Formula Sheet

R
R
(1) Integration By Parts: u(x)v 0 (x)dx = u(x)v(x) u0 (x)v(x)dx.
(2) Partial Fractions Integral: If c 6= d then
Z


ax + b
1
dx =
(ac + b) ln |x c| (ad + b) ln |x d| + K.
(x c)(x d)
cd
(3) For linear homogeneous d.e. with constant coefficients: y 00 + by 0 + cy = 0.
If b2 4c > 0, then r1 and r2 are two distinct solutions of the characteristic
equation and
y = C1 er1 t + C2 er2 t ,
where C1 and C2 are constants.
If b2 4c = 0, then there is only one solution of the characteristic equation,
r = b/2, and
y = C1 tert + C2 ert .
If b2 4c < 0, then the solutions of the characteristic equation are of the form
r = i and
y = C1 et cos(t) + C2 et sin(t).
(4) For linear non-homogeneous d.e. with constant coefficients:
If f (x) is
then try yp (x) in the form of
polynomial
polynomial of same degree
n
n1
an x + an1 x
+ + a0 An xn + An1 xn1 + + A0
bekx
Bekx
b sin(ax) or b cos(ax)
B sin(ax) + C cos(ax)
(5) Variation of Parameters for Second Order Equations: If y1 and y2 are linearly independent solutions of the equation y 00 + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = 0, then yp =
v1 y1 + v2 y2 is a particular solution of the equation p(t)y 00 + q(t)y 0 + r(t)y = f (t),
where v1 and v2 satisfy the VOP equations
v10 y1 + v20 y2 = 0
f (t)
v10 y10 + v20 y20 =
.
p(t)
(6) First Order Linear Systems with Complex Eigenvalues: If = + i
is an eigenvalue of A for the system of equations, ~x 0 = A~x, with corresponding
eigenvector ~v = p~ + i~q, then two solutions of the system are:
~x1 = et [cos(t) p~ sin(t) ~q]
~x2 = et [sin(t) p~ + cos(t) ~q]
1

(7) Euler Identity: ei = cos() + i sin()

(8) Variation of Parameters for First Order Linear Systems: If ~x1 , ~x2 , . . . , ~xn
are linearly independent vector solutions of the n-dimensional homogeneous linear
system ~x 0 = A~x, then
Z
~xp = Y
Y 1 f~dt
or

Z
~xp =

1 f~dt

is a particular solution of the system ~x 0 = A~x + f~(t) where Y is the n n matrix



~x1 ~x2 . . . ~xn .
(9) Numerical Approximation by Eulers Method:
dy
Given the initial value problem
= f (x, y), y(x0 ) = y0 , Eulers method with step
dx
size h consists of applying the iterative formula
yn+1 = yn + hf (xn , yn ),

(n > 0)

(10) Differentiation formulas

d n
(x ) = nxn1
dx
d
1
(ln x) =
dx
x

d x
(e ) = ex
dx
d
(sin(x)) = cos x
dx

d x
(a ) = (ln a)ax
dx
d
(cos(x)) = sin x
dx

d
(tan(x)) = sec2 x
dx

d
(cot(x)) = csc2 x
dx

d
(sec(x)) = sec x tan x
dx

d
(csc(x)) = csc x cot x
dx

d
1
(arcsin(x)) =
dx
1 x2

d
1
(arccos(x)) =
dx
1 x2

d
1
(arctan(x)) =
dx
1 + x2

d
(sinh(x)) = cosh(x)
dx

d
(cosh(x)) = sinh(x)
dx

d
1
(tanh(x)) =
dx
cosh2 (x)

Here a, b, c, d are constants.

A Short Table of Indefinite Integrals
I. Basic Functions
Z
1
xn+1 + C, (n 6= 1)
1.
xn dx =
n+1
Z
1
2.
dx = ln |x| + C
Z x
ax dx =

3.

1 x
a
ln a

+C

Z
4.

1
sin ax dx = cos ax + C
a
Z
1
6.
cos ax dx = sin ax + C
a
Z
1
7.
tan ax dx = ln | cos ax| + C
a
5.

ln x dx = x ln x x + C

II.ZProducts of ex , cos x, and sin x

1
8.
eax sin(bx) dx = 2
eax [a sin(bx) b cos(bx)] + C
2
a
+
b
Z
1
9.
eax cos(bx) dx = 2
eax [a cos(bx) + b sin(bx)] + C
2
a
+
b
Z
1
[a cos(ax) sin(bx) b sin(ax) cos(bx)] + C, a 6=
10.
sin(ax) sin(bx) dx = 2
b a2
b
Z
1
11.
cos(ax) cos(bx) dx = 2
[b cos(ax) sin(bx) a sin(ax) cos(bx)] + C, a =
6
b a2
b
Z
1
12.
sin(ax) cos(bx) dx = 2
[b sin(ax) sin(bx) + a cos(ax) cos(bx)] + C, a 6=
b a2
b
III. Z
Product of Polynomial p(x) with ln x,ex , cos x, and sin x
1
1
13.
xn ln x dx =
xn+1 ln x
xn+1 + C, n 6= 1, x > 0
2
n
+
1
(n
+
1)
Z
1
1
1
14.
p(x)eax dx = p(x)eax 2 p0 (x)eax + 3 p00 (x)eax + C
a
a
a
(+
Z + + + . . .) (signs alternate)
1
1
1
15.
p(x) sin ax dx = p(x) cos(ax) + 2 p0 (x) sin(ax) + 3 p00 (x) cos(ax) + C
a
a
a
( + + + + . . .) (signs alternate in pairs)
Z
1
1
1
16.
p(x) cos ax dx = p(x) sin(ax) + 2 p0 (x) cos(ax) 3 p00 (x) sin(ax) + C
a
a
a
(+ + + + . . .) (signs alternate in pairs)

IV.
Z
17.
Z
18.
Z
19.
Z
20.
Z
21.
Z
22.
Z
23.

Integer Powers of sin x and cos x Z

1
n1
sinn x dx = sinn1 x cos x +
sinn2 x dx, n positive
n
n Z
1
n1
cosn x dx = cosn1 x sin x +
cosn2 x dx, n positive
n
n
Z
1
cos x
m2
1
1
dx =
+
dx, m 6= 1, m positive
m
m1
m2
sin x
m
sin
x
 1 sin  x m 1
1
1  cos x 1 
dx = ln 
+C
sin x
2
cos x + 1 
Z
1
1
sin x
m2
1
dx =
+
dx, m 6= 1, m positive
m
m1
m2
cos x
m  1 cos  x m 1
cos
x
1
1  sin x + 1 
dx = ln 
+C
cos x
2
sin x 1 
sinm x cosn x dx :

If n is odd, let w = sin x.

If both m and n are even and non-negative, convert all to sin x or all to cos x
(using sin2 x + cos2 x = 1), and use IV-17 or IV-18.
If m and n are even and one of them is negative, convert to whichever function
is in the denominator and use IV-19 or IV-21.
The case in which both m and n are even and negative is omitted.
V.ZQuadratic in the Denominator
x
1
1
24.
dx
=
arctan
+ C, a 6= 0
2
2
a
a
Z x +a
x
bx + c
b
c
2
2
25.
dx
=
ln
|x
+
a
|
+
arctan
+ C, a 6= 0
2
2
2
a
a
Z x +a
1
1
dx =
(ln |x a| ln |x b|) + C, a 6= b
26.
(a b)
Z (x a)(x b)
cx + d
1
27.
dx =
[(ac + d) ln |x a| (bc + d) ln |x b|] + C, a 6=
(x a)(x b)
(a b)
b

2 + x2 ,
2 x2 ,
VI.
Integrands
involving
a
a
x 2 a2 , a > 0
Z


dx
x

28.
= arcsin
+C
2
2
a
a x
Z

dx

= ln |x + x2 a2 | + C
29.
2
2


Z x a
Z

1
1
2
2
2
2
2

30.
a x dx =
x a x +a
dx + C
2 x2
2
a


Z
Z

1
1
2
2
2
2
2

31.
x a dx =
x x a a
dx + C
2
x 2 a2