co Campus Mexicali. Departamento de Ingenieria Programa del curso: INTRODUCCION AL DISENO “MATERIAL DE APOYO A LA CLASE” MAESTROS COORDINADORES: = ING. ALMA ABAD PADILLA ING. MARIBEL LAZCANO. ING. RUBEN YANEZ “SOLO PRESTAMO INTERNO”’Design methods for the varinns machine elemente are founded ow the theo ries of mechanics and strength of materials. The scope of such theories is very extensive, and the purpose of this chapter is to present, for review and ready reference, those topics that are generally used by designers, and that will be referred to throughout the book. These theories are more or less simplified approximations, and attention should be directed to the limi. tations imposed by the assumptions that had to be made in arriving at work- ing formulas, A thorough grounding in these fundamentals will prove of great value in attacking new and unfamiliar problems. In fact, only after such theories have become working tools is it possible to achieve the broad perspective and balanced judgment that must be expressed by the really competent machine designer. 4. area Fa factor of safety ‘4. width of cross section parallel,” acceleration de to gravity to neutral axis 32.174 fysect © maximum distance, neutral axis = 386 in sect to edge of cross section 9,807 mm/sec? distance; diameter of circle modulus of elasticity for shear F, modulus of elasticity for stress normal stress ‘height of cross section perpen- Force or load iewlar to neutral axis See, 1 Statieal Egallbriam 5 ius of gyeation beam in inch, 25.4 mm distance on cross section of in lb, inch’ pound, 113 Nmm bbeam perpendicular to neutral 1, moment of inertia. axis J joule, or newlon-meter, Nin V, total shear foree on cross k, kilo (prefix), 1,000 seetion kg, kilogram, 2.2046 Ib (mass): distributed load per unit leneth 1b (mass) = 0.4536 ke deflection of beam length ¥% (gamma) shearing 1b, pound; deformation, weight per unit 1b (force) ~ 4.4482 N volume of material 1b (mass) “= 0.4536 ke 5, (delta) axial deformation mm meter, 29.370, ©, epsilon) strain or elongation ™ milli (prefix), one thousandth 4, (mu) Poisson's ratio: for mm, millimeter, 0.039 37 in, metals, is usually taken Hin, = 25.4 mm as03 M, mega (prefix), | million © (sigma) normal stress M, bending moment ©, maximum normal siress MPa, megapascal, 1 Nim; 23, minimum normal stess IMPa = 145 psi Gy, normal stress, x-diretion N, newon, 0.2248 Ibs (Force); 2), normal stress, direction 1b (force) = 4.448 N Fyn yield point stress Plead 2." (au) thear stress Pa, pascal, | Nim? Tras Maximum shea; stress radius of circle, radius to try shear sess, x-and y-directions center of curvature of deflected 4. Statical Equilibrium When a body is at rest, or in motion with constant velocity, the external forces acting upon it are in equilibrium. This statement applies to the body a5 a whole or to any portion of it. When @ force analysis is to be made, it is sometimes advantageous to consider only a portion of the body, which can be obtained by assuming that culling planes are passed through the body at the desired locations. The internal forces that were acting at the locations of the cuts must then be represented as a system of external forces properly distributed to maintain equilibrium of the separate parts and to preserve the original state of stress in the material. When a problem is analyzed in this manner the loading will consist entirely of external forces and moments. Itis not necessary to consider the internal stresses, Statical equilibrium means that hoth forces and moments are in balance, When a body is in equilibrium, the sum of the components of the forces in any given direction must be equal to zero. Likewise the moments about any aiven line as an axis must be equal to zero. If the body is undergoing accel- eration, the inertia forces must be included in the equilibrium equations.6 Chel Fundamental Principles 2. Engineering Materi ‘The mathematical equations used in designing are derived for an idealized ‘material, which is assumed to have the following properties. (@) Perfect Elasticity. Loads or forces acting on a body cause changes in its shape and dimensions. A perfectly elastic material is one that returns to its original form immediately upon removal of the loads. The equations used in designing are nearly always derived on the assumption of perfect clasticity. 1f the material is such that this assumption cannot be made, the ‘mathematical complications, in many cases, become (oo great for practical calculations, 1 should never be forgotten, however, that in some cases there ‘may be a considerable variation between the actual stresses in the body and the stresses obtained from the equations for an idealized substance. A mate- Fial may exhibit a high degree of elasticity for small toads, but may cetain 4 permanent deformation when the loads become suficiently great, (b) Homogeneity. A homogeneous body is one that has the same prop= s throughout its entire extent. f (0) Lotropy. An isotropic material is one whose elastic properties are the same in all directions. Actually, a metal is not a homogeneous substance. It consists of an aggregate of very small crystals whose strength depends upon their orienta- tion with respect to the applied force. When the minute crystals have random orientation, the location in the body, oF the inclination at which a test specimen is taken, has no effect on the results of the test. The assumption that the material is homogeneous and isotropic, for all practical purposes, is fulfilled. This is true for cast, hot-rolled, or annealed metals. In contrast, ‘materials that have been cold rolled or drawn may have a preferred orien tation of crystals, and may exhibit @ definite grain effect with a variation in strenath depending on the direction of the applied load, The assumption cannot be made that such materials are homogeneous and isotropic. 3. Tension and Compression Stress ‘The eyebar, in Fig. 1-1(a), which supports the load P, is said to be in tension, or to have an internal force of tension, Such a force causes an increase in the length of the bar. A solution for the stress can be effected by means of cutting planes as described in Section If the bar, shown in Fig. I-I(a), is cut normal to its axis, as shown in y Sec. 3 Tension and Compression Stress 7 Cross sectional ares a 2m > (a) FIGURE 1-1 Eye-bar londed in tenson, Fig. 1-1(b), equal and opposite tension forces, uniformly distributed, must be applied to the cut surfaces. In magnitude, each must be equivalent to the load P. The average stress 0, or force per unit of cross-sectional area A, is then equal to P divided by 4, Hence : Pp ont a ‘Thus the magnitude of the external forces on the cross sections in Fig. 1-1(b) constitutes the measure of the internal force in the bar shown in Fig. |-1(a), Forces are usually expressed in pounds and areas in square inches. tis, of course, obvious that this solution is correct only ifthe assumption regarding the distribution of stress on the cut surfaces is correct. Had the bar been cut near one end where the shape is no longer a prism, itis apparent that the situation would be more complicated, and the stress system would no longer be simple tension uniformly distributed over the cross section. Since the assumption relative to homogeneity of the material is never exactly fulfilled, the stresses on the cross section will not be entirely uniform but will be subject to small local variations, Equation (I) does, however, sive the average value of the tensile stress over the whole cross section, ‘A compressive stress is one that causes a decrease in the length of the body in the direction of the force, ‘The total change of length in a uniform body caused by an axial load is called the deformation, 6, If the deformation is divided by the original length, /, of the body, the result is the deformation per unit length, and is called elongation or strain, e. It can be represented mathematically by the "Except for inches (in) engineering abbreviations do not have periods.8 Ch. Fandamenal Principles equation soa @ Although elongation € is a dimensionless number, itis customary to speak Of it in terms of inches per inch, or mm per mm. For most materials used in engineering, stress and strain are directly Proportional; when this condition exists, the material is said to follow Hooke's law. The linear relationship between stress and strain can be repre= sented by an equation if a constant of proportionality £ is introduced as follows: once or end @ E Constant E is called the modulus of elasticity, of Young's modulus, for the ‘material, It has the dimension of stress and can be visualized as the tensile stress that would cause a body to double in length, € = 1, provided the ‘material would remain elastic with such excessive loading. Values of E for common materials used in engineering are given in Table 2-1 of the fol- lowing chapter. Substitution of Eqs. (1) and (3) ship 10 Eq. (2) gives the important relation ri bat @ Equations (3) and (4) are valid either for tension of compression. Tension stress and increase of length are considered positive, whereas compressive stress and decrease in length are considered negative Example 1. In Fig. 1-1, let load P be equal 40 5,000 Ib, and let the bar be 3 in wide and 0.5 in, thick. The uniform portion of the bat is 60 in, long, The material is stel (a) Find the stress in the uniform portion of the bar. (b) Find the deformation of the uniform portion of the bar. Solmtion. Cross-sectional area: A =3 x 0.5 = 1.Sin2 = $:900 (a Ses, by B6 o = 800 sap, 1h Defexmation by Ea. 002 3 = pS OO 5S = 0067 For statical equilibrium, the summation of the forces in any direction must equal zero, and the summation of the moments about any axis also must equal zero, The following equations must therefore be fulfilled. Er=0, DMmo / ‘See, 4 Tension and Compresion in SI Units 9 4. Tension and Compression in SI Units The SI unit for length is the meter, m, For machine elements it is more convenient to use the millimeter, mm, which is one one-thousandth of a meter.* The inch and millimeter are related by the following equation: 1 in, = 25.4 mm exactly or mm = 0.039 370... in, The SI unit for force isthe newton, N. Its value in pounds is UN == 0.2248... Ib = or Vb = 4.488... the pascal, Pa, which is a stress equal to 1 N/m?. This is a very small stress and the megapascal, MPa, which is | million newtons Per square meter or 1 N/mm*, is a more practical unit Example 14. Let the suspended body in Fig. 1-1 have a gravity attraction of 22,500 N, The uniform portion of the bar is 75 min wide, 13 mm thiek, and 1,500 mm long. The material is steel. Find the stress and deformation in the uniform por- tion, See Table 2-14 for material constants. P _ 22,500 N F= PEM, = 2308 N, — 25.08 MPa PL _ 22,500 x 1,500 _ baie Om aE 5 1 26,905 = 0167 mm ‘Solution, By Eq. (I): Conversion factors for complex terms can be easily obtained by substi- tuting unit values. Several widely used factors are derived as follows. (25.4 mm)(4.4482 N) 13 Nmm = 0.113 Nm Moment, torque, work: 1 in, Ib a 122840 | soy mm Velo 1 fig Ba pSAmm soy mm suse 1 MPa = 1B = B22 8 = 5,2 7 Th sec? _ 4,448 N sec? N sec? Mase BSE AA Nste 9 yy Nace 20n engineering drawings, the metric unt for lineal dimensions is the millimeter. See p. 8 of Reference I and p, | of Reference 4, listed under Preface to Sixth Editon.10 Ch I Fundamental Principles Power: Tap = 33,000 Stl nin 133,000 (12_X 0.0254 m)(4.448.N) ee se 7452 Ns Wo on4s7 RW 1kW tb see aa Viscosity = 5. Force and Mass ‘The relationship between force and mass is determined by Newton's second law of motion. force = mass x acceleration In free fall, the acceleration is that due to gravity, usually designated g. If weight, or force, is called P, the mass of a body is Pibsect 4 Nsect et m In U.S. customary units, g has the value 32.174 fi/sec*, A unit mass, com- monly called the slug, then has a weight P of 32.174 Ib. In SI units the accel- eration g due to gravity is 9.8066 m/sec. The unit mass, the kilogram, then hhas a weight of 9.8066 N. ‘The prototype for the kilogram is a specific cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy kept in a vault at Sévres, near Paris, France. In U.S. customary units, the kilogram weighs 2.2046 pounds, The pound can then represent cither force or mass, and it may be necessary to designate which quantity is referred to. Thus, T kg = 2.2046 1b (mass) 0.4536 ke 1 Ib (mass) 1 2086 The gravity force acting on a 1 kg (2.2046 Ib) mass is 9.8066 newtons. ‘The force acting on I Ib is 1/2.2046 of this amount. Then. 1b (force) = sats X 9.8066 = 4.448 «++ N Y ‘Sec. 6 Statically Indeterminate Problems in Tension and Compretsion 11 LN = 0.2248 «++ Ib (Force) ‘The foregoing quantities are illustrated by Fig, 1-2, In inch units the acceleration of gravity in free fall is 32.174 x 12 = 386 in,/sec*. A mass of 386 Ib would then be accelerated at the rate of | by a force of I pound. thy 1b (mass) on or 22046» 04536 bg (mass) 116 rca) 98066 W 44482 N 2.2046 Ub (force) Accol 11t/eoe? we Accel Im/soe? Accel, 32.174 ft/rac? = = ne tistig ~ [oll 1 110 fmass) Latte (force) tho ‘torce) tb 3274 b 98066 N rorce) ‘torce) FIGURE 1-2. Forces and masses n U.S. Customary and SI wits. 5. Statically Indetermi te Problems in Tension and Compression Machine parts are sometimes arranged in a manner whereby the axial forces cannot be determined by the equations of staties alone. Such force systems are said to be statically indeterminate, They are characterized by the presence of more supports or members than the minimum required for the equilit- rium of the structure. For such situations, the deformations of the parts ‘ust be taken into consideration. The following example will illistrate a typical method for solving such problems Example 2. Find the force in each of the vertical bars in Fig. 1-3. The weight ean ‘be assumed to be rigid and to maintain the connections for the three vertical bars in 4 straight line. Assume the support at the top to be rigid also,12 Ch t Fundamental Principles Solution. Because both geometry and loading are symmetrical the forces will bbe equal in the two outer bars. From statical equilibrium, the following equation ean, be written: 10"— 10 FIGURE 1-3 Example 2, 2A, + Fy = 5,000 @ # two unknowns are present, it is necessary to obtain another equation to effect 8 solution. This can be done by considering the deformations of the bars. From the iven data, all bars will have the same amount of deformation. Hence Fils 5-8: oF ae ‘Numerical values should be substituted into the equation above, Fi36, = F236 or Fy = Fy (b) TTR 30,000,000 ~ 1.3% 15,000,000 ” ‘ Equations (a) and (b) should now be solved simultaneously to give Fo=1818Ib and Fy = 1,3681b The distribution of the forces in an indeterminate structure is sensitive to small variations in the dimensions of the parts. A small undetected error in machining a dimension can cause a large change in the distribution of the loads. Any calculations made by the designer will not be valid unless the fit of the parts can be rigidly maintained as originally planned, ‘A variation in temperature may change the values of the forces in an indeterminate system. IF temperature causes a relative change between the lengths of the various parts of the assembly, the effect can be similar to that of an error in machining. The designer must therefore consider temperature variations as well as dimensional errors in his caleulations for an indetermi- nate structure In the solution of indeterminate problems, it is usually necessary to assume that certain members or supports are rigid, Since complete rigidity y ‘See.7 Center of Gravity 13 cannot be achieved, any deformation of such assumed rigid elements will cause changes in the calculated values of the forces, 2. Center of Gravity ‘An equation for finding the center of gravity of an area can be derived from Fig. 1-4(@). The distance from the x-axis to the center of gravity is salled f, and the distance to an element dd parallel to the x-axis is called y. The moment arm for d4 about a horizontal axis through the center of grav. ity C is equal to (y — j), Mathematically, center of gravity means that the sum of the moments of the areas about the axis through C must be equal to zero as indicated by the following equatio Jo-Hai=o or 5 foe bts 6 A similar equation can be written for the moments about the y-axis, which Permits # to be found. Lt — 4 ? - Ys y Ye al =] Fe o = (0) Cate tarmin, 8) Cnt ny compost scan ‘A composite figure can usually be divided into simple areas, and Eq, (5) can be applied by making the numerator equal to the sum of the Jy dA {erms of the separate parts, The denominator is the total area, Ifthe location of the center of gravity for each of the separate areas is known, its not necessary to perform mathematical integrations. Each | y dA term can be replaced by the product of the area times the ‘center of gravity as is shown in Fig. 1-4(b). Thus14 hI Fundamental Principles Aub ch Aad © AvP Art Example 3, Find the location of the center of gravity of the T-shaped cross section in Fig. 1-21). Solution. Divide the area into two parts of 6 in.2 and 4 in. by extending the vertical sides ofthe sem to the bottom ofthe cross section Let the axis of omens be taken along the bottom ofthe T. InEa. (@): jn SSX Os The center of gravity is located 2 in. up from the bottom. Example 34. Let the T-shaped cross section of Fig. 1-21 have a height of 150 mm and a maximum width of 125 mm. Width ofthe stem is 25 mm and the thicknees ‘of flange is 25 mm. Find the location of the center of gravity, ‘Solatéon. Assume the stem extends through the flange to the bottom, area of stem = 150 x 25 = 3,750 mm* area of flange = 100 x 25 = 2,500 mm? ‘Take the axis along the bottom of the T. 150 x 78 42.500 « 12:5 By Eq. (6): BO TO a2 = 0mm 8. Bending of Beams ‘ Suppose a long, thin, straight beam is bent into a curve by moments M applied at the ends, as shown in Fig. 1-5(a). The beam and moments lie in the xy-plane with the origin at the left end and the y-axis positive down. Ward. At distance x from the left end, the deflection of the beam is given by distance y, as shown, Figure 1-5(b) shows, enlarged, a slice AB of differ. ‘ential length dr cut from the beam at location x, The planes cutting the right and left end surfaces of 4B are taken perpen- dicular to the longitudinal axis of the originally straight beam. It is customs ary to assume that these cross sections will remain plane and perpendicular {o the longitudinal elements of the beam after moments M are applied, Laboratory experiments have in general verified this assumption. After bending. some of the elements have been lengthened, some have been short. ened, and at one location, called the neutral surface, no change in length has taken place. The loading of Fig. 1-5 is called pure bending. No shear or tangential siress will exist on the end surfaces of AB, and the only stress will be 0, acting normally to the surfaces as shown. An equation can be derived for J Sec, 8 Bending of Beams 15 giving the value of this bending stress at any desired distance v from the neutral surface, Let O, be the center of curvature for slice AB of the deflected beam, Let dp be the small angle included between the cutting planes, and let r be the radius of curvature. Consider @ horizontal element located a distance v below the neutral surface. Draw line BC parallel to O,A. Angle AOB is equal to angle CBD and the following proportion can be written. € @ a y oo FIGURE 1-5. Bending stres for beam loaded by moments at ends, Since the total deformation of the element v dp divided by the original length ds is the unit deformation or strain ¢, Fg. (8) indicates that the elongation of the element varies directly with the distance » from the neutral surface Let it be assumed that the material of the beam follows Hooke's law. Sub- stitution of ¢ = o/E into Eq, (a) gives a4 o o=Se a ET 7 ‘Thus the stress also varies directly with the distance from the neutral surface, becoming larger as v increases. Equation (7) is of course valid only for stresses in the elastic range of the material. Above the neutral surface, for16 Che Fundamental Principles negalive values of v, the stress is compressive and increases uniformly with the distance from the neutral surface, Equation (7), obtained from the geome~ try of the deformed beam, gives only a portion of the solution. It is now necessary to consider the equilibrium of the beam. Figure 1-6(@) shows the beam after the left-hand portion has been removed by passing a cutting plane at A. It will be observed that the stresses fon the left-hand cross section are distributed in accordance with Ea. (7), and that the given moment M is acting at the right-hand end. A perspective of the stress system is shown in Fig. 1-6(b). The intersection of the neutral surface with the cross section upon which the stresses are acting is called the neutral axis, ‘Wevtrel exis a (od FIGURE 1-6. Stress caused by bending moment. ‘The portion of the beam in Fig, 1-6(a) must be in equilibrium with respect to both forces and moments, Since the given loading M is a pure moment. it is necessary that the resultant horizontal forces on the left end surface be zero. The force on an element of area dA, shown in Fig. 1-6(b), is equal to o dA. When this force is added up for the entire area, fo d4, the result must be equal to zero. The value of ¢ from Eq, (7) should now be substituted as follows: fous [Eeu-£ [osama 7 [rane sano in ‘The integral of Eq, (8) represents the total moment of area about the neutral axis. As was shown in Section 5, it can be set equal (o the product of the area 4 of the cross section times the distance # of its center of gravity from the neutral axis. The only way in which this product can be zero is for F to have a zero value, It must therefore be concluded,that the neutral axis passes through the center of gravity of the cross section. 4 See. 8 Bending of Beams 17 ‘Since the beam in Fig. 1-6(a) is in equilibrium, the moment of the stresses of the left-hand end surface must be equal to the applied moment load M. ‘The force on an element of area, ¢ dA, when multiplied by the distance 2 to the neutral axis, and integrated over the entire area, is equal to the moment M, Hence m= [ovds=[Evaa=2 [waa © ‘The integral { v* dA is customarily called the moment of inertia of th area ot sometimes the second moment of area and is represented by the lette 1. This substitution has been made in the last form of Eg. (9). If the radiu of curvature ris eliminated between Eqs. (7) and (8), the followmg importan equation results, (10 ‘This equation gives the value of the bending stress at any distance v from the neutral axis. The greatest stress is found at the location on the cros section where v is the largest. This maximum value of v is usually denotec by c, and the equation for the maximum bending stress then becomes on a It should be noted that the magnitude of the stress a given by Eq. (11) i independent of the kind of material composing the beam. The ratio Ie i called the section modulus of the cross section, Although Fig. 1-6 illustrates a rectangular beam, the foregoing theor is valid for any shape of cross section. The maximum stress is located 0 the boundary at the point farthest removed from the neutral axis, According to the original assumption, this theory should be applied on! to long, thin beams loaded in pure bending. However, under most cond tions, the equations give satisfactory results for bending stress when th bending moment is caused by transverse forces applied to the beam. Tran: verse forces also cause compressive stress between the elements in the neigh borhood of the loads, If the material in the beam does not follow Hooke’s law, the magnitud of the stress is no longer proportional to the distance from the neutral axi If Eq, (11) is applied to such beams, the results may be only approximat ‘Bending moment in SI has the dimension of newton millimeters, Nmn Conversion to U.S. customary units can be made as follows: Tin, tb = (25.4 mm)(4.4482 N) = 13. Nmm18 Ch 1 Fundamental Principles 9. Moment of Inertia The integral f »* dA appeared in connection with the bending theory of ‘beams, For convenience in writing, this integral, as was mentioned in the foregoing section, is usually replaced by the symbol J and is called the moment of inertia. Expressions for [for the commonly used geometric shapes of eross sections can be found in the mechanical engineering handbooks, See also Fig. 1-7. ». ae Bog iia bon btn—bn, 10 . 2007=2;m9) my 2%r-mi?m » Demin jt 3 ae aE, Z ZI, oe Za 7 G25 0 oPny t0n-oynpet FIGURI -7 Moments of inertia of various sections, If the integral is computed for a rectangle of width b and depth 4 about an axis parallel to side b through the center of gravity, as shown in Fig, 1-7 it is found 10 be equal to sh 1% «2 ‘Width 6 is parallel to the axis about whi cross section, ich the moment tries to rotate the Example 4. Let the beam in Fig. 1-5 be 2in. wide and 3 in. deep, Let the bending ‘moment Af at each end be equal to-40,000 in.Ib, Find the value ofthe bending stress. y See.9 Moment of Inertia 19 Solution. By Eq, (12): 1 By Eq. (1D): o Example 44. Let the beam in Fig. 1-5 be $0 mm wide and 75 mm deep. Let the bending moment 4 at each end be equal to 5,000,000 Nmmm, Find the value of the bending stress. Solio. By Bq. 12): 1 = BEY = TS = 57,900 me By Eq om ME we $.900000 7 375 «1067 Pu Example 5. A steel bandsaw blade is 0.028 in, thick. Find the value of the bending stress when the blade is passing around a pulley of 18in. diam. 320,000,000 psi Soluton. By Ba. (9: = Et = 20.00.00 % 8014 «46,60 Example SA. J steel saw blade is 0.7 mm thick, Find the value of the bending stress when the blade is passing around a pulley of 450 mm diameter. £ = 206,900 MPa, Solution. By Eq, (1): o = EY m= 206,900 x 0.35 he 321.8 MPa ‘Another expression forthe bending stress of a beam of rectangular cross section can be secured by substituting Eq. (12) into Eq, (1!) : o= $l ay For a circle of diameter d or radius r about a diameter through the center, the value ofthe integral j v® dd becomes ae at a4) When Eq. (14) is substituted into Eq, (1), the following expression for the bending stress of beam of circular eross fection is obtained 2M md o= (is) Ifa beam with a channel section, the last sketch of Fig. 1-7, is loaded with a vertical force through the center of gravity, itis found that the beam not only deflects but the cross sections will twist and the ordinary equation for bending, Mc/J, cannot be applied. To have simple bending without20 Ch I Fundamental Principles twisting the vertical load must be applied at a point such as O a distance e from the center of the web. Twist occurs for any other location of the load. Point Os called the center af twist. The equation for eis shown in the figure? 10. Transfer of Axis for Moment of Inertia for Suppose that the moment of inert the shaded rectangle in Fig. 1-8 desired about axis 1. Axis 0 should be drawn through the center of gravity Parallel to axis 1 about which the ‘moment of inertia is desired. The inte- gral of distance squared times differen- tial area then becomes hm [e+ saa @ = [e+ 2704 9) a4 FIGURE 1.8 Moment of neti about parallel axis The integration can be miade term by term and is to extend over the shaded area. The first integral, [ v* dA, is equal to the moment of inertia about axis 0 and may be written Jy. The second term, 25 { v dd, is equal to zer0 since it represents merely the moment of the area about an axis through the center of gravity. The third term is seen to be equal to Ay, where die the area, The moment of inertia for area A about axis I is then equal to hah+ Ay (16) This equation is known as the parallel axis theorem, The moment of inertia for a composite cross section can be found by dividing it into elementary parts, finding the moment of inertia about the desired axis for each by Eq (16), and then adding the results together. Axis 0, however, must be taken through the center of gravity of the area under consideration and must be parallel to the axis about which the total value of / is desired, ‘The equation for moment of inertia is sometimes written a @ where is called the radius of gyration for the area. Itis hypothetical distance at which the entire area 4 would have to be concentrated in order to give the same value for J as determined by the integral. For derivation. see p. $2 of Reference 5, end of ehapte, wl ‘See, Principe of Superposition 24 Example 6. Find the value of the moment of inertia ofthe T-shaped cross section of Fig. 1-21(6). ‘Solution. By Example 3, the center of gravity is located 2 in, up from the bottom. By Eq. (16), for the stem: 7 By Eq. (16) for theT: f= Total T= 2449.33 = 33.33 ine Example 64, Find the moment of neta forthe Tahaped cross section of Fi 121 about a hoviaonal ans Uvough the center of sraviy. Use the dimension of Example 34. Solution, By Example 3 the centr of aravity is 50m up fom the bottom ‘he distance from the center ofthe sem tothe center of graiy ofthe tion is 15 ~ 50, or 25mm. The distance from the center of the Mange to the enter of gravity ofthe section is 50 ~ 125, oF 37.8 mm A ketch sould be made showing these dimensions Stem, by Ba (16: 1 = EIS 4 2750 x a5 = 1031,000 +244, 000 = 9.375 000 mnt 100 28 acon 37.5 Flange, by Ea. (16) = 130,000 + 3,516,000 = 3,646,000 mm¢ 19,375,000 + 3,646,000 = 13,021,000 mmé Total 11. Principle of Superposition Stresses and deformations are produced in a body by the forces that are exerted upon it, It is natural to assume that the resultant effect at any chosen Point is the sum of the effects of the various loads, Jn general, experiments hhave shown that this is so. The idea that the resultant effect is the sum of the separate effects is known as the principle of superposition. In general, it is valid for cases of loading only where the magnitude of the stress and deflection is directly proportional to the load. Example 7. Calculate and plot the distribution of stress over a cross section of ‘he offset link shown in Fig, 1-9(a). The main body of the link is straight and is 2 in. thick. I is obvious that the loading of Fig. 1-9(a) produces both direct tension and bending stress on the cross section. The principle of superposition applies, and each stress can be computed separately. The two stresses can then be added algebraically to obtain the resultant22 Ch 1 Fundamental Principles &) M = 4.050 crtect of moment. in. Lb = 2400 psi eo FIGURE 19. Offset lnk with tension fo A this point, good use may be made ofa principle from statics whereby a given force may be resolved into a parallel force and a couple, By doing so, the equivalent loading on the cross section shown by Fig. 1-9(b) is secured. The moment arms ‘cama to the distance from the line uf action of the force to the center of gravity of the cross section. Solution. The computations are as follows, Sine In Eq. (1): 2,400 psi direct stress » ‘The moment arm isthe distance from the line of setion of the foree to the center of gravity of the cross-sectional area. 3,600 x 1.125 1 eb = 8,100 psi bending stress Intenso Me Superposition applies and the resultant stress is given by ‘ PL Me on Fame an 400 + 8,100 = 10,500 psi tension 2.400 ~ 8,100 = —5,700 psi compression Views (e) and (d) show the effect of moment and direct stress separately; the resallant siress on a cross section through the main body of the link is ven by (e), (Om the inside edge: On the outside edge: YY ‘Sec. 12 Additional Beam Equations 23 ‘Note that views (b) and (c) are i static equilibrium. Also note that the line of zero sires no longer passes through the center of gravity of the eross section, Superposition cannot be applied if the loads produce deflections that are so great that the basic configuration of the system is thereby changed. ‘Take, for example, the leaf spring with the load on the end shown in Fig, 1-10(a). Suppose, upon doubling the load, that the deflection, shown by the dashed outline, becomes so large that the moment arm of the loads is reduced. The stress and deflection will not be twice as great as for a single load. a (4) Beam with large detection Pe sal ere S| (8) Detlection causes change in span length FIGURE 1-10 Examples where deflection changes orignal geometry: superposition doesnot apply. Another example where the fundamental configuration of the system is changed-by the application of a load is given in Fig. 1-10(b), A change in loading causes a change in deflection, which in turn causes a change in the length of the span. The load and deflection therefore are not proportional to each other. In general, superposition is not valid for slender members loaded in ‘compression. After the load reaches a value known as the critical or buckling load, a large lateral deflection of the member results from a small additional increase in the axial load 12, Additional Beam Equations For most beams used in engineering, the slope g, shown in Fig. 1-5, has a very small value. Therefore, the tangent dy/dx can be considered as having a value very close to the angle g. Then do _ dy ® an ey id SOS as dx*24 Chet Fundamental Principles The slope p is reduced in Fig. 1-5 in passing from A to B, and the incre ment dg of the angle is thus a negative quantity. From the figure, dx = =rdg. Then The negative sign is inserted because both dx and r are positive quantities, Substitution of Eq. (9) gives é a=-# (a9) Equation (19) is the fundamental equation of beam theory. For the general case of loading, moment M is a function of x and not a constant as in Fig. 1-5, If the beam has a large deffection, 2s, for example, a leat spring in some types of service, the approximation » dyjdx cannot be used, and the mathematics of the solution becomes very complicated. When the bending moment of the beam is not constant, but varies with x, the loading for slice AB is more compl bending previously considered. Shearing forces, as well as moments, exist ces of the slice. In general the top surface of the beam is acted upon by transverse loads. ‘A slice from such a beam is shown in Fig. 1-11, The rate at which the bending moment is changing in value is equal to df/dx, and the distance over which this change takes place in passing from 4 to Bis dx. The change in value for the moment then is (dds) dx. The moment on the right end is equal to the moment M of the left end plus the increment or change. Similarly, the shear force, a5 a function of x. changes from a value ¥ on the left to the amount on the right, as shown, Should either the moment or shear be decreasing with increasing x, the corresponding derivative would be negative, and would thus effect a reduction for the right-hand value. All shears and moments in Fig. I-11 have positive directions. Note, however, that the arrows have opposite ditections‘on ends A and B. ee PHY we tae ! y | eh Vn Me FIGURE 1-11 Element loaded by fores and moments, / See. 13 Deflection of Beams 25 ‘The moments on the -B element must be in equilibrium, The equation for moments about point A, for example, is Mae (vy ds WM de (V4 Has) de wae x M0 ‘When differentials of higher order are neglected, this equation reduces to aM May (20) The location of the point of maximum bending moment is found by ‘ifferentiating M with respect to x and setting the result equal to zero. Hove. ever, dM dx is equal to V by Eq. (20). Therefore, a maximum (or a minimum) value of the bending moment occurs at those points for which the shear V is equal to zero. The load w on the top surface of the beam may be uniform, may vary with x, or may be equal to zero except atthe points where concentrated forces or moments are acting. 13. Deflection of Beams The foregoing equations can be used for deriving equations for the deflece tions of beams, If the expression fur tle bending moment, as a function of % is substituted in Eq. (19), and if wo integrations are performed and the constants of integration are evaluated, the equation for the deflection y at location x is obtained. The process is illustrated by the following example, Example 8. Derive the equation for the deflection y for values of x located between the supports for the beam shown in Fig. 1-12, » lovin a FIGURE 1-12 Example 8. ‘Solution. By taking moments, the values of the reactions ate found to be Ry = 3/8 and Ry = 9w/8. Aston x Ma date i ses In. B18 te Inert rdf = Belt 6,25 “Ch. Fundamental Principles ‘Since the slope d/dx is not known for any point on the beam, constant Cy must be retained and evaluated later. € Byte? | ext a oe toed G At the left end, « = O-and y = 0. When theve are substituted, C; 0. At the right Integrate: Ely end, x = J and y = 0. When these ate substituted, wP cn The eatin forthe defection ths is 9 = gly ot — 380 49 ‘A transverse load on a beam causes a deflection or change in elevation at the point of application. However, a reaction generally remains fixed in elevation even though it carries a force. Figures 1-13 to 1-16 give the shears, moments, and deflections for a number of beams of various types of loads and conditions of support. In these figures, a simple support is assumed to offer no resistance to lateral motion or to rotation in the plane of the moments. Example 9. Suppose itis specified that the deflectinn from its own weight at the center ofa simply supported steel shaft should not exceed 0.010 in, per foot of span. {a) Find the maximum permissible length for a 3-indiam shaft (b) Find the stress caused by the weight of the shaft. For stel, E = 30,000,000 psi. Sointion. (a) By the conditions of the problem the deflection at the center is O.010//12, where Fis the length in inches. Hence by No. 8 of Fig. 1 Swit 0.010 x 38467 ‘SET 12x Sw By Eq. (14) 1 0.283 Ibjin.3, oP xi : = AY ~ 3976in, ny 283" = 2.00 tin, Substitution of these values gives P=3817000 or 1 = 1563in. = 13.02% wht 2x 156,32 © ME = 2X16 = 6 106;0. 6 Me _ 6,106 x 1.5 = ME = GOES _ 2.300 psi Example 10. Show that the spring constants, load for a unit deflection, for the two beams of Fig, 1-17 are the same. 7. ‘See, 13 Deflection of Beams 27 at 4 BET re Bhtte eth, tor my . a i 4 Corelle oben z mi? aM: 9, Ml ze Oth: 00 Bi Inae™ thes a-eh ons ° toe ar re ghptette-ststen’) seater ae Rage v| ral aac | SE en Sai reghytatte Inor o a Si sau eibir Por ocxehs Pa gfy (31-42) FIGURE section. 13 Shear, moment, and deflection in beams of uniform cross28 Ch I Fandemental Principles v See, 13 Defection of Beams 29 Pow hgh gt Abputotaty on SF gta Uae) ar Peat ay | él. B =P rae For o 60? 2" FRET ~ T3000 000 OATS 1387 in. y See. 15 Shearing Stress 33 ‘As shown above, shallow ribs cause an increase in the bending stress. ‘The deflection, however, has been decréased. If the ribs were made some- ‘what larger, the stress would be decreased, and the beam would be stronger.* Ribbed structures are frequently made of a brittle material, such as cast iron, which is weak in tension. If possible, the ribs should be in compression. ‘When a cast-iron body with parallel ribs is bent and the ribs are in tension, care must be exercised to make certain that all ribs are of the same height, or they may fail progressively beginning with the highest, and the full strength of the body could not be realized, 15. Shearing Stress Suppose an element is loaded by shearing stresses acting tangentially to its sides as shown in perspective in Fig. 1-19(a) or in plan in Fig. 1-19(b) and (©). Such loading causes no change in the length of the sides of the element, but merely produces a distortion or change in the value of the 90° angles in the corners. fal Element loaded in sheer (b) Positive shear (c) Negative sheer FIGURE 1-19 Element loaded by shearing or tangential stress, Shearing stresses are usually denoted by double subscripts. The first subscript indicates the direction of the normal to the plane under considera- tion, and the second subseript indicates the direction of the stress. Hence stress ¢,, lies in a plane whose normal is in the x-direction, while the stress acts in the y-direction. For similar reasons t,, indicates that the stress is in f plane perpendicular to the y-axis, and is parallel to the x-axis. Since the clement is in equilibrium, the moments of the forces about a point, say A, 45ece Marin, J, “Stillness of Ribbed Plates," Machine Design, 19, May 1947, p. 145; and Ratich, EAL, “Steength and Stiffness of Ribbed Plates,” Machine Design, 21, Sept. 1949, p. 149.Suor 51 2 ssosys s¥ays 2yp 2104 oRBDO] ax YB UHLEQ B43 JO TDPIA uy st q alam ‘xp q2 st AY sOwjANS juIvoTLIOY oy Uo doi0y HuLsWaYSs OU, ns @ YP GP FWD. 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This decrease of width is a definite proportion of the increase of length and is expressed by the equation nin «nr where the factor gris known as Poisson's ratio, In a similar manner, a tensile stress in the y-direction causes a decrease of the length in the x-direction equal to (48) cE Conversely, a compressive stress causes 3 a Fo—+ am increase inthe width at right angles to the stress. This, result is confirmed by Eqs. (47) and (48), since compres- 'y sive or negative stress values are sub- stituted in the equations. For most metals in engineering service, 4 has a value between 0,25 and 0.30. Superposition of the stresses shown in Figs, 1-33 and 1-34 gives those shown in Fig. 1-35, Stress 0, causes an increase in length in the x-direction, FIGURE 1.33 Deflection due to stress a PHL a ee = 4 = THT tree TT Ts,” FIGURE 1-34 Det FIGURE 1-35 Tension in two de to stress 0. Aiectons. whereas in this same direction a shortening occurs because of @,, The net effect is given by =o, = 4o,) inn (49) 6 = Be, ~ Ho,) in In the y-direction a similar equation applies, 6 > Fle, ~ Ho.) (50) ) ‘See. 22 Deflection of Beam from Shearing Siess $3 Favations (49) and (50) represent Hooke's law for two-dimensio ‘tress. These equations can be solved simultaneously for the streseee tn ai a. Ente | ae) eh oy Ele + ne) (52) 22. Deflection of Beam from Shearing Stress pi gatition to the bending, warping of the cross sections, shown in Fig, {:22(0 from the shearing stress causes additional deflection of bear The Sw (| 25a 2 seam (14 ia) (3) Hes pat increment is represented by the second term of the parentheses, shesni fEBTesents the ratio of the maximum sheaving stress to ahe aver, shearing stress, VIA, on the cross section. By Eq, (28) a i equal 3 for ergneular cross sections, and by Eq, (29) is equal to 4 for ereule srece ‘fellons For other shapes « must be computed. In Eg (3) it ivanoned nn there is no restraint to the free warping of the cross sestions Fo" a. simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load P at the center, the equation is PP, , 32a 9 agen (1 + ee) (54) aumple 16. Find the percent of increase in deflection because of shear for a Tress Ported 8.n. beam with load P atthe cener. Arend is 709int aa atekaess ofthe web is 0.24 in The moment of inertia 1s 834 ins Login arte span is equal to 10 times the depth of the beam, agar, In accord with Section 13, the maximum shearing stress vil be taken ‘5 the shear foree V divided by the area of the web, ‘The average shearing stress Then70008] 205 Figure 1-28 Problem 1. 2. The bottom member in Fig. 1-39 is of uniform eross section and can be assumed to be rigid. Find the Yalue ofthe distance x ifthe lower member is to be horizontal, Ans. x= S64 mm, Bi mm gal ¥ 150 mn 200% 900 mn Figure 1-39. Problem 2. Floure 1-40 Prose 3, 3. The bottom member in Fig. 1-40 is of uniform cross section and can be sssumed 10 be rigid. Its hinge is itionles. Find the number of degrees of rotation ofthe lower member. Ans. 9 = 0.137, 4. The bottom member in Fig. 1-41 is of uniform cross section. Its hinge is frictionless. The rods are of steel. Find the distance point 4 drops upon attachment (of the weight, ‘Ane, § = 012mm. [S2ime|amm | Figure 1-41 Problem 4 5. In Fig. 1-42, ind the drop 6.10 Fi sasumed to be ris iid. Find the angul dre. = 0039" Aten ‘St Bs roma pian 800mm) 1 wey 3 fee |) 180 of 2.000% ] 1000-n | 5007 fa PROBLEMS 69 Figure 1-42 Problem 5. of the $00: weight. Ans, 3 = 0.0126in, 1-43 the lower member is of uniform cross section and can be lar rotation of the lower member in degrecy, Flgure1-43 Problem 6 7. In Fig. 1-44 the fower mem ‘sumed (0 be rigid. Find the ehange in, of the rods. 8. The members in Fig, 1-45 hi foree caused by an increase in ter Figure 1-84 Proton 7, ber is of uniform cross section and can be as- elevation ofthe let end because of the stretch Ans, Drop = 0.0352 fn, ave a neat fit atthe time of assembly, Find the perature of 50°C. Supports are immovable. Ais. P= 96,70N, Brass, are =St -oNDAMENTAL PRINCILES Chapter + PRLScEMS 66 9. After beng drasyn up smog, the nut in Fig. 1-46 is given one-quarter dd and 3» directions are applied to the steel plate of Fig. 1-129'the length in the y-direction is increased by 0.01 in, Find the change of length in the x-direction. Ans. 5, = ~0.0184 i 108. A uniformly distributed stress, either tension or compression, is applied t0 the right and let edges of the plate shown in Fig, [-130. A uniform tension or eom- pression is also applied to the top and bottom edges. After the loads are acting, the final dimensions of the plate are 299.7 mm and 500.2 mm, Find the values of @, and ¢, if the material is steel in the a-rolled co Ans. 0, = 2.20 MPa; 0, = ~19.34 MPa, 109, The moment of inertia about the 1-1 axis in Fig. 1-131 is equal to 4,320 in. The area is equal to 120 in,* Find the moment of inertia about axis 2-2 250 mm [50 mm 150 mn) L-50 mm 50mm len 7 75 mm : io 150 8 2 FIGURE 1-131 Problem 109. FIGURE 1-152 Problem 110 110, The moment of inertia about axis 4 in Fig, 1-132 is equal to 343,750,000 rent, Find the moment of inertia about axis B. Ane. Ip = 685,312,000 rat IIL. The load shown on the beam of Fig. 1-133 is removed and replaced by a rrew load w uniformly disteibuted over the entire beam. The maximum bending ‘moments for both loadings are the same. Find the value of w. 112. In Fig. 1-134 let the bearings be considered simple supports. The shaft is steel, Find the deflection at point 4. Ans, y= 0.213 mm, up. 20,000" # ie FIGURE 1-133 Problem 111, FIGURE 1-134 Problem 112, se ae Binsin Fi. 1-135 are all atthe same elevation. The ba is of spring SEG, the bar was orginally straight, find the value of the maximum booting ? Vae 1 FIGURE 14135 Problem 113. 114. Let the crs sstion tough hough an ins ar be start that of thet ‘nFig 197, Tloading fora single ties30,000 Neer ond Saab eae We on center to center, and journals are 1,100 mm center to center. tum in dametr. The ene of avy of land eden ge es center of the axle. Draw and dimensi i i = "1 dimension the bending moment diagram for the U5, Find the deflection at the midpoint bet snl Find ie idpoint between the bearings in Fig. 1 36, FIGURE 1-136 Problem 115,sd S$ 2qp Sv WOM] sf ssans Yons Jo onyea wane OMT, weet m ooh ane Pulogeq AjIyBus popeo J! 195 uoUBULsad HaIGXD you Op +2sn Buysoudud ayy jo wus xp se uoyer st pur 4p ays" z00'0 20 100'0 finse) r25 yuoueused vantS auses 03 "309 ssons 9 wound v pue su pogsep ain mols pfton axsns a “eng Papeozun wath axon woxmyods a oj ayy UM seis Bw / auI0d re paddows arom Auipuoy a JT (ALT Fld UW UMOgS se Ieuoniodoxd ayy fussed Joye Kirenpois pss nq = any 100 op “parton Yea 30g Da TM 9 sseaiou Surptor jo paads a), RAK au -wresaeypayp jo ade “sounyny ears stadxa Aue Jo asnva ax7 u99q sey suomupuod 2o1AJ95 yenyoe J9puN Buz22usBu0 Jo so1anysq ayp Jo uoneioaidde Jo 28) ssons 12Mp of padnys 9q pinow souanyut yueyoduit ue s Bunomany Jo saseo apnyouy 0} FumusIsap jo HL “spro] Apvais oF paroafqns dd ase jwi9uad p yo sainyeay joyou Jo wiajqoad ay, MAL WE SSNS JO sUIOd pyant pouyap: HM 9tY JO jHey-2uO uRY B20UK 9y eu 2y} IeH paIow 9g plnos 31 “W)I-z jPe18 Hoquwa-mo] Joy ureiBoIp UsEaNs-s5—x98 ayy Jo odes answoro ue ssonis usomiaq diqsuonyjar op soy ydwsF x SuNo]d r{eur q paurergo 2q wed sosodind RuL29uBU9 103 yBur Jo Lo4wEYaq ay) urUIASuCD WoRBUILOFU! 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