Running head: THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

Residence Life and Housing: Using Self-Authorship,

Chickering's Theory of Identity Development, and Campus Ecology
Cole Whited
Oregon State University

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

Residence Life and Housing: Using Self-Authorship, Chickering's Theory of Identity

Development, and Campus Ecology
Student growth and development is said to be a prominent goal of higher education, and
its achievement depends largely on the role of student affairs professionals (Evans, Forney,
Guido, Patton, & Renn, 2010). Furthermore, Evans, et al. (2010) state that student affairs
professionals must understand and utilize student development theories and concepts when
interacting with students, planning programs and events, and developing policies for their
functional area. The functional area of Residence Life and Housing is the functional area within
student affairs in which I have the most experience and interest, so I conducted e-mail and phone
interviews with the associate directors of Residence Life at Western Washington University
(WWU) and Skagit Valley College (SVC). For the purposes of this paper, Residence Life and
Housing will be defined as consisting of Residential Housing and Student Conduct, as was the
case for the institutions in which I conducted my interviews (C. Pettay, personal communication,
October 23, 2014; J. Purdie, personal communication, Novemer 3, 2014).
The first interview I conducted was with Chad Pettay, the Associate Director of
Residence Life at Skagit Valley College (SVC) in Mt. Vernon, Washington. In the interview, he
stated that the Residence Life department at SVC utilizes Schlossbergs Transition Theory
(Schlossberg, 1987), which claims that individuals move through transitory phases in their lives
dependent upon intrinsic and extrinsic factors (Situation, Self, Social support, and Strategies for
coping) (C. Pettay, personal communication, October 23, 2014). Additionally, C. Pettay
described William Perrys Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical Development as a key theory used
at SVC to facilitate student educational growth within student conduct administration (personal
communication, October 23, 2014).

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

I later conducted an interview with Dr. John Purdie, the Associate Director of Residence
Life at Western Washington University (WWU) in Bellingham, Washington. In the interview, J.
Purdie stated that Baxter-Magoldas Self-Authorship theory is the primary theory used in
WWU's Residence Life department (J. Purdie, personal communication, Novemer 3, 2014).
Other theories utilized by the WWU Residence Life department are William Perrys Scheme of
Intellectual and Ethical Development, Banning's theory of Campus Ecology, Kurt Lewin's
Interactionist Perspective, Astin's theory of Involvement, and a variety of social identity
development theories (J. Purdie, personal communication, Novemer 3, 2014).
As may be obvious, the theories that are most important to the Residence Life department
at WWU and SVC vary, but there is some overlap as well. The differences in theories used may
be due to the difference in institution type. For example, at the community college SVC,
importance is placed on a theory surrounding the idea of a "transition" since the majority of
students are, to some extent, in a transition phase (C. Pettay, personal communication, October
23, 2014). At WWU, a small Liberal Arts university, key theories used are related to studentenvironment interactions as well as discovery of self (self-authorship and learning partnerships
model) (J. Purdie, personal communication, Novemer 3, 2014). Both institutions, however,
stated that William Perry's Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical Development guides the practice
of their residence life programs (C. Pettay, personal communication, October 23, 2014; J.
Purdie, personal communication, Novemer 3, 2014).
The purpose of this paper will be to answer the following question: What are ways in
which Residence Life departments can and do utilize student development theories to create an
environment in which first-year students can develop a strong sense of self and identity? I will
be highlighting two of the theories utilized by these institutions as I attempt to answer this

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

question, namely, Baxter Magolda's Self-Authorship theory and Banning's Campus Ecology
model. The third theory I will describe is Chickering's Theory of Identity Development. I have
chosen to describe Chickering's Theory of Identity Development because neither interviewee
mentioned it as key to the operations of their residence life departments, yet there seems to be
potential for the theory to be used by each of these institutions. Furthermore, it seems as though
there are facets of the residence life departments at these institutions that relate to Chickering's
theory. Most importantly, Chickering's theory is a theory of identity development, so it is
directly related to the question I am hoping to answer. I will begin by describing each of the
three theories, while also discussing how these theories are and/or may be applied to residence
life departments like WWU and SVC. To conclude, I will describe limitations of the three
student development theories described in this paper, followed by a brief summary.
Self-Authorship
As previously stated, the goal of higher education is to facilitate student growth and
development (Evans et al., 2010). To be more specific, the current literature claims that systems
of higher education should provide opportunities for students to develop critical thinking skills
(Barber, King, & Magolda, 2013), develop the ability to function effectively in a diverse,
democratic society (Pizzolato, 2006), and to develop cognitive, intrapersonal, and interpersonal
skills (Torres & Hernandez, 2007). When students are able to achieve these outcomes, they are
able to develop self-authorship, simply defined as the ability to internally define one's own
values, beliefs, identities, and social relationships (Magolda, 2008). Becoming self-authored has
many positive impacts on student development, such that self-authored individuals are better
able navigate adult life challenges such as meeting home, work, and school expectations while
effectively interacting with diverse individuals (Magolda, 2008). It is also claimed that reaching

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

self-authorship allows individuals to solve complex problems, develop intercultural competence

(Magolda, 2014), and become effective and authentic leaders (Eriksen, 2009).
Self-authorship development is described as consisting of four phases: following
formulas, crossroads, becoming the author of one's life, and internal foundation (Magolda,
2014). In the "following formulas" phase, student decisions and self-definitions reflect the
desires of external authority figures, such as parents and peers, so as to gain their approval
(Evans et al., 2010). Students in the second phase, "crossroads," are characterized as coming to
the realization that following a path determined by someone else isn't working well, and tension
grows between these external influences and the student's developing internal voice (Magolda,
2014). The next phase is the "becoming the author of one's life" phase, in which students
develop a strong sense of self and are likely to stand firm in their beliefs when confronted by
differing ideas (Evans et al., 2010). Those that reach the last phase, termed the "internal
foundation" phase, have faith in their values and beliefs, behave in ways that reflect their values
and beliefs, and are comfortable with uncertainty and change (Evans et al., 2010).
The theory of self-authorship has been used in academic advising practices (Pizzolato,
2006), assignments created to help student leaders become authentic leaders (Eriksen, 2009),
and supervisory skill development (McNair, 2011). Moreover, Evans et al. (2010) highlights
that campus living situations, student employment opportunities, and leadership positions
amongst student organizations are structured in a way as to allow the development of selfauthorship through interactions between students and educators (student affairs professionals
included). Also, as previously mentioned, self-authorship is extremely important to the
educational program of the Residence Life department at Western Washington University (J.
Purdie, personal communication, Novemer 3, 2014). Currently, WWU utilizes self-authorship

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

by ensuring that student affairs professionals and paraprofessionals (Resident Advisors)

facilitate student reflection on the themes of self, others, relationships, and community. This is
done by intentionally structuring roommate agreement conversations, leadership roles and
expectations, the conduct process, and Resident Advisor (RA) conversation topics around self,
others, relationships and community (J. Purdie, personal communication, November 3, 2014;
Western Washington University, 2014). To give a specific example, RAs at WWU conduct "oneon-one" conversations with their residents each term, and these conversations surround specific
topics like social identity (J. Purdie, personal communication, Novemer 3, 2014). In the social
identity conversations, RAs ask residents questions regarding the specific identities they hold,
the identities present in their community, experiences they have had with oppression, instances
in which their values and beliefs conflicted with the values and beliefs of another, and more (J.
Purdie, personal communication, Novemer 3, 2014). According to J. Purdie, these questions are
intended to allow students to begin or continue reflecting on their values, beliefs, and
experiences so that they can define their identities, values, beliefs, and their relationships (J.
Purdie, personal communication, Novemer 3, 2014).
Although C. Pettay stated that William Perrys Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical
Development is used at SVC to facilitate student educational growth within student conduct
administration (personal communication, October 23, 2014), self-authorship can also be used in
student conduct (J. Purdie, personal communication, Novemer 3, 2014). For example, student
affairs practioners conducting policy violation meetings with students can provide space for
students to reflect on their values in order for them to see ways in which their behavior, by
violating policy, does or does not reflect those values (J. Purdie, personal communication,
Novemer 3, 2014). Utilizing this aspect of self-authorship, along with William Perry's Scheme

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

of Intellectual and Ethical Development, may further facilitate student development within the
residence life department at SVC.
Chickering's Theory of Identity Development
According to Evans et al. (2010), Chickering's Theory of Identity Development was
initially created for higher education faculty, but became very important to student affairs
professionals and was adapted to meet their needs. Implicit to this theory is the assumption that
identity development is an extremely important, and essential, piece of the holistic development
of college students (Evans et al., 2010). In Chickering's theory, there are seven vectors of
development that students progress through while developing their identity (-ies): developing
competence, managing emotions, moving through autonomy toward interdependence,
developing mature interpersonal relationships, establishing identity, developing purpose, and
developing integrity (Pruett, 2011). It is important to note that this is not a linear process;
students can develop along these vectors simultaneously, although the "establishing identity"
vector is built upon the four vectors mentioned before it (Storey, 2010). I will briefly describe
each vector next.
In the "developing competence" vector, students that develop a sense of intellectual,
physical, and social competence will have a sense of total self-competence, which is important to
identity development (Land & Land, 1992). Individuals that are intellectually competent are
capable of using methods to acquire knowledge, or may possess knowledge related to a specific
topic (Evans et al., 2010). Physical competence is often related to the application of physical
education concepts (Storey, 2010), such as being involved in athletics or physical fitness
activities, focusing attention on wellness, and participation in art (Evans et al., 2010). Finally, an

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

interpersonally competent individual is described as having proficient abilities in

communication, leadership, and teamwork (Evans et al., 2010; Storey, 2010).
In the next vector, "managing emotions," individuals become more conscious of their
emotions and feelings, and develop the ability to control and express them appropriately (Storey,
2010). In addition, Evans et al. (2010) state that students begin to accept their emotions while
developing along this vector. The "moving through autonomy toward interdependence" vector is
comprised of three elements: emotional independence, instrumental independence, and
interdependence (Storey, 2010). Emotional independence is characterized as the lack of a need
for continuous encouragement and approval from others, while instrumental independence is
described as the ability to make autonomous and self-directed problem-solving decisions (Evans
et al., 2010; Storey, 2010). Finally, interdependence is achieved when an individual understands
their connection with others (Evans et al., 2010), and can commit to behaving in a way that will
have a positive impact on the community (Storey, 2010).
"Developing mature interpersonal relationships" is the next vector, and individuals
developing along this vector realize that their relationships are important to the development of
their personal identity (Evans et al., 2010). This vector consists of two important components:
development of tolerance and appreciation for different identities and cultures, and the ability to
have intimate relationships (Storey, 2010). The "establishing identity" vector is dependent upon
the development of the previously mentioned vectors, and indicates an understanding of, and
comfort with, physical appearance, gender, and sexual orientation (Evans et al., 2010), and is
also characterized by openness, a positive self-esteem, and a strong sense of self (Storey, 2010).
Students in the "developing purpose" vector clarify their vocational goals, consistently evaluate
their interests, make plans, and are able to persevere in the face of adversity or opposition (Evans

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

et al., 2010). In the last vector, "developing integrity", there are three elements/stages:
humanizing values, personalizing values, and developing congruence (Storey, 2010). In
humanizing values, students are able to consider the interests of others alongside their own
(Storey, 2010). Similarly, personalizing values is characterized by intentional affirmation of
personal values and beliefs while also respecting the values and beliefs of others (Evans et al.,
2010). Lastly, developing congruence can be described as student actions reflecting their values,
and these values reflecting a balance between self-interest and an obligation to others (Evans et
al., 2010).
Applications of Chickering's theory to student affairs work, some of which can be used
by residence life and housing departments, have been offered. For instance, student affairs
professionals can design and implement community service programs that facilitate student
understanding of the importance of interdependence, or programs related to social identity that
can help students establish their identity (Evans et al., 2010). Additionally, participation in
recreational sports teams allows students to develop along each vector as they discover interests,
create goals, and interact with others that may be different from them, so student affairs
professionals should recommend student participation in these activities (Evans et al., 2010).
Finally, student affairs professionals can be intentional in their conversations with students so
that students begin reflecting on issues of social justice, begin developing awareness of their
emotions, and begin defining themselves (Evans et al., 2010). Much of this relates closely to
residence life and housing, as first-year students are provided a multitude of programs and
opportunities to have conversations with student affairs professionals (J. Purdie, personal
communication, Novemer 3, 2014).

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

10

Chickering's theory of identity development has also been applied to specific student
populations as well, such as community college students (Storey, 2010) and first-year students
(Pruett, 2011). In the article written by Storey (2010), it is stated that community colleges are
becoming more and more diverse, and thus co-curricular opportunities at community colleges
must meet the needs of these diverse individuals and can enhance student development.
Community colleges that provide a multitude of co-curricular activities allow students to grow
and develop along Chickering's seven vectors as these students are exposed to different campus
experiences. In a study by Pruett (2011), it was discovered that first-year students that
participated in a living and learning communitiy were more likely than other students to develop
along the "developing purpose" vector, state that peer relationships are important to academic
success, and state that they had positive interactions with faculty. This finding suggests that
residence life and housing departments should consider implementing living learning
communities, as they have positive impacts on student development (Pruett, 2011).
Campus Ecology (Banning)
The Campus Ecology model, introduced by James Banning in the 1970s, suggests that
student affairs professionals should bear in mind that the relationship between students and the
environment is transactional and interdependent in nature (Evans et al, 2010). In the 1978
National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA) monograph presented by
Banning, Bruce Walsh highlights six theoretical approaches associated with campus ecology
(Banning, 1978). The six campus ecology theoretical foundations are: Behavior-setting theory,
Subculture Approach, Personality Types, Need X Press = Culture, Social Ecological Approach,
and the Transaction Approach (Evans et al., 2010). I will discuss each of these next.

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

11

In Barker's (1968) Behavior-Setting Theory, individuals are said to behave similarly

when in specific settings, despite individual differences (Banning, 1978). Bruce Walsh also
explains that this theory focuses on the environment side of the person-environment interaction
(Banning, 1978), since it contends that the environment shapes behavior (Evans et al., 2010).
Similar to the behavior-setting theory, the Subculture Approach suggests that individuals seek
and enter environments that are congruent with their values, interests, etc. (Evans et al., 2010).
Next, Holland's Personality Types describes behavior as determined by the relationship between
personality and environment; more specifically, human behavior is influenced by the degree of
match between a person's personality types and features of the environment (Banning, 1978).
The six personality traits (and environmental characteristics) within this theory are realistic,
investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional (Evans et al., 2010).
Stern's (1970) Need X Press = Culture Theory suggests that behaviors of individuals in a
campus setting creates a culture, the culture creates an environment, and the environment affects
the behavior of its inhabitants (Evans et al., 2010). In other words, an environment is defined as
it is understood by the individuals within it (Banning, 1978). The next theory serving as a
foundational element of Campus Ecology is Moo's Social Ecological Approach, in which it is
said that environments have "personalities" (Banning, 1978; Evans et al., 2010). There are two
assumptions within this approach: The psychosocial qualities of an environment, such as campus
climate, can be defined by the behaviors of individuals within that environment; and behavior is
affected by the perception of the environment (Banning, 1978). Lastly, Pervin's Transaction
Approach suggests that individuals seek environments, or objects in environments, that will help
them reduce the differences between their perceived and ideal selves (Banning, 1978; Evans et
al., 2010).

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

12

Banning's Campus Ecology model has been applied to campus design, student union
renovation, residence hall design, methods for providing services to diverse students, (Evans et
al., 2010), and approaches for creating community for students taking online classes through a
college/university (Kretovics, 2003). Furthermore, J. Purdie mentioned that characteristics of the
environment are extremely important when attempting to send a message to individuals coming
to campus at WWU (personal communication, Novemer 3, 2014). For example, when first year
students move to campus, posters that convey messages about alcohol policy, safe drinking, and
use of specific non-inclusive words such "retarded" are negative in nature, and tell students that
people drink and do drugs or use words like "retarded" on campus (J. Purdie, personal
communication, Novemer 3, 2014). Instead, J. Purdie recommends that student affairs
professionals within residence life and housing should be intentional when making and hanging
posters and fliers, ensuring that they are positive in nature and highlight things that students,
specifically first-year students, should be doing instead of what they should not be doing
(personal communication, Novemer 3, 2014). This brings to light the transactional relationship
between students and the environment.
Limitations and Conclusion
Although student development theory can be an important guide for student affairs
practice, there are always limitations of theory that must be taken into account (Evans et al.,
2010). For instance, the most common weakness prescribed to the theory of self-authorship is
that much of the research focuses on White, privileged, undergraduate students, while rarely
looking at its development among underrepresented student populations or individuals coming
from collectivist cultures (Evans et al., 2010). Fortunately, some researchers have responded to
this limitation by conducting research on the development of self-authorship in specific student

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

13

populations, such as Latino/a students (Torres & Hernandez, 2007). Some of the limitations of
Chickering's theory of identity development are that it is imprecise and unspecific when it comes
to definitions (Gable, 1980), that more research is needed regarding Chickering's vectors and
intersectionality, and that Asian American and Native American students were not included in the
development of the theory (Evans et al., 2010). Finally, it seems that the Campus Ecology model,
like other ecology models, are not commonly used by student affairs professionals (Evans et al.,
2010). Reasons given are that these models are not developmental, that the implementation of the
ecological models is complex, and that environments are often unstable (Evans et al., 2010).
Despite their limitations, these theories can be, and have been, utilized to facilitate firstyear (and general) student development within residence life and housing. Resident advisors
initiate conversations with residents surrounding the topics of social-identity, privilege,
oppression, values, and beliefs in order to facilitate the development of self-authorship.
Furthermore, student affairs professionals assist in the development of self-authorship in conduct
administration by allowing students to reflect on the incongruence between their behavior and
values. It also seems that living learning communities allow first-year students to develop along
Chickering's Identity Development vectors, especially that of "developing purpose," so residence
life departments should work to include these types of communities at their institutions. Finally,
the interaction between students and the environment is important to keep in mind, as per the
Campus Ecology model. It is suggested that student affairs professionals in residence life and
housing are intentional in the ways they communicate to students through the environment, such
that posters and fliers should remain positive in nature so first-year students moving in have a
positive outlook on their "new home." By using self-authorship, Chickering's theory of identity
development, and Banning's Campus Ecology, much can be done by student affairs professionals

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

within residence life and beyond to create an environment for first-year students in which they
can develop a strong sense of self and identity.

14

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

15

References
Banning, J. H. (1978). Campus ecology: A perspective for student affairs. Presented at the
National Student Personnel Association, Washington D.C. Retrieved from
http://campusecologist.com/files/Monograph.pdf
Barber, J. P., King, P. M., & Magolda, M. B. B. (2013). Long Strides on the journey toward Selfauthorship: Substantial developmental shifts in college students meaning making.
Journal of Higher Education, 84(6), 866895.
Eriksen, M. (2009). Authentic leadership: Practical reflexivity, self-awareness, and selfauthorship. Journal of Management Education, 122. doi:10.1177/1052562909339307
Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido, F. M., Patton, L. D., & Renn, K. A. (2010). Student
development in college: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Gable, A. (1980). A critique of chickerings developmental vectors. Journal of the Indiana
University Student Personnel Association, 1518.
Kretovics, M. (2003). The role of student affairs in distance education: Cyber-services or virtual
communities. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 6(3). Retrieved from
http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/fall63/kretovics63.html
Land, E. R., & Land, W. A. (1992). A Proposal for the implementation of programs for culturally
diverse students on a predominantly white university campus. Retrieved from ERIC
database. (ED355865)
Magolda, M. B. B. (2008). Three elements of self-Authorship. Journal of College Student
Development, 49(4), 269284. doi:10.1353/csd.0.0016

THEORY IN RESIDENCE LIFE AND HOUSING

16

Magolda, M. B. B. (2014). Self-authorship. New Directions for Higher Education, (166), 2533.
doi:10.1002/he
McNair, D. E. (2011). Developing a philosophy of supervision: One step toward self-authorship.
New Directions for Student Services, (136), 2734. doi:10.1002/ss.411
Pizzolato, J. E. (2006). Complex partnerships: Self-authorship and provocative academicadvising practices. NACADA Journal, 26(1), 3245. doi:10.12930/0271-9517-26.1.32
Pruett, K. (2011). The impact of freshman year learning community participation on students
self-reported academic self-efficacy, sense or meaning in life and commitment to
academic major at the beginning of the second academic year. Retrieved from
https://etd.auburn.edu/handle/10415/2767
Schlossberg, N. K. (1987). Understanding and reaching adult learners. McGill Journal of
Education / Revue Des Sciences de Lducation de McGill, 22(001). Retrieved from
http://mje.mcgill.ca/article/view/7717
Storey, K. (2010). Bridging the gap: Linking co-curricular activities to student learning
outcomes in community college students. Doctoral dissertations, National-Louis
University). Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.nl.edu/diss/30
Torres, V., & Hernandez, E. (2007). The influence of ethnic identity on self-authorship: A
longitudinal study of latino/a college students. Journal of College Student Development,
48(5), 558573. doi:10.1353/csd.2007.0057
Western Washington University. (2014). Residence life. Retrieved November 2, 2014, from
https://housing.wwu.edu/reslife/