Frequency-Response Analysi 107 PROBLEM 3.27 Plot the Bode curves for owe ("") cpa fe (3.30) [(z0) + 5) = 1) Gos 10) *\ 00 400 Solution: Let s = jw and refer to Fig. 3.29. T t Exoct curve ° = 20 ~10 $00 goo = ns 3 0 3-135 & 180 1 10 100 1000 10,000 Fig. 3.29 Bode diagram 3.5 ADVANCED PLOTTING TECHNIQUES Consider a system characteristic equation F(s) = 1+ KG(s)H(s) =0 (3.31) Recall from Chap. 2 that s = % + jan, where « corresponds to angular frequency, and “, an attenuation factor. Since s is a complex variable, F(s) will generally be complex. For any value of s, it is possible to determine F(s). If s describes a path in the so- called s-plane, F(s) describes a corresponding path in the F(s)-plane. Figure 3.30 illustrates this point graphically. For the special case where s = jo and F(s) = F(jo), the function of sis plotted as s travels along the imaginary axis of the s-plane. The range covered by s may extend from q - -% to w ce. The plot of F(s) reduces to the fre- quency response plot described in Sect. 3.2 The principal reason for considering the advanced plotting techniques is their application to the study of servomechanism closed-loop stability, which we will discuss in Sect.3.6. The basic technique is to let s take a closed108 Servomechanisms path encompassing the entire right half of the s-plane. The locus of s in the right-hand half plane automatically encircles any roots contributing to instability; i.e., roots of (3.31) having positive real parts. The nature of the corresponding path traced out by F( jo) = 1 + KG( jo) H (jo) tells us whether or not the servo- mechanism characteristic equation has roots in the right-hand half-plane; i.e., whether the servomechanism is stable. jo imi F(s)} Poth of mo ~RolF(s)t Path of F(s) fe) (e) Fig. 3.30 As s traces out a path in the complex s-plane, F(s) traces out a corresponding path in the F(s) plane. (a) A locus of s in the s-plane (s = + ja). (b) A possible locus of F(s) in the F(s) plane. F(s) is a complex number in general. Its value is a fa function of the independent variable s. Figure 3.31 shows the locus taken by s, which in effect, encircles the entire right half of the s-plane. If F(s) has any poles along the imaginary axis, these are avoided by traversing small, counter-clockwise semi-circles. Since such poles do not contribute to the instability of the servomechanism, their exclusion does not diminish the validity of the analysis. Im(s) Re(s) s=3e!” 2 in the vicinit of the origin. Fig. 3.31 Path of independent variable s in the s-plane. The path encircles the entire right half-plane. The path excludes any poles of F(s) which occur on the imaginary axis. As s describes the path shown on the figure, F(s) describes a path on the F(s)-plane, which tells a great deal about system stability. PROBLEM 3.28 Plot the transfer function for small values of s, 1 G(s) = ———— s(1 + sT) as s moves along the imaginary axis, avoiding the pole at the origin.Frequency-Response Analysis 109 Im(s) s-plane Infinitesimal Re(s) Fig. 3.32 The complex variable s moves up along the imaginary axis, avoiding any poles at the origin. In the vicinity of the origin, s = de/9. This value for s is substituted in G(s) in tracing the G(s) locus in the complex plane for s very small. Solution: Refer to Fig. 3.32. When s = jw = 0, the expression becomes ap- proximately es =). 3 Obviously a special plotting problem exists as s ~ 0, Let s, a complex number, be represented by the vector s = de/°, having an amplitude 5 = 0 and a phase angle 0 with respect to the coordinate origin. For s very small, 1 1 é G0) = 9-5 G(s) approaches ~ as 5 approaches zero. As s traces out a small counter-clock- wise semi-circle from 9 -~7/2 to 8 = x/2, G(s) traces out an infinite (1/8) radius semi-circle moving clockwise from +1/2 to -7/2. Thus, a pole at the origin of the s plane means that G(s) generates a clockwise semi-circle of infinite radius in the G(s) plane. Similarly, an a" order pole at the origin generates n clockwise semi-circles of rotation of G(s) as s moves from w = 0~ to w = OF. (3.32) PROBLEM 3.29 Plot F(s)=1/s, as s varies from ~~ to + along the imaginary axis. Avoid the pole at the origin by the CCW semi-circle, as shown by Fig. 3.32. Solution: Refer to Fig. 3.33. PROBLEM 3.30 Repeat Prob. 3.29, for F(s) = 1/s*. F(s) has a second order pole at the origin Solution: Refer to Fig. 3.34. PROBLEM 3.31 Repeat Prob. 3.29, for F(s)=1/s*. F(s) has a third order pole at the origin. Solution: Refer to Fig. 3.35.110 Servomechanisms . splane Increasing\ frequency \ 1 Fue) =75 () Fig. 3.33 (a) © moves along the imaginary axis from —~ to +0, avoiding the pole of F(s) at the origin. (b) Path traced out by F(s)=1/s. Dashed curves are semi-circular arcs of infinite radius. Arrows show direction of paths. Im(s) ImF(s) ImF(s) Fig. 3.35 Plot of F(s) = 1/s? as s varies from —= to +20 along the imaginary axis. F(s) makes three CW semicircles as q varies from 0” to 0°.Frequency-Response Analysis qt Note in the preceding that as w varies from 0~ to 0*, F(s) makes a number of CW semi-circles equal to the number of poles of F(s) at the origin. If F(s) = F(jo) is plotted from @ = +0 to w = 0*, the F(jw) curve ap- proaches infinity along the coordinate axes as follows: One pole ) curve approaching ~j axis Two poles > at origin leads to ) curve approaching negative real axis Three poles } curve approaching +j axis This is a convenient way of determining the number of poles at the origin from a frequency plot for positive real frequencies. 3.6 SERVOMECHANISM STABILITY “~ Servomechanism stability may be determined by solving the characteristic equation F(s) = 1+KG(s)H(s) =0. 3.33) Zeros of this equation in the right-hand half plane indicate non-decaying response components (regardless of the nature of the input); i.e., instability, which in turn may cause uncontrollable oscillations that render the servomechanism useless, even dangerous. The shortcoming of this fundamental approach is that the characteristic equation is often difficult to solve, and even more difficult to apply to the prob- lem of optimizing servomechanism performance. This difficulty suggests the use of simpler frequency-response techniques to determine whether there are any roots of the characteristic equation in the right-hand half plane. Let us introduce these techniques by applying the plotting methods of Sect. 3.5 to some elementary problems. PROBLEM 3.32 Given the characteristic equation F(s) = 1+KG(s) = 1+ —Ka (3.34) and applying the indicated plotting tech- niques, determine whether the plot of F (jo) encircles the origin. Solution: Referring to Fig. 3.36 and letting s = jw, (3.34) may be rewritten as F (jo) = 1+ ——Ke =o + jot) This expression is to be plotted as w varies from —~ to +~. The curve is shown by Fig. 3.36. The complete curve encircles the origin twice in a CW aan Fig. 3.36 As @ varies from —2 to +>, direction. the origin is encircled twice by the locus.112 Servomechanisms PROBLEM 3.33 Consider the more generic form of the characteristic equation F(s) = 14KG(s)H(s) = K—S=S8— 82) (3.35) (s — sq)(s ~ sp)(s — se) Relate the number of zeros and poles of F(s) to encirclements of the origin as varies from —s0 to +o. Solution: Examine Fig. 3.37a which shows the poles, zeros and their vectors plotted in the s-plane. Note that some of these lie in the right-hand half plane. Figure 3.376 illustrates the geometric significance of pole and zero vectors such as (s — sq) and (s ~ s,), respectively. As s moves in a closed CW curve encircling poles or zeros of F (s), then vectors such as (s ~ sq) and (s ~ s,) will make CW revolutions in the complex s-plane. The rotating vectors lead to at net CW rotation of F(s) equal to the number of rotations of the zeros minus the number of rotations of the poles. Note that zeros and poles which are not en- circled in the s-plane do not contribute to the net rotation of F(s). If the path of s includes the entire right-hand half plane, excluding discrete points on the Im(s) Im + Re(s) > Re(s) ReF(s) ey Fig. 3.37 As s follows the prescribed path in the s-plane, 1 + KGH follows a correspond- ing path in the 1 + KGH plane. If the path in the s-plane encircles poles or zeros of the 1 + KGH function, the 1 + KGH makes encirclements in the same direction about the origin, equal in number to the zeros minus the poles encircledFrequency-Response Analysis 113 imaginary axis, then F(s) rotates in a CW direction about the origin a number of times equal to the number of zeros minus the number of poles in the right-hand half plane. Briefly, if P = the number of poles and Z = the number of zeros of F (s) in the right-hand half plane, then Number of CW encirclements = Z- P. (3.36) PROBLEM 3.34 Using the results of Prob. 3.33, determine whether F(s) in Prob. 3.32 represents a stable system. Solution: Problem 3.32 and Fig. 3.36 show that F(s) makes 2 CW encirclements of the origin as w varies from -~ to +e. This means that for F(s), Z~ P = 2. Write the expression for F(s), Ka =: [3.33] s?(14 sT) F(s) = 1+ F(s) and KG(s) have a double pole at the origin at s - 0, and a single pole at s = -1/T on the negative real axis. There are no poles in the right-hand half plane. Thus, P = 0, and Z = 2. Therefore, there are 2 zeros in the right-hand half plane, and the system is unstable (see Fig. 3.38). Note that we have estab- lished instability without solving the characteristic equation. Inxs) ImF(s) Possible set of zeros of F(s) encircled bys Poles of ReF(s) KG(s) ond F(s) Double pole 14+KG (9) Hs) = plone Fig. 3.38 As s follows the path around the right half-plane, the 1+KG(s)H(s) function follows @ closed curve around the origin of the F(s) plane, The number of CW encircle- ments of the origin by F(s) equals the number of zeros minus the number of poles of F(s). A slight simplification of the preceding method is possible. Substitute the expression G(s)H(s) = —1, for the expression G(s)H(s) + 1 = 0. Whereas the latter has been interpreted in terms of encirclements of the origin by the G(s)H(s) + 1 function, the former may be interpreted in terms of encirclements of the -1 point by the G(s)H(s) function. Thus, a plot of G(s)H(s) encircles the -1 point in the complex plane, in a clockwise direction, a number of times equal to the number of zeros minus the number of poles of the 1 + G(s)H(s) function. Because of the special importance of the ~1 point, this is often called the Nyquist point, after the man most instrumental in developing this theory.14 Servomechanisms PROBLEM 3.35 Indicate whether the system with the open loop characteristic KoH(s) - ——10__ 3.37) ICD Solution: The system function is plotted and discussed in Fig. 3.39. ImKGH(s) is or is not stable. ireular ore, ite radius ReKGH(s) Fig. 3.39 As w varies from —c to +e, the ~1 + j0 point is encircled twice in a clock- wise direction, indicating that 1 + KGH has two more zeros than poles in the right half- plane. The encirclement is easy to visualize by examining the net rotations of a vector pivoting about the minus one point es its terminus follows the curve from @ =-=to oat By examining the expression for KGH, there are poles of KGH at s = 0, s=~4, e=~16. 1 + KGH has poles at these same points. Since there are no poles of 1 + KGH in the right half-plane, there must be two zeros. The system is unstable. PROBLEM 3.36 Is the system stable if %(1 + iw) > Gad (1+ “Orie Solution: The system function is plotted and discussed in Fig. 3.40. KGH (jo) = (3.38) PROBLEM 3.37 Is the system of Fig. 3.41 stable? Solution: The system is conditionally stable as discussed in the diagram. The preceding examples show how stability may be determined by inspection of the polar plot of the open-loop transfer function. It is usually sufficient to plot these curves only for positive frequency, which is easily carried out experi- mentally. Some complex systems do require the complete plot to ascertain en- circlement of the minus-one or Nyquist point.Frequency-Response Analysis 5 ReKGH(s) Fig. 3.40 Open-loop frequency response plotted from @ = —s0 to @= +0. The -1+j0 point is not encircted, and the system is stable. If the loop gain were increased, it is possible for the system to become unstable. ImKGH(s) on on AES ReKGH(s) o=0 Fig. 3.41 Conditionally stable feedback control system open-loop characteristic. There are no encirclements for the minus-one point. This system would become unstable if gain K is either increased or reduced. Plotting this curve accurately to scale in the vicinity of the negative real axis permits an accurate estimate of how great an increase or decrease in gain would lead to instability. PROBLEM 3.38 Thus far we have only considered the effect of the zeros of F(s) on stability. Discuss the significance of the poles of KG(s)H(s) + 1 on stability. Assume KG(s)H(s) = we where V(s) and D(s) simply mean numer- s) ator and denominator polynomials in s. Then KN(s) _ D(s) + KN(s) D(s) Dis) . Solution: 1+ KG(s)H(s) = 1+ (3.39)116 Servomechanisms The poles of this expression are thus the same as the poles of KG(s)H(s). But KG(s)H(s) is simply the open-loop servomechanism characteristic. If this had poles in the right-hand half plane, it would mean that the open-loop was unstable. Although it is possible to have a stable closed-loop even with an unstable open-loop, this situation is not usually recommended. Thus, for systems with a stable open-loop, 1 + KG(s)H(s) has no poles in the right-hand half plane, and the clockwise encirclements of -1, for —» Sw < +% by the KG(s)H(s) function, equal the zeros in the right-hand half plane. Any encirclements must be clockwise, and mean instability. In the case where the open-loop might be unstable, an investigation must be made to determine the number of right-hand half plane poles of the KG(s)H(s) function. Routh’s criterion (see Appendix C) is especially useful for obtaining the number of such roots of a polynomial. When the number of such poles is known, as well as the number of zeros minus poles (by the preceding method), the number of zeros in the right-hand half plane is, of course, established. PROBLEM 3.39 By a rough sketch in the KGH(s) plane, determine whether the system having the following open-loop transfer function is stable: Bi KG(jo) H(jo) = ———__ . j2a(1- ja) Solution: The first step is, of course, to sketch this transfer function. This is initially accomplished by setting @ to zero, infinity, and the convenient inter- mediate value of 1/20. We see that KG (jo) H (jo) . 2 weot f approaches ~ along the 90° axis. Also that -1 sim G20) 2jo) ot KG (jo) A (jo) approaches zero along the negative real axis. And KG (jo) H (jo) =— sh i 10; at (WU) WG-) V2 745° KG (jo) H(jo) = 7.07 2135° These points are sufficient to provide the sketch in Fig. 3.42 which shows that one CW encirclement of the Nyquist point occurs, so that Z~P = 1 ‘An examination of the open-loop transfer function shows that there is @ pole on the positive real axis at s = +1/20. Since P = 1, Z = 2. There are two zeros of the characteristic equation in the right-hand half plane, and the system is therefore unstable.u7 Frequency-Response Analy ImKGH (s) Fig. 3.42 Sketch o cc KGH Go) = Fwd =20)0) ‘The locus is completed from « = 07 to @ = 0" by a CW semicircle, and results in a single encirclement of the Nyquist point. PROBLEM 3.40 By direct algebraic analysis, verify the instability of the system in the preceding problem. Solution: The characteristic equation is 1 F = 1+KG(s)H(s) = 1+ ——__.. 2) Se 2s( — 208) These terms can be combined, so that Loe 20s) 2s 40st -1 (20s) 2s(1 - 208) Zeros of the numerator (the zeros of the characteristic equation) are determined by direct application of the quadratic formula si2-2 Lbs Vb dae] 2° 2a 1 = = [2 2 V2?— (4)(40 30 (4) (40) + (re iva9). 40 These zeros are in the right-hand half plane. A simplified stability criterion states therefore that in stable systems whose open-loop condition is also stable, the KG(jo)H(ja) characteristic may not encircle the minus-one point. Figures 3.40 and 3.41 show stable systems. Fig-118 Servomechanisms ure 3.39 shows an unstable system. If the question of encirclement is not ap- parent, the entire characteristic, from @ =~» to w = +=, must be plotted. 3.7 MARGIN OF STABILITY 1“ The previous section explains how to determine whether or not a system is stable by means of a frequency plot. This evaluation method is very easy to use in most cases. However, it is not enough to just know whether or not a system is stable; it is also important to know how stable it is A system with too A&48W'a margin of safety (too little stability margin) takes overly long to settle after a transient input, and may jitter excessively in the presence of charging thput signals, noise, and load disturbances. One simple method of judging degree of stability is shown by Fig. 3.43. , ImKGH(s) Nyquist point Re = phase angle 4+ 180° = phase margin Circle abour 4 in Unity radius | is positive for a, phose lag of Tess than 180° smplitude for @ 180° phase lag 1/A = gain margin A= ‘ s KGH(jo) 20 logis 1/A = gain margin in db Fig. 3.43 Plot of a typical open-loop frequency response in the vicinity of the Nyquist point, Gain and phase margin are defined. For example, if A = 0.5 and @ =-150% then . 1 gain margin = 5 g=2, or 6 db phase margin = 180°— 150°= +30° Negative gain and phase margins mean instability. Stability is measured by the distance between the minus-one point and the KGH (ja) locus. Two parameters are used: phase margin and gain margin, ‘These terms define the separation between the minus-one point and locus. A stable system requires gain and phase margins. Gain must fall below unity (0 db) when phase lag reaches 180°; in other words, phase must lag by something less than 180° when gain falls to unity, A phase margin of 30° and a gain margin of 6 db are, roughly speaking, minimum safe margins. When the KGH(jw) locus is unusually complicated, the interpretation of gain and phaseFrequency-Response Analysis 119 margins may be ambiguous. Second order systems, approaching 180° as w = =, do not have gain margins. PROBLEM 3.41 Discuss the stability margin of the function sketched in Fig. 3.44, Solution: The discussion is presented in the diagram. c ImKHG(s) ReKHG(s) Fig. 3.44 This function may be said to have an infinite gain margin. Phase margin 180° + (155°) = +25°. Gain falls to zero when open-loop phase shift equals 180° at infinite frequency. PROBLEM 3.42 Discuss stability margin for the conditionally stable system of Fig. 3.45. Solution: Stability margin must be approached in terms of the higher and lower values for which instability occurs, as discussed in Fig. 3.45. ImKHG (8) Fig, 3.45 Conditionally stable system. Two gain margins are required here. For an optimum adjustment both gain margins are equalized in the above figure at 2.5. For this complex open-loop function, phase margin does not have much significance. The Bode diagram offers an excellént basis for applying the gain and phase margin concepts to simple servomechanisms. The asymptotic gain and phase shift are sketched as described in Sec. 3.3. The phase is plotted with care in the region where gain approximates 0 db, and in the region of 180° phase shift120 Servomechanisms If extra accuracy is required, several points may be plotted on the gain curve in critical regions. However, good answers are often obtained by quick sketches. PROBLEM 3.43 Determine the stability margin of the function shown in Fig. 3.46. Solution: Refer to Fig. 3.46. 20 tog © Asymptotes (slope db/octave) Exect curve! t & or 5 (db) 1 oT in degr Phase ang! Fig. 3.46 From the approximate asymptotic diagram, the gain curve crosses the zero db or unity gain axis at @T = 4. At this point, phase lag is arctan 4, or about 75 degrees. Phase margin is 105°. There is no meaning to the gain margin, since the phase shift never reaches 180% PROBLEM 3.44 Determine the stability margin of the function shown in Fig. 3.47. Solution: This system is unstable. Refer to Fig. 3.47. 6 db/octave 12db/octave Oo 18 db/octave _ 6 iT) 1+ j@T,) Jacl +ja) +i?) Fig. 3.47 The asymptotic diagram crosses the 0 db axis at @ = 4. The phase lag is GGw) = — jot 90° + arctan 4 + arctan 1 = 90° + 76°+ 45°= 211° ‘The phase margin is w= 219 =—312 The negative phase margin causes this system to be unstable. *Frequency-Response Analysis 121 PROBLEM 3.45 For the transfer function of Fig. 3.47, find w for a phase margin of zero. Solution: For a phase margin of 0°, the total phase lag of the function must be 180°. Phase lag of G( jw) = 90° + arctan « + arctan «/4 = 180° or arctan w + arctan w/4 - 90°. Let « = arctan w, and f = arctan w/4. Since a + B = 90°, then tan & + tang tan (0 + B)= Tang = fan 90°. G41) Since tan90°= =, 1~ tana tang -0 and tan & tanB (3.42) Now tan @ = and tan = «/4, and substituting in (3.42) ot tana tang = 2 4 =1 so that At w = 2, phase margin is zeto. PROBLEM 3.46 For the open loop transfer function of Fig. 3.48, find the phase margins at @=,, ws, and w=Va,0, + LK 20 en/tecode 3 diay = _Rettsior) 3 jay = — Kv @tloT) _ 40 db/decade joGHOT,) U+ieT) 20 db/decode where 7-10 40 db /decade Fig. 3.48 Asymptotic Bode plot of open-loop transfer function. ‘The cross-over frequency Ge is the point where gain has fallen to unity. The phase margin at @- = 10 is $6.8°122 Servomechanisms Solution: Find the phase margins by summing the phase angles of the terms of the open-loop transfer function. Phase angle of G( jw) 3 = arctan oT, + arctanwT, ~ arctanwT, Phase margin of G( jw) = 2 - arctan wT, + arctan wT, - arctan wT. Perform the calculations in tabular form: Phase @ of, arctanoT, wT, arctanwT, 7, arctan T, Margin 1 10 84.3° 1 45° v0 5.75° +35° 10 100 89.4° 10 84.3° 1 45° +39.99 Vio 10V10 88.22 = V10.—S72.5° 10/10 17.5° + 56.8 The phase margin is a maximum at @ ¥V10. If the Bode diagram crosses the zero db axis in this vicinity (by suitably adjusting gain K,), the complete servo- mechanism will exhibit excellent stability characteristics when the loop is closed. ‘The following should be noted concerning notation used in this chapter: 1. Assingle component or block may be represented by G(s) and G(jo)- 2. A cascaded string of components or blocks may be represented by either: G(s)H(s) and G(jw) (jo) GH(s) and GH jo) KG(s)H(s) and KG (jo) H (jo) KGH(s) and KGH (jo) . Observe that the use of the Bode plot makes it very easy to estimate sta- bility margin quickly. This is probably the most common method of studying stability. In Chap. 6, an extension of this method is used to improve servo- mechanism performance by ‘shaping’ the Bode diagram