Endocrine System

Consists of the hormone producing glands and tissues in the body

It functions along with the nervous system to help maintain

homeostasis

Endocrine system functions slower than nervous system but gives a

more sustained effect

Carries out its functions based upon messages received from the
hypothalamus

It also controls:
o Blood sugar
o Metabolism
o Growth
o Reproductive development and function

Hormones
- These are chemicals that circulate through the blood and exert some
measure of control over most every organ and tissue in the body
Target Cells/Organs
- Organs/cells that contain receptors for specific hormones
There are 2 types of hormones:
1- Steroidal (SH)
2- Non-steroidal (NSH)
Steroid Hormones
Hormones manufactured from a fatty substance called cholesterol.
These substances are fat-soluble

An example is cortisol

How do they work?

1- Hormone binds to receptor protein to create a hormone-receptor
complex (HRC)

2- HRC enters the nucleus and activates a specific gene in DNA

3- Activated genes produce an enzyme that starts a chemical reaction

within a cell

Non-Steroid Hormones
Hormones composed of proteins, peptides, or amino acids
Cause chain reactions in the target cells
These hormones are NOT fat soluble
They are unable to enter cells because they are not soluble in the cell
membrane
Examples are Adrenaline, ACTH, LH, FSH, ADH
How do they work?
1- A hormone (called a first messenger) binds to receptor on surfaces of
target cell

2- The binding causes ATP to be changed into cyclic AMP (cAMP)

3- Cyclic AMP (second messenger) causes chemical reactions to occur

within the cell

Steroid

Non-Steroid

Solubility in
Cell
Membrane

Fat soluble
- Enter cell

Insoluble
- Cannot enter
the cell

Location of
Receptors

Within Cell

Surface of the cell

End Result

Stimulate genes to
produce a protein

Cause chain
reactions in
target cells

*Venn Diagram
*Questions page 426 #s 1-4

Main Endocrine Glands

Pituitary Gland
-

Located under the hypothalamus

Called the Master Gland due to the fact that this gland regulates the
activity of the other hormone-producing glands
Actually two glands: anterior and posterior
These two glands produce different hormones

Anterior Pituitary
Somatotropin or Human Growth Hormone (HGH)
- Produced in the Pituitary gland
- Regulates growth and development of body tissues
- Increases absorption of calcium
- Increase cell division and growth in bones and cartilage
- Stimulate protein synthesis and lipid metabolism
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
- Stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroxine
Posterior Pituitary
Anti-Diuretic Hormone
- Causes the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol and aldosterone
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Oxytocin
- In the uterine muscles it causes muscles to contract to help expel the
baby
- In mammary glands it causes the glands to contract to release milk
Disorders of the Pituitary Gland
Dwarfism
Cause Insufficient production of HGH during childhood
Effect Causes an abnormally short stature
Treatment Injections of HGH

Gigantism
Cause Excess production of HGH prior to puberty
Effect Abnormal growth of long bones in the skeleton
Treatment Microsurgery of the pituitary gland or radiation treatment of
gland tissue

Hypothalamus
- Located at top of brain stem
- Controls the endocrine hormone system (as well as the ANS)
- Maintains the bodys internal environment
- Interacts constantly with the pituitary gland

Negative Feedback Loop Hypothalamus-Pituitary Feedback

Mechanism
A mechanism that works to reverse or decrease changes in the body

Pineal Gland
- Small cone-shaped structure located deep within the brain
- Produces melatonin, involved in sleep
- Melatonin has a circadian rhythm, a daily biological cycle or regular
pattern. Melatonin levels increase as the day goes on, producing the
feeling of sleepiness

Melatonin
- Produced in the Pineal gland
- Function is cause a feeling of sleepiness and aiding with sleep
- When abnormal production occurs the effects can be sleep disorders,
mood disorders, seasonal affective disorder (SAD), among others

Thyroid Gland
- Butterfly shaped gland located between the larynx and the neck
- Produces thyroxine (NSH): contains iodine and it increases metabolic
rate especially in the heart, skeletal muscle, liver, and kidney
- Also produces calcitonin

Thyroxine
- Produced by the Thyroid gland
- Increases metabolism rate and oxygen consumption especially in the
heart, skeletal muscle, liver, and kidney
- Released from the thyroid gland when stimulated by TSH from the
pituitary
Pituitary Gland TSH Thyroid Gland Thyroxine released
Calcitonin
- Moves calcium from the blood into the bones
- This lowers the amount of calcium in the blood
Disorders of the Thyroid Gland
Hypothyroidism
A. Goiter
Cause A condition caused by the lack of iodine in the diet. This
causes a decreased production of thyroxine
Effect Patients end up with swollen thyroid gland. Looks like a large
growth on the neck
Treatment Increase iodine intake. Governments have added iodine to
salt for years
Hyperthyroidism
B. Graves Disease
Cause An over secretion of thyroxine
Effect Increased metabolism, increased sweating, muscle weakness,
protruding eyes
Treatment Surgical removal of thyroid gland, thyroid blocking drugs,
radiation treatment of the thyroid gland

Questions: page 440 #s 1 &5

Parathyroid Gland
- Found near the thyroid gland
- Produces PTH (parathyroid hormone) which is related to the absorption
and release of calcium

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

- Causes bones to release calcium into the blood stream
- Causes kidneys to reabsorb calcium from the blood thus increasing
amount of calcium in the body
- Works the opposite of calcitonin (thyroid gland) to regulate blood
calcium levels in a negative feedback loop
Adrenal Gland
- Located on the top of the kidneys in two sections: adrenal cortex and
adrenal medulla. These do not interact.
- Secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline

Adrenaline
- Produced by the Adrenal gland
- Released during times of stress. The fight or flight hormone.
- Increases heart rate, respiration rate, release of glucose by liver etc.
- In an Epi-Pen to restore blood pressure
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Questions: page 446 #s 5, 6, 11, 14

Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans)
- Located near the small intestine
- Contains specialized endocrine cells called Islets of Langerhans
- As an endocrine gland, it produces insulin and glucagon
- These hormones control and regulate blood sugars

Insulin
- Produced by the pancreas
- Causes the conversion of glucose into glycogen that is stored in the
liver
- Causes excess glucose to be changed into fats
- Helps regulate blood sugar levels
Glucose ---------- Glycogen
Glucagon
- Produced by the pancreas
- Causes the conversion of glycogen into glucose that is released into
the blood as needed
Glycogen ----------Glucose
Regulation of sugar using Insulin and Glucagon
- Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic hormones

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Disorders of the Pancreas

Diabetes Mellitus
A. Type 1 Diabetes
o Known as Juvenile or Insulin Dependent diabetes. Occurs in
individuals under 20 years old
o Cause Beta cells of Islets of Langerhans do not produce enough
insulin
o Result Abnormally high levels of sugar (glucose) in blood
o Symptoms Fatigue, thirst, weight loss, frequent urination,
blindness
o Treatment Insulin injections (usually for the rest of life)
B. Type 2 Diabetes
o Known as Adult Onset Diabetes. Traditionally occurred in
individuals over 40 years old but now occurs in individuals as
young as 2 years old
o Insulin is produced by pancreas but cells do not recognize it.
Cells do not use the sugar found in the blood
o Treatment Strict control of carbohydrates intake to reduce
amount of sugar in blood
Core Lab #2 Identifying Diabetes Mellitus pp. 436-437

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Thymus
- Lymphatic tissue located between the lobes of the lungs and the upper
chest cavity. Especially active in children and usually disappears during
puberty. In adults the role in the immune system is taken over by the
spleen and lymph glands
- Produces thymosin which stimulates production and materials of
lymphocytes into T-cells

Ovaries
- Found in females in the abdominal cavity
- Triggered by the hypothalamus to produce estrogen and progesterone
which are involved in sex characteristics and pregnancy

Positive Feedback Mechanism

A mechanism that serves to increase the effect of an action. For example
the Oxytocin Feedback Loop

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Testes
- Found in males hanging outside the body in scrotum to reduce the
temperature
- Produces testosterone and inhibin which controls secondary sex
characteristics in males

Questions and Topics for Debate

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Prescribing HGH to individuals who are within the normal range for
height but are genetically shorter than average
Legalizing steroids amongst athletes
Using hormones in the beef industry to increase production

Questions: page 447 #s 2-6, 8-10, 12, 13, 16

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