CHAPTER 2 Stresses in flexible pavements Design and construction of flexible asphalt pavements has changed rather significantly in the past several years. Prior to this time, most pav. be easily classified into one of two categories, namely “flexible” or “ or PCC pavement design has long been based primarily upon a theoretically related analysis involving some empirical modifications to the classical Wester- gaard approach. Flexible pavements were (and still are) classified by « pavement structure having a relatively thin asphalt wearing course with layers of granular base and subbase being used to protect the subgrade from being overstressed. ‘This type of pavement design was primarily based upon empiricism or experi- ence, with theory playing only a subordinate role in the procedure. However, the recent design and construction changes brought about primarily by heavier wheel loads, higher traffic levels, and the recognition of various inde- pendent distress modes contributing to pavement “failure” (such as rutting, shoving, and cracking), have led to the introduction and increased use of stabilized base and subbase material. Stabilizers such as asphalt, lime, flyash, and cement are frequently used to increase the structural strength of the pavement by increasing rigidity. Because of these reasons an extremely concentrated effort was made in the last several years to develop a more fundamentally based design analysis for asphalt concrete pavements having unstabilized (flexible) or stabilized (semirigid) base layers. In the strictest sense, there is at present no truly fundamental or rational design procedure that is widely accepted in the pavement design in- dustry. However, a great deal of engineering reliance is being placed upon the use of multilayered linear elastic theory. This is exemplified by the introduction into practice of several such design procedures based upon this concept. It should be clearly understood by the reader that, for any pavement design procedure to be completely rational in nature, total consideration must be given to three elements. These elements are (1) the theory used to predict the failure 24LAYERED SYSTEM CONCEPTS 25 or distress parameter, (2) the evaluation of the pertinent material properties necessary for the theory selected, and (8) the determination of the relationship between the magnitude of the parameter in question to the failure or perform- ance level desired. ‘This chapter considers only the first item. A general discussion of fundamental material tests utilized in rational designs is presented in Part II of this book, while Part III contains the basic development of the fundamental criteria used in rational design procedures. Even though most pavement material responses differ from the assumptions of the theory and the “true” values of stress, strain, or deflection may differ from the predicted levels, an understanding of the theory presented is indispensable to the engin¢f because of its importance in recognizing the fundamental factors upon which all pavement designs are based. LAYERED SYSTEM CONCEPTS Figure 2.1 illustrates the general concept of a multilayered elastic system. Generally the analytical solution to the state of stress or strain has several assump- tions. They are (1) the material properties of each layer are homogeneous, that is, the property at point A; is the same at point B,; (2) each layer has a finite thick- ness except for the lower layer, and all are infinite in the lateral directions; (8) each layer is isotropic, that is, the property at a specific point such as A, is the same in every direction or orientation; (4) full friction is developed between layers at each interface; (5) surface shearing forces are not present at the surface: and (6) the stress solutions are characterized by two material properties for each = SS hy Ex Interface 1 hay Ba, oa o B . Interface 2 As, Es, us interface n — 1 hy = ©, Eny in Figure 2.1, Generalized multilayered elastic system.26 STRESSES IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS layer. They are Poisson's ratio, y, and the elastic modulus E. Although these items are the more classical assumptions used in most theoretical procedures, recent advances such as the computerized multilayered Shell BISAR program have the capability to analyze layered systems without interface friction mobilized and the presence of surface shearing forces. However, the solutions presented in the remainder of this chapter assume all of the conditions previously noted. From theory it can be shown that at a given point within any layer, 9 stresses exist. These stresses are comprised of 8 normal stresses (o., o-,, 0) acting perpen- dicular to the element face and 6 shearing stresses (ry1, Tt» Tras Ter» Ttar Tzt) ACt> ing parallel to the face. Static equilibrium conditions on the element show that the shear stresses acting on intersecting faces are equal. Thus tre = Ten Tet = Ten and 71 = Tz. At each point in the system, there exists a certain orien- tation of the element such that the shear stresses acting on each face are zero. The normal stresses under this condition are defined as principal stresses and are denoted by o; (major stress), o» (intermediate), and os (minor). The bulk stress @ is defined as the sum of the principal stresses at a point. Given the triaxial state of stress of any element, the strains may be computed by the following equations: 6 = Ale nlo, +0) (21) = plor — nlor + 09] (2.2) = ples — ale, + 00] @3) ‘The type of theory used is generally distinguished by reference to three proper- ties of the material behavior response. They are the relationship between stress and strain (linear or nonlinear), the time dependency of strain under a constant stress level (viscous or nonviscous), and the degree to which the material can rebound or recover strain after stress removal (plastic or elastic). Figure 2.2 shows these concepts in generalized form. In Figure 2.24 the fundamental difference between a linear and nonlinear material response is shown. Although most pavement materials are nonlinear, the use of a linear model will suffice provided the stress states are low. Figure 2.2b illustrates what is meant by a viscous material. As can be seen for the two models shown, the strain magnitude is a function of the time the specimen is stressed. Model I is a simple Maxwell-type system, which is comprised of a spring and dashpot in series, The strain can be denoted by: oat 6) 2.4) W=p-5 (4) where ¢ is the time and 7 is the coefficient of viscosity of the dashpot system. Note that there are two parts of the total strain, One portion is the instantaneous and fully recoverable portion simulated by the spring while the other portion is time dependent and irrecoverable.LAYERED SYSTEM CONCEPTS 27 (Linear) { t TI} (Simple viscous a (Nonlinear) A 1 models) g . . a 8 (Nonviscous) . . en 0 Tead Tra Ste lee @ a (Plastic) ee (Elastic) Siress release t (ime) —— © Figure 2.2. Material characteristics. (a) linearity; (b)viscous effects; (¢) recoverable effects. The Kelvin system is illustrated by Model II. This system is characterized by a spring and dashpot in parallel, The time-dependent strain for this system is (2.5) For the Kelvin system, as the loading time approaches infinity, the strain approaches the elastic value. Upon load release, all the strain is recovered fully. Most viscous pavement materials, such as asphalt mixtures at elevated tempera- tures and very cohesive soils, do not follow either of these ideal cases, and as a consequence, various combinations of models have been developed to simulate the behavior response. Figure 22¢ represents the basic distinction between an elastic and plastic material, Ideally, this difference refers to whether all of the strain is recovered (clastic) upon load release or whether some deformation will remain (plastic). The latter case is shown by the permanent or irrecoverable strain ¢, in the diagram, From a practical viewpoint, many of the viscoelastic models require such a great deal of time to fully recover the strain that much of the deformation can be considered as being plastic or permanent in nature. This feature explains why linear viscoelastic theory is used to predict the permanent deformation of pavement systems. With these facts in mind, the reader should possess a general understanding of the limitations and concepts of any specific theoretical model, such as non- linear elastic or linear viscoplastic. As noted previously, the type of theory most widely utilized at the present time is multilayered linear elastic theory. The solutions to various problems are presented in the next portion of this chapter.28 ‘STRESSES IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS MULTILAYERED SOLUTIONS One-Layer Systems. In analyzing stresses, strains, and deflections in ideal masses, solutions have been primarily derived from Boussinesq equations origin- ally developed for an homogeneous, isotropic, and elastic media due to a point load at the surface. According to Boussinesq’s formula, the vertical stress at any depth below the earth’s surface due to a point load at the surface is as follows: a= ks (2.6) where r= distance radially from point load z= depth From equation 2.6 it is seen that the vertical stress is dependent on the depth and radial distance and is independent of the properties of the transmitting medium. The distribution of vertical stresses below a concentrated load on any hori- zontal plane takes the form of a bell-shaped surface. Maximum stresses occur on the vertical plane passing through the point of load application. The pressure is maximum at shallow depths, theoretically becoming zero at infinity. For prac- tical considerations, it can be assumed to approach zero at a finite depth. In the study of flexible pavements, the load at the surface is not a point load but is distributed over an elliptical area. Pressures at the tire-pavement contact (assuming no tire effects) are equal to the tire pressure. Variation of stress with depth follows the same general pattern as for the point-load case. Further work with the previous Boussinesq equations expanded the solutions for a uniformly distributed circular load by integration. This allowed a more realistic and appropriate solution for the normal pavement design analysis problem. Newmark (26) developed influence charts for determination of stresses in elastic soil masses. The charts are widely used in foundation work. Barber (7) presented data in tabular form which facilitate stress and deformation calcula- tions. Sanborn and Yoder (81) presented graphical solutions to stress and de- flection in a Boussinesq solid assuming that the pressure distribution at the surface was semiellipsoidal rather than uniformly distributed over a circular contact area. The Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers, in connection with studies of stresses and deflection in flexible pavements, developed influence values for semiinfinite elastic masses. Foster and Ahlvin (15) have presented charts for computing vertical stress, horizontal stress, and vertical elastic strains due to circular loaded plates, These values were developed for a y = 0.5. This work was subsequently refined by Ahlvin and Ulery (2) to allow for an extensive solution of the complete pattern of stress, strain, and deflection at any point in the homogeneous mass for any value of Poisson's ratio.MULTILAYERED SOLUTIONS 29 TABLE 2.1, Summary of One-Layer Elastic Equotions® (after Ahivin and Ulery) Parameter General Case Special Case (u = 0.5) Vertical stress o. = plA +B] (same) Radial horizontal stress, = pA C+ (1-2) oy = pla $C] Tangential horizontal stress ov = pl2ud — D+ (1—2n)E] oe = pl — DI Vertical radial shear stress Tre = Tr = PG (same) Vertical strain | .=—=SC—CO—~—tsts—S~——i—S A Ei Radial horizontal strain «= ate) a. =. Tangential horizontal strain ¢, = "——~ [(1 — 20)#— DJ) = Vertical deflection A= ne neleg +0- wit} a a Bulk stress O=ototo Bulk strain & oe Vertical tangential shear stress Principal stresses Maximum shear stress # See Table 2.2 for values of the functions A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H. (+) values compressive. The solutions for the various parameters are shown in Table 2.1. As can be seen, the equations are expressed in terms of certain functions (4 . . . H), which are summarized in tabular form in Table 2.2. Each function is expressed in terms of both the depth and offset distances in radii (z/a and r/a), which identify the particular point in the soil mass considered, This is shown in Figure 2.8. Although most asphalt pavement structures cannot be regarded as being homo- geneous, the use of the equations shown in Table 2.1 are generally applicable for subgrade stress, strain, and deflection studies when the modular ratio of the pavement and subgrade is close to unity. This condition is probably most exem- plified by conventional flexible granular base/subbase pavement structures having a thin asphalt concrete surface course. Normally, when deflection studies for this pavement type are conducted, it is assumed that the pavement portion (above the subgrade) does not contribute any partial deflection component to the total surface deflection. Thus the sig- nificant deflection occurs in the subgrade from z to infinity. 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420200 92500°0 699%0°0 zo 1000°0 ——-29200°0 zg01'0 suzt0°0 12100'0 esF10'0 ro roe = 49 oro = gonzo teag'o§——(aaeae' Fe Tesee"0 SagTF's aui8'0 szsee'o. zorLro —98et8'o we GUeTt'o —BeBe"O 9ST OG grozo'0 ooze" s96zh'0 9zz0L'0 e090 ——@2008"0 or L1Lg0°0 —FeRLO"OEBTE'S guvez'o —z6c60"F ‘y0203'0 18996°0 eecez'o —stozF'0 80 356000 98610"0—O8eOr'E zeL00°0 —«LTB08"T 11390°0 ert0s'0 19110°0—FeSST“O v0 ¥9700°0 —80s00"0zz286°0 weLI0'0 ——LEFO"O 22410°0 ste8e'0 £0120'0 © 90z¥0"0 0 ¥0000°0 —gz100"0 0982" opF00'0 © L682T"0 ‘6£500"0 oeze0"0 ze@00'0 —-¥LOI0"O.-—«L.1910°0 vo owe o- 4 oem veteF0 ——-¥z080"0 zeok'0 ——16960°0 grees"o —-49901'0aTT9¥°0 iuess-0 —baget"0 ze ges0z"0 —a6z0°0 seeoe'0—zztt0 g9g69"0 © ezeeT"o | ‘suF88"O 1¥99"0 «BLE or 12260°0 ——#810"0 vesrc'o —29640"0 zoges'0 —G66L0"0——=FOBEO"T syerro —69¢80°0 80 ezez0"0——90200°0 9220°0 —¥A¥TO"O e920" eee" zeort'o §—“FzBzO'O RO ¥0 s900°0 —oet00"0——«08T8"0 62610°0 —_98800"0 11200°0—_-F0686"0 ozoro"0 “$0800 »——¥zz00"0 wo pOT00"O e000" HERE"O 88F00°0 ——-86000°0 TsT00"0 = 86280"0 e010" = 9000" = s0zt0"0 v0 cone zo= com wos cena —ez2) eua—ee) (iam—1e2) (euy—e22) (eaw—ez2) (N12) (euy—222) (eaten) (INN—IA7) (eH 222) eMN—e2Z) NN-1az) o°00% = 0-08 = 14 ore wos 4 vo =H so nH son so-H (ponuyuos) “ez 318VLro= 8T990°0 6¥220"0 zo=4 (iaw-122) (eua—2z2) (ea 222) Care (euy-2zz) (cxy~ezz) (am—122) {ponuyuos) “e% a18VL (exu- 022) wara-tz2) (eia—122) (exa—222) 12) 0°00 = 5 oz = 4 orn wom or -# orn ora ora 67TABLE 2.3. (continued) 68 H= 20 H= 20 hs H=20 H=2.0 hy = 200.0 =2.0 20.2 20.0 (221—RR1) (Z22—RR2) (@z2-RRS) (@21—-RRI) (222- RRO) (222 —RR3) (2z1—RRY (Z22—RR2) (2z2—RKD) (221—RR1) (222—RRD (222—RR3) ks = 0.2 by = 0.261000°0 ——998e0°0 ze 900000 6F010"0 or 1000009200" #0 000000 $9000°0 ¥0 (900000 21000°0 £0 (0000070 ¥0000°0 v0 0°02 = ty ct00"0 ——oT0r0"0 ve zw000'0 ©=——«ee800°0 or 11000°0——«$1z00"0 #0 20000°0 —¥s000"0 0 0000°0 —-¥1000°0 a0 090000 £0000"0 v0 roe = * 91600°0 ——Te6T0"0 we 12z00°0——&8900°0 or %1000°0 ——‘¥¥T00"0 0 81000°0 —-98000"0 ¥0 $0000°0 _60000°0 z0 0000" 200000 ro o= ‘sazeo"0 —09000°0 we $1600°0 -$8100°0 or ‘99z00"0 ——19000°0 #0 9900070 €1000°0 ro 9100070 £0000°0 zo ¥0000°0 —10000°0 v0 ron (euw—22z) (euy-22z) (Wuy- 122) Ceu—222) (euN-ea2) INH- 122) (eua—ezz) (awa e22) (a—122) (euN—e2z) (axw-e22) Cax-122) 0-008 = 4 ous 4 oz zon or =H orn (penuyuos) “e°% aTaVL or=H OrenTABLE 2.3. (continued) 70 H= 80 H= 8.0 ht = 200.0 ky = 20.0 (221-RR1) (B22-RR2) (222-RR3) (@21-RR\) (2Z2—RR2) (222—RR3) (221-RR1) (222-RR2) (222-RRI) (221-RR1) (222-RR2) (Z22—RR3) = 0.2 =02 ks =0.2 ke 2.0 iy = 20.0 ky = 20.0 = 20.0 ks g ' ks = 200.0 kx = 200.0bi i THREE-LAYER SYSTEM. Ce 7 Illustrative Example 2.4, Three-Layer Problem. Referring to Figure 2.9, a pavement structure has the following characteristics: hy = 3 inches, hy = 12 inches, Ey = 600,000 psi, E, = 30,000 psi, and £, = 15,000 psi. For p = 80 psi and a = 6 inches, calculate the following: , a On C. Ort, Fray Ors e& Ge b. Onn dad. én For the input values of the pavement system E, _ 600,000 a i 1)p= = — = 20 ae kK) = = Go000 = 22 A) = 5 E, 30,000 _ i fs (K2) = = 35,000 ~ he Note that the fy, ka, and H values are values tabulated for Figure 2.10 and Table 2.3 solutions. The value of a; (4) = 0.5 must be interpolated from a, (4) values shown a. For the KI = 20, K2 = 2, and H= 0.25, the appropriate 2Z1 diagram of Figure 2.10 is found. For an a, (A) = 0.5 ae “om = p(ZZ1) = 80(0.47) = 37.6 psi b. From the appropriate 222 diagram of Figure 2.10, 222, = 0.10 © ony = p(ZZ2) = 80(0.10) = 8.0 psi c. Since the horizontal stress factors of Table 2.8 do not have a tabulated value for a, (A) = 0.5, this value must be interpolated. The following tabulated summary illustrates the sequence to be carried out in order to evaluate o7. The o; value can be determined by interpolation of a plot of a, (A) versus on. By this procedure o1 = —315 psi, ov = —9.0 psi and 0,3 = —1.0 psi. ai (A) (2Z1 — RR) oa - on 0.1 0-63215, 50.57 —13.0. psi 0.2 1.83766 147.01 —109.4 psi 0.4 3.86779 309.42 —271-8 psi 0.8 5.50796 440.64 —403.0 psi 1.6 4.24281 339.42 301-8 psi 3.2 1.97494 157.00 —120.4 psi d. Knowing oy and on 1 f= 9, len — onl = Se 00,000 2.938 X 10-4 inch/inch or a tensile strain of 294 microinches/inch, 315 — 37.6] i)72 ‘STRESSES IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS e. Knowing oy and oy n=l J= at = ap loa — onl = 5a = 6.000 X 10~ inch/inch Is - (-)) or a compressive strain of 600 microinches/inch. FUNDAMENTAL DESIGN CONCEPTS The previous sections of this chapter have dealt with the mechanics of deter- mining various stresses, strains, and deflections within a multilayered structure. ‘The purpose of this section is to illustrate how a general interpretation of these elastic layered results should lead to an understanding of the basic principles of pavement design. The examples that follow are of necessity somewhat simplified due to the rather large number of variable combinations between the A, H, Ky, and K, parameters. Nonetheless, the ability of multilayered theory to provide a quantitative evaluation of certain critical parameters, as the pavement layer geometry and material characteristics change, demonstrates fundamentals that will form the nucleus of any future rational pavement design procedure. Subgrade Stress. Figure 2.11 illustrates the influence of changing the pave- ment layer thicknesses upon the vertical compressive stress factor for a three-layer pavement system. As can be seen, the subgrade stress is greatly decreased by a decrease in the A (@/h,) parameter. This implies that for a given load (contact radius a), this decrease can be accomplished by an increase of the base-course 2 ° ‘average —>| unit stress I stress ratio aelp ° 303 oe afhy Figure 2.11, Vertical stress ratio at the second interface of a three-layer system as a function of a/hy and hy/hy, (From Nielson.)FUNDAMENTAL DESIGN CONCEPTS. 73 thickness. The stress level can also be reduced to a lesser extent by increasing the H (h,/hs) parameter. For a constant base-course thickness this is done by an increase in the surface thickness. Another efficient method of reducing the vertical compressive subgrade stress is to increase the rigidity of the upper pavement layers (K, and K:). In a layered system the major influence upon the stress is usually exerted by the stiffness of the layer directly above the subgrade. Hence in a three-layer system, the base- course modulus E, has the more pronounced effect upon stress reduction, while the pavement layer modulus E, controls the subgrade stress for two-layered systems. This fact can be readily noted from Figure 2.6 which shows the load- spreading qualities of rigid or high modulus pavement layers. Therefore in order to reduce the subgrade stress to some tolerable design value, one can either in- crease the base-course thickness and surface thickness of the same layered material or replace the quality of the layered material with a more rigid material. Deflection. Depending upon the type of layered pavement structure con- sidered, the percentage of the total surface deflection contributed by the sub- grade layer varies from about 70 to 98 percent. It can, therefore, be assumed that most of the deflection is caused by the elastic compression of the subgrade layer. Deflections are simply the mathematical integration of the vertical strain with depth, Since the strain magnitude, for a given material type at a given point in the structure, is a direct function of the triaxial stress state, it can be deduced that the same general factors that tend to decrease the subgrade vertical compressive strain also tend to decrease the pavement deflection. For example, re- ferring to Figure 2.7, an increase in either the pavement thickness /y, or the stiff ness of the pavement layer E;, causes a reduction in the deflection. In general, it can also be seen that a greater reduction will occur by increasing the modulus or rigidity of the pavement layer than by increasing its thickness. Shear Stress. The previous sections have dealt with how subgrade stress and pavement deflections could be reduced by incorporating more rigid upper layers and or increasing their thickness. This feature is obviously desirable in design as it tends to minimize distress associated with subgrade shear and densification due to loads. However, as the upper layers become stiffer and provide increased load-spreading capability, this benefit is made possible at the expense of an increase in shear stress within the stiff layer. On any given horizontal plane in a layered structure, the maximum horizontal shear stress 7,, occurs directly under the edge of the loaded plate. The 7,, value is zero directly under the plate centerline and also approaches zero as the radial distance is increased from the plate centerline. Figure 2.12 illustrates the hori- zontal shear stress factor as a function of depth below the pavement surface on a plane passing through the plate edge for various K; values. Several factors may be observed as the modulus of the surface is increased (K, increase). The magni tude of the 7,, increases greatly in the upper layer as it becomes more rigid. This increase over Boussinesq or one-layer theory is also shown. In addition, the maximum 7,, value within the entire structure occurs about middepth in the surface layer. Finally, it can be noted that the horizontal shear stress occurring at the first interface is reduced for higher modular ratio Ky.Horizontal shear stress ratio rra/p o 02 O4 06 08 ‘Surface on which values of 7,2/p act Depth below pavement surface (in.) byw 15,a=5, Kom 10 Figure 2.12. Typical distribution of shearing stresses in a three-layered system. (From Nielson.) Horizontal shear stress ratio tr2/ Od 06 08 10 Thickness hy (in.) 10 Figure 2.13. Influence of a/h on the depth and magnitude of (ri/p) for a= inches and K= K, = 20. (From Nielson.) 74FUNDAMENTAL DESIGN CONCEPTS 75 ‘The thickness of the surface layer also plays a significant role in the magnitude of shear stress development. Figure 2.13 shows how this occurs. For fixed modular ratios K, and K,, it can be seen that as the thickness of the surface layer hy is increased, the magnitude of the shear stress is decreased. Also as hy increases, the location of the maximum value shifts upward from about middepth of this layer to approximately the third point. Tensile Stress. Another very important consideration in layered structures is the potential for developing large tensile stresses at the bottom of the rigid layer. Figure 2.14 illustrates the primary factors that affect this parameter. In general, the most critical parameters are a high modular ratio K, and a small H parameter value. As can be seen, surface layers having an H <2 along with a large K, value are especially prone to the buildup of large tensile stresses. It should be pointed out that a maximum tensile stress value does occur at some low H value and a subsequent decrease in this parameter towards zero will actually transfer the horizontal tensile stress condition to a compressive mode. Effect of Tire Pressure and Total Load. The magnitude of vertical stress at a point due to a load at the surface on a pavement will depend upon the applied pressure as well as the magnitude of the total load. Figures 2.15 and 2.16 represent Boussinesq vertical pressures in an ideal soil mass due to various combinations of tire pressure and total load. In Figure 2.15 one curve is for a 35 25L, = 20 4 . a= Constant S Ey; hy = Variable |r 15}- 4 Be; ha = Constant Ky values ale, ee a 20 WER Aw Emon 05 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 Figure 2.14. Horizontal tensile stress ratio at the bottom of the first layer of a three-layered system as a function of K, and H.76 ‘STRESSES IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS Vertical stress (psi) 0 40 80 120) 160, 200 Depth (inches) cee Figure 2.15. Variation of vertical stress with depth, Boussinesq_ problem. tire pressure of 100 psi and a single load of 80,000 pounds. Also presented is that for an identical gross wheel load but for the tire pressure of 200 psi. As seen on the curves the effect of the high tire pressure is pronounced in the upper layers of the pavement, whereas at a depth of about 36 inches the stresses are about equal for both cases. High tire pressures, thus, necessitate high-quality materials im the upper layers of the pavement, but the required total depth of pavement is not affected appreciably by tire pressures. On the other hand, for a constant tire pressure an increase in total load increases the vertical stress for all depths. Figure 2.16 shows the effect of dual wheels on stresses for constant tire pres- sure. Calculated stresses at the surface are not affected by the wheel configuration and are equal to the applied tire pressure. Dual wheels, however, result in in- creased stresses at greater depths as do tandem axles when the pressure bulbs of the tires overlap. SUMMARY This chapter has presented the general background for determining various stress, strain, and deflection solutions for multilayered elastic systems, Not only is this type of theory used directly in several asphalt pavement design methods, but it also provides a powerful tool for the engineer to interpret all of the basic structural design factors to be evaluated for any pavement system. ‘The basic concept of granular base flexible pavements is to provide a base thickness such that the vertical compressive subgrade stress or deflection is re- duced to some limiting value less than the allowable distress level developed from the relevant criteria. This pavement type is built up of layers having successively higher modulus values in the upper layers, but still having relatively low K, and Ke values. As a result, the load-spreading capabilities of this systemSUMMARY 7 Vertical stress (psi) 0° 20 40 60 80 100120140 160 5 FZ8-kip dual 10 7135" 6-6 Depth (inches) re 2.16, Effect of number of wheels on vertical stress. Boussinesq problem. Notes (1) All tires have 100 psi inflation, (2) Depth at which interaction of dual wheels is significant is about equal to one-half the clear distance between tires. (3) Depth at which dual tires will act as a single tire is about two times the c-c spacing of the tires. must occur primarily through the thickness of the granular base and subbase layers, As stiffer and stiffer materials are employed in the upper layers, the noticeable reduction of subgrade stress or deflection is apparent, For any given subgrade soil type, this allows a reduction of thickness of a stiffer layer over a similar thickness of unbound granular material to satisfy the requirements of an allow- able subgrade distress or limiting deflection criteria. This is a direct result of the better load-spreading capabilities of stiff or rigid layers. However, a very important fact that should be clearly understood by the reader is that even though stiffer materials reduce the risk associated with a sub- grade mode of distress, such as shear, the presence of this stiff layer brings about an increase in the tensile stress magnitude at the bottom of this layer as well as a marked increase in the horizontal shearing stresses. Thus a subsequent design analysis is required to insure that both the shearing resistance and the flexual resistance of this stiff layer are great enough to sustain these higher stress conditions. ‘These facts provide the most basic and fundamental concepts of pavement design that the reader should possess. In addition, even though the multilayered concepts have been presented only for asphalt pavements (flexible and semirigid) they can easily be extended into rigid pavement design. In fact, studies by McCullough (22) and Nielson (27) have utilized multilayered elastic theory to analyze and design PCC structures.78 STRESSES IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS. PROBLEMS 2.1. Determine the complete state of stress (¢,, 67, 1) using one-layer theory under the centerline of a tire having a 50,000-pound load, 100 psi pressure for the following depth-tire radius ratios: 0, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 8.0, Assume the pavement is characterized by p = 0.5 and E = 3000 psi. 2.2. Repeat Problem 2.1 for the case when = 0.2 and comment on the effect of # upon the computed stresses. 2.3. For the pavement and load conditions of Problem 2.1, calculate the strains (é,, €, €:) at adepth-tire radius ratio of 2.0 for u = 0.2 and p = 0.5. Comment on the effect ofp upon the strain values. 2.4, Prove that when y= 0.5, the volume change of a unit element is zero when subjected to a triaxial state of stress. 2.5. A dual wheel having a load per tire of 5000 pounds, 70 psi pressure, and a 14-inch center to center wheel spacing is placed on a pavement 19 inches thick, The subgrade is characterized by E = 3000 psi and = 0.5, Calculate the total pavement deflections due to the dual load by one-layer theory at the following radial distances from the centerline of one tire: r = 0, 3.5, 7.0, 10.5, and 14.0 inches. 2.6. Repeat Problem 2.5 using two-layer interface deflection theory. Assume that Ey = 10 Es 2.7. A plate-bearing test using a 30-inch diameter rigid plate was made on a subgrade as well as on 10 inches of gravel base course. The unit load required to cause settlement of 0.2 inch was 10 psi and 40 psi, respectively. Determine the required thickness of base course to sustain a 50,000-pound tire, 100 psi pressure, and maintain a deffection of 0.2 inch. 2.8. A pavement structure is comprised of the following layers: 5.75-inch asphalt concrete surface, E = 400,000 psi; 23.0 inches of granular base, E = 20,000 psi, and a subgrade having an E = 10,000 psi. All layers are assumed to have 4 = 0.5. Calculate the horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt concrete layer and the vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade layer under the centerline of a 40,000-pound wheel load, 150 psi pressure. 2.9. A full-depth asphalt pavement is 28.75 inches thick with an E = 200,000 psi. It rests directly over a subgrade having an E = 10,000 psi. Through the use of three-layer theory, compute the horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt concrete layer and the vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade layer for a tire load of 40,000 pounds, 150 psi pressure. (Hint: Subdivide the asphalt layer into two layers having thicknesses of 5.75 and 23.0 inches), SELECTED REFERENCES 1. Acum, W. E. A., and L. Fox, “Computation of Load Stresses in a Three-Layer Elastic System,” Geotechnique, Vol. 2, pp. 298-300, 1951. 2 Ahlvin, R. G., and H. H. Ulery, “Tabulated Values for Determining the Complete Pattern of Stresses, Strains and Deflections Beneath a Uniform Circular Load on a Homogeneous Half Space,” Highway Research Board Bulletin 342, 1962. 8. Aldous, W. M., M. H. Price, and Walker L. Shearer, Jr., “The Load Transmission Test for Flexible Paving and Base Courses,” Part III, Load Distribution Through Gravel Bases to @ Weak Subgrade, Civil Aeronautics Administration, 1958 4, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, “Rational Pavement Evaluation—Review of Present Technology,” Technical Report AFWL-TR-69-6, October 1969. 5. “Development of C.B.R. Flexible Pavement Design Method for Airfields,” (A Symposium) Transactions, ASCE, Vol. 115, 195SELECTED REFERENCES 79 6. “Military Airfields,” (A Symposium) Transactions, ASCE, Vol. 110, 1945. 7. Barber, E. S, “Application of Triaxial Compression Test Results to the Calculation of Flexible Pavement Thickness,” Proceedings, Highway Research Board, 1946. 8 Barber, E. S., “Triaxial Compression Test Results Applied to Flexible Pavement Design,” Public Roads, September 1947. 9. Barber, E. S., “Discussion,” Proceedings, Highway Restarch Board, 1949. 10, Burmister, D. M., “The Theory of Stresses and Displacements in Layered Systems and Application to The Design of Airport Runways,” Proceedings, Highway Research Board, 1943. 11, Burmister, D. M., “The General Theory of Stresses and Displacements in Layered Soil Systems,” Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 16, 1945. 12, Burmister, D. M., “Evaluation of Pavement Systems of the WASHO Road Test by Layered Systems Methods,” Highway Research Board Bulletin 177, 1958, 18, Corps of Engineers, “Investigations of Pressures and Deflections for Flexible Pavements,” Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers, Technical Memorandum 3-323, March 1951, October 1951, September 1953, December 1954. 14, Corps of Engineers, “The Computation of Stress and Strain in a Two-Layer System,” Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers, Miscellaneous Papers 4-102, 1954. 15, Foster, C. R., and R. G. Ablvin, “Stresses and Deflections Induced by a Uniform Circular Load,” Proceedings, Highway Research Board, 1954. 16. Foster, C. R., and R. G. Ahlvin, “Development of Multiple-Wheel CBR Design Criteria,” Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, May 1958. 17, Fox, L., “Computation of Traffic Stresses in a Simple Road Structure,” Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Road Research Technical Paper 9, 1948. 18, Horner, Raymond ©., “Effect of Base Course Quality on Load Transmission Through Flexible Pavements, Proceedings, Highway Research Board, 1955 19. Huang, Y. H., “Computation of Equivalent Single-Wheel Loads Using Layered Theory,” Proceedings, Highway Research Board, 1969, 20. Hveem, F. N., “Pavement Deflections and Fatigue Failures,” Highway Research Board Bulletin 114, 1955. 21. Jones, A., “Tables of Stresses in Three-Layer Elastic Systems,” Highway Research Board Bulletin 342, 1962, 22, McCullough, B. F., “A Pavement Overlay Design System Considering Wheel Loads, Tem- perature Changes, and Performance,” Graduate Report, ITTE, University of California, Berkeley, 1970. 23, McDowell, Chester, “Wheel-Load-Stress Computations Related to Flexible Pavement Design,” Highway Research Board Bulletin 114, 1955. 24, McLeod, Norman W., “Some Basic Problems in Flexible Pavement Design,” Proceedings, Highway Rescarch Board, 1953. 25. McLeod, Norman W., “An Ultimate Strength Approach to Flexible Pavement Design,” Proceedings, Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, 1954. 26, Newmark, Nathan M., “Influence Charts for Computation of Vertical Displacements in Elastic Foundations,” University of Illinois Experiment Station Bulletin 367, 1947. 27. Nielson, J. P., “Rational Pavement Evaluation—Review of Present Technology,” AFWL ‘TR-69-9, Air Force Weapons Laboratory Technical Report, Kirkland Air Force Base, New Mexico, 1969. 28, Palmer, L. A., “The Evaluation of Wheel Load Bearing Capacities of Flexible Types of Pavements,” Proceedings, Highway Research Board, 1946. 29. Palmer, L. A., and E, $, Barber, “Soil Displacement Under ceedings, Highway Research Board, 1940. 30, Peattic, K. R., “Stress and Strain Factors for Three-Layer Elastic Systems,” Highway Research Board Bulletin 342, 1962. ireular Loaded Areas,” Pro-80 STRESSES IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS. 31. Sanborn, J. L., and E. J. Yoder, “Stress and Displacements in an Elastic Mass Under Semiellipsoidal Loads,” Proceedings, Second International Conference on the Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1967. 32, Terzaghi, Karl, “Theoretical Soil Mechanics,” John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1948, 88. Wilson, Guthlac, and G. M. J. Williams, “Pavement Bearing Capacity Computed by Theory of Layered Systems,” Transactions, ASCE, Vol. 116, 1951. 34. Yoder, E. J, and C. R. Lowrie, “Triaxial Testing Applied to Design of Flexible Pavements.” Proceedings, Highway Research Board, 1952.