Snamprogetti Urea Process

Manufacture Of Urea
A REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIRMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHLOR IN
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
By
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Heba Ramadan Mohammed

Haneen Mohammed Mahdi
Safa Ramadan Mohammed
Sarah Deia'a Khaleel
Mowafq Khalaf Suliman
Supervisor
Asst.Prof.Dr.Duraid F.A
University Of Tikrit
Department Of Chemical Engineering
2015
CONTENTS
Abstract
CHAPTER 1: Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Introduction
Physical Properties
Chemical Properties
Uses of Urea
Environmental Effects
PAGE NO.
1
2
3
4
5
1.5.1 Elimination Method
1.6
1.6.1
1.6.2
1.6.3
1.7
1.8
7
7
8
9
13
14
Urea Production Methods

Once- Through Urea Process
Partial recycle process
Stripping process based plants
Selection of the Process
Process Description
Chapter 2: Material Balance
19
2.1 Around Reactor
21
2.2 Around Stripper
23
2.3 Around Medium Pressure Decomposer
24
2.4 Around Low Pressure Decomposer
25
2.5 Around Vacuum Evaporator
27
2.6 Around Prilling Tower
28
Chapter 3: Energy Balance
32
3.1 Around Reactor
33
3.2 Around Stripper
35
3.3 Around Carbamate Condenser
37
3.4 Around Medium Pressure Decomposer
40
3.5 Around Low Pressure decomposer
42
3.6 Around Vacuum Evaporator
42
3.7 Around Prilling Tower
43
Chapter 4: Equipment Design
46
4.1 Reactor Design
48
4.1.1 Introduction
48
4.1.2 Thickness of Shell Design
49
4.1.3 Head Design
50
4.1.4 Piping Design
53
4.1.5 Sieve Plate Design
55
4.2 Carbamate Condenser Design
55
4.2.1 Introduction
55
4.2.2 Design Procedure
56
4.3 Low Pressure Decomposer Design
60
4.3.1 Introduction
60
4.3.2 Design Calculation
60
4.4 Vacuum Evaporator Design
62
4.4.1 Evaporation And Its Mechanism
62
4.4.2 Evaporator Types
63
4.4.3 Evaporator Selection
64
64
4.5 Prilling Tower Design
71
4.5.1 Introduction
71
4.5.2 Material Of Construction
72
72
Chapter 5:Process Control
76
5.1 Introduction
77
5.2 Control Objectives
77
5.3 Types Of Control System
78
5.4 Equipment Control
79
5.4.1 Around Reactor
79
5.4.2 Around Carbamate Condenser
81
5.4.3 Around Low Pressure Decomposer
82
5.4.4 Around Vacuum Evaporator
84
5.4.5 Around Prilling Tower
87
Chapter 6: Economy Cost
89
6.1 Introduction
90
6.2 Types Of Cost Involves In Manufacturing
90
6.3 Cost Calculation
90
Chapter 7: Safety Aspect
94
7.1 Introduction
95
7.2 Principle Of Protection And Prevention
96
7.3 Safety Precaution
96
7.4 List Of Safety equipment
97
7.5 Fire Hazards
98
Reference
99
Abstract
Urea in many ways the most convenient form of fixed nitrogen. It has
The highest nitrogen available in a solid fertilizer(46%). It is easy to
produce as prills or granules and easily transported in bulk or bags with
no explosive hazard. It leaves no salt residue after use in crops.
Its specific gravity 1.335, decomposes on boiling and it is fairly soluble in
water. The principle raw materials required for this purpose are NH3 and
CO2. Two reactions are involved in the manufacture of urea ,first ,
ammonium carbamate is formed under pressure by reaction between
CO2 and NH3.
CO2+NH3
NH2COONH4
H= -37.4 kcal
The highly endothermic reaction is followed by an endothermic

Decomposition of ammonium carbamate.
NH2COONH4 NH2CONH2+H2O
H=+6.3 kcal
We selected snamprogetti ammonia stripping process for the

Manufacture of urea. The selected capacity of the plant 500,000 ton/year
Of urea producing 68055.56 kg/hr of( 98%) purity. Urea material and
Energy balance of the plant is done. Urea reactor, vacuum evaporator,
Carbamate condenser, low pressure decomposer and prilling tower are
Designed. The volume of reactor is calculated and found to be 119.97 m3
The length and diameter of the reactor are 17.65 m and 2.94 m
Respectively. The evaporator used is of climbing-film long-tube type.
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Urea is an organic compound with the chemical formula (CO(NH2)2 , the molecule
has two functional group joined by a carbonyl (C=O) functional group. Urea
scientific name (Carbonyl di amide); it is composed of 45% (N2), 20% ( C )
26% (O2) and 9% (H2) it has the highest nitrogenous fertilizer in common use
Therefore it being the preferred nitrogen fertilizer worldwide. It is used in solid
Fertilizer, liquid fertilizer, formaldehyde resins and adhesives. Roulle first
Discovered urea in urine in 1773. His discovery followed by the synthesis of urea
from ammonia and cyanic acid by Whler in 1828. This is considered to be the
first synthesis of an organic compound from inorganic compound. In 1870
Bassarow produced urea by heating ammonium carbamate in a sealed tube in
What was the first synthesis of urea by dehydration. Urea is produced worldwide
On a large scale and its production volume exceeds 150*106 ton/year in 2010.
At the present urea is produced on an industrial scale exclusively by reactions
based on NH3 and CO2 as the raw material.
1.2 Physical Properties

Urea is a white odorless solid. Due to extensive hydrogen bonding with water ( up to
Six hydrogen bonds may form two from the oxygen atom and one from each hydrogen)
Urea is very soluble.
Table 1.1 physical properties of urea
Cas number
57-13-6
Molecular weight
60.07
Melting point (C)
132.7
Boiling point(C)
135
Density(gm/cm ),solid
1.335
Bulkdensity( gm/cm3 )
0.74
Viscosity ,v20 (mpa. Sec)
1.9
Heat of fusion (J/gm)
251
Heat of solutioninwater (J/gm)
243
Specificheat ,S0(KJ/kg. Co)
1.439
Specific gravity
1.335
Vapor pressure
(pa)
<10
Solubility inwater
(g/100ml)
108 (20C )
o
167(40C )
o
251 (60C )
o
400 (80C )
o
733(100C )
Table1.1physical properties of urea
1.3 Chemical Properties

Urea decomposes to ammonia, biuret, ammelide and triuret at atmospheric
Pressure and it's melting point.
Urea acts as a mono basic and forms salts with acids. Such as with Nitric acid
To form urea nitrate CO(NH2)2.HNO3 .
Urea reacts with NOx, both in gas phase at (8001150) . And in liquid phase
At lower temperature to form N2,CO2 and H2O. This reaction used industrially
To remove NOx from combustion gasses.
Urea reacts with formaldehyde under acidic conditions to form methylene
Urea and it's derivative ( dimethylene, trimethylene, etc) which are used as
Slow released fertilizer.
Urea is similar to the amids in the possibility of decomposition by dilution
Acids, alkaline or water vapor above temperature of 150 .
NH2CONH2+H2O
2NH3+CO2
1.4 Uses of Urea

More than 90% of urea world production is destined for use as a fertilizer
A raw material for the manufacture of plastics, to be specific,
Urea formaldehyde resin.
A raw material for the manufacture of various glues ( ureaformaldehyde
Or urea melamineformaldehyde); the latter is waterproof and is used
For marine plywood.
A flameproofing agent ( commonly used in dry chemical fire extinguishers
As urea potassium bicarbonate).
A reactant in some ready-to-use cold compressors for first-aid use, due to
The endothermic reaction it creates when mixed with water.
A cloud seeding agent, along with salts, to expedite the condensation of water
In clouds, producing precipitation .
Feed for hydrolyzation into ammonia which in turn is used to reduce emissions
From power plants and combustion engines.
1.5 Environmental Effect

The chemical fertilizer one of the most important factors that has helped to improve
The agricultural production, but ammonia, CO2 and urea releases from process
Have a negative influence on the environment, because nitrogen fertilizers break
Down into nitrates and travel easily through the soil. Because it is water-soluble
And can remain in groundwater for a long time, besides their emissions to air
And water. Urea, contributes to acid rain, groundwater contamination and ozone
Depletion due to release of nitrous oxide by denitrification process. In general
There are four types of emission estimation techniques (ETTs) that may be used
To estimate emissions from the facility. The four types are:
Sampling or direct measurement

Mass balance
Fuel analysis or other engineering calculations
Emission factor
1.5.1 Elimination Methods

Presently plants are equipped with the following features to keep the effluent and
Emissions at extremely low levels:
N/C ratio meter

Waste water treatment section
Absorbers
Special operational facilities
N/C ratio meter in the synthesis section

Instead of using spectrometer in the gas phase of the synthesis section
Nitrogen/Carbon (N/C) ratio meters are installed in the liquid phase (reactor
Liquid outlet) of the urea synthesis section. This N/C ratio meter allows the
Process at all times to be operated at the optimum ratio to achieve higher reactor
5
Efficiency combined with higher energy efficiency. Special procedures are used to
Eliminate emissions during start up.
Waste water treatment section
The purpose of the process water treatment is to remove ammonia, carbon dioxide
And urea from the process condensate. This water is usually discharged from the urea
Concentration and evaporation section of plant. Removal of ammonia and urea from
Wastewater can be a problem as it is difficult to remove one in the presence of other
One method used to overcome this problem is the hydrolysis of urea to ammonium
Carbamate, which is decomposed to NH3 and CO2. These gasses can be then stripped
From the wastewater. This recovered water can be used for a variety purpose
Depending on the required quality such as cooling water, etc.
Absorbers
Absorbers are used to eliminate emissions to the atmosphere, can be classified as
1. The vent from the synthesis section of the plant: ammonia is washed out with
A large flow of low concentrated and cooled process water and secondly the
Remaining ammonia is absorbed in cooled condensate or clean waste water.
2. The vent from the low pressure section of the plant: the ammonia and carbon
Dioxide present in the off gases of the recirculation system, the process water
Treatment system are washed out in an atmospheric absorber where large
Amounts of cooled low concentrated process water are used to absorb all ammonia
Present in the said off gases .
1.6 Urea Production Method

Several processes are used to urea manufacturing. Some of them are used conventional
Technologies and others use modern technologies to achieve high efficiency. These
Process had several comparable advantage and disadvantage based on capital cost,
Maintenance cost, energy cost, efficiency and product quality. Some of the widely
Used urea production processes are.
1.6.1 Once-Through Urea Process

It is a conventional process in which the unconverted carbamate is decomposed to NH3
And CO2 by heating the urea synthesis reactant effluent mixture at low pressure. The
NH3 and CO2 is separated from the urea solution and utilized to produce ammonium
Salts by absorbing NH3.
Advantage
Simple process
Disadvantage
Large quantity of ammonia salt formed as a co product

Overall carbon dioxide conversion is low
High production cost
High energy cost
High environment pollution
Figure 1.1 Typical once-through urea process
1.6.2 Partial Recycle Process

Part of the off gas is recycled back to the reactor
The amount of ammonia is reduced to 15% to that of once-through
that must be used in other process
High CO2 conversion
High energy cost
High environmental pollution
High production cost
Figure 1.2 Typical partial recycle urea process
1.6.3 Stripping Process Based Plants (Internal carbamate recycle)

The unreacted carbamate and the excess ammonia are stripped from the urea
Synthesis reactor effluent by means of gaseous CO2 or NH3 at the reactor
Pressure, instead of letting the reactor effluent down to a much lower
Pressure. The NH3 and CO2 gas recovered at reactor pressure, is condensed
And returned to the reactor by gravity flow for recovery.
Snamprogetti Process (Italy)
Synthesis and high pressure (HP) recovery (154 bar)
Medium pressure (MD) purification and recovery (18 bar)
Low pressure (LP) purification and recovery (4.5 bar)
9
Vacuum concentration ( 2 steps: 0.3 and 0.03 )

Process condensate process
Finishing: prilling and granulation
Figure 1.3 Snamprogetti urea process
Stamicarbon CO2 Stripping Process :

NH3 and CO2 are converted to urea via ammonium carbamate at a pressure of
140 bar and a temperature of 180185 C, an NH3:CO2 molar ratio of 3:1 is
Applied. The greater part of the unconverted carbamate is decomposed in the
Stripper, where ammonia and carbon dioxide are stripped off using CO2 as
stripping agent. The stripped off NH3 and CO2 are then partially condensed and
recycled to the reactor. The heat evolved from this condensation is used to
10
produce 4.5 bar steam some of which can be used for heating purpose in the
downstream sections of the plant. The NH3 and CO2 in the stripper effluent are
vaporized in 4 bar decomposition stage and subsequently condensed to form
a carbamate solution. Further concentration of urea solution takes place in the
evaporation section, where 99.7% of urea melt is produced.
Figure 1.4 stamicarbon CO2 stripping process

ACES Process
ACES ( Advanced Process for Cost and Energy Saving ) process has been
developed by Toyo Engineering Corporation. Its synthesis section consists
11
of the reactor, stripper, two parallel carbamate condensers and a

scrubber all operated at 175 bar. The reactor is operated at 1900 C and
an NH3:CO2 molar feed ratio of 4:1. Its consist of five main sections
Synthesis section
Purification section
Concentration and prilling section
Recovery section
Process condensate treatment section
Figure 1.5 ACES urea process
12
1.7 Selection Of The Process

Snamprogetti ammonia-stripping urea process is selected because it involves a
High NH3:CO2 ratio in the reactor, ensuring the high conversion of carbamate
To urea. The highly efficient ammonia stripping operation drastically reduces
the recycling of carbamate and the size of equipment in the carbamate
decomposition. Snamprogetti differs from other methods in being based on
The use of excess ammonia to avoid corrosion as well as promote the
Decomposition of unconverted carbamate into urea. The success of any urea
manufacture process depens on how economically we can recycle carbamate
to the reactor.
NH2COONH4(s)
2NH3(g)+CO2(g)
H= +37.4 kcal/gmmol
This reaction involves increase in volume and absorption of heat. Thus this
Reaction will be favored by decrease in pressure and increase in temperature
Moreover decreasing the partial pressure of either of the products will also
favor the forward reaction. The process based on increase/decrease of partial
pressure of NH3 or CO2 is called stripping process. According to the above
equation we have:
K= (PNH3)2*(PCO2)
[where, K= equilibrium constant]
The stripping is effected at synthesis pressure itself using CO2 or NH3 as

Stripping agent. If CO2 is selected, it is to be supplied to the decomposer
/stripper as in stamicarbon CO2 stripping process. While if NH3 , is to be
obtained from the system itself because excess NH3 is present in the reactor
as in snam's process. At a practical temperature K is constant so when (PNH3 )
is reduced to keep K constant, carbamate will reduce much faster by
13
decomposition as (PNH3 ) appear in the equilibrium equation with a power of

two. Selection of 1st decomposition should be in such a way that minimum
water evaporates because the recovered gases go along with the carbamate
to reactor again and if water enters reactor production will be effected
adversely due to hydrolysis of urea. So , stage wise decomposition of
carbamate is done.
1.8 Process Description

The urea production process takes place through the following main
Operations:
Urea synthesis and high pressure recovery

Urea purification and low pressure recovery
Urea concentration
Urea prilling
Urea Synthesis And High Pressure Recovery

Urea is synthesized from liquid ammonia and gaseous carbon dioxide under
Specific concentration, temperature and pressure conditions according to
the following reaction:
NH3(g)+CO2(g)
NH2COONH4(s)
NH2COONH4(s)
NH2CONH2(s) + H2O(l)
H= 37.64 kcal/gmmol
H= + 6.32 kcal/ gmmol
The carbon dioxide is drawn at about 1.6 atm pressure and about 40
Is compressed in a centrifugal compressor up to 162 atm. A small quantity
Of air is added to the CO2 compressor in order to passivate the stainless
Steel surfaces. Thus protecting them from corrosion due to both the
14
reagent and the reaction product. The liquid ammonia is drawn from
ammonia receiver tank where its compressed to 23 atm by means of
centrifugal pump. Part of this ammonia is sent to the medium pressure
absorber and remaining part enters the high pressure synthesis loop. The
NH3 of this synthesis loop is compressed to a pressure of about 240 atm
The liquid mixture of ammonia and carbamate enters the reactor where it
Reacts with the compressed CO2.
The reactor operates at 154 atm, NH3:CO2 molar feed ratio of 3:1 is applied
A portion of the ammonium carbamate formed from the reaction
Dehydrates. The fraction of carbamate that dehydrates is determined
By the ratios of various reactants, operating temperature, the residence
Time in the reactor and reaction temperature.
The 1st reaction occurs rapidly and is completed. The 2nd reaction occurs
Slowly and determines the reactor volume. Urea reactor is a plug flow type
With 10 number of sieve trays to avoid back mixing and escape of gaseous
CO2 which must react in the lower part of the reactor. Stage wise
Decomposition is carried out to reduce water carry over to the reactor
Which could adversely affect conversion. Urea solution containing urea,
Carbamate, H2O and unconverted CO2 and NH3 enters the high pressure
Stripper Where the pressure is same as that of reactor. The mixture is
heated as it Flows down the falling film exchangers. The CO2 content of the
solution Is reduced by the stripping action of NH3 as it boils out of the
solution The carbamate decomposition heat is supplied by 24 atm steam.
The Overhead gases from the stripper and the recovered solution from the
15
MP absorber , all flow to high pressure carbamate condenser through

Mixer, where total mixture, except for a few inerts is condensed and
And recycle to reactor by means of carbamate ejector. Condensing the
Gases at high temperature and pressure permits the recovery permits the
Recovery of condensation in the production of steam at 4.5 atm in the high
Pressure carbamate condenser.
Urea Purification And Low Pressure Recovery :

Urea purification takes place in two stages at decreasing pressure as follow:
1st stage at 18 atm pressure , i.e. , MP decomposer
2nd stage at 4.5 atm pressure , i.e. , LP decomposer
1st stage purification and recovery stage at 18 atm:
It is falling film type MP decomposer. It is divided into 2 parts: top
Separator, where the released flash gases. The solution enters the tube
Bundle and decomposition section where the residual carbamate is
decomposed and heat is supplied by means of 24 atm steam condensate
flowin out of the stripper.
2nd Purification and recovery stage at 4.5 atm:
The solution leaving the bottom of MP decomposer is expanded at 4.5 atm
And enters the LP decomposer ( falling film type). This is divided into two
Parts: top separator where the released flash gases are removed before
the solution enters the bundle. Decomposition section where the last
residual carbamate are decomposed and the required heat is supplied by
means of steam saturated at 4.5 atm .
16
Urea Concentration
Next section is urea concentration and the objective is to reduce the water
Content as low as 1%. Vacuum concentrator of two stage is provided for
This purpose. The solution leaving the LP decomposer bottom with about
76% urea is sent to the 1st vacuum concentrator operating at a pressure of
0.23 atm. The mixed phase coming out enters the gas liquid separator,
where from the vapors are extracted by the 2st vacuum system. The
two concentrators are fed by saturated steam at 4.5 atm.
Urea Prilling
The molten urea leaving the 2nd vacuum separator is sent to the prilling
Bucket by means of a centrifugal pump. The urea coming out of the bucket
In the form of drops fall along the prilling tower and a countercurrent cold
Air flow causes its solidification. The solid prills to the bottom of the prilling
tower are sent through the screens to retain lumps only and then to belt
conveyor which carries the product to the automatic weighing machine and
to the urea storage section. Urea lumps by means of belt conveyor are
recycled to the underground tank, where they are dissolved.
17
Figure 1.6 Snamprogetti Urea process
Figure 1.7 Snamprogetti Urea Process Block Diagram

18
Chapter2
Material
Balance
19
Material balance
Selected capacity
500,000 ton/year
No. of working days
300 day
Daily production
500,000/300=1666.667 ton/day
=69444.44 kg/hr
Composition of final products:

Urea
: 98% (68055.56) kg/hr
Water
: 1%
(694.4444) kg/hr
Biuret
: 1%
(694.4444) kg/hr
Assumption: overall conversion to urea is assumed to be 95%
Main reactions:
1) CO2 + 2NH3
(44)
(17)
NH2COONH4
(78)
2) NH2COONH4
NH2CONH2 + H2o
(60)
(18)
3) CO2 + 2NH3
NH2CONH2 + H2O (overall reaction)
Side reaction:
4)2NH2CONH2
NH2CONHCONH2 + NH3
(103)
20
Input output= accumulation
(general mass balance eqn.)
Input = output
(accumulation=0)
Urea produced from reaction 4
= 694.4444*(2*60/103)=809.0615 kg/hr
Urea produced from reaction 2
= 809.0615+68055.56= 68864.62 kg/hr
NH3 produced from reaction 3
= 68864.62*(2*17/60)=39023.28 kg/hr
CO2 reacted from reaction 1
= (44/60)*68864.62= 50500.72 kg/hr
2.1 Reactor
Assuming 95% conversion of urea
NH3 input to the reactor = 39023.28/0.95 = 41077.14 kg/hr
CO2 input to the reactor = 50500.72/0.95 = 53158.65 kg/hr
Urea produced from reaction 3 in reactor = (60/40)*53158.65*0.95=68864.62
kg/hr
Urea converted to NH3 & Biuret in reaction 4 =68864.62 68055.56=809.0615
kg/hr
Biuret produced in reaction 4 in reactor = (103/2*60)*809.0615= 694.4444
kg/hr
Water produced in reaction 2 in reactor = (18/60)*68864.62= 20659.39 kg/hr
At reactor's exit (Urea=34%)
Flow rate of stream = 68055.56/0.34= 200163.4 kg/hr
NH3 reacted in reaction 1 = (2*17/60)*68864.62= 39023.28 kg/hr
NH3 produced in reaction 4 = (17/2*103)*809.0615 = 114.617 kg/hr
NH3 unreacted= NH3 input NH3 reacted + NH3 produced
= 41077.14 39023.28+114.617 = 2168.474 kg/hr
21
CO2 reacted in reaction 1 = (44/60)*68864.62= 50500.72 kg/hr

CO2 unreacted = CO2 input CO2 reacted
= 53158.65 50500.72= 2657.933 kg/hr
Flow rate of carbamate = Total flow rate of stream exit (flow rate of
urea+CO2+NH3+Biuret+Water)
=200163.4 (68055.56+2657.933+2168.474+694.4444+20659.39)=10592
7.933 kg/hr
NH3=40177.14
kg/hr
Carbamate=105927.6
Kg/hr
Reactor
CO2=53158.68
Kg/hr
NH3=2168.474 kg/hr
CO2=2657.933 kg/hr
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr
Water=20659.39 kg/hr
Biuret=694.4444 kg/hr
Carbamate=105927.6 kg/hr
Figure 2.1 flow of materials

across reactor
Table 2.1 flow of material across reactor

Input
Output
Flow rate
Kg/hr
Material
Flow rate
Kg/hr
NH3
41077.4
43.589
2168.474
1.0833
CO2
53158.65
56.410
2657.933
1.3278
___
___
68055.56
Water
___
___
20659.39
10.321
Biuret
___
___
694.4444
0.3469
100
105927.6
52.920
100
200163.4
100
Urea
Carbamate 105927.6
Total
200163.4
22
34
2.2 Stripper
No reaction takes place in stripper. Only carbamate get recycled back to the
Reactor. Therefore, the amount of ammonia, NH3,CO2,Water & biuret in
the outlet stream of stripper will be the same as inlet stream.
NH3=2168.474 kg/hr
Stripper
CO2=2657.933 kg/hr
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr
NH3=2168.474 kg/hr
CO2=2657.933 kg/hr
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr
Figure 2.1 flow of materials across stripper
23
Table 2.2 flow of materials across stripper

Output
Input
Materials
Flow rate
(kg/hr)
Feed
Flow rate
(kg/hr)
Materials
Bottom product
NH3
2168.474 1.0833
NH3
2168.474 1.8787
CO2
2657.933 1.3278
CO2
2657.933 2.3028
Urea
68055.56
Urea
68055.56 58.962
water
20659.39 10.321
Water
20659.39 17.899
Biuret
694.4444 0.346
Biuret
694.4444 0.6016
Carbamate
Top product
21185.52 18.354
34
carbamate 105927.6 52.920
carbamate
Total
200163.4
100
84742.02
100
200163.4
100
2.3 Medium Pressure Decomposer

The amount of ammonia,CO2,Biuret , Water and carbamate will be the same
As no Reaction takes place. 50% of ammonia&CO2 and 10% of carbamate are
Assumed to escape from the top of separator and the rest goes with the
bottom product.
24
NH3=1084.237 kg/hr
CO2=1328.966 kg/hr
Medium pressure
decomposer
NH3=2168.474 kg/hr
CO2=2657.933 kg/hr
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr
NH3=1084.237 kg/hr
CO2=1328.966 kg/hr
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr
Figure 2.3 flow of material across medium

pressure decomposer
Table 2.3 flow of materials across medium pressure decomposer

Input
Materials
Flow rate
(kg/hr)
Output
Flow rate
Materials
(kg/hr)
NH3
1084.237
NH3
2168.474
1.878
CO2
2657.933
2.302
%
1.154
CO2
1328.966
1.414
Urea
68055.56
72.444
Water
20659.39
21.991
Urea
68055.56
58.962
Water
20659.39
17.899
Biuret
694.4444
0.6016
Biuret
Carbamate
694.4444
2118.552
0.7392
2.255
Carbamate 21185.52
18.354
Total 1
93941.14
100
NH3
1084.237
5.0476
CO2
Carbamate
1328.966
19066.97
6.1869
88.765
Total 2
24180.17
100
115421.3
100
Losses
Total
115421.3
100
2.4 Low Pressure Decomposer
25
No reaction take place and the remaining NH3, CO2and Carbamate are
escaped from the top of .
NH3=1084.237 kg/hr
CO2=1328.966 kg/hr
Carbamate=2118.552bkg/hr
Low pressure decomposer
NH3=1084.237 kg/hr
CO2=1328.966 kg/hr
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr (76.11%)

Figure 2.4 flow of materials across low
pressure decomposer
Table 2.4 flow of materials across low pressure decomposer

Input
Output
Materials
Flow rate
(kg/hr)
Materials
Flow rate
(kg/hr)
NH3
1084.237
1.154
Urea
68055.56
76.11
CO2
1328.966
1.414
water
20659.39
23.106
Urea
68055.56
72.44
Biuret
694.4444
0.776
Water
20659.39
21.99
Total1
89409.39
100
Biuret
694.4444
0.739
Carbamate 2118.552
2.255
NH3
CO2
Carbamate
1084.237
1328.966
2118.552
23.925
29.325
46.749
Total 2
4531.755
100
93914.14
100
Total
93914.14
26
100
Losses
2.5 Vacuum Evaporator

Total output from low pressure decomposer = 89409.39 kg/hr
Let
X
mass fraction of urea in feed(F) =0.7611
mass fraction of feed in product(P) =0.9788
water losses in vacuum evaporator
Urea balance
Input=output
F*X=P*Y
P=(F*X)/Y
P=(89409.39*0.7611)/0.9788 =69523.38 kg/hr

Overall material balance
F=P+E
E=F P
E=89409.39 19886.01=19886.01 kg/hr
Vacuum evaporator
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr (76.11%)
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr (97.88%)

Water=773.37 kg/hr
Figure 2.5 flow of material across
vacuum evaporator
27
Table 2.5 flow of materials across vacuum evaporator

Output
Input
Materials
Flow rate
(kg/hr)
Materials
Flow rate
(kg/hr)
68055.56
97.88
Urea
68055.56 76.11
Urea
Water
20659.39 23.106
Water 773.378
1.112
Biuret
694.4444 0.776
Biuret 694.4444
Losses
0.998
Water 19886.01
100
89409.39
100
Total
89409.39
100
2.6 Prilling Tower

Output from vacuum evaporator = 69523.38 kg/hr
Let
X mass fraction of urea in feed (F) =0.9788
Y mass fraction of urea in product(P) =0.979913
Urea balance
Input=output
P=(F*X)/Y
P=(69523.38*0.9788)/0.979913 =69444.44 kg/hr
28
Water=78.938 kg/hr
Air
Prilling tower
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr (97.88%)
Air
Water=773.37 kg/hr
Urea=68055.56 kg/hr (98%)

Figure 2.6 flow of materials across
prilling tower
Table 2.6 flow of materials across prilling tower

Output
Input
Materials
Flow rate
(kg/hr)
Urea
68055.56
97.88
Water
773.378
Biuret
694.4444
Flow rate
(kg/hr)
Urea
68055.56
98
1.112
Water
694.44
0.998
Biuret
694.4444
Materials
0.999
1
Losses
Water
Total
69523.38
100
29
78.938
100
69523.38
100
Table 1.7 a: Process flow diagram of materials

1
NH3 FEED
Item
1A
Pumped NH3
2
CO2 feed
Stream no.
2A
Compressed
CO2
3
Reactor
outlet
4
Stripped
carbamate
4A
Carbamate
condenser
component
Mass flow rate of component (kg/hr)
NH3
CO2
UREA
WATER
BIURET
41077.14
(43.589%)
___
___
___
___
41077.14
(43.589%)
___
___
53158.68
(56.410%)
___
___
___
___
___
53158.68
(56.410%)
2657.933
(1.327%)
___
68055.56
(34%)
___
___
___
___
CARBAMATE
Temperature
Pressure
___
___
40
40
23
240
30
2168.474
(1.0833%)
20659.39
(10.321%)
694.4444
(0.3649%)
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
105927.6
(100%)
___
105927.6
(52.920%)
105927.6
(100%)
40
40
180
185
185
1.6
162
154
154
4.5
___
Table 1.7 b: Process flow diagram of materials

Item
13
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
17
15
16
Pumped
Evaporated
Stripper MPD MPD LPD LPD Pumped Evaporator
Air Prilling H2O(v)+
Stream no. outlet outlet1 outlet2 Outlet1 outlet2 LPD outlet water Evaporator feed outlet Air
outlet
443951.6
78.938
component
(100%)
(100%)
Mass flow rate of component(kg/hr)
NH3
2168.474 1084.237 1084.237 ___ 1084.237 ___

(1.878%) (5.047%) (1.154%)
(23.925%)
___
___
___
___
___
___
CO2
2657.933 1328.9661328.966 ___ 1328.966 ___

(2.302%) (6.186%) (1.414%)
(29.325%)
___
___
___
___
___
___
UREA
68055.56 ___ 68055.56 68055.56

68055.56 68055.56 ___ 68055.56 ___ 68055.56 ___
___
(58.96%)
(76.116%)
(97.88%)
(97.888%)
(98%)
(72.44%) (76.11%)
WATER
20659.39 ___ 20659.39 68055.56 ___ 20659.39 773.378519886.01773.3785 ___ 694.440 ___
(21.991%) (23.106%)
(23.106%) (1.112%) (100%) (1.112%)
(0.999%)
(17.889%)
BIURET
694.4444 ___ 694.4444694.4444 ___ 694.4444 694.4444 ___ 694.4444 ___ 694.4444 ___
(0.601%)
(0.739%) (0.776%)
(0.776%) (0.988%)
(0.988%)
(1%)
Carbamate 21185.52 19067.97 2118.552 ___ 2118.522 ___

(18.354%)(88.765%) (2.55%)
(46.749%)
Temperature
(C)
Pressure
(atm)
___
___
___
___
___
___
185
140
140
80
80
85
27
27
23.77
20
30
30
154
18
18
4.5
4.5
4.5
0.03
0.03 0.03
31
Chapter 3
Energy
Balance
32
Assumption : reference temperature =25

Heat in +Generated= Heat out + Consumed ( conservation law of energy)
Table 3.1 specific heat constant

Speciefic Heat Constant
b *10-2
c*10-5
Component
NH3(gas)
8.4017
NH3( liquid)
4.6356
___
CO2 (gas)
6.393
1.01
0.3405
___
Urea
38.43
4.98
0.705
8.61
Water
7.88
0.32
___
Carbamate
2.596
___
___
___
183.8
___
___
___
Biuret
d *10-7
0.70601 0.10567 0.01598

___
___
4.833
3.1 Reactor
2NH3+CO2 NH2CONH2+H2O
(main reaction)
H298=(ni Hf)p (ni Hf)R

Hf(urea)= 333.6 KJ/gm mol , Hf(NH3)=46.16 KJ/gm mol
Hf(CO2)= 393.5 KJ/gm mol , Hf(H2O)= 285.84 KJ/gm mol
H298= (-333.6+(-285.84)((2*-46.16)+(-393.6))= 133.62 KJ/gm mol
Moles of urea formed during the reaction=68055.56/60=1134.259
kmole/hr =1134259 gmmol/hr
H298=133.62 KJ/ gmmol*1134259gm mole/hr = 151559722.2 KJ/hr
33
Inlet stream
HR=mi
where (Tin=
,Tref=25 )
Material
specific heat(KJ/kg)
flow rate(kg/hr)
NH3
69.534
40177.14
CO2
9.01033
53158.65
HR=(69.534*40177.149.01033 *53158.65) = 3335235 KJ/hr

Outlet stream
HP=mi
Materials
where (Tout=180
Specific heat (KJ/kg)
, Tref=25 )
Flow rate(kg/hr)
UREA
121.7623
68055.56
WATER
292.7034
20659.39
HP =(121.7623 *68055.56 +292.7034*20659.39 ) = 14333675 KJ/hr
H = H298 + HP+ HR
=151559722.2--3335235 +14333675 =140561282 kJ/hr
Q=H =140561282 KJ/hr
Assumption : cooling water at 25 Co is used to remove heat from reactor.
The outlet is steam at an absolute pressure of 4.5 bar (Ts=147.9 Co).
Heat gained by cooling water = 140561282 KJ/hr
M(cpT+ )= 140561282 KJ/hr
=2120.8 KJ/kg
Cp=4.187 KJ/kg
from steam table & by interpolation

, T=TsT
Ts=147.9
M(4.187*(147.925)+2120.8)= 140561282
M= 53336.2 kg/hr
34
, T=25
180 C
Q in= 3335235 KJ/hr

M in=200163.4 kg/hr
Reactor
Feed
Product
Q out =
140561282 KJ/hr
M out= 200163.4 kg/hr

Tout =180 C
Tin=40 C
Figure 3.1 energy flow across reactor
3.2 Stripper
Total heat input=14333675 KJ/hr
Outlet stream
Liquid
Q =mi
Materials
specific heat(KJ/kmol )
flow rate(kmole/hr)
mole fraction(x)
NH3
6009.302
2168.474/17=127.5573
0.046413
CO2
4801.186
2657.933/44=60.40756
0.02198
UREA
7607.734
68055.56/60=1134.259
0.41271
WATER
5443.803
20659.39/18=1147.744
0.417617
BIURET
29408
694.444/103=6.742179
0.002453
21185.52/78=271.60
0.098827
CARBAMATE 32398
TOTAL=2748.319
35
CP of mixture=Xi CPi
=(6009.302* 0.046413+ 4801.186 *0.02198+ 7607.734*
0.41271+5443.803 * 0.417617+ 29408* 0.002453+32398*0.098827)
= 9071.611 KJ/kmole
Heat carried by outlet stream=2748.319*9071.611=24931683 KJ/hr
Vapor Stream: ammonium carbamate
material
specific heat (KJ/kmole)
Carbamate
flow rate(kmole/hr)
32398.08
1086.436
For carbamate =210 KJ/kg

Heat carried by carbamate= m*cp*T+ m*
=32398.08* 1086.436+ 84722.085*210= 52994311 KJ/hr
Here, steam at 24 atm is used(Ts=221.8 C)
of steam =1855.3 KJ/kg
from steam table
Heat supplied by steam= heat outputheat input

M =(52994311+24931683 14333675)= 52994311 KJ/hr
M= 63592318 kg/hr
36
Carbamate
Q out=52994311 KJ/hr
T= 185 C
Stripper
Feed
M out=84742.02 kg/hr
T = 185 C
Q in=14333675 KJ/hr
M in= 200163.4 kg/hr
T in= 180 C
T = 185 C
M out= 115421.38 kg/hr
product
Figure 3.2 energy flow across stripper
5.3 CARBAMATE CONDENSER

Energy balance
Mv
v=ms
Where
Cp *(Ts25)+ms
V : vapor of carbamate , S: steam
Putting the values we get

105927.6*210=ms[4.187x (147.925)+2120.8]
Ms =8440.824 kg/hr
Carbamate vapor
Carbamate liquid
=105927.6 kg/hr
25 C
147.9 C
Water
Steam
Figure 3.3 energy flow across carbamate condenser
37
5.4 MEDIUM PRESSURE Decomposer

Heat input=24931683 KJ/hr
Outlet stream
Liquid
Q =mi
Material
cp(KJ/kmol)
flow rate(kmol/hr)
mole fraction(x)
NH3
4241.15
63.77865
0.026465
CO2
3348.267
30.20378
0.012533
Urea
5068.511
1134.259
0.470669
Water
3879.049
1147.744
0.476264
Biuret
19655.8
6.742179
0.002798
Carbamate 23286.12
27.16092
0.011271
Total =2409.888
Cp of mixture=Xi Cpi
=(4241.15*0.026465+ 3348.267 * 0.012533+ 5068.511*0.470669+
3879.049 * 0.476264+ 19655.8* 0.002798+23286.12* 0.011271)
= 4704.691 KJ/kmol
Heat output=4704.691*2409.888=11337780 KJ/hr
For Gasses Escaping From The Top
Material
cp(KJ/kmole)
flow rate(kmole/hr) mole fraction(x)
NH3
4241.15
63.77865
0.188454
CO2
3348.267
30.20378
0.089247
Carbamate 23286.12
244.4483
0.722299
38
Cp of mixture=Xi Cpi
=(4241.15*0.188454+ 3348.267* 0.089247+23286.12*0.722299)
= 17917.63 KJ/kmole
Material
(KJ/kmole)
flow rate(kmole/hr)
mole fraction(x)
NH3
22777
63.77865
0.188454
CO2
20265
30.20378
0.089247
Carbamate
16380
244.4483
0.722299
Total = 338.4308
of mixture=Xi
=(0.188454*22777+0.089247*20265+16380*0.722299)
= 17932.26 KJ/kmole
Heat escaping from the top =m(cp*T+ )
=338.4308(17917.63 +17932.26)= 12132708 KJ/hr
Assumption: cooling water enters at 25
& leaves at 50
Heat gained by cooling water =heat inputheat output

=(2493168312132708 11337780)= 1461196 KJ/hr
M*cp* T=1461196
M=1461196 /(4.184*25)= 13969.37 Kg/hr
39
Off-gases
T=140 C
Q in=24931683 KJ/hr
M in=115421.3 kg/hr
T in= 185 C
T=140 C
Medium pressure
decomposer
Feed
M out =24180.17 kg/hr
T=140 C
Products
Figure 3.4 energy flow across medium

pressure separator

Heat input=11337780 KJ/hr
Outlet stream
liquid
Q =mi
Material
Cp (KJ/kmole )
flow rate(kmole/hr)
mole fraction(x)
UREA
2226.101
1134.259
0.495581
WATER
1833.484
1147.744
0.501473
Biuret
8195
6.742179
Total = 2288.745
Cp of mixture=Xi*Cpi
40
0.002946
=(2226.101*0.495581+1833.484 * 0.501473+ 8195*0.002946)

=2046.797 KJ/kmole
Heat output= 4684597 KJ/hr
For gasses escaping from the top
Material
Cp(KJ/kmole)
flow rate(kmole/hr)
mole fraction(x)
NH3
1978.934
63.77865
0.526473
CO2
1534.283
30.20378
0.249323
Carbamate
11136.84
27.16092
0.224202
Total =121.1434
=(1978.934* 0.526473+ 1534.283*0.249323+11136.84*0.224202)
= 3919.077 KJ/kmole
Material
(KJ/kmole)
flow rate(kmole/hr)
mole fraction(x)
NH3
1851
63.77865
0.526473
CO2
1566
30.20378
0.249323
Carbamate
16380
27.16092
0.224202
Total =121.1434
of mixture =Xi*Cpi
=(0.526473* 1851 + 0.249323*1566 +0.224202*16380 )
=5073.415 KJ/kmol
Heat escaping from the top =m(cp*T+ )
=121.1434(3919.077 +5073.415)= 1085019 KJ/hr
Assumption : cooling water enters at 25 C & leaves at 50C
Heat gained by cooling water=heat inputheat output
41
=(1133778010850194684597)= 5568163 KJ/hr

M*cp T=5568163 KJ/hr
M=5568163 /(4.187*25)= 5394.177 kg/hr
Off-gases
Q out=1085019 KJ/hr
T=80 C
Q in=11337780 KJ/hr
Min= 93914.14 kg/hr
Low pressure
decomposer
Feed
T=80 C
T=140 C
T=80 C
Q out=4684597 KJ/hr
Products
Figure 3.5 energy flow across low
pressure decomposer
4.6 Vacuum Evaporator

For product stream coming out from 1st evaporator
Material
Cp(KJ/kmole)
flow rate(kmole/hr)
mole fraction(x)
Urea
2443.41
1134.259
0.750452
Water
2002.149
370.4335
0.245087
6.742179
0.004461
Biuret
8940
Total =1511.435
=(2443.41*0.750452+2002.149 * 0.245087+ 8940* 0.004461) =2364.243
KJ/kmole
42
M*cp T= 2364.243*1511.435 =3573399 KJ/hr
Heat balance
1st Evaporator
Heat input(by feed)+Heat input by steam=Heat carried by water vapor +
Energy of bottom product
Heat input by feed+ S1
s1=
E1HE1 +energy of bottom product
4684597+ S1 * 2123.8= 13991.58*2614.97+3573399

S1= 16687.25 kg/hr
2nd Evaporator
Heat input(by feed)+Heat input by steam=Heat carried by water vapor
+Energy of bottom product
3573399+ S1 * 2123.8=5894.424*2545.7+2464.393 *1183.967
S2= 6756.660 kg/hr
E1=13991.58 kg/hr
E2=5894.424 kg/hr
Feed
Tin=80 C
Q in=4684597 KJ/hr
M in=89409.39 kg/hr
T=23.77 C
P=0.03 atm
T=63.1 C
P=0.23 atm
steam
steam
T=147.9 C
P=4.5 atm
T=147.9 C
P=4.5 atm
T=27.25 C
Q out2=2917759 KJ/hr
P1=75417.8 kg/hr
Product
(90.93%) urea
Q out1=3573399 KJ/hr
Figure 3.6 energy flow across vacuum evaporator
4.7 Prilling Tower

Heat input= energy of bottom product of evaporator=m*cp*T
43
=2464.393 *1183.967=2917759 KJ/hr

Outlet stream
Q =mi
Material
Cp(KJ/kmol)
Urea
192.8017
1134.259
0.961578
Water
165.0169
38.58003
0.032707
6.74217
0.005716
Biuret
flow rate(kmol/hr)
745
mole fraction(x)
Total= 1179.581
=( 192.8017*0.961578+ 165.0169*0.032707+745*0.005716)= 195.0492
KJ/kmole
Heat output=195.0492*1179.581=230076.4 KJ/hr
Heat carried away by air=heat inputheat output
= 2917759230076.4 =2687683 KJ/hr
(m*cp*T)dry air=2687683 KJ/hr
Cp air=1.009 KJ/kg
, T=2620=6
M=2687683/(1.009*6)= 443951.6 kg/hr
44
Air
Q out=2687683 KJ/hr
T out= 26 C
Prilling tower
Feed
Q in=2917759 KJ/hr
M in=69523.38 kg/hr
Air
T in= 20 C
T in= 27 C
T out= 30 C
Q out=230076.4 KJ/hr
Product
Figure 3.7 energy flow across prilling tower
45
Chapter 5
Equipment
Design
46
4.1 Reactor Design

4.1.1 Introduction
The reactor is the heart of a chemical process. It is the only place in the
Process where raw materials are converted into products, and reactor
Design is a vital step in the overall design of the process. Design of the
reactor is no routine matter, and many alternative can be proposed for
a process. In searching for the optimum it is not just the cost of the
reactor that must be minimized. One design may have lower reactor cost
but the materials leaving the unit may be such that their treatment
requires a much higher cost than alternative designs. Hence, the
economics of the overall process must be considered. Reactor design
uses knowledge , information and experience from a variety of areas
such as chemical kinetics, thermodynamic, fluid mechanics , heat transfer
,mass transfer and economics. Chemical reaction engineering is the
Synthesis of all these factors with the aim of properly designing a
chemical to find what a reactor is able to do we need to know the
kinetics , the contacting pattern and the performance equation.
The selected reactor for this project is plug flow type with ten numbers of
sieve trays in a continuous process. The liquid mixture of NH3 and
carbamate and gaseous CO2 are fed to the reactor where they meet 180
temperature and 154 bar pressure and form ammonia carbamate.
This carbonates dehydrates and forms urea.
47
4.1.2 Residence Time And Volume

2NH3+CO2 NH2CONH2+H2O
(main reaction)
Let Ca= NH3 , Cb= CO2 , CS= urea , Cd = water

Density of liquid NH3 = 618 kg/m3
Density of CO2 gas at 40
=277.38 kg/m3 (density=PMwt/RT,P=162 atm)
Density of carbamate=1600 kg/m3

So, NH3 flowing into the reactor =41077.14/618 =66.46786 m3/hr
CO2 flowing into the reactor =53158.65/277.38 =191.6456 m3/hr
Carbamate flowing into the reactor =105927.6/1600= 66.20475 m3/hr
Total flow rate into the reactor=66.46786+191.6456+66.20475=322.7663
m3/hr
=Cbo
Where, = Residence time
rb= rate of the reaction
Cbo= initial concentration of the limiting reactant
CO2 is the limiting reactant= CB , Xb=0.65
b=(21/3)=1/3
rb=K1 CA CB K2 CS CD
CA=CAO xb*CBO
CB=CBO(1xb)/1+
*xb
CS=xb*CBO , CD=xb*CBO
rb=K1* CBO2 (CAO/CBO xb)(1xb)/(1+1/3 *xb)K2* CBO2 *xb2
CAO=7.322205 kmol/m3 , CBO=3.743114 kmol/m3
K1 & k2 from Arrhenius equation k=ko* exp(Ea/RT)
48
For k1
Ea1=139500 j/mol , ko1=2.07 *1010 1/s
For k2
Ea2=98500 j/mol , ko2=9*1011 1/s
At T=180+273=453 k , R=8.314 j/mol k

K1=1.6978E-06
, k2=3.944292121 1/s
Now , = 1/CBO *
Using Simpson's rule to solve the above equation we get

=22.30223 min = 0.371704 hr
Volume of reactor(V)= *Vo
Volume of reactor=0.371704 *322.7663= 119.9735 m3
Assuming L/D= 6
V= /4 D2 *6*D = 3 /2 D3
D=2.942308 m ,L=17.65385 m
4.1.3 Thickness Of Shell

Data available:
Temperature inside the reactor= 180
Pressure inside the reactor= 154 atm
Material of construction : low alloy carbon steel
Ts= (P Di/2J f P ) +c
Ts : thickness of the shell ( m)
Di : internal diameter (m)
P : design pressure
(N/m2)
F: Allowable stress= 1.05*108 N/m2

J: Joint factor =1
49
C: corrosion allowance (m)

Internal pressure= 154 atm = 1.56 *107 N/m2
Design pressure =(10% extra) = 1.1*1.56 *107= 1.716 *107 N/m2
Ts=( 1.716 *107 *2.942308 /2*1.05*108 *11.716 *107)+0.003
= 0.264827 m = 265 mm
4.1.4 Head Design
For ellipsoidal heads

Th = P *Di/(2*J*f 0.2*P)
=(1.716 *107*2.942308 /2*1.05*108 *10.2*1.716 *107)=0.2474264 m
=248 mm
4.1.5 Piping design for reactor

Input pipes:
Data available:
Input temperature for all material =40
Design stress(f)=135 N/mm2
For liquid ammonia (NH3)

240 atm =24.312 N/mm2
Pressure
618 kg/m3
Density
Mass rate
41077.14 kg/hr
Velocity (u)
2 m/s
50
0.0184633 m3/s
Volumetric flow rate

Cross sectional area
0.00923165 m2
ID
0.10844381 m=4.26944151 in
Pipe thickness
10.7310329 mm=0.42248161 in
From schedule No.=120

D (nominal)
5 in
ID
4.563 in
OD
5.563 in
Thickness
0.5 in
For CO2 (gas)

162 atm =16.4106 N/mm2
Pressure
277.38 kg/m3
Density
Mass rate
53158.68 kg/hr
Velocity(u)
20 m/s
0.05323491 m3/s
0.00266175 m2
ID
0.05823022 m=2.292842 in
Pipe thickness
3.76826823 mm=0.14835702 in

D(nominal)
2.5 in
ID
2.323 in
OD
2.875 in
51
Thickness
0.276 in
For carbamate (liquid)

240 atm=24.312 N/mm2
Pressure
1600 kg/m3
Density
Mass rate
105927.6 kg/hr
Velocity (u)
20 m/s
0.01839021 m3/s
0.0091951 m2
ID
0.10822896 m=4.26098281 in
Pipe thickness
10.7097724 mm=0.42164458 in

D(nominal)
5 in
ID
4.563 in
OD
5.563 in
Thickness
0.5 in
Output Pipe
Data available:
Temperature of the outlet materials =185
Design stress(f) =105 N/mm2
Phase : solution
Pressure
154 atm =15.6002 N/mm2
Density
1283.97 kg/m3
52
Mass rate
200163.4 kg/hr
Velocity(u)
2 m/s
0.04330393 m3/s
0.02165196 m2
ID
0.16607866 m=6.53852974 in
Pipe thickness
13.3274841 mm=0.5247041 in

D(nominal)
8 in
ID
7.437 in
OD
8.625 in
Thickness
0.594 in
4.1.6 Sieve Plate Tray

The reactor consists of 10 number of sieve plate
Diameter of reactor(d)=2.9423 m
Total area of reactor(At) = /4 *(2.9423)2=6.795883 m2
Area of downcomer(Ad) = 0.1* At
Ad=0.1*6.795883= 0.6795883 m2
Active area(Aa)= At2* Ad=5.4367 m2
Weir length(Lw)=0.75*d
Lw=0.75*2.9423=2.147885 m
Weir height(Hw)= 40 mm
Assuming hole diameter (ho)=12 mm
53
Mass of outlet solution =2000163.4 kg/hr = 55.600 kg/s

Density of outlet solution=1283.97 kg/m3
Assuming (mmin)=70% of mmax
mmin=0.7*55.600=38.92066 kg/s
maximum weir crest, HWC =750(mmax /Lw* )2/3
=750(55.600/2.147885*1283.97)2/3 =55.557 mm
minimum weir crest, HWC =750(mmin /Lw* )2/3
= 750(38.92066 /2.147885*1283.97)2/3=43.997 mm liquid height
The constant(k2)of weep point correlation =30.8 at HWC +Hw =40+43.997
=83.997 mm
U min =(k20.9(25.4ho))/
at the weep point
1/2
=0.5229 m/s the minimum vapor velocity
Actual minimum vapor velocity at minimum vapor flow rate

= actual vapor flow rate/AH
=70% of Qmax/AH =0.7*(0.0433/0.815) =0.03717 m/s
The minimum operating velocity is above the weep point velocity
Perforated area(AP)=AAACZAES
ACZ: calming zone area
AES: area occupied by edge strip
Lw/d= 2.147885/2.9423=0.73 ,
=95
Angle subtended by the chord(edge plate),
= 18095=85
The unperforated edge strip(edge plate)mean length from the geometry

LES=(d50*10-3)* (
/180), =(2.942350*10-3)* (
AES=50*10-3* LES , AES=0.2144 m2

LCZ= weir length(Lw)+width of un perforated edge strip
54
/180)=4.288
=2.147885+50*10-3=2.197 m
ACZ=2*(50*10-3* LCZ)=0.219 m2
AP=AAACZAES=5.43670.2190.2144=3.019 m2
Take total hole area AH=0.15 AA=0.815 m2
AH= /4*dh2*Nh =0.815
dh: hole diameter
Number of holes(Nh)=7214
H=17.653 m
D=2.942 m
Ts=0.2648 m
Th = 0.248 m
Figure 4.1 reactor design
4.2 Carbamate Condenser

4.2.1 Introduction
A condenser is a type of heat exchanger in which vapors are transferred
55
Into liquid state by removing the latent heat with the help of a coolant
such as water. Condensers may classified into two main types
Those in which the coolant and condensing vapor are brought into
Direct contact.
Those in which the coolant and condensate stream are separated by
A solid surface, usually a tube wall.
Condenser Types
Double pipe and multiple pipe

Air-cooled condensers
Compact condensers
Shell and tube
4.2.2 Design Procedure

The selected type for this project is fixed shell and tube condenser : 1
Shell and 4 tube passes. Carbamate is the shell side and cooled
Water in the tube side.
Water physical properties at 86.45
Specific heat(Cp) =4.2 KJ/kg
Thermal conductivity (k)= 0.746 W/m K
Density =966 kg/m3
Viscosity( )= 3.2*10-4 Pa. sec
Carbamate physical properties at 185

Specific heat(Cp) =2.596 KJ/kg
Thermal conductivity (k)= 0.531 W/m K
Density =1600 kg/m3
Viscosity( )= 5*10-4 Pa. sec
56
Water Flow Rate

Mass flow rate of carbamate= 105927.6 kg/hr =29.42433 kg/sec
Q=m *
of carbamate= 210 KJ/kg
Q= 29.42433 * 210= 6179.11 KJ/sec

Q=m cp T + m
(for water) , m= 6179.11/(4.2*(147.925)+2120.8)
M= 2.343 kg/s
Mean temperature difference Tm
T1=T2=185
, t1=25
, t2=147.9
Tlm= ((T1t2)(T2t1))/ln((T1t2)/ (T2t1))

=((185147.9)(18525))/ln((185147.9)/ (18525)) =84.088
Ft =1
, Tm=Tlm* Ft
Tm=84.088*1= 84.088
Overall heat transfer coefficient assuming
Assuming Uo= 500 W/m2
Total area and number of tubes
A=Q*1000/Uo* Tm
A=(6179.11*1000)/(500*84.088)= 146.967 m2
Choose do= 20 mm , di= 16 mm L= 4.88 m
Area of one tube = do L = * 20*10-3 * 4.88 =0.306464 m2
Number of tubes(Nt)= total area/area of one tube
= 146.967/0.306464 = 480
Shell side diameter
For a triangular pitch (1 shell pass and 4 tube passes)
57
Pt =1.25 do , n=2.285 , k= 0.175

Db= do(Nt/k)1/n , Db= 20(480/0.175)1/2.285 =639.31 mm
From split ring floating head
C=61 , Ds= Db+ C , Ds=700.3138 mm
Tube side heat transfer coefficient (hi)

Tmean = 25+147.9/2 = 86.45 C
At = /4 *di2 * Nt/Np , At= /4 *(16*0.001)2 *480/4 =0.024115 m2
Gt=Wt/At , Gt= 2.343/0.024115= 97.17648 kg/m2 sec
Ut =Gt/
, Ut=97.17648 /966=0.100597 m/s
hi=4200(1.35+0.02 tmean)Ut0.8/di0.2 =1182.775 w/m2

shell side heat transfer coefficient (ho)
As =(ptdo)/pt * LB* Ds , pt=1.25 do , LB= Ds/5
As=0.019618 m2
Gs =Ws/As ,Gs=29.42433/0.019618=1499.89 kg/m2 sec
De=1.1/do (pt20.917 do2) =1.1/20*(2520.917*202)=14.201 mm
Re=Gs*de/
= 42600.05
Pr= cp * /k = 2.596*1000*5*10-4 /0.531 =2.444

Jh =0.0028
ho*de/k=jh*Re*Pr0.33 , ho=5990.226 W/m2
Dirt coefficients
hid= 5000 W/m2
hod=5000 W/m2
Calculated overall heat transfer coefficients(Uo)
58
1/Uo =1/ho+1/hod + do*ln(do/di))/2*kw+(1/hi+1/hid)*do/di

Kw=50 W/m K
1/Uo=0.001718
Uo =518.9354 W/m2
Ucal
Uassume
Tube side pressure drop

For
Re=4858.824 , Jf=5.9*10-3
Pt= Np*(8*jf*(L/di)+2.5)* ut2/2

Pt= 4(8*5.9*10-3*(4.88*1000/16)+2.5)* 966*(0.100597)2/2
Pt=330.3384 Pa =0.3303384 Kpa
Shell side pressure drop
For
Re=42600.05 , jf=4*10-2
Ps=8*jf* (L/LB)*(Ds/de)*(
us2/2)
Ps=8*4*10-2*(4.88/0.140063)*(700.3138/14.201)*(1600*(0.937)2/2)
Ps=386539 Pa =386.539 kpa
Since the pressure drop of shell is too high it can be reduced by
Increasing the baffle pitch, tripling the pitch reducing the shell side
Velocity, which reduces the pressure drop by a factor of approximately
(1/3)2
Ps=386.539/9=42.94878 kpa
This will reduce the shell side heat transfer coefficient by a factor of
(1/3)0.8
ho=5990.226 *(1/3)0.8 =2487.403 W/m2
This will give overall coefficient of 511 W/m2
value of 500 W/m2 .
59
still above the assumed
L=4.88 m
Ds =0.7003 m
Figure 4.2 carbamate condenser

summery

4.3.1 Introduction
The purpose of this section is to further stripping of NH3, CO2 and the left
Carbamate . it is divided into 2 parts: top separator, where the released
Flash gases are condensed and recycled to the reactor before the
Solution enters the tube bundle, where the last carbamate is
Decomposed and required heat is supplied by means of steam saturated
At 4.5 atm.

Density of urea=1230 kg/m3
Density of biuret=1467 kg/m3
Density of water= 1000 kg/m3
Density of liquid( )=(0.7611*1230+0.00776*1467+0.231*1000)
=1178.696 kg/m3
Density of NH3(gas)= P*Mwt/R*T=(4.5*17)/(0.082*353)=2.64 kg/m3
Density of CO2(gas)= P*Mwt/R*T=(4.5*44)/(0.082*353)=6.8 kg/m3
60
Density of carbamate= P*Mwt/R*T=4.5*78/(0.082*353)=12.126 kg/m3

Density of gases(
)=2.64+6.8+12.126=21.526 kg/m3
Mass flow rate of gases=4531.755 kg/hr

Qv = mass flow rate of gases/ density of gases(
)= 4531.755/21.526
=75.854 m3/hr=0.0210 m3/sec

Mass flow rate of liquid=89409.39 kg/hr
QL=89409.39 /1178.696 =210.524 m3/hr=0.0584 m3/sec
Ut= 0.07*(
)/
)1/2=0.07*(1178.69621.526/21.526)1/2=0.513m/sec
Without demister
Uv=0.15 ut , Uv=0.0769 m/sec
Dv=(4*Qv/ * Uv)=0.983 m
A=Qv/uv= 0.0210/0.0769=0.7596 m2
Setting time=10 min=600 sec
Volume held in the vessel=600* 0.0584=35.087 m3
Liquid height (HL)=V/A=35.087/ 0.7596=16.643 m
Feed height (Hf)=0.5* Dv=0.491 m
Vapor or gas height(Hv)= Dv=0.983 m
Total height=0.983 + 0.491+16.643=18.8711 m
Wall thickness of vessel
T=P*Di/2*J*fP
Where
P: design pressure
D: diameter of vessel
J: welding joint factor
61
F: design stress
Operating pressure(P)=4.5 atm
D=938 mm
Design pressure(Pd)=1.2*P=5.472 bar=0.5472 N/mm2
F=125 N/mm2
T=( 0.5472 *983)/(2*125*10.5472) =2.157 mm
Dv=0.983 m
H=18.87 m
T=0.0215 m
Figure 4.3 low pressure decomposer
design summery
4.4 Evaporator Design

5.2.1 Evaporation And Its Mechanism
The objective of evaporation is to concentrate a solution containing the
Desired product or to recover the solvent. Sometimes both may be
Accomplished. Evaporator design consists of three principal elements
Heat transfer, vapor-liquid separation and efficient utilization of energy
In most cases the solvent is water , heat is supplied by condensing steam
And the heat is transferred by indirect heat transfer across metallic
62
Surface. For evaporation to be efficient, the selected and used must be

Able to accomplish several things.
1 transfer large amounts of heat to the solution with minimum
amount of metallic surface area. This requires, determines the
type, size, and cost of the evaporation system.
2 achieve the specified separation of liquid and vapor and to do it
with the simplest devices available.
3 Make efficient use of the available energy.
4 Meet the condition imposed by the liquid being evaporated or by
the solution being concentrated. Factors that must be considered
include product quality, salting and scaling, corrosion, foaming ,
product degradation, holdup, and the need for special type of
construction.
4.4.2 Types Of Evaporators

Evaporators are varying in the mechanical specifications and operating
parameters , this result in products with different characteristics. The
major types of evaporator are.
Horizontal shell-side
Short tube-vertical
Basket type
Long-tube vertical
Climbing film
Falling film
63
Horizontal tube-side
Plate type
4.4.3 Evaporator Selection

The selection of the most suitable evaporator type for a particular
application will depend on the following factors.
The throughput required
The viscosity of the feed and the increase in viscosity during
evaporation.
The nature of the product required; solid, slurry or
concentrated solution.
The heat sensitivity of the product.
Whether the materials are fouling or non-fouling
Whether the solution is likely foam
Whether direct heating can be used.
The selected type for this project is climbing film long tube vertical
Evaporator.
Vapor space pressure=0.23 atm

Vapor space temperature=63.1
BPR=21.9
Energy balance
For product stream coming out of 1st evaporator
Material
Cp(KJ/kmole)
flow rate(kmole/hr)
64
mole fraction(x)
Urea
2443.41
1134.259
0.750452
Water
2002.149
370.4335
0.245087
6.742179
0.004461
Biuret
8940
=(2443.41*0.750452+2002.149 * 0.245087+ 8940* 0.004461) =2364.243
KJ/kmole
M*cp T= 2364.243*1511.435 =3573399 KJ/hr
1st Evaporator
Heat input(by feed)+Heat input by steam=Heat carried by water vapor +
Energy of bottom product
Heat input by feed+ S1
s1=
E1HE1 +energy of bottom product
4684597+ S1 * 2123.8= 13991.58*2614.97+3573399

S1= 16687.25 kg/hr
Economy = 13991.58/16687.25=0.8384
2nd Evaporator
Heat input(by feed)+Heat input by steam=Heat carried by water vapor
+Energy of bottom product
3573399+S2 * 2123.8=5894.424*2545.7+2464.393 *1183.967
S2= 6756.660 kg/hr
Area of evaporator
T1 = (T)app BPR
=(147.16563.1)21.9= 62.165
U1=2214.537 W/m2 k
Area of 1st evaporator
A1=S1
s1/U1T1
65
A1 = 16704 * 2123.2 / 2214.537* (62.165+273)=47.78 m2

Area of 2nd evaporator
U2= 738 W/m2 k
T2 = (T)app BPR
= (147.165 23.77) 3.48 = 119.915
A2 = S2 s2 / U2T2
A2 =6756.660 * 2123.2 / 738 *( 119.915+273)= 49.472 m2
[Ref : values of U1 & U2 from Perry's handbook, 10-35]
Number of tubes
Assume
Length = 6 m
Tube OD =25.4 mm
Tube ID =21.1836 mm
For a triangular pitch(Pt)=1.25 do
Area of one tube = do L
= *25.4*10-3 *6=0.47853 m2
Tubes of 1st evaporator
Nt1= A1/A
Nt1=47.78/0.47853=100
Tubes of 2nd evaporator
Nt2=A2/A
Nt2=49.472/0.47853=103
Shell diameter
For a triangular pitch , 1 shell2tube pass
K= 0.249 , n=2.207
Shell diameter of 1st evaporator
66
Db =do(Nt/k)1/n
Db=25.4(100/0.249)1/2.207=384.26
C=55 mm , Ds=Db+ C
Ds=439.26 mm
Shell diameter of 2nd evaporator
Db =do(Nt/k)1/n
Db=25.4(103/0.249)1/2.207=389.19 mm
C=52 mm , Ds=Db+ C
Ds=441.19 mm
Wall thickness
Material of construction: Mild steel
F: 135 N/mm2
Di=21.16 mm
Ps=4.5 atm=4.413 bar
Pd=1.1*ps
Pd=0.4854 N/mm2
C= 3 mm
J=1
Tt= P*Di/2f*JP
Where
Tt : thickness of tube
P: design pressure ( N/mm2)
Di : inside diameter (mm)
F: allowable stress ( N/mm2)
J: joint factor
C: corrosion allowance (mm)
Tt =(0.4854*21.16)/(2*135*10.4854)+3=3.038 1 mm
Drums diameters and height
Density of urea=1230 kg/m3
67
Density of water=1000 kg/m3

Density of biuret=1467 kg/m3
Diameter for 1st drum
Density of liquid( )=(0.7611*1230+0.231*1000+0.00776*1000)=1178.53
kg/m3
Density of water vapor(
)= P*Mwt/R*T
=(0.23*18)/(0.082*336.1) =0.15 kg/m3

Volumetric flow rate of water vapor (Qv)=13991.58/0.15=93277.2 m3/hr
Volumetric flow rate of liquid(QL)= 75418.7/1178.53=63.993 m3/hr
Ut =0.07 *(
)1/2= 0.07*(1178.530.15/0.15)1/2=6.204 m/s
Ut=Uv with demister

A= Qv/ Uv = 25.901/6.204 = 4.176 m2
Dv =(4* Qv/
*uv)1/2 =2.3 m
Dv=Hv
Dv: minimum vessel diameter
Hv: gas or vapor height
Hf=0.5*Dv= 1.15 m
Hf: feed height
Assume settling time= 10 min= 600 sec
Volume held in drum(V)= 0.01777*600=10.665 m3
HL= V/A=10.665/4.176 = 2.55 m
HL: liquid height
Total height(H)= 2.55+1.15+2.3 =6 m
For 2nd drum
Density of liquid( )=(0.9023*1230+0.0488*1000+0.0488*1467)=1230.34
kg/m3
68
Density of water vapor (
)= P*Mwt/R*T = (0.03*18)/(0.082*296.77)
=0.022 kg/m3
Volumetric flow rate of vapor(Qv)= 6233.488/0.022=283340.4 m3/hr
Volumetric flow rate of liquid(QL)= 89409.39/1230.34=72.670 m3/hr
Ut =0.07 *(
)1/2=16.55 m/s
Ut=Uv
A= Qv/ Uv=4.574 m2
Dv =(4* Qv/
*uv)1/2 =3.028 m
Hv=Dv=3.028 m
Hf=0.5*Dv =1.514 m
Volume held in drum(V)=600*0.02018=12.111 m3
HL=V/A= 12.111/4.574=2.547 m
Total height =2.547+1.514+3.028=7.089 m
Drum thickness
1st drum
Drum operating pressure=0.23 atm
Design pressure = 0.25 bar
Thickness(t) =15 mm (assumed)
Atmospheric pressure=1 bar
Pa=1/0.23=4.167
Do=Di + 2*t , Do=2.3+2*0.015=2.33 m
L / Do=6/2.33=2.575 m
69
Do/t=155.3
Factor B=10878
Pa =B/(14.22*( Do/t)) =10878/(14.22*155.3)=4.92 bar
Pa is greater than design pressure , so the assumed thickness is
acceptable.
2nddrum
Operating pressure=0.03 atm
Design pressure= 0.032
Thickness(t)=20 mm
Pa =1/0.03=33.3 bar
Do =Di+2*t , Do=3.028+2*0.02=3.068 m
L /Do=7.089/3.068=2.31
Do /t= 3.068/0.02=153.4
Pa =B/(14.22*( Do/t)) =10878/(14.22*153.4)=4.98 bar
Pa is greater than design pressure
The assumed thickness accepted
70
Ts=0.00303 m
6m
7.089
Product
-E
Figure4.4 vacuum evaporator design

summery
4.5 Prilling Tower

4.5.1 Introduction
Prilling is the process of spray crystallization. A liquid is sprayed to
Produce drops falling through a cooling medium and crystallizing into
Particles. The urea granulation process consists of following three
sections:
Granulation section
Recycle and product cooling section
Dust removal and recovery section
Aqueous urea solution from urea plant is fed to the granulator to
Enlarge recycle particles in the granulator. In the granulator , the
Granules are dried and cooled simultaneously. The granulator is
Operated at 110 115
and at slightly negative pressure. Enlarged
Urea particles are cooled to about 90
in the after-cooler inside
The granulator to be transported to the recycle section. The
71
Discharged granules are separated into three sizes, product, small and
Large size by the screen. Product size granules are further cooled
Below 60
in the product cooler to be sent to the urea storage or
Bagging facility. Large size granules are crushed by the crusher. The
Crushed particles and smaller size particles from the screen are
Recycled to the granulator as seed. Urea dust contained in the exhaust
Air from the granulator and the product cooler is scrubbed in the dust
Scrubber by contacting counter currently with aqueous urea solution
Urea dust content in the exit air of the bag filter is 30 mg/m3. Or less
Urea recovered in the bag filter, approximately 2.5-3.5% of production
Rate , is recycled to the urea granulator. The process of crystallization
And cooling takes a number of seconds. Congealing towers can have a
Maximum free-fall height of 60 m, while the tower diameter may be
About 15 m.
4.5.2 Material of construction

Prilling tower are usually constructed in concrete(fertilizer), steel,
Stainless steel.

Urea physical properties:
To=132.6
(To= melting point)
Hf=224457 J/kg
(Hf= heat of fusion)
=1230 kg/m3
( = melt density)
=1335 kg/m3
Cp (l)=2098 J/kg. k
= Solid density)
(melt specific heat)

72
Cp (s)=1748 J/kg. k
(solid specific heat)
K(l)=0.83 w/m. k
(melt thermal conductivity)
K(s)=1.19 w/m. k
( solid thermal conductivity)
Viscosity( )= 2.16*10-3 Pa.sec

Air physical properties
Density(
)=1.168 kg/m3
Viscosity =18.48*10-6 Pa.sec

Cp air=1.009 KJ/kg .
Heat carried away by air=heat inputheat output

= 2917759230076.4 =2687683 KJ/hr
(m*cp*T)dry air=2687683 KJ/hr
Cp air=1.009 KJ/kg
, T=2620=6
M=2687683/(1.009*6)= 443951.6 kg/hr

Tower diameter
Volumetric flow rate=380095.548 m3/hr= 105.5821 m3/sec
Assuming an air superficial velocity=1.2 m/sec
A=Q/u = 105.5821/1.2=87.985 m2
D=(87.985 *4/3.14)^0.5=10.586 m
Absolute velocity
Dp=1.5*10-3 m
(Dp: particle diameter)
Assume ur=6.3 m/s

Re = dp*ur*
(ur:Relative velocity)
/
73
Re =1.5*10-3*6.3*1.168/18.48*10-6 =597
Cw=0.65
/6 *dp3*(
(Cw: resistance coefficient(falling particle))
)g=cw* /4*dp2 *1/2*
*ut
LHS= /6*(1.5*10-3)3*(13351.168)=2.31112*10-5
RHS= 0.65* /4*1/2*1.168*6.3 =2.66109*10-5
LHS=RHS , the assumption ur=6.3 m/sec is correct
Ua=ursuperficial velocity from new diameter (ua: absolute velocity)
Ua=6.31.156=5.144 m/s
Heat transfer coefficient
Re =597 ,Pr=
*cp/k ,Pr=18.48*10-6 *1009/0.02606=0.7155
Nu =2+0.552 Re0.5Pr0.33 =14.07952

Nu=ho*dp/k , ho=244.6082 W/m2k
Solidification time
Average air temperature=(20+26/2)=23
Ph=Hf+ cp(l)*(TfTo)/cp(s)*(ToTc)
(ph= phase transfer number)
Tf=135
(Tf: melt temperature)
To=132.6
(To: melting point)
Tc=23
(Tc: average air temperature)
Ph=224457+2098*(135132.6)/1748*(132.623)=1.198
Bi=ho*dp/2*k(s)
, Bi=0.154164
Fo =ph(1/6+1/3*Bi)=2.7922
A=k(s)*/cp(s)*
(Bi: Biot number)

(Fo: Fourier number)
=1.19/1748*1335=5.099*10-7 (A: thermal diffusivity)
Ts1=dp*Fo/4*A =1.5*10-3*3.132/4*5.099*10-7=3.08 sec (ts1= time for

solidification)
/ ,min=1.15
74
Corrected solidification time

Ts2=(
/ ,min)* Ts1=1.15*3.08=3.542 sec
Tower height for solidification=3.542*5.144=18.220 m

Prill cooling time
R=dp/2 =1.5*10-3/2=7.5*10-4 m
(R: sphere radius)
1/ho2 R =1/7.5*10-4*(244.6082)2=7267.859 k/w

2(RR/2)/k(s)*R2= 2*(7.5*10-47.5*10-4/2)/1.19*(7.5*10-4)2 =1120.448
1/kc R2=8388.307+211.93=7267.859+211.93=8388.307
Kc=211.93 W/m2 k
Cooling time tc=
*dp*cp(s)/6*kc ln(ToTc/TsTc)
Tc =1335*1.5*10-3*1748/6*211.93 *ln(132.623/6023)=1.494 sec

Prill cooling height=1.494*5.144=7.688 m
Total height=7.688+18.22=25.908 m.
D=10.586 m
H=25.908 m
Figure 4.5 prilling tower
75
Chapter 5
Process
Control
76
5.1 Introduction
Control may be defined as a set of organized actions directed towards
Achieving or maintaining a specific goal and it is one of the most
Important factors in improving process performance , which are
Equipment design, operating conditions and process control. Control
Action involves dynamic(active) command, regulation and co-ordination
Of the systems so as to fulfill the prescribed objective of the system in the
Most effective and efficient manner.
Equipment
Design
Operation
Conditions
Safe and profitable

Plant operation
Process
Control
Figure 5.1 schematic representation of
the three critical elements for achieving
5.2 Control Objective

The primary objective of the designer when specifying instrumentation
And control schems are:
1. Safety:
The process control strategies contribute to the overall plant safety
by maintaining key variables near their desired values.
2. Environmental protection:
Control can contribute to the proper operation of units which is
77
Deal with toxic components resulting in consistently low effluent

Concentration, in addition control systems can direct effluent to
Containment vessels when any extreme disturbance occur.
3. Equipment protection:
Operating conditions must be maintained within bounds to present
damage.
4. Smooth operation and production rate:
Key variables in streams leaving the process should be maintained
Close to their desired values to present disturbance to downstream
unit or maintain desired production rate.
5. Production quality :
Product quality which is needed may be expressed as composition,
Physical properties, performance properties or combination of all
Three. Process control contributes to good plant operation by
Maintaining the operating conditions required for excellent prduct
Quality.
6. Monitoring and diagnosis:
The plant operators require very rapid information so that they can
Ensure that the plant conditions remain within acceptable bounds.
7. Profit:
The equivalent goal is to provide the product at lowest cost. Before
Achieving the profit oriented goal, selected independent variables
Are adjusted to satisfy the first five higher priority control
objectives.
5.3 Types Of Control Systems

There are many types of control systems, the use of any system
depend on the process which we want to control it and the
variables that effect on the control process, some of these control
system are:
Feed forward control system
Feedback control system
78
Cascade control system

Ratio control system
Inferential control system
Level and inventory control system
Predictive control system
5.4 Equipment Control

5.4.1 Reactor control
products
NH3 Feed
FR
Flow rate
Set point
PIT
PIC
PI
CO2 Feed
PI
PIT
Flow rate
Set point
PIC
Carbamate Feed
Figure 5.1 reactor process control
1. Reactor Pressure
Table 5.1 Element of control loop for reactor pressure
Process
Controller
Reactor
PID Controller
Controlled variable
Pressure
Measuring element
Manometer
Regulating element
Valve (pneumatic)
Manipulating element
Load variables
79
Stream of CO2, carbamate

Reactor temperature,feed
temperature and composition
2. Reactor Flow Ratio

Table 5.2 Element of control loop for reactor ratio
Process
Reactor
Controller
PID Controller
Controlled variable
Flow ratio
Measuring element
Orifice
Regulating element
Valve
Stream of CO2, NH3
Load variables
Feed temperature -vacuum

pressure
(PID) controller transfer function

G(s)=Kc*(1+1/ *s+
Where
Kc: proportional gain of the controller
: integral time constant (min)
: derivative time constant (min)
Kc=3
= 2 min
=0.5 min
Control valve transfer function
Gv(s)= Kv/ v*s+1
Where
Kv: the steady state gain of valve
v: time constant of valve
80
5.4.2 Carbamate Condenser Control

Objective: control of inlet water to the condenser
Carbamate in
Water out
Water in
Condensate
TI
TIC
TIT
Figure 5.2 carbamate condenser process control
Table 5.3 Element of control loop for carbamate condenser temperature

Process
Carbamate condenser
PID Controller
Controller
Controlled variable
Temperature of outlet water
Measuring element
Orifice
Regulating element
Valve
Steam flow rate

Pressure and temperature
of the feed
Load variables
(PID)Controller transfer function

G(s)=Kc*(1+1/ *s+
Where
81
Kc=2.5
= 2 min
=0.5 min
Gv(s)= Kv/ v*s+1
Where
5.4.3 Low Pressure Decomposer Control
Off gases
PI
PIC
PIT
PIT
PI
PIC
Feed
PG
FIT
FIC
FI
Product
Figure 5.3 Low pressure

decomposer process control
82
1. Low pressure decomposer pressure

Table 5.4 Element of control loop for low pressure decomposer pressure
Process
Controller
PID Controller
Controlled variable
Pressure
Measuring element
Manometer
Regulating element
Valve
Stream of feed, off-gases

flow rate
Load variables

of streams
3. Low Pressure Decomposer Flow Rate

Table 5.5 Element of control loop for low pressure decomposer flow rate
Process
Controller
PID Controller
Controlled variable
Flow rate
Measuring element
orifice
Regulating element
Valve
Stream of outlet product
Load variables

of streams

G(s)=Kc*(1+1/ *s+
Where
Kc=1
83
= 1 min
=0.5 min
Gv(s)= Kv/ v*s+1
Where
5.4.4 Evaporator Process Control
PIC
PIT
PI
Vapor
feed
TI
TIT
TIC
Steam
FIT
FIC
FE
Product
1.Vacuum evaporator pressure
84
Table 5.6 Element of control loop for vacuum evaporator pressure

Process
Vacuum evaporator
Controller
PID Controller
Controlled variable
Pressure
Measuring element
Manometer
Regulating element
Valve
Stream of outlet vapor
Load variables

of steam and vacuum
pressure
2.Vacuum Evaporator Flow Rate
Table 5.7 Element of control loop for vacuum evaporator flow rate
Process
Vacuum evaporator
PID Controller
Controller
Controlled variable
Flow rate of urea solution
Measuring element
orifice
Regulating element
Valve
Stream of the product
Load variables

of steam and vacuum
composition
3. Vacuum Evaporator Temperature
85
Table 5.6 Element of control loop for vacuum evaporator temperature

Process
Controller
PID Controller
Controlled variable
Temperature
Measuring element
Thermocouple
Regulating element
Load variables

G(s)=Kc*(1+1/ *s+
Vacuum evaporator
Where
Kc=1
= 1 min
=0.5 min
Gv(s)= Kv/ v*s+1
Where
86
Valve
Steam flow rate
pressure
5.4.5 Prilling Tower Process Control
Air out
TI
TIT
TIC
FI
PG
feed
Air in
FI
product
Figure 5.5 prilling tower process control
1. Prilling Tower Temperature
87
Table 5.7 Element of control loop for prilling tower temperature

Process
Prilling tower
PID Controller
Controller
Temperature of outlet air
Controlled variable
Measuring element
Thermocouple
Regulating element
Valve
Load variables
flow rate of inlet air

pressure

G(s)=Kc*(1+1/ *s+
Where
Kc=1.5
= 2 min
=1 min
Gv(s)= Kv/ v*s+1
Where
88
Chapter 6
Economic
Cost
89
6.1 Introduction
Economical evaluation is a major component of chemical plant design
That decides whether the design is economically feasible since projects
Are built to make a profit. Also chemical engineers are concerned with
Cost as well as design.
6.2 Types Of Costs Involved In Manufacturing Process

1. Total capital investment
a. Fixed capital investment (manufacturing and nonmanufacturing)
b. Working capital
2. Operating costs (total production cost)
a. Direct expenses: variable and fixed charges
b. Indirect expenses
6.3 Cost Calculation
90
Equipment
Autoclave
Reactor
Number of
equipment
1
Cost of equipment
($)
61854.53
Total cost
61854.53
Medium pressure
decomposer
12490.32
12490.32
Low pressure
decomposer
44210.53
44210.53
Vacuum
evaporator
148830.5
297661
CO2 compressor
166672.2
166672.2
Prilling tower
545637.3
545637.3
Ammonia
pump
6302.65
6302.65
Conveying
system
393.92
Stripper
120684.9
120684.9
Pumps
6922..384
13844.768
Total
1575.68
1226723.348
Figure 6.1 equipment cost

Total capital investment
1. fixed capital investment
a. direct cost
91
Item
% purchased equipment
cost
Total cost
Equipment
cost
100%
1226723.348
Installation
25%
306680.835
Instrumentation
And control
10%
122672.334
Piping
25%
306680.835
20%
245344.668
Electrification
Building
30%
368017.002
Service facilities
40%
490689.336
Land
Requisition
4%
5068.933
3071877.28
Total
b. indirect cost
Item
Engineering &
supervision
% purchased
Equipment cost
10%
Total cost
122672.334
Construction
10%
122672.334
Contactor
5%
61336.167
contigency
5%
61336.167
368017.002
Total
Fixed capital investment(FCI)

=DC+IC
=3071877.28+368017.002=3439894
92
b) Working capital investment(WCI)

=15% of FCI= 0.15*3439894=515984
Total capital investment
=FCI+WCI
=3439894+515984=3955878
c) Maintenance& Repair cost
=4% of FCI=0.04*3439894=137595
Fixed charges
1. Deprecation
=10% of FCI
=0.1*3439894=343989.4
2. Local taxes
=1.5% of FCI
=0.015*3439894=51598.41
3. Insurance
=1% of FCI
=0.01*3439894=34398.94
Fixed charges=34398.94+51598.41+343989.4=429986.75
93
Chapter 7
Safety
Aspects
94
7.1 Introduction
Safety is the state of being ''safe'', the condition of being protected
Against physical , social, financial , emotional ,physiological , educational
Or other consequences of failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or any
Other events which can be non-desirable. This can take the form of being
Protected from the event or from exposure to something that causes
Health or economic losses. No industry can afford to neglect the
Fundamentals of safety in design and operation of its plant and
Machinery. It is important that all the people responsible for
management and operation of any industry should have a good
knowledge of industrial safety.
Safety
Safe use of man, material or machine by safe system method of work is
to achieve zero accidents which result in higher productivity.
Accidents
An accidents is un planned or un expected events which interfere or
interrupts the planned process of work and results in personal injury
Accident factors
1 a personal accident injury occurs as a result of accident
2 an accident due to un safe act and/or unsafe condition
3 unsafe act/unsafe condition exists due to faults of persons
4 faults of persons due to negligence
Thus, if we can remove fault of a person we can prevent 98% of
accidents.
95
7.2 Principal Of Protection And Prevention:

Industrial accidents are caused by negligence of employer, the worker or
both employers ''efforts to reduce the accidents are generally motivated
By four considerations":
1 to lessen human suffering
2 to prevent damage to plant and machinery
3 to reduce the amount of time lost as a result
4 to hold the expenses of workman's compensation to minimum
The basic reasons for preventing industrial accidents are human and
economic . the most important of these should be to avoid human
suffering. Accidents are economic losses and this is a challenging
Reason for accident prevention.
7.3 Safety Precaution

1. when taking sample of anhydrous ammonia and when operating or
working on ammonia valves, equipment containing ammonia such as
ammonia feed pumps, operators laboratory and maintenance personal
must wear safety overalls.
2. goggles and rubber gloves. If any part of the skin has been exposed to
ammonia , wash immediately and thoroughly with water
3. work on the ammonia equipment should be done from the upwind
side of the equipment to avoid or minimize contact with escaping
ammonia.
4. the location of fire hydrants, safety showers , eyewash fountains
ammonia canisters gas mask, emergency air breathing apparatus should
be well known to all person's
5. instruments containing mercury must not be used if ammonia is likely
to come in contact with mercury
96
6. heavy leakage of ammonia can be dealt by spraying large quantity of

water with spray nozzles.
7.4 List of safety equipment

A. respiratory protective equipment
1 selfcontained breathing apparatus sets of 30 min and 10 min
2 continuous airline mask
3 trolley mounted self contained breathing apparatus set 2.5 hours
4 canister gas mask
5 dust mask/cloth mask (air purifying respirator)
B. nonrespiratory protective equipments
1 helmets
2 ear muff and ear plugs
3 goggles
4 face shield
5 hand gloves
6 aprons
7 safety shoes
8 suits
9 safety harness
C. warning instrument
1 oxygen, carbon dioxide , chlorine, ammonia indicator with replaceable
sensors.
2 explosive meters for measuring explosive range
3 fire fly instrument for confined space entry
D. Gas Leak Instruments
97
1.safety showers
2. manual water sprinklers
3. communication systems
7.5 Fire Hazards

The general types of fire are encountered in the process plants. One
involves common combustible material such as wood, rags, paper ,etc
(class A fires),the next flammable liquids and gasses such as lubrications
oil and solvents, ammonia vapors etc. (class B fires) and the third involve
Electrical equipment (class C fires)
In general three things required to make a fire
1. Something which will burn eg. A combustible material
2.Oxygenair
3. A source of ignition or existence of a temperature at or above which a
material will start burning spontaneously.
98
Reference
Shreve RN . chemical process industries, 3rdedition. New York:
McGraw hill book company, 1967
Othmer Kirk, encyclopedia of chemical technology , vol. 21. New
York : John Wiley & Sons, 2004
Perry RH. Chemical Engineering Handbook, 6th edition. New York :
McGraw Hill Book Co, 1984
WWW.basf.Com
WWW.wikipedia.COM
Kern DQ. Process Heat Transfer. New Delhi : McGraw Hill

Companies , 2004
Urea manufacture processes ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry'', 5th Edition, Volume A27.
R.K.Sinnot. Chemical Engineering Design, vol. 6, 4th edition.
Coulson & Richardson's, Elsevier,2005.
Williad . Baasel. Preliminary chemical engineering plant design
99
100

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Manufacture Of Urea

A REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

Heba Ramadan Mohammed

1.5.1 Elimination Method

Urea Production Methods

Chapter 2: Material Balance

2.1 Around Reactor

2.2 Around Stripper

2.3 Around Medium Pressure Decomposer

2.4 Around Low Pressure Decomposer

2.5 Around Vacuum Evaporator

2.6 Around Prilling Tower

Chapter 3: Energy Balance

3.1 Around Reactor

3.2 Around Stripper

3.3 Around Carbamate Condenser

3.4 Around Medium Pressure Decomposer

3.5 Around Low Pressure decomposer

3.6 Around Vacuum Evaporator

3.7 Around Prilling Tower

Chapter 4: Equipment Design

4.1 Reactor Design

4.1.2 Thickness of Shell Design

4.1.3 Head Design

4.1.4 Piping Design

4.1.5 Sieve Plate Design

4.2 Carbamate Condenser Design

4.2.2 Design Procedure

4.3 Low Pressure Decomposer Design

4.3.2 Design Calculation

4.4 Vacuum Evaporator Design

4.4.1 Evaporation And Its Mechanism

4.4.2 Evaporator Types

4.4.3 Evaporator Selection

4.4.4 Design Calculation

4.5 Prilling Tower Design

4.5.2 Material Of Construction

4.5.3 Design Calculation

Chapter 5:Process Control

5.2 Control Objectives

5.3 Types Of Control System

5.4 Equipment Control

5.4.1 Around Reactor

5.4.2 Around Carbamate Condenser

5.4.3 Around Low Pressure Decomposer

5.4.4 Around Vacuum Evaporator

5.4.5 Around Prilling Tower

Chapter 6: Economy Cost

6.2 Types Of Cost Involves In Manufacturing

6.3 Cost Calculation

Chapter 7: Safety Aspect

7.2 Principle Of Protection And Prevention

7.3 Safety Precaution

7.4 List Of Safety equipment

7.5 Fire Hazards

The highly endothermic reaction is followed by an endothermic

We selected snamprogetti ammonia stripping process for the

1.2 Physical Properties

Melting point (C)

Viscosity ,v20 (mpa. Sec)

Heat of fusion (J/gm)

Heat of solutioninwater (J/gm)

Specificheat ,S0(KJ/kg. Co)

Table1.1physical properties of urea