark brown; legs and feet blackish.
moult aND Wear Adults likely to moult rectrices in Ecuadorian waters during AugustDecember.
IDeNtIFICatIoN Unmistakable, and in good light the white collar is visible at great distance. Only likely to be
confused with similarly patterned Polynesian, which has yet to be recorded in the same range.
Fork-tailed storm-petrel
oceanodroma furcata
taxoNomy Two subspecies recognised, but the dif-
Plate 42
236
reFereNCes
Abbott, C. & Double, M. 2003. Genetic structure, conservation genetics and evidence of speciation by range expansion
in shy and white-capped albatrosses. Molecular Ecology 12: 2953-2962.
Abbott, C. & Double, M. 2003. Phylogeography of Shy and White-capped Albatrosses inferred from mitochondrial
DNA sequences: implications for population history and taxonomy. Molecular Ecology 12: 2747-2758.
Ainley, D. G. 1980. Geographic variation in Leachs Storm-petrel. Auk 97: 837-853.
Austin, J. J., Bretagnolle, V. & Pasquet, E. 2004. A global molecular phylogeny of the small Puffinus shearwaters and
implications for systematics of the Little-Audubons Shearwater complex. Auk 121: 847864.
Bailey, S. F., Pyle, P., & Spear, L. B. 1989. Dark Pterodroma petrels in the North Pacific: Identification, status, and North
American occurrence. American Birds 43: 400-415.
Brooke, M. de L. 2004. Albatrosses and Petrels across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Burg, T. M. & Croxall, J. P. 2004. Global population structure and taxonomy of the wandering albatross species
complex. Molecular Ecology 13: 23452355.
Cracraft, J. 1983. Species concepts and speciation analysis. Current Ornithology 1, 159187.
Croxall, J. P., Rothery, P., Pickering, S. P. C. & Prince, P. A. Reproductive performance, recruitement and survival of
Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans at Bird Island, South Georgia. Journal of Animal Ecology 59: 775-796.
Gibson, J. D. 1967. The wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans): results of banding and observations in New South Wales
coastal waters and the Tasman sea. Notornis 14: 4757.
Harrison, P. 1979. A code for scoring Wandering Albatross. Australasian Seabird Group Newsletter 12: 32-41.
Harrison, P. 1985. Seabirds: an identification guide (Revised edition). Croom Helm, Bromley, Kent.
Jouventin, P., Martinez, J. & Roux, J-P. 1989. Breeding biology and current status of the Amsterdam Island Albatross
Diomedea amsterdamensis. Ibis 131: 171182.
Marchant, S. & Higgins, P. J. 1990. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol 1. Oxford University Press,
Oxford.
Murray, D. 1989. The Gibson Code. Corella 13: 104.
Nunn, G. B. & Stanley, S. E. 1998. Body size effects and rates of cytochrome-b evolution in tube-nosed seabirds.
Molecular Biology and Evolution 15: 13601371.
Nunn, G. B., Cooper, J., Jouventin, P., Robertson, C. J. R. & Robertson, G. G. 1996. Evolutionary relationships among
extant albatrosses (Procellariiformes: Diomedeidae) established from complete cytochrome-b gene sequences. Auk
113: 784801.
Oliver, W. R. B. 1955. New Zealand Birds (2nd edition). Reed, Auckland.
Penhallurick, J. & Wink, M. 2004. Analysis of the taxonomy and nomencalture of Procellariiformes based on complete
nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene. Emu 104: 125147.
Robertson, C. J. R. & Nunn, G. B. 1998. Towards a new taxonomy for albatrosses. In G. Robertson & R. Gales (eds),
Albatross Biology and Conservation, pp. 1319. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton.
Robertson, G., & Gales, R. 1998. Albatross Biology and Conservation. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton.
Sangster, G. S. 2005. Taxonomic recommendations for British birds: third report. Ibis 147: 821826.
Warham, J. 1990. The Petrels: Their Ecology and Breeding Systems. Academic Press, San Diego.
Warham, J. 1996. The Behaviour, Population Biology and Physiology of the Petrels. Academic Press, San Diego.
Austin, J. J. 1996. Molecular phylogenetics of Puffinus shearwaters: preliminary evidence from mitochondiral cytochrome-b gene sequences. Molecular and Phylogenetic Evolution 6: 7788.
Bourne, W. R. P. 1983. The Soft-plumaged Petrel, the Gon-gon and the Freira, Pterodroma mollis, P. feae, and P. madeira.
Bulletin of the British Ornithologist Club 103: 5258.
Brinkley, E. S. & Patteson, B. J. 1998. Gadfly petrels in the western North Atlantic. Birding World 11: 341354.
Howell, S. N. G., Webb, S. and Spear, L. B. 1996. Identification at sea of Cooks, DeFilippis, and Pycrofts Petrels.
Western Birds 27: 5764.
Howell, S. N. G, Spear, L.B. & Pyle, P. 1994. Identification of Manx-type Shearwaters in the eastern Pacific. Western
Birds 25: 169177.
Kuroda, N. 1954. On the Classification and Phylogeny of the order Tubinares, particularly the shearwaters (Puffinus), with
special consideration on their osteology and habitat differentiation. Published by the author, Tokyo, Japan.
Nunn, G. B. & Anderson, D. J. 1999. Phylogenetic relationships among Pacific Pterodroma petrels. Proceedings of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, Pacific Division 18 (1): 72.
Porter, R., Newell, R., Marr, A. & Jolliffe, R. 1997. Identification of Cape Verde Shearwater. Birding World 10: 222228.
Pyle, P., Spear, L. B. & Ainley, D. G. 1993. Observations of Dark-rumped Petrels off Oregon and California. Western
Birds 24: 110112.
Roberson, D. & Bailey, S. F. 1991. Cookilaria petrels in the eastern Pacific Ocean: identification and distribution, part
I. American Birds 45: 399403.
Roberson, D., & Bailey, S. F. 1991. Cookilaria petrels in the eastern Pacific Ocean: identification and distribution, part
II. American Birds 45: 10671081.
Shirihai, H. & Jarrett, B. 2002. A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife: The Birds and Marine Mammals of the Antarctic Continent
and Southern Ocean. Alula Press, Degerby, Finland.
237
INDex
References to main text entries are in roman script, while plate pages are given in bold.
Albatross, Amsterdam Island 32, 34, 126
Antipodean 125
Atlantic Yellow-nosed 46, 48, 138
Black-browed 44, 46, 48, 132
Black-footed 38, 131
Bullers 46, 48, 140
Campbell 44, 48, 133
Chatham Islands 42, 135
Galpagos 129
Gibsons 125
Grey-headed 46, 48, 137
Indian Yellow-nosed 46, 48, 139
Laysan 40, 44, 131
Light-mantled 50, 142
Light-mantled Sooty 142
New Zealand 34, 125
New Zealand Wandering 125
Northern Royal 36, 127
Salvins 42, 136
Short-tailed 38, 130
Shy 42, 134
Snowy 34, 124
Sooty 50, 141
Southern Royal 36, 128
Tasmanian 134
Tristan 34, 124
Wandering 124
Waved 40, 129
White-capped 134
Bird of Providence 175
Bulweria bulwerii 60, 157
fallax 60, 158
Cahow 72, 180
Calonectris diomedea 96, 192
edwardsii 96, 193
leucomelas 96, 193
Daption capense 56, 148
Diomedea amsterdamensis 32, 34, 126
antipodensis 34, 125
dabbenena 34, 124
epomophora 36, 128
exulans 34, 124
sanfordi 36, 127
Diving-petrel, Common 106, 217
Magellanic 106, 216
Peruvian 106, 216
South Georgia 106, 217
Dove-petrel, Broad-billed 152
Fregetta grallaria 112, 120, 224
tropica 112, 120, 223
Fulmar, Antarctic 146
238
239
lessonii 68, 183
leucoptera 78, 165
longirostris 74, 169
macroptera 58, 182
madeira 72, 186
magentae 68, 184
mollis 58, 68, 72, 185
neglecta 62, 70, 80, 173
nigripennis 76, 163
occulta 66, 177
phaeopygia 66, 179
pycrofti 74, 167
sandwichensis 66, 178
solandri 58, 62, 175
ultima 62, 174
Puffinus assimilis 102, 104, 209
auricularis 98, 214
bailloni 104, 212
bannermani 104, 211
baroli 100, 104, 210
bulleri 94, 195
carneipes 88, 90, 196
creatopus 94, 197
elegans 102, 104, 208
gavia 102, 205
gravis 94, 198
griseus 58, 92, 199
heinrothi 90, 215
huttoni 102, 206
lherminieri 98, 100, 104, 210
mauretanicus 100, 204
nativitatis 90, 201
newelli 98, 214
opisthomelas 98, 204
pacificus 60, 90, 94, 194
persicus 104, 212
puffinus 100, 202
subalaris 98, 104, 213
tenuirostris 92, 200
yelkouan 100, 203
Shearwater, Arabian 104, 212
Audubons 98, 100, 104, 210
Balearic 100, 204
Bannermans 104, 211
Black-vented 98, 204
Bullers 94, 195
Cape Verde 96, 193
Christmas Island 90, 201
Corys 96, 192
Flesh-footed 88, 90, 196
Fluttering 102, 205
Galpagos 98, 104, 213
Great 94, 198
Heinroths 90, 215
Huttons 102, 206
Kiritimati 201
240
Little 102, 104, 209
Macaronesian 100, 104, 210
Manx 100, 202
Newells 98, 214
Pink-footed 94, 197
Short-tailed 92, 200
Sooty 58, 92, 199
Streaked 96, 193
Subantarctic Little 102, 104, 208
Townsends 98, 214
Tropical 104, 212
Wedge-tailed 60, 90, 94, 194
Yelkouan 100, 203
Storm-petrel, Ashy 114, 235
Band-rumped 228
Black 114, 234
Black-bellied 112, 120, 223
Elliots 110, 120, 220
European 108, 226
Fork-tailed 114, 236
Galpagos 227
Grey-backed 110, 222
Guadalupe 110, 231
Hornbys 118, 235
Leachs 108, 110, 114, 116, 229
Least 114, 226
Lowes 220
Madeiran 108, 228
Markhams 114, 232
Matsudairas 116, 233
New Zealand 120, 221
Peruvian 227
Polynesian 118, 225
Ringed 235
Sooty 231
Swinhoes 116, 230
Tristrams 116, 231
Wedge-rumped 110, 227
White-bellied 112, 120, 224
White-faced 118, 223
White-throated 225
White-vented 220
Wilsons 108, 219
Taiko, Chatham Island 184
Thalassarche bulleri 46, 48, 140
carteri 46, 48, 139
cauta 42, 134
chlororhynchos 46, 48, 138
chrysostoma 46, 48, 137
eremita 42, 135
impavida 44, 48, 133
melanophrys 44, 46, 48, 132
salvini 42, 136
Thalassoica antarctica 56, 147
Whalebird 154