PROBLEMS 53 39 3.20 in Table 3.5. The term y is used in engineering practice to represent mole (or Volume) fraction of gases; the term x is often used for liquids and solids, Partial Pressure I ‘The exhaust to the almosphere from an incinerator has a S\ 0.12 mmHg partial pressure, Calculate the parts per million of SO, in the exhaust. Solution: First calculate the mole fraction y. By Dalton’s law concentration of ya ee @2n Since the exhaust is discharged to the atmosphere, the atmospheric pressure, 7160 mm He, is the total pressure P. Thus, y= (012mm Hg)/(7160 mmHg) = 1.58 x 10-4 ppm = (y)(10%) = (1.58 x 10°) 0%) = 158 ppm Partial Pressure IL A storage tank contains a gaseous mixture consisting of 30% CO,, 5% CO, 5% H,O, 50% Np, and 10% Os, by volume. What is the partial pressure of each com- ponent ifthe total pressure is 2 atm? What are their pure-component volumes if the total pressure is 2 atm? What are the pure-component volumes if the total volume is 10:27 What are the concentrations in ppm (parts per million)? Solution: Dalton’s law states that the partial pressure p, of an ideal gas is ziven by Pa =YoP G27 where y,— mole fraction of component a total pressure ‘Thus co, = 0.30(2) = 0.60 atm Peo = 0.052) = 0.1m Pao = 0.05(2) = 0.10atm by, = 0.50(2) = 1.0m Po, = 0.10(2) = 0.20atm P = 2.00aimFUNDAMENTALS: GASES Amagat’s law states that the pure component volume V, of an ideal gas is aiven by Ve yeV where Vis the total volume, Thus Veo, = 0.30(10) = 3.00 1 Veo = 0.05(10) = 0.50 10° 3.0 = 0.05(10) = 0.50 1 s = 0.50(10) = 5.00 8 Vo, = 0.10(10) = 1.00 v = 10.00 48 [By definition, the parts per million (ppm) is given by ppm, = ya10° Thus ppmco, = 0:30(10%) = 3.00 x 10° ppm pmcg = 0.05(10°) = 0.50 x 10° ppm pmo — 0.05(10°) = 0.50 x 10° ppm 0,50(10) = 5.00 x 10° ppm ppm, pmg, = 0.10(10%) = 1.00 x 10° ppm 6.29) Unless otherwise stated, ppm for gases is by mole or volume and is usually designated as ppmv, When applying the term to liquids or solids, the basis is almost always by mass; the notation may appear as ppmw or ppm, 3.21 Vapor Pressure Calculation ‘Two popular equations that are used to estimate the vapor pressure of compounds are the Clapeyron and Antoine equations. The Clapeyron equation is given by B inp’ =4-2 " 7 .40)PROBLEMS 55 322 where p’ and Tare the vapor pressure and temperature, respectively, and A and B are the experimentally determined Clapeyron coefficients. The Antoine equation is given by Inp’ =A oan Tre where A, B, and C are the experimentally determined Antoine coefficients Use the Clapeyron and Antoine equations (o estimate the vapor pressure of acetone at 0°C. The Clapeyron coefficients have been experimentally determined tobe A= 15.03 B=2817 for p’ and Tin mm Hg and K, respectively. The Antoine coefficients are A= 1665 B= 2940 c= -35.93 with p' and Tin the same units Solution: First, calculate the vapor pressure p! of acetone at 0°C using the ‘Clapeyron equation: In p! = 15.03 [2817/(0 +273) =47113, p= 112mm Hg Calculate the vapor pressure of acetone at O°C using the Antoine equation: Inp! = 16.65 ~ (2940/73 ~ 35.93)] = 4.2486 p= 7001 mm Hg ‘The Clapeyron equation generally overpredicts the vapor pressure at or near ambient conditions. The Antoine equation is widely used in industry and usually provides excellent results, Also note that, contrary to statements appear- ing in the Federal Register and some EPA publications, vapor pressure is not a function of pressure, Reynolds Number The Reynolds number (Re) (@) Describes fuid flow and is equal to C,/DO () Equals 6.02 x 10”56 FUNDAMENTALS: GASES (©) Describes how a fuid behaves while flowing and is defined as the inertial forces divided by the viscous forces (Dvp/1) (@) Is generally used only for iquids Solution: Answers (a). (b) and (d) are obviously incorrect. The definition of Re is given in Equation (3.13). The comect answer is therefore (©). 323 Reynolds Number Calculation Calculate the Reynolds number for a gas flowing through a S-inch-diameter pipe at 10 fps (feet per second) with a density af 0.050 Ib/tt” and a viscosity of 0.065 cP? Is the flow turbulent or laminar? Solution: By definition Gus) Substitution yields MENEVCH)/ aia) (marie (5/12) (LON/s) (0.0501b /°)/(0.065 x 6.72 x 10~"Ib/ ts) =4770 Re ‘The Reynolds number is >2100; therefore, this gas flow is turbulent. Generally ‘moving gases are in the turbulent flow regime. 3.24 Process Calculation ‘An external gas stream is fed into an air pollution conuol device at a rate of 10,000 Ib/hr in the presence of 20,000 lb/hr of air. Because of the energy requirements of the unit, 1250 tbr of a vapor conditioning agent is added to assist the teatment of the stream. Determine the rate of product gases exiting the unit in pounds per hour (Ib/b). Assume steady-state conditions. Solution: Apply the conservation law for mass to the control device on a rate basis: Rate of mass in — rate of mass out + rate of mass generated rate of mass accumulated Note that mass is not generated and steady conditions (no accumulation) apply Rewrite this equation subject to the conditions in the problem statement Rate of mass in = rate of mass outPROBLEMS 37 3.28 Now refer tothe problem statement fo the three inlet flows fing = 10,000 + 20,000 + 1250 = 31,250 16 /tr Determine stg, the product gas flow rate. Sine ti = tog it follows that tag = 31,250 Ibe As noted catlier, the conservation law for mass may be written for any compound whose quantity is not changed by chemical reaction and for any chemical clement whether or not it has participated in a chemical reac- tion, It may be written for one piece of equipment around several pieces of equipment, or around an entire process. It may be used to calculate an unknown quantity directly, t check the validity of experimental data, or to express one or mote of the independent relationships among the ‘unknown quantities in a particular problem situation, Collection Efficiency Given the following inlet loading and outlet loading of an air pollution control unit, determine the collection efficiency of the unit: Inlet loading = 0.02 gr/! Outlet loading = 0.001 gr /f* Solution: Collection efficiency is a measure of the degree of performance of a control device; it specifically refers co the degree of removal of a pollutant and may be calculated tough the application of the conversation law for ‘mass. Loading, generally refers to the concentration of pollutant. The equation describing collection efficiency (fractional) £ in terms of inlet and outlet loading is {net loading) ~ (outlet loading) Gales Toading) — (outiet leading? 3.42) inlet loading Calculate the collection efficiency of the control unit in percent for the rates provided: 2-01 E 100 = 95% ‘The term 1 is also used as a symbol for efficiency E. The reader should also note that the collected amount of pollutant by the control unit isthe product of E and58 3.26 327 FUNDAMENTALS: GASES the inlet loading. The amount discharged to the atmosphere is given by the inlet loading minus the amount collected, Penetration Definition Define penetration. Solution: By definition, the penetration P is given by P= 100—£; percent basis a9 P=10-E,; fractional basis Ce) Note that there is a 10-fold inerease in P as F goes from 99.9 to 99%, For a ‘multiple series of n collectors, the overall penetration is simply given by P= PPas oo PaiPn 4g) For particulate control in air pollution units, penetrations and/or efficiencies can be related to individual size ranges. The overall efficiency (or penetration} is then given by the contribution from cach size range, ic. the summation of the product cf mass faction and efficiency for each size range. This is treated in more detail in the chapters on particulates (Chapters 712), Spray Tower Application A proposed incineration facility design requires that a packed column and a spray ower be used in series for the removal of HCl from the flue gas. The spray tower is to operate at an efficiency of 65% and the packed column at an efficiency of 98%. Calculate the mass flow rate of HCl leaving the spray tower, the mass flow rate of HCI entering the packed tower, and the overall efficiency of the removal system if 76.0 Ib of HCI enters the system every hour. Solution: As defined in Problem 3.25 45) ‘Then, For the spray tower nou = (1 — 0.65) (76.0) = 26.6 lb/hr HCI “The mass flow rate of HCI leaving the spray tower is equal to the mass flow rate of HCl entering the packed column. For the packed column Foy ~ (1 ~ 0.98) (26.6) ~ 0.532 Ib hr HCLPROBLEMS 59 3.28 3.29 ‘The overall efficiency ean now be caleulated: Jing, 716.0 ~ 0.532 Tig STO = 0.993, = 99.3% ‘Compliance Determination A proposed incinerator is designed to destroy a hazardous waste at 2100°F and atm, Current regulations dictate that a minimum destruction and removal ‘efficiency (DRE) of 99.99% must be achieved. The waste flow rate into the unit is 960 lb/hr while that flowing out of the unit is measured as 0.08 lb/hr. 1s the unit in compliance? Solution: Select as a basis the 1 houtly rate of operation. The mass equation ‘employed for efficiency may also be used to calculate the minimum destruction and removal efficiency. 60 ‘in = Hest 99) — 2600.08 99 Tie 360 = 99,9929% G45) DRE ‘Thus the unit is operating in compliance with present regulations. The answer is yes. Velocity Dete Given 20,000 {¢/min of air at ambient conditions exiting a system through a pipe whose cross-sectional area is 4 ft", determine the mass flow rate in Ib/min and the exit velocity in ft/s Solution: The continuity equation is given by tion n= pu 6.46) where p= liquid density $= cross-seotional area v= velocity Since 20,000 ft°/min of air enters the system, then a = Sm = 20,000 8 rin ‘where subscript 1 refers to inlet conditions. Now, assuming that p = 0.075 Ib/#? then Jn pS. ~ (0.075) 20,000) ~ 1500 /anin60 3.30 FUNDAMENTALS: GASES Outlet Temperature Heat at 18.7 x 10° Btu/br is transferred from the flue gas of an incinerator. Calculate the outlet temperature of the gas stream using the following information: Average heat capacity c, of gas = 0.26 Btu/(b - °F) Gas mass flow rate ni 72,000 Ib/hr Gas inlet temperature T, = 1200°F Solution: The fist law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved, For a flow system, neglecting kinetic and potential effects, the energy transferred Q to or from the flowing medium is given by the enthalpy change AH of the medium. ‘The enthalpy of an ideal gas is solely a function of temperature; enthalpies of liguids and most real gases are almost always assumed to depend oa temperature alone. Changes in enthalpy resulting from a temperature change for a single- phase material may be calculated from the equation AH = me, AT 47 Ai = rnc, AT where AH = enthalpy change m= mass of flowing medium ‘cy average heat capacity per unit mass of flowing medium across the temperature range of AT AH= enthalpy change per unit time rit = mass flow rate of flowing medium (Note: The symbol A means “change in.”) Solve the conservation law for energy for the gas outlet temperature Ty: Q= AH = tne, AT = tne, —T1) where @ is the rate of energy transfer: @ ince +1; The gas outlet temperature is therefore Ts = [-18.7 x 10*/{(72,000) (0.26)}] + 1200 = 200°F ‘This equation is based on adiabatic conditions, ie., the entire heat load is tans- ferred from the flowing gas. The unit is assumed to be perfectly insulated so that no heat is wansferred to the surroundings. However, this i not the case in a real-world application, As with mass balances, an enthalpy balance may bePROBLEMS a 331 performed within any properly defined boundary, whether real or imaginary. F ‘example, an enthalpy balance can be applied across the entire unit or process. ‘The enthalpy of the feed stream(s) is equated with the enthalpy of the product stream(s) plus the heat loss from the process. All the enthalpy terms must be based on the same reference temperature, Finally, the enthalpy has two key prop- erties that should be kept in mind: 1. Enthalpy is a point function, ic. the enthalpy change from one state (say 200°F, 1 atm) to another state (say 400°F, 1 atm) is a function only of the ‘two states and not the path of the process associated with the change. 2, Absolute values of enthalpy are nol important. The enthalpy of water at 60°F, 1 atm, as recorded in some steam tables is 0 Btu/Ibmol, This choice of zero is arbitrary. However, another (able may indicale a different value. Both are comect! Note that changing the temperature of water from 60 to 10°F results in the same change in enthalpy using either table. Enthalpy changes may be expressed with units (English) of Btu, Btu/Ib, Beu/lbmol, Btu/sef, or Beu/time depending on the available data and calculation required, Process Cooling Water Requirement Determine the total flow rate of cooling water required for the services listed below assuming that a cooling tower system supplies the water at 90°F with @ retum temperature of 115°F, How much freshwater makeup is required if 9% of the return water is sent to “blowdown?” Note that the cooling water heat capacity is 1.00 Btu/(b - °F), the heat of vaporization at cooling tower operating conditions is 1030 Btu/Ib, and the density of water at cooling tower operating conditions is 62.0 lb/ft TABLE 3.6 Cooling Water—Heat Duty Data Process Unit Heat Duty, Bru/he Required Temperature, F ' 12,000,000 250 2 6,000,000 200-276 3 23,500,000 130-176 4 17,000,000 300 31,500,000, 150-295 Solution: The required cooling water flow rate, Hicw is given by the following ‘equation: i ew - TID ee eat [oad, Btu/min Shange in temperature =115°F ~ 9062 332 FUNDAMENTALS: GASES 6) heat capacity = 1,00 Btu/lb °F) ‘P= density of water = (62.01/10) (0.1397 t/gal) = 8.2891b/g, thew = cooling water flow rate, mass time “The heat load is Oia, = 12+ 6 + 23.5 +17 + 31.5) (10 Bta/he)/ (60 min/s) = 1,500,000 Btu/min ‘Thus, 1,500,000 Btu/min 4% ~ BSF (LOO Btu Tb F) (8.28916 ga) = 7250 gpm where gow = water volumetric flow rate, gal/min ‘The blowdown flow gan is given by gu = (BDR) (gew) Where BDR is the blowdown rate = 5% = 0.05. thus gun = (0.05) (7250 gpm) = 362.5 gpm ‘The amount of water vaporized by the cooling tower q, is given by Ge = Orn MAHDI 49) ‘where Hy is the heat of vaporization = 1030 Buu/Ib, Substitution yields (1,500,000 Btu/min) 4% ~ B80 bea) (O30 Biu/Tb) 175.7 gpm. Steam Requirement Options Determine how many pounds per hour of steam are required for the following ‘wo cases: (1) if steam is provided at $00 psig and (2) if steam is provided at both 500 and 75 psig pressures. The plants heating requirements are listed in Table 3.7 TABLE 3.7 Process Heat Duty Data Process Unit Unit Heat Duty (VHD), Bru/hr_Requived Temperature, F 1 10,000,000 250 2 8,000,000 450 3 12,000,000 400 4 20,000,000 300PROBLEMS 8 ‘The properties of saturated steam are listed in Table 3.8, TABLE 3.8 Steam Data Pressure Provided, Saturation Temperature, Enthalpy of Vaporzation psig F AH, Bub 5 320 394 500 470 L Solution: The total requited flow rate of 500 psig steam may is given by ingr = tng, + in + tga + rs For this equation: ring, (mass flow rate of 500 psig steam through unit 1) = UND) /Afy = 13,3201b/hr ‘ngs (mass flow rate of 500 psig steam through unit 2) IMD; /AF, = 10,655 lb/hr rig (mass flow rate of 500 psig steam through unit 3) = UHD,/AH, = 15,9801b/hr ‘ings (mass flow rate of 500 psig steam through unit 4) UHD4/AM, = 26,635 lb/hr Thus, ngs = 66,590 lb/hr ‘The required combined total flow rate of 500 and 75 psig steam mer is aiven by Fey = ys + tng + tng + rs « For this situation ‘ins, (mass flow rate of 75 psig steam through unit 1) = UND/AH, = 11,185 Ib/he rns « (mass flow rate of 75 psig steam through unit 4) = UHD/AH, ~ 22,3714 lb/hr3.33 FUNDAMENTALS: GASES Thus, ney = 60,192 1b/he Note that since the saturation temperature of 75 psig steam is lower than those of ‘wo of the process units, the 500 psig steam must be used for process units 2 and 3, ‘What conclusions can be drawn from this calculation? Humidity Effect A flue gas [molecular weight (MW) — 30, dry basis] is being discharged from a scrubber at 180°F (dry bulb) and 125°F (wet bulb). The gas flow rate on a dry basis is 10,000 Ib/hr. The absolute humidity at the dry-blub temperature of 180°F and wet-bulb temperature of 125°F is 0,0805 Ib H0/Ib dry air. (a) What is the mass flow rate of the wet gas? (b) What is the actual volumetsic flow rate of the wet gas? Solution: Curves showing the relative humidity (ratio of the mass of the water vapor in the air to the maximum mass of the water vapor the air can hold at that temperature, ie., if the air were saturated) of humid air appear on the psychromettic chart (see Figure 3.1), The curve for 100% relative humidity is also referred to as the saturation curve, The abscissa of the humidity chart is air temperature, also known as the dry-bulb temperature (Top). As discussed in Section 3.2, the wet-bulb temperature (Typ) is another measure of humidity itis the temperature at which a thermometer with a wet wick wrapped around the bulb stabilizes. As water evaporates from the wick (o the ambient air, the bulb is cooled; the rate of cooling depends on how humid the air is, No evaporation occurs if the air is saturated with water; hence, Tyyn and Ti are then the same. The lower the humidity, the greater the difference between these two temp- cratures, On a psychrometric chart, constant wet-bulb temperature lines are Moisture Ho | kay Tee 1c are T Dry bulb temperature Figure 3.1 Diagram of a psychrometric chartPROBLEMS 65 straight with negative slopes. The value of Twa corresponds to the value of the abscissa atthe point of intersection of this line with the saturation curve, Based on the problem statement, calculate the flow rate of water in the ar. Note that both the given flow rate and humidity are on a dry bass. ‘Water flow rate = (0.0805) (10,000) = 805 lb/hr Calculate the total flow rate by adding the dry gas and water flow rates ‘otal flow rate = 10,000 + 805 = 10,805 lb/hr ‘The molar rate of water and dry gas are thus ‘Moles gas = 10,000/30 = 333.3 Ibmol/hr Moles water = 805/18 = 44.7 Ibmol/hr Calculate the mole fraction of water vapor using the above two results. 447 douse = BETH = OH? ‘The average molecular weight of the mixture becomes MW = (1.00.12) (30) + 0.12) (18) = 28.61b/lbmol ‘The molar flow rate of the wet gas may now be determined ‘i = 10805/28.6 ~ 378 bmol/br The ideal gas law may be applied to calculate the volumetic flow rate of the wet gas = ART/P G22 = 78) (0.73) (460 + 180)/1.0 = 177 x 10° fh ‘The following ate some helpful points on the use of psyehromettic charts 1. In problems involving the use of the humidity chart, it is convenient to choose a mass of dry air as a basis since the chart uses this basis, 2. Heating or cooling at temperatures above the dew point (temperature at which the vapor begins to condense) corresponds to a horizontal movement on theFUNDAMENTALS: GASES chart. As long as no condensation occurs, the absolute humidity stays constant, 3. If the air is cooled, the system follows the appropriate horizontal line to the left until it reaches the saturation curve and follows this curve thereafter. 334 Saturated Water Discharge AA flue gas is discharged at 120°F from an HCl absorber in a hazardous waste incinerator (HWD facility in which carbon tetrachloride (CC1,) is being inciner- ated, If 9000 Ib/lar (MW = 30) of gas enters the absorber essentially dry (negli- sible water) at $60°F, calculate the moisture content, the mass ow rate, and the volumetric flow rate ofthe discharged gas. The discharge gas from the absorber ‘may safely be assumed to be saturated with water vapor. The discharge humidity of the flue gas is approximately, ‘Ho = 0.0814 Ib HO /b bone-dry air Solution: The Mau represents the moisture content of the gas at outlet conditions in Ib H,O/b dry ai. Ifthe gas is assumed to have the properties of air, the dis- charge water vapor rate is ‘nso = (0.0814) (9000) = 733b/hr ‘The total flow rate leaving the absorber is ings = 733 + 9000 = 9733 Ib/hr ‘The volumetric (or molar) flow rate can be calculated only if the molecular ‘weight of the gas is known. The average molecular weight of the discharge fue gas must first be calculated from the mole fraction of the flue gas ({g) and water vapor (Ww), 9000/30 Me Booaao + cay °F _ 733/18 (733718) + (6000730) MW = (0.88) (30) + (0.12) (18) = 28.616 =012PROBLEMS a ‘The ideal gas law is employed to calculate the actual volumettc flow rate, 4. = Far ATP) 9733 (0.73) (460 + 140) 36 0C«LO = 149% 10° 0 hr 6.22) % NOTE: Additional problems ate available for all readers at www.wiley.com. Follow links for this tile.