BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE

.
BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE
FROM WIKIPEDIA, THE FREE
ENCYCLOPEDIA

IUPAC NAME [HIDE]

(C60-IH)[5,6]FULLERENE
OTHER NAMES[HIDE]
BUCKYBALL; FULLERENE-C60; [60]FULLERENE
IDENTIFIERS
CAS NUMBER

99685-96-8

PUBCHEM

123591

CHEMSPIDER

110185

CHEBI

CHEBI:33128

BEILSTEIN REFERENCE 5901022

PART OF A SERIES OF ARTICLES ON
JMOL -3D IMAGES
NANOMATERIALS

IMAGE 1

SMILES
FULLERENES
[SHOW]
CARBON NANOTUBES
INCHI
BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE
[SHOW]
FULLERENE CHEMISTRY
APPLICATIONS
PROPERTIES
IN POPULAR CULTURE
MOLECULAR FORMULA C60
TIMELINE
MOLAR MASS
720.64 G MOL1
CARBON ALLOTROPES
APPEARANCE
DARK NEEDLE-LIKE
CRYSTALS
NANOPARTICLES
QUANTUM DOTS
DENSITY
NANOSTRUCTURES
MELTING POINT

1.65 G/CM3

COLLOIDAL GOLD

SUBLIMATES AT ~600
C[1]

SOLUBILITY IN WATER

INSOLUBLE IN WATER

STRUCTURE
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

FACE-CENTERED
CUBIC,CF1924

THIS ARTICLE IS ABOUT THE

MOLECULE. FOR THE
MAGNETIC TOY,
SEE NEODYMIUM MAGNET
TOYS

SILVER NANOPARTICLES
IRON NANOPARTICLES
PLATINUM NANOPARTICLES
NANOTECHNOLOGY PORTAL
V

E
BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE (OR BUCKYBALL) IS A
SPHERICAL FULLERENE MOLECULE WITH THE FORMULA C60. IT HAS A CAGE-LIKE
FUSED-RING STRUCTURE (TRUNCATED ICOSAHEDRON ) WHICH RESEMBLES
ASOCCER BALL , MADE OF TWENTY HEXAGONS AND TWELVE PENTAGONS , WITH A
CARBON ATOM AT EACH VERTEX OF EACH POLYGON AND A BOND ALONG EACH
POLYGON EDGE.
IT WAS FIRST INTENTIONALLY PREPARED IN 1985 BY HAROLD KROTO , JAMES R.
HEATH , SEAN O'BRIEN,ROBERT CURL AND RICHARD SMALLEY AT RICE
UNIVERSITY .[2] KROTO, CURL AND SMALLEY WERE AWARDED THE 1996 NOBEL
PRIZE IN CHEMISTRY FOR THEIR ROLES IN THE DISCOVERY OF
BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE AND THE RELATED CLASS OF MOLECULES,
THE FULLERENES . THE NAME IS A HOMAGE TO BUCKMINSTER FULLER , AS
C60 RESEMBLES HIS TRADEMARK GEODESIC DOMES . BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE IS
THE MOST COMMONLY NATURALLY OCCURRING FULLERENE MOLECULE, AS IT CAN
BE FOUND IN SMALL QUANTITIES IN SOOT.[3] [4] SOLID AND GASEOUS FORMS OF
THE MOLECULE HAVE BEEN DETECTED IN DEEP SPACE.[5]
BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE IS THE LARGEST OBJECT TO HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO
EXHIBIT WAVEPARTICLE DUALITY .[6] ITS DISCOVERY LED TO THE EXPLORATION
OF A NEW FIELD OF CHEMISTRY, INVOLVING THE STUDY OF FULLERENES .
CONTENTS
[HIDE ]
1 ETYMOLOGY
2 HISTORY
2.1 DISCOVERY
2.2 FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS
3 SYNTHESIS

4 PROPERTIES
4.1 MOLECULE
4.2 SOLUTION
4.3 SOLID
4.3.1 BAND STRUCTURE AND SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
5 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND PROPERTIES
5.1 HYDRATED FULLERENE (HYFN)
5.2 HYDROGENATION
5.3 HALOGENATION
5.4 ADDITION OF OXYGEN ATOMS
5.5 CYCLOADDITIONS
5.6 FREE RADICAL REACTIONS
5.7 CYCLOPROPANATION (BINGEL REACTION)
5.8 REDOX REACTIONS C60 ANIONS AND CATIONS
5.9 METAL COMPLEXES
5.10 ENDOHEDRAL FULLERENES
6 APPLICATIONS
7 REFERENCES
8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
9 EXTERNAL LINKS
[EDIT ]ETYMOLOGY
BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE DERIVES FROM THE NAME OF THE NOTED FUTURIST
AND INVENTOR BUCKMINSTER FULLER . ONE OF HIS DESIGNS OF A GEODESIC
DOME STRUCTURE BEARS GREAT RESEMBLANCE TO C60; AS A RESULT, THE
DISCOVERERS OF THE ALLOTROPE NAMED THE NEWFOUND MOLECULE AFTER
HIM. THE GENERAL PUBLIC, HOWEVER, SOMETIMES REFERS TO
BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE, AND EVEN MR. FULLER'S DOME STRUCTURE, AS
BUCKYBALLS.[7]
[EDIT ]HISTORY
MAIN ARTICLE: FULLERENE
THE SERENDIPITOUS DISCOVERY OF A THIRD ALLOTROPIC FORM OF CARBON IN
1985, UNCOVERED A FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT STRUCTURE OF CLOSED
CARBON CAGES, WHICH EVENTUALLY BECAME KNOWN AS FULLERENES. THIS

NEW FAMILY OF NON-PLANAR CARBON COMPOUNDS GENERATED IMMENSE

INTEREST WITHIN THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY IN A SHORT PERIOD OF TIME,
WITH THOUSANDS OF PAPERS PUBLISHED ABOUT FULLERENES AND FULLERENEBASED MATERIALS IN THE 1990S.
[EDIT ]DISCOVERY

HAROLD RICHARD
KROTO SMALLEY

MANY ASSOCIATION FOOTBALLS HAVE THE SAME SHAPE AS

BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE, C60.
THEORETICAL PREDICTIONS OF BUCKYBALL MOLECULES APPEARED IN THE LATE
1960S EARLY 1970S,[8] BUT THEY WENT LARGELY UNNOTICED. IN THE EARLY
1970S, THE CHEMISTRY OF UNSATURATED CARBON CONFIGURATIONS WAS
STUDIED BY A GROUP AT THE UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX , LED BY HARRY KROTO AND
DAVID WALTON. IN THE 1980S A TECHNIQUE WAS DEVELOPED BY RICHARD
SMALLEY AND BOB CURL AT RICE UNIVERSITY , TEXAS TO ISOLATE THESE
SUBSTANCES. THEY USED LASER VAPORIZATION OF A SUITABLE TARGET TO
PRODUCE CLUSTERS OF ATOMS. KROTO REALIZED THAT BY USING
AGRAPHITE TARGET,[9] ANY CARBON CHAINS FORMED COULD BE STUDIED.
C60 WAS DISCOVERED IN 1985 BY ROBERT CURL, HAROLD KROTO AND RICHARD
SMALLEY. USING LASER EVAPORATION OF GRAPHITE THEY FOUND CNCLUSTERS
(WHERE N>20 AND EVEN) OF WHICH THE MOST COMMON WERE C60 AND C70.
FOR THIS DISCOVERY THEY WERE AWARDED THE 1996 NOBEL PRIZE IN
CHEMISTRY . THE DISCOVERY OF BUCKYBALLS WAS SURPRISING, AS THE
SCIENTISTS AIMED THE EXPERIMENT AT PRODUCING CARBON PLASMAS TO
REPLICATE AND CHARACTERIZE UNIDENTIFIED INTERSTELLAR MATTER . MASS

SPECTROMETRY ANALYSIS OF THE PRODUCT INDICATED THE FORMATION OF

SPHEROIDAL CARBON MOLECULES.[8]
THE EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE, A STRONG PEAK AT 720 ATOMIC MASS UNITS,
INDICATED THAT A CARBON MOLECULE WITH 60 CARBON ATOMS WAS FORMING,
BUT PROVIDED LITTLE STRUCTURAL INFORMATION. THE RESEARCH GROUP
CONCLUDED AFTER REACTIVITY EXPERIMENTS, THAT THE MOST LIKELY
STRUCTURE WAS A SPHEROIDAL MOLECULE. THE IDEA WAS QUICKLY
RATIONALIZED AS THE BASIS OF AN ICOSAHEDRAL SYMMETRY CLOSED CAGE
STRUCTURE. KROTO MENTIONED GEODESIC DOME STRUCTURES OF THE NOTED
FUTURIST AND INVENTOR BUCKMINSTER FULLER AS INFLUENCES IN THE NAMING
OF THIS PARTICULAR SUBSTANCE AS BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE.[8]
[EDIT ]FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS
THE VERSATILITY OF FULLERENE MOLECULES HAS LED TO A LARGE AMOUNT OF
RESEARCH EXPLORING THEIR PROPERTIES. ONE POTENTIALLY USEFUL PROPERTY
IS FULLERENE'S LARGE-CAPACITY INTERNAL SPACES. ATOMS OF DIFFERENT
ELEMENTS MAY BE PLACED INSIDE THE MOLECULAR CAGE FORMED BY THE
CARBON ATOMS, PRODUCING A SHRINK-WRAPPED VERSION OF THESE ELEMENTS.
[10]
BEAM-EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED BETWEEN 1985 AND 1990 PROVIDED MORE
EVIDENCE FOR THE STABILITY OF C60 WHILE SUPPORTING THE CLOSED-CAGE
STRUCTURAL THEORY AND PREDICTING SOME OF THE BULK PROPERTIES SUCH A
MOLECULE WOULD HAVE. AROUND THIS TIME, INTENSE THEORETICAL GROUP
THEORY ACTIVITY ALSO PREDICTED THAT C60 SHOULD HAVE ONLY FOUR IRACTIVE VIBRATIONAL BANDS, ON ACCOUNT OF ITS ICOSAHEDRAL SYMMETRY.[11]
IN 1989 THE HEIDELBERG/TUCSON GROUP, LED BY PHYSICISTS WOLFGANG
KRTSCHMER AND DONALD HUFFMAN, HAD OBSERVED UNUSUAL OPTICAL
ABSORPTIONS IN THIN CARBON FILMS PRODUCED BY ARC-PROCESSED GRAPHITE
RODS. AMONG OTHER FEATURES, THE IR SPECTRA SHOWED FOUR DISCRETE
BANDS IN CLOSE AGREEMENT TO THOSE PROPOSED FOR C60. A PAPER
PUBLISHED BY THE GROUP IN 1990 FOLLOWED ON FROM THEIR THIN FILM
EXPERIMENTS, AND DETAILED THE EXTRACTION OF A BENZENE SOLUBLE
MATERIAL FROM THE ARC-PROCESSED GRAPHITE. THIS EXTRACT HAD CRYSTAL
AND X-RAY ANALYSIS CONSISTENT WITH ARRAYS OF SPHERICAL C60 MOLECULES,
APPROXIMATELY 0.7 NM IN DIAMETER.[11]
[EDIT ]SYNTHESIS

HIGH-VACUUM ELECTROLYSIS OF A C60-FULLERENE DERIVATIVE. SLOW DIFFUSION

INTO THE ANODE (RIGHT SIDE) YIELDS THE CHARACTERISTIC PURPLE COLOR OF
PURE C60.
IN 1990, W. KRTCHMER AND D. R. HUFFMAN'S DEVELOPED A SIMPLE AND
EFFICIENT METHOD OF PRODUCING FULLERENES IN GRAM AND EVEN KILOGRAM
AMOUNTS WHICH BOOSTED THE FULLERENE RESEARCH. IN THIS TECHNIQUE,
CARBON SOOT IS PRODUCED FROM TWO HIGH-PURITY GRAPHITE ELECTRODES BY
IGNITING AN ARC DISCHARGE BETWEEN THEM IN AN INERT ATMOSPHERE
(HELIUM GAS). ALTERNATIVELY, SOOT IS PRODUCED BY LASER ABLATION OF
GRAPHITE OR PYROLYSIS OF AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS . FULLERENES ARE
EXTRACTED FROM THE SOOT USING A MULTISTEP PROCEDURE. FIRST, THE SOOT
IS DISSOLVED IN APPROPRIATE ORGANIC SOLVENTS. THIS STEP YIELDS A
SOLUTION CONTAINING UP TO 75% OF C60, AS WELL AS OTHER FULLERENES.
THESE FRACTIONS ARE SEPARATED USING CHROMATOGRAPHY .[12]GENERALLY,
THE FULLERENES ARE DISSOLVED IN HYDROCARBON OR HALOGENATED
HYDROCARBON AND SEPARATED USING ALUMINA COLUMNS.[13]
[EDIT ]PROPERTIES
[EDIT ]MOLECULE
THE STRUCTURE OF A BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE IS A TRUNCATED
ICOSAHEDRON WITH 60 VERTICES AND 32 FACES (20 HEXAGONS AND 12
PENTAGONS WHERE NO PENTAGONS SHARE A VERTEX) WITH A CARBON ATOM AT
THE VERTICES OF EACH POLYGON AND A BOND ALONG EACH POLYGON EDGE.
THE VAN DER WAALS DIAMETER OF A C60 MOLECULE IS ABOUT
1.01 NANOMETERS (NM). THE NUCLEUS TO NUCLEUS DIAMETER OF
A C60 MOLECULE IS ABOUT 0.71 NM. THE C60 MOLECULE HAS TWO BOND
LENGTHS. THE 6:6 RING BONDS (BETWEEN TWO HEXAGONS) CAN BE
CONSIDERED "DOUBLE BONDS " AND ARE SHORTER THAN THE 6:5 BONDS
(BETWEEN A HEXAGON AND A PENTAGON). ITS AVERAGE BOND LENGTH IS
0.14 NM. EACH CARBON ATOM IN THE STRUCTURE IS BONDED COVALENTLY WITH
3 OTHERS.[14]
THE C60 MOLECULE IS EXTREMELY STABLE,[15] WITHSTANDING HIGH
TEMPERATURES AND HIGH PRESSURES. THE EXPOSED SURFACE OF THE
STRUCTURE IS SELECTIVELY REACT WITH OTHER SPECIES WHILE MAINTAINING
THE SPHERICAL GEOMETRY.[16] ATOMS AND SMALL MOLECULES CAN BE
ENTRAPPED AT THE INTERIOR WITHOUT REACTING.
C60 UNDERGOES SIX REVERSIBLE, ONE-ELECTRON REDUCTIONS TO C6
60, WHEREAS OXIDATION IS IRREVERSIBLE. THE FIRST REDUCTION REQUIRES IS
~1.0 V(FC/FC+), INDICATING THAT C60 IS A MODERATELY EFFECTIVE ELECTRON
ACCEPTOR. C60 HAS A TENDENCY OF AVOIDING HAVING DOUBLE BONDS WITHIN
THE PENTAGONAL RINGS WHICH MAKES ELECTRON DELOCALIZATION POOR, AND
RESULTS IN THE FACT THAT C60 IS NOT "SUPERAROMATIC". C60 BEHAVES VERY
MUCH LIKE AN ELECTRON DEFICIENT ALKENE AND READILY REACTS WITH
ELECTRON RICH SPECIES.[11]
A CARBON ATOM IN THE C60 MOLECULE CAN BE SUBSTITUTED BY A NITROGEN
OR BORON ATOM YIELDING A C59N OR C59B RESPECTIVELY.[17]
ORTHOGONAL PROJECTIONS

CENTER
VERTEX
ED BY

EDGE
56

EDGE
6-6

FACE
HEXAGON

FACE
PENTAGON

[2]

[2]

[6]

[10]

IMAGE

PROJEC
TIVE
SYMME
TRY

[2]

[EDIT ]SOLUTION

C60 SOLUTION

SATURATED SOLUBILITY OF C60 (S, MG/ML)[18][19][20]

SOLVENT

1-CHLORONAPHTHALENE

51

1-METHYLNAPHTHALENE

33

1,2-DICHLOROBENZENE

24

1,2,4-TRIMETHYLBENZENE

18

TETRAHYDRONAPHTHALENE

16

CARBON DISULFIDE

1,2,3-TRIBROMOPROPANE

XYLENE

BROMOFORM

CUMENE

TOLUENE

BENZENE

1.5

CARBON TETRACHLORIDE

0.447

CHLOROFORM

0.25

N-HEXANE

0.046

CYCLOHEXANE

0.035

TETRAHYDROFURAN

0.006

ACETONITRILE

0.004

METHANOL

0.00004

WATER

1.31011

PENTANE

0.004

OCTANE

0.025

ISOOCTANE

0.026

DECANE

0.070

DODECANE

0.091

TETRADECANE

0.126

DIOXANE

0.0041

MESITYLENE

0.997

OPTICAL ABSORPTION SPECTRUM OF C60SOLUTION, SHOWING REDUCED

ABSORPTION FOR THE BLUE (~450 NM) AND RED (~700 NM) LIGHT THAT
RESULTS IN THE PURPLE COLOR.
FULLERENES ARE SPARINGLY SOLUBLE IN AROMATIC SOLVENTS SUCH
AS TOLUENE AND CARBON DISULFIDE . IT IS INSOLUBLE IN WATER. SOLUTIONS OF
PURE C60 HAVE A DEEP PURPLE COLOR WHICH LEAVES A BROWN RESIDUE UPON
EVAPORATION. THE REASON FOR THIS COLOR CHANGE IS THE RELATIVELY
NARROW ENERGY WIDTH OF THE BAND OF MOLECULAR LEVELS RESPONSIBLE
FOR GREEN LIGHT ABSORPTION BY INDIVIDUAL C60 MOLECULES. THUS
INDIVIDUAL MOLECULES TRANSMIT SOME BLUE AND RED LIGHT RESULTING IN A
PURPLE COLOR. UPON DRYING, INTERMOLECULAR INTERACTION RESULTS IN THE
OVERLAP AND BROADENING OF THE ENERGY BANDS, THEREBY ELIMINATING THE
BLUE LIGHT TRANSMITTANCE AND CAUSING THE PURPLE TO BROWN COLOR
CHANGE.[21]
C60 CRYSTALLISES WITH SOME SOLVENTS IN THE LATTICE ("SOLVATES"). FOR
EXAMPLE, CRYSTALLIZATION OF C60 INBENZENE SOLUTION YIELDS TRICLINIC
CRYSTALS WITH THE FORMULA C604C6H6. LIKE OTHER SOLVATES, THIS ONE
READILY RELEASES BENZENE TO GIVE THE USUAL FCC C60. MILLIMETER-SIZED
CRYSTALS OF C60 AND C70 CAN BE GROWN FROM SOLUTION BOTH FOR
SOLVATES AND FOR PURE FULLERENES.[22][23]
[EDIT ]SOLID

C60 SOLID

C60 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

IN SOLID BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE, THE MOLECULES C60 STICK TOGETHER VIA
THE VAN DER WAALS FORCES IN THE FCC MOTIF. AT LOW TEMPERATURES THE
INDIVIDUAL MOLECULES ARE LOCKED AGAINST ROTATION. UPON HEATING, THEY
START ROTATING AT ABOUT 20 C THAT RESULTS IN A FIRST-ORDER PHASE
TRANSITION TO A FACE-CENTERED CUBIC (FCC) STRUCTURE AND A SMALL, YET
ABRUPT INCREASE IN THE LATTICE CONSTANT FROM 0.1411 TO 0.14154 NM.[24]
C60 SOLID IS AS SOFT AS GRAPHITE, BUT WHEN COMPRESSED TO LESS THAN
70% OF ITS VOLUME IT TRANSFORMS INTO A SUPERHARD FORM
OF DIAMOND (SEE AGGREGATED DIAMOND NANOROD ). C60FILMS AND SOLUTION
HAVE STRONG NON-LINEAR OPTICAL PROPERTIES, PARTICULARLY, THEIR OPTICAL
ABSORPTION INCREASES WITH THE LIGHT INTENSITY (SATURABLE ABSORPTION).
C60 FORMS A BROWNISH SOLID WITH AN OPTICAL ABSORPTION THRESHOLD AT
~1.6 EV.[25] IT IS AN N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR WITH A LOW ACTIVATION ENERGY
OF 0.10.3 EV; THIS CONDUCTIVITY IS ATTRIBUTED TO INTRINSIC OR OXYGENRELATED DEFECTS.[26] FCC C60 CONTAINS VOIDS AT ITS OCTAHEDRAL AND
TETRAHEDRAL SITES WHICH ARE SUFFICIENT LARGE (0.6 AND 0.2 NM
RESPECTIVELY) TO ACCOMMODATE IMPURITY ATOMS. ALKALI METALS CAN BE
DOPED INTO THESE VOIDS, C60 CONVERTS FROM A SEMICONDUCTOR INTO A
CONDUCTOR OR EVEN SUPERCONDUCTOR.[24] [27]
[EDIT ]BAND STRUCTURE AND SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

CS3C60 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

IN 1991, HADDON ET AL.[28] FOUND THAT INTERCALATION OF ALKALI-METAL
ATOMS IN SOLID C60 LEADS TO METALLIC BEHAVIOR.[29] IN 1991, IT WAS
REVEALED THAT POTASSIUM-DOPED C60 BECOMESSUPERCONDUCTING AT 18 K.
[30] THIS WAS THE HIGHEST TRANSITION TEMPERATURE FOR A MOLECULAR
SUPERCONDUCTOR. SINCE THEN, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY HAS BEEN REPORTED IN
FULLERENE DOPED WITH VARIOUS OTHER ALKALI METALS.[31][32] IT HAS BEEN
SHOWN THAT THE SUPERCONDUCTING TRANSITION TEMPERATURE IN ALKALINEMETAL-DOPED FULLERENE INCREASES WITH THE UNIT-CELL VOLUME V.[33]
[34] ASCAESIUM FORMS THE LARGEST ALKALI ION, CAESIUM-DOPED FULLERENE
IS AN IMPORTANT MATERIAL IN THIS FAMILY. RECENTLY, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AT
38 K HAS BEEN REPORTED IN BULK CS3C60,[35] BUT ONLY UNDER APPLIED
PRESSURE. THE HIGHEST SUPERCONDUCTING TRANSITION TEMPERATURE OF 33 K
AT AMBIENT PRESSURE IS REPORTED FOR CS2RBC60.[36]
THE INCREASE OF TRANSITION TEMPERATURE WITH THE UNIT-CELL VOLUME HAD
BEEN BELIEVED TO BE EVIDENCE FOR THE BCS MECHANISM OF C60 SOLID
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, BECAUSE INTER C60SEPARATION CAN BE RELATED TO AN
INCREASE IN THE DENSITY OF STATES ON THE FERMI LEVEL, N(F). THEREFORE,
THERE HAVE BEEN MANY EFFORTS TO INCREASE THE INTERFULLERENE
SEPARATION, IN PARTICULAR, INTERCALATING NEUTRAL MOLECULES INTO THE
A3C60 LATTICE TO INCREASE THE INTERFULLERENE SPACING WHILE THE
VALENCE OF C60 IS KEPT UNCHANGED. HOWEVER, THIS AMMONIATION
TECHNIQUE HAS REVEALED A NEW ASPECT OF FULLERENE INTERCALATION
COMPOUNDS: THE MOTT TRANSITION AND THE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE
ORIENTATION/ORBITAL ORDER OF C60 MOLECULES AND THE MAGNETIC
STRUCTURE.[37]

ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF C60 UNDER "IDEAL" SPHERICAL (LEFT) AND "REAL"

ICOSAHEDRAL SYMMETRY (RIGHT).
THE C60 MOLECULES COMPOSE A SOLID OF WEAKLY BOUND MOLECULES. THE
FULLERITES ARE THEREFORE MOLECULAR SOLIDS, IN WHICH THE MOLECULAR
PROPERTIES STILL SURVIVE. THE DISCRETE LEVELS OF A FREE C60 MOLECULE
ARE ONLY WEAKLY BROADENED IN THE SOLID, WHICH LEADS TO A SET OF
ESSENTIALLY NONOVERLAPPING BANDS WITH A NARROW WIDTH OF ABOUT 0.5
EV.[29] FOR AN UNDOPED C60 SOLID, THE 5-FOLD HU BAND IS THE HOMO LEVEL,
AND THE 3-FOLD T1U BAND IS THE EMPTY LUMO LEVEL, AND THIS SYSTEM IS A
BAND INSULATOR. BUT WHEN THE C60 SOLID IS DOPED WITH METAL ATOMS, THE
METAL ATOMS GIVE ELECTRONS TO THE T1U BAND OR THE UPPER 3-FOLD
T1G BAND.[38] THIS PARTIAL ELECTRON OCCUPATION OF THE BAND MAY LEAD
TO METALLIC BEHAVIOR. HOWEVER, A4C60 IS AN INSULATOR, ALTHOUGH THE
T1U BAND IS ONLY PARTIALLY FILLED AND IT SHOULD BE A METAL ACCORDING TO
BAND THEORY.[39] THIS UNPREDICTED BEHAVIOR MAY BE EXPLAINED BY
THE JAHN-TELLER EFFECT , WHERE SPONTANEOUS DEFORMATIONS OF HIGHSYMMETRY MOLECULES INDUCE THE SPLITTING OF DEGENERATE LEVELS TO GAIN
THE ELECTRONIC ENERGY. THE JAHN-TELLER TYPE ELECTRON-PHONON
INTERACTION IS STRONG ENOUGH IN C60 SOLIDS TO DESTROY THE BAND
PICTURE FOR PARTICULAR VALENCE STATES.[37]
A NARROW BAND OR STRONGLY CORRELATED ELECTRONIC SYSTEM AND
DEGENERATED GROUND STATES ARE IMPORTANT POINTS TO UNDERSTAND IN
EXPLAINING SUPERCONDUCTIVITY IN FULLERENE SOLIDS. WHEN THE INTERELECTRON REPULSION U IS GREATER THAN THE BANDWIDTH, AN INSULATING
LOCALIZED ELECTRON GROUND STATE IS PRODUCED IN THE SIMPLE MOTTHUBBARD MODEL. THIS EXPLAINS THE ABSENCE OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AT
AMBIENT PRESSURE IN CAESIUM-DOPED C60 SOLIDS.[35] ELECTRONCORRELATION-DRIVEN LOCALIZATION OF THE T1U ELECTRONS EXCEEDS THE
CRITICAL VALUE, LEADING TO THE MOTT INSULATOR. THE APPLICATION OF HIGH
PRESSURE DECREASES THE INTERFULLERENE SPACING, THEREFORE CAESIUMDOPED C60 SOLIDS TURN TO METALLIC AND SUPERCONDUCTING.
A FULLY DEVELOPED THEORY OF C60 SOLIDS SUPERCONDUCTIVITY IS STILL
LACKING, BUT IT HAS BEEN WIDELY ACCEPTED THAT STRONG ELECTRONIC
CORRELATIONS AND THE JAHN-TELLER ELECTRON-PHONON
COUPLING[40] PRODUCE LOCAL ELECTRON-PAIRINGS THAT SHOW A HIGH
TRANSITION TEMPERATURE CLOSE TO THE INSULATOR-METAL TRANSITION.[41]
[EDIT ]CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND PROPERTIES

[EDIT ]HYDRATED FULLERENE (HYFN)

C60HYFN WATER SOLUTION WITH A C60CONCENTRATION OF 0.22 G/L.

HYDRATED FULLERENE C60HYFN IS A STABLE, HIGHLY HYDROPHILIC, SUPRAMOLECULAR COMPLEX CONSISTING OF 60 FULLERENE MOLECULE ENCLOSED
INTO THE FIRST HYDRATED SHELL THAT CONTAINS 24 WATER MOLECULES:
C60(H2O)24. THIS HYDRATED SHELL IS FORMED AS A RESULT OF DONORACCEPTOR INTERACTION BETWEEN LONE-ELECTRON PAIRS OF OXYGEN, WATER
MOLECULES AND ELECTRON-ACCEPTOR CENTERS ON THE FULLERENE SURFACE.
MEANWHILE, THE WATER MOLECULES WHICH ARE ORIENTED CLOSE TO THE
FULLERENE SURFACE ARE INTERCONNECTED BY A THREE-DIMENSIONAL
NETWORK OF HYDROGEN BONDS. THE SIZE OF C60HYFN IS 1.61.8 NM. THE
MAXIMAL CONCENTRATION OF 60 IN THE FORM OF C60HYFN ACHIEVED BY 2010
IS 4 MG/ML.[42] [43] [44] [45]
[EDIT ]HYDROGENATION
C60 EXHIBITS A SMALL DEGREE OF AROMATIC CHARACTER, BUT IT STILL
REFLECTS LOCALIZED DOUBLE AND SINGLE C-C BOND CHARACTERS. THEREFORE
C60 CAN UNDERGO ADDITION WITH HYDROGEN TO GIVE
POLYHYDROFULLERENES. C60 ALSO UNDERGOES BIRCH REDUCTION . FOR
EXAMPLE, C60 REACTS WITH LITHIUM IN LIQUID AMMONIA, FOLLOWED BY TERTBUTANOL TO GIVE A MIXTURE OF POLYHYDROFULLERENES SUCH AS C60H18,
C60H32, C60H36, WITH C60H32 BEING THE DOMINATED PRODUCT. THESE
MIXTURE OF POLYHYDROFULLERENES CAN BE RE-OXIDIZED BY 2,3-DICHLORO5,6-DICYANO-1,4-BENZOQUINONE TO GIVE C60 AGAIN.
SELECTIVE HYDROGENATION METHOD EXISTS. REACTION OF C60 WITH
9,9',10,10'-DIHYDROANTHRACENE UNDER THE SAME CONDITIONS, DEPENDING
ON THE TIME OF REACTION, GIVES C60H32 AND C60H18 RESPECTIVELY AND
SELECTIVELY.[46]
[EDIT ]HALOGENATION
ADDITION OF FLUORINE, CHLORINE , AND BROMINE OCCURS FOR C60.
FOR FLUORINE, THE F ATOMS ARE SMALL ENOUGH FOR A 1,2-ADDITION.
HOWEVER, FOR CL2 AND BR2, THE HALOGEN ATOMS ADDS TO REMOTE C ATOMS
DUE TO STERIC FACTORS . FOR EXAMPLE, IN C60BR8 AND C60BR24, THE BR
ATOMS ARE IN 1,3- OR 1,4-POSITIONS WITH RESPECT TO EACH OTHER.

UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS, A VAST NUMBER OF HALOGENATED DERIVATIVES

OF C60 CAN BE PRODUCED, SOME WITH EXTRAORDINARY SELECTIVITY ON ONE
OR TWO ISOMERS OVER THE OTHER POSSIBLE ONES.
ADDITION OF FLUORINE AND CHLORINE USUALLY RESULTS IN A FLATTENING OF
THE C60 FRAMEWORK INTO A DRUM-SHAPED MOLECULE.[46]
[EDIT ]ADDITION OF OXYGEN ATOMS
SOLUTIONS OF C60 CAN BE OXYGENATED TO THE EPOXIDE C60O. OZONATION OF
C60 IN 1,2-XYLENE AT 257K GIVES AN INTERMEDIATE OZONIDE C60O3, WHICH
CAN BE DECOMPOSED INTO 2 FORMS OF C60O. DECOMPOSITION OF C60O3 AT
296K GIVES THE EPOXIDE, BUT PHOTOLYSIS GIVES A PRODUCT IN WHICH THE O
ATOM BRIDGES A 5,6-EDIGE.[46]

[EDIT ]CYCLOADDITIONS
THE DIELS-ALDER REACTION IS COMMONLY EMPLOYED TO FUNCTIONALIZE C60.
REACTION OF C60 WITH APPROPRIATE SUBSTITUTED DIENE GIVES THE
CORRESPONDING ADDUCT.

THE DIELS-ALDER REACTION BETWEEN C60 AND 3,6-DIARYL-1,2,4,5-TETRAZINES

AFFORDS C62. THE C62 HAS THE STRUCTURE IN WHICH A FOUR-MEMBERED RING
IS SURROUNDED BY FOUR SIX-MEMBERED RINGS.

A C62 DERIVATIVE [C62(C6H4-4-ME)2] SYNTHESIZED FROM C60 AND 3,6-BIS(4METHYLPHENYL)-3,6-DIHYDRO-1,2,4,5-TETRAZINE

THE C60 MOLECULES CAN ALSO BE COUPLED THROUGH A [2+2] CYCLOADDITION ,
GIVING THE DUMBBELL-SHAPED COMPOUND C120. THE COUPLING IS ACHIEVED
BY HIGH-SPEED VIBRATING MILLING OF C60 WITH A CATALYTIC AMOUNT OF KCN.
THE REACTION IS REVERSIBLE AS C120 DISSOCIATES BACK TO TWO
C60MOLECULES WHEN HEATED AT 450 K (177 C; 350 F). UNDER HIGH
PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE, REPEATED [2+2] CYCLOADDTION BETWEEN
C60 RESULTS IN A POLYMERIZED FULLERENE CHAINS AND NETWORKS. THESE
POLYMERS REMAIN STABLE AT AMBIENT PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE ONCE
FORMED, AND HAVE REMARKABLY INTERESTING ELECTRONIC AND MAGNETIC
PROPERTIES, SUCH AS BEINGFERROMAGNETIC ABOVE ROOM TEMPERATURE.[46]
[EDIT ]FREE RADICAL REACTIONS
REACTIONS OF C60 WITH FREE RADICALS READILY OCCUR. WHEN C60 IS MIXED
WITH A DISULFIDE RSSR, THE RADICAL C60SR FORMS SPONTANEOUSLY UPON
IRRADIATION OF THE MIXTURE.
STABILITY OF THE RADICAL SPECIES C60Y DEPENDS LARGELY ON STERIC
FACTORS OF Y. WHEN TERT-BUTYL HALIDE IS PHOTOLYZED AND ALLOWED TO
REACT WITH C60, A REVERSIBLE INTER-CAGE C-C BOND IS FORMED:[46]

[EDIT ]CYCLOPROPANATION (BINGEL REACTION)

CYCLOPROPANATION (BINGEL REACTION ) IS ANOTHER COMMON METHOD USED
TO FUNCTIONALIZE C60. CYCLOPROPANATION OF C60 MOSTLY OCCURS AT THE
JUNCTION OF 2 HEXAGONS DUE TO STERIC FACTORS.
THE FIRST CYCLOPROPANATION WAS CARRIED OUT BY C. BENGEL, BY REACTING
THE -BROMOMALONATE WITH C60IN THE PRESENCE OF A BASE.
CYCLOPROPANATION ALSO OCCUR READILY FOR C60 WITH DIAZOMETHANES . FOR
EXAMPLE, DIPHENYLDIAZOMETHANE REACTS READILY WITH C60 TO GIVE THE
COMPOUND C61PH2.[46]
PHENYL-C61-BUTYRIC ACID METHYL ESTER HAS BEEN MADE THROUGH
CYCLOPROPANATION OF C60, WHICH FINDS USE IN ORGANIC SOLAR CELLS .
[EDIT ]REDOX REACTIONS C60 ANIONS AND CATIONS
THE LUMO IN C60 IS TRIPLY DEGENERATE, WITH THE HOMO-LUMO SEPARATION
RELATIVELY SMALL. THIS SUGGESTS THAT REDUCTION OF C60 WOULD NOT BE OF
MUCH DIFFICULTY, LEADING TO A SERIES OF FULLERIDE IONS, [C60]N- (N = 16).
THE MIDPOINT POTENTIALS OF 1-ELECTRON REDUCTION OF
BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE AT 213K IS GIVEN IN THE TABLE BELOW:
REDUCTION POTENTIAL OF C60 AT 213K
HALF-REACTION

E (V)

C60 + E- C
60

0.169

C
60 + E- C2
60

0.599

C2
60 + E- C3

1.129

60
C3
60 + E- C4
60

1.579

C4
60 + E- C5
60

2.069

C5
60 + E- C6
60

2.479

C60 FORMS A VARIETY OF CHARGE-TRANSFER COMPLEXES , ONE EXAMPLE IS THE

COMPOUND [C2(NME)2)4]+[C60]-, OF WHICH THE ION [C60]- IS ISOLATED. THE
COMPOUND IS SYNTHESIZED AS FOLLOWS:

THIS COMPOUND IS OF MUCH SIGNIFICANCE AS IT

BECOMES FERROMAGNETIC WHEN IT IS COOLED TO 16K.
THE FULLERIDE ION [C60]2- HAS BEEN ISOLATED AS THE [K(CRYPT-222)]+ SALT,
AND IS PARAMAGNETIC . IT IS SYNTHESIZED BY REACTING C60 WITH
METALLIC POTASSIUM IN TOLUENE /DMF SOLUTION IN THE PRESENCE OF 2.2.2CRYPTAND . THE MOST COMMON FULLERIDE ION, HOWEVER, IS [C60]3-, WHICH
ITS ALKALI METAL SALTS ARE WELL KNOWN FOR THEIR SUPERCONDUCTIVITY . IN
M3C60 (M = NA, K, RB), THE M+ IONS OCCUPY THE INTERSTITIAL HOLES IN A
LATTICE COMPOSED OF CLOSE-PACKED, NEARLY SPHERICAL C60 CAGES, WHERE
THE C60 CAGES ARE ARRANGED IN A CCP LATTICE. IN CS3C60, THE CAGES ARE
ARRANGED IN A BCC LATTICE.
CRITICAL TEMPERATURES (TC) OF THE FULLERIDE SALTS M3C60
SALT

TC (K)

NA3C60

(NON-SUPERCONDUCTIVE)

K3C60

18

RB3C60

28

CS3C60

40

C60 IS EXCEEDINGLY HARD TO OXIDIZE. THREE REVERSIBLE OXIDATION

PROCESSES HAVE BEEN OBSERVED SO FAR, BY USING CYCLIC
VOLTAMMETRY WITH ULTRA-DRY METHYLENE CHLORIDE AND A SUPPORTING
ELECTROLYTE WITH EXTREMELY HIGH OXIDATION RESISTANCE AND LOW
NUCLEOPHILICITY, SUCH AS [NBU4N][ASF6].[46]
REDUCTION POTENTIALS OF C60 OXIDATION AT LOW TEMPERATURES
HALF-REACTION

E (V)

C60 C+
60

+1.27

C+
60 C2+
60

+1.71

C2+
60 C3+
60

+2.14

WHICH THE [C60]2+ ION IS VERY UNSTABLE, AND THE THIRD PROCESS CAN BE
STUDIED ONLY AT LOW TEMPERATURES.
THE REDOX POTENTIALS OF C60 CAN BE MODIFIED SUPRAMOLECULARLY.
A DIBENZO-18-CROWN-6 DERIVATIVE OF C60 HAS BEEN MADE, FEATURING A
VOLTAGE SENSOR DEVICE, WITH THE REVERSIBLE BINDING OF K+ ION CAUSING
AN ANODIC SHIFT OF 90MV OF THE FIRST C60 REDUCTION.

[EDIT ]METAL COMPLEXES

MAIN ARTICLE: FULLERENE LIGAND
C60 FORMS COMPLEXES AKIN TO THE MORE COMMON ALKENES. COMPLEXES
HAVE BEEN
REPORTED MOLYBDENUM , TUNGSTEN , PLATINUM , PALLADIUM ,IRIDIUM ,
AND TITANIUM . THE PENTACARBONYL SPECIES ARE PRODUCED
BY PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS , E.G. USE OF SUNLIGHT .

M(CO)6 + C60 M(2-C60)(CO)5 + CO (M = MO, W)

IN THE CASE OF PLATINUM COMPLEX, THE LABILE ETHYLENE LIGAND IS THE
LEAVING GROUP IN A THERMAL REACTION:
PT(2-C2H4)(PPH3)2 + C60 PT(2-C60)(PPH3)2 + C2H4
OTHER ALKYNE COMPLEXES,
(5-CP)2TI(2-(CH3)3SICCSI(CH3)3) + C60 (5-CP)2TI(2-C60) +
CH3)3SICCSI(CH3)3
COORDINATIVELY UNSATURATED PRECURSORS, SUCH AS VASKA'S COMPLEX ,
FOR ADDUCTS WITH C60:
TRANS-IR(CO)CL(PPH3)2 + C60 IR(CO)CL(2-C60)(PPH3)2
ONE IRIDIUM COMPLEX OF C60 [IR(2-C60)(CO)CL(PH2CH2C6H4OCH2PH)2] HAS
BEEN PREPARED, PRODUCING A SELF-COMPLEMENTARY C60-BASED HOST IN A
REMARKABLE WAY, IN WHICH THE IRIDIUM METAL CENTER PROJECT TWO
ELECTRON-RICH 'ARMS', WITH THE PHENYL GROUPS CHELATING ADJACENT
C60 LIGANDS.[47]
[EDIT ]ENDOHEDRAL FULLERENES
MAIN ARTICLES: ENDOHEDRAL FULLERENE AND ENDOHEDRAL HYDROGEN
FULLERENE
METAL ATOMS OR CERTAIN SMALL MOLECULES SUCH AS H2 MOLECULES CAN BE
ENCAPSULATED INSIDE THE C60 CAGE. THESE ENDOHEDRAL FULLERENES ARE
USUALLY SYNTHESIZED BY DOPING IN THE METAL ATOMS IN AN ARC REACTOR OR
BY LASER EVAPORATION. THESE METHODS GIVES LOW YIELDS OF ENDOHEDRAL
FULLERENES, AND A BETTER METHOD INVOLVES THE OPENING OF THE CAGE,
PACKING IN THE ATOMS OR MOLECULES, AND CLOSING THE OPENING USING
CERTAIN ORGANIC REACTIONS . THIS METHOD, HOWEVER, IS STILL IMMATURE
AND ONLY A FEW SPECIES HAVE BEEN SYNTHESIZED THIS WAY.
ENDOHEDRAL FULLERENES SHOW DISTINCT AND INTRIGUING CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES THAT CAN BE COMPLETELY DIFFERENT FROM THE ENCAPSULATED
ATOM OR MOLECULE, AS WELL AS THE FULLERENE ITSELF. THE ENCAPSULATED
ATOMS HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO PERFORM CIRCULAR MOTIONS INSIDE THE
C60 CAGE, AND ITS MOTION HAS BEEN FOLLOWED BY USING NMR
SPECTROSCOPY .[47]
[EDIT ]APPLICATIONS
THE C60 MOLECULE CAN ALSO BIND LARGE NUMBERS OF HYDROGEN ATOMS (UP
TO ONE HYDROGEN FOR EACH CARBON) WITHOUT DISRUPTING THE STRUCTURE.
THIS PROPERTY SUGGESTS THAT BUCKYBALLS MAY BE AN EFFICIENT MEDIUM TO
MAKE HYDROGEN FUEL MORE ACCESSIBLE TO THE GENERAL ECONOMY. A PEERREVIEWED REPORT[48] PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN NATIONAL RENEWABLE
ENERGY LABORATORY (NREL) IN 2005 PROPOSES THAT A MODIFIED FORM OF
BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE CALLED ORGANOMETALLIC BUCKYBALLS (OBBS) MAY
BE A VEHICLE FOR "HIGH DENSITY, ROOM TEMPERATURE, AMBIENT
PRESSURE STORAGE OF HYDROGEN ". THESE OBBS ARE CREATED BY BINDING

ATOMS OF A TRANSITION METAL (TM) TO C60 OR C48B12 AND THEN BINDING

MANY HYDROGEN ATOMS TO THIS TM ATOM, DISPERSING THEM EVENLY
THROUGHOUT THE INSIDE OF THE ORGANOMETALLIC BUCKYBALL. THE STUDY
FOUND THAT THE THEORETICAL AMOUNT OF H2 THAT CAN BE RETRIEVED FROM
THE OBB AT AMBIENT PRESSURE APPROACHES 9 WT % , A MASS FRACTION THAT
HAS BEEN DESIGNATED AS OPTIMAL FOR HYDROGEN FUEL BY THE U.S.
DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY .
IN THE MEDICAL FIELD, ELEMENTS SUCH AS HELIUM (THAT CAN BE DETECTED IN
MINUTE QUANTITIES) CAN BE USED AS CHEMICAL TRACERS IN IMPREGNATED
BUCKYBALLS. BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE COULD ALSO INHIBIT THE HIV VIRUS. IN
PARTICULAR, C60 INHIBITS A KEY ENZYME IN THE HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY
VIRUS KNOWN AS HIV-1 PROTEASE ; THIS COULD INHIBIT REPRODUCTION OF
THE HIV VIRUS IN IMMUNE CELLS.
THE OPTICAL ABSORPTION PROPERTIES OF C60 MATCH SOLAR SPECTRUM THAT
FAVORS C60-BASED FILMS FOR PHOTOVOLTAIC APPLICATIONS. CONVERSION
EFFICIENCIES UP TO 5.7% HAVE BEEN REPORTED IN C60-POLYMER CELLS.[49]
[EDIT ]REFERENCES
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^ PROPERTIES OF BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE . MING KAI COLLEGE, HONG KONG

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KOSMAS (2008). "BULK SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AT 38 K IN A MOLECULAR
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KUROSHIMA, S. (1991). "SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AT 33 K IN
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^ FULLERENE HYDRATION
^ ANDRIEVSKY, G; KLOCHKOV, V.K.; BORDYUH, A.B.; DOVBESHKO, G.I. (2002).
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[EDIT ]BIBLIOGRAPHY
KATZ, E. A. (2006). "FULLERENE THIN FILMS AS PHOTOVOLTAIC MATERIAL" . IN
SGA, TETSUO. NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS FOR SOLAR ENERGY
CONVERSION. ELSEVIER. PP. 361443. ISBN 978-0-444-52844-5 .
[EDIT ]EXTERNAL LINKS

FIND MORE
ABOUT BUCK
MINSTERFULL
ERENE AT
WIKIPEDIA'S
SISTER
PROJECTS

DEFINITIO
NS AND
TRANSLAT
IONS FRO
M
WIKTIONA
RY
MEDIA FR
OM
COMMONS
LEARNING
RESOURC
ES FROM
WIKIVERSI
TY
TEXTBOO
KS FROM
WIKIBOOK
S
TRAVEL
INFORMAT
ION FROM
WIKIVOYA
GE
HISTORY OF C60'S DISCOVERY CARRIED OUT BY THE CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT AT
BRISTOL UNIVERSITY
HAROLD KROTO ET AL.'S ORIGINAL PUBLICATION ON THEIR DISCOVERY OF
BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE, INNATURE, PUBLISHED IN 1985
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE DESCRIBED BY THE UNIVERSITY
OF WISCONSIN-MADISON
A REPORT BY MING KAI COLLEGE DETAILING THE PROPERTIES OF
BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE

AN IN-DEPTH LOOK AT BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE AND ITS DISCOVERY,

PROPERTIES, AND APPLICATIONS CONDUCTED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF
WISCONSIN-MADISON
DONALD R. HUFFMAN AND WOLFGANG KRTSCHMER'S PAPER PERTAINING TO
THE SYNTHESIS OF C60IN NATURE PUBLISHED IN 1990
A THOROUGH DESCRIPTION OF C60 BY THE OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY
AN ARTICLE ABOUT BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE ON CONNEXIONS SCIENCE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA
EXTENSIVE STATISTICAL DATA COMPILED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX ON THE
NUMERICAL QUANTATATIVE PROPERTIES OF BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE
A WEB PORTAL DEDICATED TO BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE, AUTHORED AND
SUPPORTED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL
ANOTHER WEB PORTAL DEDICATED TO BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE, AUTHORED
AND SUPPORTED BY THE CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT AT THE UNIVERSITY OF
BRISTOL
A BRIEF ARTICLE ENTIRELY DEVOTED TO C60 AND ITS DISCOVERY, STRUCTURE,
PRODUCTION, PROPERTIES, AND APPLICATIONS
JACK HOWARD'S SCIENTIFIC REPORT DESCRIBING THE SYNTHESIS OF C60 WITH
COMBUSTION RESEARCH PUBLISHED IN 2000 AT THE 28TH INTERNATIONAL
SYMPOSIUM ON COMBUSTION
AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY'S COMPLETE ARTICLE ON
BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE
[HIDE ]
V

E
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON

DIAMOND (CUBIC)
SP3 FORMS
LONSDALEITE (HEXAGONAL
DIAMOND)

GRAPHITE

GRAPHENE
SP2 FORMS
FULLERENES (BUCKMINSTERFULLERE
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