Books in This Series ANTHROPOPOLIS City for Human Development by C. A. Doxlads eal. ECUMENOPOLIS The Inevitable City ofthe Future by C.A. Doxiadis and}. G. Papaioannou BUILDING ENTOPIA by C.A. Doxiacis ACTION for Human Satlements by C.A. Doxiadis ECUMENOPOLIS the Inevitable City of the Future CA. DOXIADIS and J.G. PAPAIOANNOU W- W- NORTON & COMPANY./IRG * New York1. Our goal (Our goal has been to carify the picture of the Cty ofthe Future as much as Possible, notin terms of what each one of us hopes wll happen, but interns ‘of what Anthropost is actualy going to build; thats, notin terms of our pen sonal utopia, which are unpredictable and in most cases unimportant for are kind in general, but in terms of Anthropos’ action, which can be predicted. “The first question which alesis whether there are any predictable tends in this field, and the answer is defintely: yes, there are. The City ofthe Future wil ‘not be buil in the Himalayas, nor even in the Alps, nor wilt be built on the ‘ocean, despite the fact that there will be some westher and sports saions on ‘he mountains, and some scientific and resource-collecing stations onthe ocean tis true thot there are some characteristics of our subject which are predictable, {and some which are not: universal desices are predictable, individal ones are not; biological needs can be predicted, "ashione’ cannot. Our goal i o define those features which are predictable, and so tun from vague theorizing about the subject toa realistic approach it ‘Te seccnd question is whether the attempt to predict our future like this ‘makes any sense: and the answer is that mankind has done it many smes nthe ast, and managed to get even further. Antopos cannot have lived In illages for thousands of yeas without working out what his future was going to be, and ‘then tying to actin order to achieve it. He certainly began to act by tal and ‘error about ten or twelve thousand years ago, and then one day he found the "ight road and discovered the village. The same thing must have happened with the formation of his towns and cites, which were born some six thousand years {ago oF even earlier. He may have fale at first and then maneged to solve his problems, but the fat is that he gid sole them, We do know that tn ancient [Greece fr example, the ces created before the sith century were not ideal ‘even Athens had its problems. Then people began to understand what the ty was to be, and the day came when Hippodamos was abie to conceive the "chy ofthe Future asa whole and help people to build i. The third question is whether what was possible for small villages and small ces f also possible today forthe big ces that are exploding nto the colosal cites ofthe future. The answer to that wa given as early as 1781 in Washington FD. and in 1856 in Barcelona, where people had the courage to foresee growth F and to plan successfully for their eities ofthe future which they then predicted F would be ten times larger than thei present ones " Anthropos has had the ability at cera times during thousands of years to [predict the future of his setlements, then It fe unreasonable to assume he has ow ost it 5 it really Important to concentrate so much attention on the City of the Furure? If we cemember thatthe big problems humanity faces today are achiev= ing peace, producing enough food and developing a successful system of fe, we can See thatthe city Is Involved in all of them. It the incispensable four <éxion for any system of ie; it a very important factor in the production of food; and a more rtionally-built and betterfed world has much more hope of achieving peace. We wll never achieve peace if we do not build a better world and the citys the practical foundation for such a world. So the City ofthe Future Is of the greatest importance for mankind and should have the greatest possible attontion concentrated on i Why is itso imporant for us to elscuss not what each one of us hopes Anthro os wl build but what Anthopos is actually going to build? “The world today gives people more opportunities for individual feedomn with ‘every day that passes, 40 we hear more conflicting ingvidval views about the preblem than ever before. Some people say: “I love the ely”, other: “hate the city". Many people, 3s groups, may complain loudly about auch things as sic potion, but when they are actually glen the chance to reduce it — as they wore recently by the organization of computerized carsharng pools in Los “Angeles — they showed that they realy were against t by their total refusal to Use the system. Another eampe of the confusion between theoretical state- ments and practical realty came up when we had long sesions with diferent Scientific groups, each of which insisted that our cities would not survive unless \we organized them according to one philosophical theory or another. They all neglected the one essntial without which any city would be dead in seconds ane that i oxygen We canbe sre that what Ativop0s wil actualy bud wil nt corepond to se val teat Ter Tana inepretans of ay parol pe of peson_"The Sy Arnopor balls wl sotoetond a eteee al Sees So we HUH UNDORRT HRA Arvopos aly a bogespsychological organism. When Anthropos is driven by his desire to save energy In his movements, to consider his economic interest, t0 respond tothe actual ‘geographic condition: around him, these are the things that really count wher he decides what action he wil take. So thi is our gol, to understand what sor of city itis that Anthropos is actully going to build — chat to find what the Inevitable City of Anthropos iso be. In order to be as objective as possible we did not let ourselves be influenced by the findings of any spectc group either in the ats orn technology, nor even by ovr own opinions about what ought tobe done in the future. At the begin- ning we did think of diving this study ito two sections: the fst (wth which we are dealing at present) to cover the inevitable City of Antropos; and the second to deal wth what we ourselves consider should be done — that i, with ‘the desirable City of anthropos. However we finally decided to separate these ‘wo projects complet. Although we have worked on the subject of human settlements for forty years, and therefore do have personal views about i, and sithough the consulting office of Doxiads Associates Intemations, with which the Athens Center of Exists is clasely associated, i involved in the construction or regonstruction of hundreds of cites around the word, we sll thought much ‘more useful at this point to dissociate what ls inevitable about the city from ‘what we believe tobe desirable. What matters here is what humanity is actualy doing; what we ourselves are doing is another mater. To be certain that we stain this goal we must fit clarity our subject in order to avoid the thee grave mistakes often made in silar project, which ares 1. confusion as to what the City of Anthropos actually i 2. vagueness about the period’ of time represented by the “future” we are d+ cussing; 3. lack of any sstewatic approach for trying to understand this future. ‘We will heretore proaned to define the folowing: 1. the real iy of Anthropos; 2. the future which can realistically be faced ata period of tne; 3. the systematic approach which can actually be followed. 2. The real City of Anthropos ‘There isa good dea! of confusion in cur minds when we tlk about any indi- ‘vidual ety. Some of us are thinking abou ite bull-up area, others a is adminis trative boundaries, and so on. There is much greater confusion when we think bout “the city” in abstract, because ech of us is thinking in a diferent way and most of ur concepts are oversimplifed and basically wrong, In actual fact, city in the world exists on ite own. Not even the smallest town of the past could exist within its on walle, or even within the limits of ie ‘own surrounding countryside, unless was propery connected with vilages ‘ound about; or even with distant vilages if the connections were by sea If such connections do not exist then we ae not talking about a ety at al, but about village within its surrounding felis “The real city is a system of human settlements covering & much grester area than we usually realize; a system of which the bulltup part, which we usu. Ally call the city, is only very smal in tems of area, “There are several ways in which we san define the spaia limits of the real ‘iy. One of these isto think of the are within which the city receives and exe ‘changes goods. Another Isto think of the area under its polities, administrative, lation wil end with the creation of one unified system of ite, and because we F ohave already begun to build this system, the City of the Future must have the “imensions ofthe whole globe. a. Our method Since we wiied to fnd ou ot whit we, tests, hoped woul happen to human seems in he tire, but what na acl gong happen he, we ted to develop s research metiod which woul seve ths scury spose Before we go on to deserve we must deal with the possible question: how can you cl this a research project sce you canon creck your concen? Is cntinly ue tat we cannot check concuson as sent cam i abo, tory. We cn however check he continving process whic ead to hon ie clusions since weve inthe acta subject eour sty human selene tnd can cose the proces going o al round ss We the authors ave therefor Ben studying the develpment of sich process comin ang the two generations which hive elapsed since we wuntves Depart ine Te human stlemens,dsing oe gnerton since me began to suey aslemens serousy and ering hal generation dung the popes of th sey ans We hive therefore had be opportunity t check if eur preietns hare hoes slong height ines ornot What kindof researc s hs, then? an only be cle an ei earch Projet dos ot elnino es pang sce cee 2 new framework Nor dost belong to canons salience seopachy, or any othe techn, pots! or admire saenees W eae oe sence of ets, which aims to say a the specs of hanes tienen Covered india by tee ther scents ‘We ha, therfore, to ue every posuble method of research, tom rsie ‘ones flowing up phenomena and experimenting with te In varous ways to developing abstract maces. We ao vad the method of pac annouring lr findings in ode to get he comments of many people ne hay fae 2 possible, since its just not possible for any one person or group to have enough Knowledge or experience’ to. dea! with this enormous subject of human settlements aon ‘We were very much aware thatthe greatest danger when starting such a new project at our, was that of imposing damaging imitations on ourselves by for- ruling detailed design of research in advance. We knew that the road before Us was far from clear, and we wanted to make sure we were not committed to ‘ny ideas about our subject, oro any ofthe solutions to is problems, before we began. We therefore chose an approach that would leve us complete freedom, both inthe concept of our problem and in working out is solutions. We re- ognized that in doing i his way we might end up without any specific answers ‘tal, but we belleved this danger to be less serious than the possiblity of lit ing our thought in advance. Any research project which ties 9 open up new frontien of thought must presene its Freedom of concept in this way. The process of opening up new frontiers is what counts, not the achievement of specific goals. ‘We believed that within the subject of ekstics too many things are already taken for granted, and we wanted to take nothing at all for granted. Later on we discovered that a similar atitude Is being developed in the physical sciences today. Thomas H, Johnson, a former Director of Research ofthe Atomic Enet~ ‘gy Commission, has sald: "The more specifically one wes to define the practical urpote ofa research, the more indefinite becomes its bearing on the important ‘questions of science, and the less eaton 2 scientist can find for doing it” ‘Since it is imperative to retain such freedom of concept, itis also important ‘ot to define this project as belonging elther to basic or to applied research ‘We are not making any innovation here. Researchers in the physieal sciences hhave already discovered, and are coming more and more to believe that “a new ‘mating of basic and applied research can lead to unsuspected and far-reaching insights that neither applied nor ivorytower research would be likely to uncover separately” "Nor did we allow ourseves to decide in advance that we were concemed with the problems of “urbanization”. We did not want to assume that our solutions \would be in terms of urbanization alone, We did not want to be bound to the study of any one category of settlement — such a citit oF megalopolces — any more than tothe attitudes of any one diciplin. Our use ofthe word ‘City In our tle Ecumenopolis: The Inevitable City ofthe Future is only indicative, as we have already emphasized. We use ‘city’ to stand asthe symbol of Anthro- oe organized system of life, and do net lim our project tothe idea of the city site usually ndertood today. For similar reasons, since this isan esti study, it has covered human sete rents ofall sizes inthe etic sale and has included the subcomponents and laments of systems of setlements and the Networks which connect them. Wecould not dea! with aspect of human actviy not directly related to human feftlements in any detail however, 40 many specialized studes in other fields willbe needed before any tort of total picture ofthe urban future of humanity emerges. All we could o was to synthesize some ofthe knowledge ffom other fields that could canty some implication for this future. Interest in scientific methods of analyzing the future has recently grown through= ‘out the world in a speaacular way. The feasible length of frecaring has ier ‘dramatically in many feds, and books and terminology have proliferated. Each scipline and profession has, however, concentrated on developing its own techniques. Many of these, often of great ingenuity and sophistication, are valable, but unforunitely most of them are only applicable to the problems {or which they were devised. Lite had been published on the long-range re- search on the future of suman settlements when the “City ofthe Future” project began, 40 we were foreed to develop an ekistc methodology, and a plan of re- search and set of analyteal strategies to deal with our own needs and objectives. Since we ae forced t» ure continually the word “prediction” when describing cour methods, we must begin by trying to clay our thinking about he possbl- ties of prediction. When making projections into the remote future its neces- sary to generalize; the more speciic one tries to be, the lst reliability can be tached to conclusions. Something like Helsenberg’s Uncertainty Principe in [Physics seems to apply to ekitic projections: the further one tres to advance into etal the more imorecge and elise the behavior ofthe phenomena under study. The frther one tries to look into the future, the greater ae the number (Of small-seale elements we become unable to determine; the vision burs, until only the basic outlines ofthe form ofthe remote future can be perceived. What swe say of time alo apples to space. Projections which deal wath very large units the whole earth, cortinents or very large regions — are much safer than pro- jections relating to small areas, and the smaller the area the more elusive it be- comes. Forecasting the future like trying to throw things a reat distance: & feather can only be thrown afew fee, while a good piece of rock can be heaved {fora hundred yards. Tye smalle the phenomenan projected, the ls its "ner- tia”, and the les sure one can be ofthe actual path i wil take into the future It rearonably safe to make predictions about some things — for example, ‘economic trends within a cetain nation o within humanity 38 awhole. We have how leamed enough tbout the evolution of certain aspects of economics to take it not unreasonable for us to assume a cetan evolution wil take place under certain conditions within a certain period of time It even more possble 1o make predictions about the physical facts related to our cites — the toa investment in them, and the actual structures within ‘them. It would be unreasonable for u to assume in advance such an unpredict able event as destructive war and unless we have such a war we wll not de~ ‘molih the wealth invested in our eties overnight. So the major part of every city that Bs a wg on etsing unt each pea completly cuted te ness, bth economically and elturaly. We co, terre Pete sts make predictions about such element of our es for «reatoable period ot tne. we mse the average ile of bln ion cry ner al over = wo and faites crested ow il st ee en longer on aterae pei rope mantnace takes place then ti ressonabe fru tego ale Precio about he blag and facies im cur ete fora pes Sete ne century and centr and al em now, when the wl ee ol Some hey wil eral ent or At we hve ad ena, he age he : 3 sof pace wth wich we are del inte more accurate pectin. The ture move up he este sae from the neghbotood toward the meppae an tal eperpos gm 3¢ mor we can rel on eon! sltons tng made and terre seta, mates abut them. Within the smaller elite unto such atthe tomo Geen the hoviegroup, we must depend more on peop’ nde! Gee we ance {ont Thi why we have not det fly th srl une aus sea oe ave concentrated our atondon on te les scales of selon ach og megalopolis and Ecumenopols a wll a on thse varables mich ead thor, saves f9 guantfation and projection with tome degree of ela in the Probable validity of predictions by ekistic unitWe can see tat its also more posible to make accurate prediction’ abot Shells and Networks (fg. 6) than about anything to do with Society, and that economic and technological forecasts are more reliable than politcal or cult ‘ones. Knowing such things makes it easier fr us to know where we can mae reliable statements, and where the presen state of our knowledge makes it dite | ficult or even impossible to predict. 4 ‘We believe, from the study of many interesting projects om the future evo, lution of mankind, that it has now been establish how dificult it sto predict anything directly related to the evolution and fsture of Anthropos himself. Even things easiest to describe and directly related to numbers, such ss the total future population of the earth, othe total population of any nation or continent, seem Sifficuk. We know that every specie atempt to predict such things has tended to be wrong, Let us remember the population forecasts prepared before the last war, one of which for example, tated thatthe population of England and ‘Wales would be below 30 millon people by the year 2000, This is already every low estimate, because the population is already 426 milion although we have 26 years stl to go. In this instance, we even fled to predict the possible evo. ution in terms of numbers of people forthe near future, Practically every method used to predict population growth has sled because of great changes which have taken lace In the lfe-pattens ofthe people who (he higher he vally 6 probable validity of predictions by disciplines and ekistic elements recreating families. The situation is such that sclemss lke P.8. Medawar ve wondered whether all the predictions about future population, such as hose for England, will have to be changed ten or twenty years from now, #f and fen We see new and unexpected increases. We might then have to think of angers of over-population even within what we have been calling the “older [population groups". This development has i fact actualy come to past since he made this speculation. So we now know enough about our ability to predict, the evolution of mankind itself to be certain that we cannot be sure about pe fe estimates. People like P.B, Medawar even suggest that we will have to fam nuch more by studying “the proces of foreteling rather than what is actually oretole"™, fi Fi we ask ourselves, then, how much we can rely on our predictions, we (would answer in terms of our own evalutions, which ae related tothe size of the ekistic units and to the five elements of human settlements to which those predictions refer. Te larger the size ofa unit, the more relabe the prediction ‘willbe, and preditions that are concerned with Shells and Networks wil be far ‘more reliable than those concerned with Anthropor or Society. ‘There are, of course, many people who, when trying to design cites ofthe {ature ely totally on thee imagination. Often, when we find ourelves unable F tw predict something, we wonder if we cannot simply imagine what would hap- en. Let us try to think about the imagination and how much it can realy help ‘with these problems ‘A long experience of this subject and dedication to it has led ws tothe fol Jowing conciusion: in dealing with human setiements, which are biological ss- tems created by Nature and Anthropos, we must find the laws that gover them. ‘Would it be eeasonable to suppose that imagination slone dizcovered the law ‘of gravity, oF any ofthe laws in Biology or astronomy? Itcan be useful to have the imagination to see what is happening, and why it happens, but we must also observe the actual phenomena themssives the falling apple or the rotating ‘moon; the use ofthe imagination on ls own is nave in terms of science ‘Our study of human setiements through ekisties has convinced us that Anthro= ot follows certain principles anc laws informing his settlements. Our imagi- ration should therefore be used to understand these age-old processes and see where they are leading us, rather than to give form ta eur personal desires, and then confuse these with Anthropos’ real needs and the real trends. Ite these real needs and trends that actualy shape ou cy To succeed in our afiul tsk we do sometimes need to use our imaginations in the way poets do, since we often need the courage of interpretation a poet has when, 25 Eth Sitwell aid: “Like Motes, he sees God in the burning bush Wen the half-opened or myopic physical eye sees only the gardener burning leaves” ‘We can also remember Thoreau’ statement that: “Ae the dead man i pituealced, so the iminion requires «long range she fac ofthe poet {ows prevent thing as suo pat and fr, a tnt or ery ag rican" We en rea, then, thatthe agian camot be xed rom Sich an efor sour but Kus be wed oly when pe the set fo ‘don his views, and ‘ot when i tmp f0 tum fim nt an ait — wich iacompltey dite ting So lt ws ett we are faced with het of making predictions about compoute phenomenon, the cy ss a whole, which ie composed of wo ele trent, Antrops and i Soe, and al the phys sie of the cy. We thus recognize thatthe value ofthe pedicons we make about each ofthese to elmrts rst perce be eee. it wil petap be pouble for Uo nvelop 1 ethodlog for pectin the Str of or cers hat we can ae ‘that terrain ewlition wil be urless we take acon fo noid fe We Sit ten beable fo tae tat acon, The vouon of arias ard pln aes place waht thir blog seo do ayting to avoid or change but Anbropor Cascada ange hae We ave, hen, bland tered model of the remote tre of Antiopoy an made outines forthe revolution towards tat futur which we conse highly Tel, in recon tay, by theatre, diferent specs fe fete ae not caalysucepletnunealpojecon. Some, ich population we ave Sen sbleto eatin some cota though we can never be sre what wil happen ins area, Othe, such a the nate of re pola ste, remain con tly beyond out mhodolgcal gasp. Th coverage of Ou suf nee Sty uneven tu tobe hoped tt sbeeqvent work wl fer fn teabity and extend coverage, comrecing our mitakes and filing inthe “hen dealing with ndviul cae, we have re to slat examples rom al continents and seas roughot te wold with prope who have recat been coset the act condos and problems in ban setdomens. We have Covered content and hve coment ora wth al peso umn se tomer in many nator, in many diferent sages of development in many Colures, and under deen per of echo socal oli, technological nd earl condions We have however, hd ofc one big iltaon from theta bac of the cts of conmunlaon Ie was not posse for sto sudy Chia Tusa det, nor same of the counties of faster Europe for which no deta tre pulibed Fev tings vin in the Bibogaphy on pobims of eres fo ths projec in these sures. When we cinager thet Eten Europe i de veloping ender dnc plc, socal and economic thers, ute Copias int a asc weakness nour poet oe pest pase ent ave ‘covered one big area of the globe, and more especially one that is developing Crd a sepa ss, Ws mos sate therfore, tour pretest projec 28 based mainly on very detailed experience gained on all five continents of \Westernaligned counties, and only t limited extent on information gained from countries within the Eastem Bloc. Its to be hoped that this base weak ness can be overcome, either through coltboration with representatives from the Eastern Bloc — which would be preferable — or through permission th may be granted fo studies to be made of similar problems within these counties. ‘We did also think at first that it might be useful to select one city born in our time and now growing into the future, and had thought of taking Islamabad for this purpose. We later decided, however, that we would leave ths for a Interspecific case study ofthe City ofthe Future in order to emain as objective 238 possible in this present study art avoid being influenced by @ major project ‘of Doxiadis Associates in which we oursives are so deeply Involved. ur first sim was to ty and predic what would happen on this earth by the nd of the time we had St, supposing that everyting continues to happen ae- cording tothe present trends. This would be to assume that humanity will not think of any beter policies for its cies, will not work out better programs for their‘development, and will not imolement policies and programs with any reser effectiveness than it does at present. This i relatively easy to predic 0 long as we assume thatthe problems, policies and programs are all going #0 remain just the sume a they ae now. However, it i ako necessary to predict what may happen within the period ‘set fnew forces become active, that if population sizes, ecanomy or techno- logy develop in unprecedented ways, orin ways which we cannot expect as most probable. This is, ofcourse, an extreme cate, but init we are faced with much greater dificulties in prediction, since by definition we must assume the in. clusion of unknown forces. Predictions which include such unknown factors may, ofcourse, be wrong. We can only ty to outline the possibilities of an evolution which may happen under new conditions but which may in fat never arse Also in order to be like the two-hesced eagle which can look ack a well as {forwarc, we made a study ofall past ypes of settlements as well as thowe of the present. Only by so doing could we lear about the protesses ofthe de- ‘velopment so that we could make extrapolations into the future. During the frt two or three years ofthis projec the objectives of the study ven were revised several times. Preliminary explorations were made in many rections to feel out areas of analysis which t would be necessary to include any study ofthe future of human setlements. We gathered wealth of data on the historical evolution, current trends. achievements and problems of many cites throughout the world through a special series of surveys, one of which, covering about one hundred cities, was carried out within the Athens Center of Ekitics. This knowiedge was supplemented by that obtained during the plane ning work of Doxiasis Associates on such projects as Rio de Janeiro, the Urban Detroit Area the Rio de la Pata rion, and other areas around the world. These EyPreliminary probings culminated in the fist formulation of the Ecumenopolis: ‘concept, and the fist detailed statement of this was made in public by CA. Doxiadis in une 19612, Both the Ecumenopalis concept itself andthe accom lated data were subjected to intensive sratny in a series of discussions among 2 group of experts, mainly in the summer of 1961 But also during the following summer and on numerous subsequent occasion, witha email nucleus ofthe pros ject’ team guiding the efor and keeping rack of developments In the second stage of the project, many more detailed stuces were earied ‘ou attacking single aspects ofthe future, exploring and lolting independent approaches, providing many refinements to the overall view given by the Eau. ‘menopolis concept, correcting erroneous hypotheses, and generally adding de- tall and extending the coverage ofthe projec. A long series of continuous feed- back processes began, constantly recycling dese and findings and reformulatng hypotheses. Additions, corrections and revisions were made, based on the evo lution of ideas and findings within the project and on the incorporation of new views and techniques developed in other feds, These findings have Beh inc ‘eluded in 135 main intemal reports totaling 579 pages, and 123 subsidiary ones totalling another 3,791 pages, or a total of 258 intemal reprts with 470 pages, and a total of 1,715 maps, graphs and other drawings. While the project was mainly concemed with the lagest sales of urbanization continental and global — many smaller scle studies were also worked out ranging from subcontinental to regional. The degree of detail and sophisti. ‘ation attained in these ease studies varied considerably, but in most cases they ve a Valuable insight into the local texture ang layout of Ecumenopols. A few of these cate studies contributed valuable darifations and refinements tothe {general methodology. The methodology itself evolved gradually by tial and error unt it reache its preset state, an eclectic synthesis ofa variety of teche Piques drawn from many fields, rather than & complex elaboration founded on ny single technique ur fist detalled statement of the Ecumenopolis cancept was made, at we, have sad, in 1961, but asthe project evolved It became clear thet all our work ‘was converging to further stengthen the inital insight. The vision of Ecumeno= polis was being strengthened by new findings and new conclusions as we 197 further and further into the future. One of the most remarkable findings ofthis study was just this fact, that several iffrent methods of approach, which were eveloped within it, ll seemed to converge towards the same final picture of cumenopols, and therefore to reinforce it. What i more, these diffrent me= thods of approach were found to be truly independent of one another, which made their value in strengthening the conclusion still greater. We wall give & Short description of some ofthese mathods of approach here. ‘They willbe de- seribed in detail ister on ‘One of our frst methods of approach was to determine the degree of habite- 20 Alt In the future ofthe areas ito which the globe was divided. We then de- ded what the maximum density of population would be for each area ac cording to Its degre of habitat. From this we could work out what was the maximum capacty of each area to stain 2 population. We assumed that at rome remote future point the actual population in each place would come Close to this maximum, given enough time for economic and technological de- ‘lopment, and providing other limiting factors (discussed later) did not inter- fere. When we adced up all there maximom populations we could discover the final maximum population ofthe globe according tothe habitabilty ofits various areas alone, and aso what the distribution of this population would be by broad areas. It became apparent that, once reached, this maximum popu Into would remain stable —or quatistable— for relatively long period, ince the global capacity to sustain human setiements would have become saturated. ‘Another method we used was to try and work out what the geometric pattern would be of the detrbution of human setiements in the remote future. We Found an optimum pattern corresponding to a system of axes and centers of ekis- lie development over the globe. The optimum pattern was the one which would allow the maximum communication and interaction within the large-scale system which, it was anticipated, would develop as a major ekstlc network. It was also ‘he most economical arrangement, and the one which gave the best advantages Irom the point of view of environmental conservation, socal interaction and other tspecte, We saw that this would have to be a hierarchical system, with more or less the same structure at al its highest levels. When we had determined this patter, we discovered a common denominator between it and the previously eveloped habitabilty atten, <0 thatthe network was more developed inthe more habitable areas and les inthe less habitable ones. This led us toa mutual refinement ang enrichment of both approaches. ‘A third method was the “evolutionary” approach. We recognized the emer= sence of the new large-scale ekistc units, such a¢ the (predominantly tinea?) tegalopoli at = regional scale, and extrapolated the trend they represented, We found that larger and larger linear formations were likely to develop forming larger and more completely interconnected ekistic networks. The striking fact le thatthe final, stable and fully interconnected network, covering the ene planet, was found toe the same asthe one resulting fom the previous method. 0 the patter that would develop according to that established by historical terolution coinlded with the one worked out according to theoretical goo- meric pattem. Both expressed, in 2 way, through the Ecumenopolis image the major geographic constants provided by coastines, mountains, climatic regions, and soon, a these atect human habitation of the globe ‘The evolutionary approach was a unified study conducted onthe global scale ‘Another approach consisted ofvarlous independent regional studies, caried out fon malar or larger scales. In every case Ft vas found that each such regional astudy came to inscribe tf neatly within the more generalized patter resulting from the previous global approach. Minor adjustments proved necessary in some casts, “correcting” either the global or the local pattern, or both. By and large, however, the corgruence ofthese two independent methods of approach was remarkable thus reinforcing the final Ecumenopolis picture. ‘We alto developed siferent models for Ecumenopolis according to various assumptions as to fuire economic, socal, polilel, technological or cultural ‘developments. What was remarkable was tha, save forthe most extreme ofthese ‘assumptions, the bulk of the Ecumenopols models which resulted showed 2 “similar basic structure: the location and the course of ts major axes and centers ‘were found to remain practically invariant forall these varying assumptions, “which confirmed the objective and stable nature ofthe basic structure of Ecume- opalis. This invariance formed another reinforcement of the conceptual In- dependence and unity of Eeumenopolis. ‘We alio cartied out projections for some of the factors and resources which sight restrict the ultimate total population ofthe globe, such as economic and energy development, food, water, minerals, and environmental conditions. A striking feature of our “sults was that every one of these factors, given enough time for economic and technological development, would aliow population figures even higher than thote arived at according to the habltabilty method. Given enough ime, the earth could produce enough food to feed 2 population larger than the one cenistent with the conditions of habitablity ofits various areas. The same is tus for water, energy and other resources, and also for the preservation of the ervironmental balance between Anthropos and Nature. Cleary then, itis habiability itself which Ie the most restrictive factor on future population, and the projections made according to habitability remain valid and feed not be corrected for other factors at the time of Ecumenopois. On this {sumption we developed projections for each such factor congruent with thse developed for habit ity. We were left with 2 system of interrelated projections for these factors which were intemally consistent, and could be used to describe the corresponding aspects of Ecumenopolis and further strangthen the concept ‘Many otter partial sles that were made could be inscribed within the over- all concept of Ecumenopois, and their convergence towards this sae goal was fone of the major proufs ofthe validity of the concept of Ecumenopelis el. ‘Moreover, (and this fe very important), no parti] study among the many carried ‘ut within this project ever resulted in an outcome conflicting with the pleture (of Ecumenopols, oF even leading to a drastic revision of any of ts bast features. We hope to simulate dcussion and erticiem of our methodology and vision 1s apartof our method, This wil be most useful forthe further refinement of our Ideas, and the evental solving of our problems. In 1961, a8 we have sd, we started drculating specie proposal to our collaborators on the whole research project, and at the beginning of 1963 we presented our ideas and findings to International conferences and symposia n order to get as much ertcis as pose ble and check every aspect of our efor, The result was that some eminent people, such as Arnold Toynbee, who had himself independently predicted the unwersal trends, agreed with our pedic- tions. Others disagreed completely. Others simply failed to understand what .we were taltg about and attacked the concept of Ecumenopolis asi it were something we had made up, rather than something we had worked out from researches onthe fact ‘The general pattern since then is cleet and somewhat unexpected. Whereas in the arly 60's the reaction at interatonal conferences and symposia to our ideas was strongly negative, indest they were often wildly attacked, a very ‘marked change has taken place within a relately short time, Our ideas began to be accepted, more and more s0 with time, and the numberof exceptions to this wend has gradually been reduced. many outstanding scholars and thinkers have got tothe point of agreeing, in brad terms, withthe essence of our ideas even f they disagree on points of del — and the general climate of opinion in both academic and practical areas seems to have tumed to general accept. ance ofthe broad principles underying many of our findings ‘What we stil have not had is any spedificetcizm ofthe predictions we have ‘made in terms of the people, forces, or the spatial formation of the City of the Future. Indeed, some people who befow had been making very diferent pre- ictions of their own uch as that cis would be built on the sea, asin the Gulf of Tokyo project have, since 195, begun to design ther own parts of universal ‘ters in silent acceptance of what we had predicted — or, what is more im portant, for lack of any argument against i. “Twelve years have row passed since ou official presentations and publications. We have stil had no valid arguments made against our facts: we hope for therm, ‘We have opened an analytical door en the remote future of human settle: ‘ments, in the hope that we have clarified the basic elements nf Anthropo’ pots sibleutures, and shown what factors are likly to limit him and the importance and gravity ofthe problems before us al so that we may find ways of meeting ‘the crises mankind will have to face in the coming decades. Its hoped tht the ‘unavoidable deficiencies and imperfections which must accompany such an ex. Ploratory work will be balanced by the contribution we make in opening up an "unexplored fel in which sciatic knowledge is badly needed ‘The goal we have set ourselves, and the methodology we selected, are certain~ ly very ambitious. To those used to walking on safe ground, the description of this project must have created the far that it would require the work of snore [people and more resources than are known to most research projects. We knew ftom the start what the extent of our own imitations were in terms of time, funds ‘allable, experience, numbers of people. We did not think this ¢ good reason ‘otto begin, norto limit our work to something more specifi.‘We began with the belief that our main purpose was to open up new ways of thought, and that new horizons could not be opened by the impoiton of any limitations. The Important thing for us was to start out along this new road, nat necessarily to walk too far orto reach the final destination too fst. SO this project was begun, and was brought to the present sage of completion. We feet it better to accept that such a report most contain weaknesses than to avoid making It because ofthe fear such weaknesses wll be recognized and criticized. ‘Such @ fear might have tempted us ont to walk on safe ground, but ste ground |s known ground, and its the basic aim of our research project to move out into the unknown ‘We therefore faced all the imitations which willbe recognized bythe reader — ‘and many others which perhaps will not — and ail the dangers involved in such 8 wandering in the darkness inthe conviction that we must make this venture Into the unknown. We iit and we ae satisfied withthe results we present her, Such a statement does not by any means imply that this work fnshed. On ‘the contrary, iis only beginning. If we want 0 achieve our goals, we must fol low up and report on all our findings in a systematic way 0 that we can become ‘more and more accurate, and so that we can transmit our messages to everyone. ‘This reports simpy the end ofthe beginning of research onthe city ofthe Future 6. The process of this study ‘The process of this study, which lasted for 15 years, was as might be understood ‘fom the methodology, very complex. We had to lear about, calculate and test inany things for several diferent periods, in many sizes of settlements, and in ‘rious pars of the world. There is no need to describe this process in detail here, since the reader can see Ite results inthe documents it produced which ste refered to in Appendix 1. The present publication follows the same process, 44 £0 will help the reader to understand how it took place in the simplest possible way. ‘We startin Part Two by presenting the past of human settlements and the lessons that can be derived from that past, not forthe future — since that is m= posible — but for recognizing what the principles and laws are that Anthropos fas followed ifthe formation of his settlements. We have avery specific et of facts derived from Anthvopos’ experience during the thousands of years of his lie within is various types of setements (of which there may have been as many 2.20 milion thus far, providing us with arch laboratory in which to work) from Tis fst nomadic ones to the metropolis as it was before the invasion of the machine — and thete facts lead us to reach very specific conclusions about what tappened during this development and how it mppened. In Part Theee we look at the settlements and, more specially, atthe ity of the present which was born in 1825 when the fist railway caeying passengers ran in Northern England between Stockton and Dadington; we recognize the changes that occurred, the outcome forthe different types of settlements, the problems that rested, and the new approaches made ty Anthropos, bythe ex {mination both of individual eases and ofthe situation asa whole. We then draw ‘onciusions about our present crissBefore looking at the settlements ofthe future, we look in Part Four at thors forces which shape them, and which define thelr destiny. We begin by looking at the earth itself, since it constitutes the actual contsiner within which our settlements must be fit. We follow with an account of technology and econo- ric development, since these define the dimensions ofthe population. We try to discover the balan that is needed between all these, and draw conclusions about the evolution ofthe whole system of the ie of Anthrapos Then in Part Five we turn tothe setiements ofthe fture and study ther most probable evolution during the nest few generations which are our direct con ‘cer, We draw conclusions about the new dimensions, new systems of if, and new solutions which in be foreseen. Ecumenopols I the universal settlement towards which our whole evolution is leading and which wil be reached within afew generations. In Part Sk we tty to understand how far our forecasts can go in speaking of the dimensions, systems, structures, new probleme and solutions for the balanced city that humanity needs. ‘We end by looking ahead inthe Epllogue and by proposing specific decisions for the action which 's needed everywhere, as there are no “developed and “underdeveloped” setlements ty as some people believe; there are simply human setlements, al tying to get out of the same present impaste of great ‘change and confusion mo anew and balanced situation. 7. Conclusions I may be helpful to summarize here the conclusions of our whole project. We must see these conclusions ata stem leading vs towards an overall concept of {great importance and must not be canted bythe lack of detal which exits, oF by Anthropos’ inability to foresee finar events. We can be certain about the ong-term future ofthe Himalayas, but we can have no idea, for even as far ahead 88 tomorrow, what curtains wll hang in the window opposite ours. “The main conclusion ae the following (One: The main trends of present tectnological and economic progress cannot, and should not be reversed. This means that a universal system of ife wll be formed, with a population which will sbilze at between 13 and 25 billion, and which wil cover 25-35 milion sq km (10-14 milion 4. mi) with the built-up ars ofits settlements if Anthropos fale to see what fs happening in time and fake action; or7.5-15 milion sq km (5 milion sq, mi Anthropos retains his age-old ability to solve his basic problems. Two: Such an evolution will gradually ceste one global settlement, which wwe have called Ecumenopolis or, as Arnold Toynbee has also called it; World ‘Giy®. We can se it drawn on the mao of the earth in & way which represents the settled areas in terms oftheir densites of population since this is as far as we ‘an goat present (ig. 7. There are some people who are allergic to new words, and if they wish they ‘can use, Instead of Ecumenopolis, the expression: “the potential are forthe evelopment of the main body of humin tttlaments onthe whole ext" The trots, however, that whatever we decde to call, Ecumenopolis, with its gem eral characteristics, is inevitable ‘The general concept and layout of Eeamenopolis which have been developed thin this project are established beyend any possible doubt ae a valid image ‘ofthe future of urbanization on this planet. ‘Since, however, there area number of different detailed models of Ecumeropolis which are compatible withthe general image, It is less certain which of the detailed variants wil infact evolve withthe passage of time. The reader must approach our statements, fully aware of their conditional nature, n a rather flexible frame of mind. Conclusions have been framed in terms of orders of magnitude instead of exact figures. The “precision” of these con clusions has nothing whatever todo wity the sor of precision which can be ob tained in such fields as physics or engineering. The mind may boggle, but aMi vgn deny I recon cersiy EB ow coray ‘me ceap ocean ators (practically no conan shes) 7. Eoumenopolis 2100 A.D. IDR ceopcccan water (gear depth) 8‘margins of 50% and even 100% are qulte acceptable when i is impossible to be more accurate, For fome varabies not even such crude accuracy could be ob- tained, and the only thing which could be quantified was an upper and lower limit othe variables behavior — but even this isa useful finding. In some cates ‘no quantitative statements a all could be made, andthe most thet could be ssid was that the variable in question will grow, diminish, or fluctuate uncertain. Yet even such a liited insight can sometimes make a valuable contribution towards pinning down aspects ofthe future of human settlements ‘One further thing requires caution: most ofthe grephe and large-scale maps which appear throughout this book have been provided as schematic Hlusta- tions. They are not intended to be accurate tothe lst detail and should be con- sidered as subject tothe same margins of error as individual statements, Its Impossible to draw ‘he fine details of large-tcale maps of the future with any meaningful degree of precision, just as itis impossible to calulate the exact paths of curves repiesenting the future behavior of projected variables. The ‘curves of the various graphs have been smoothed and normalized and the maps have beer drawn in order to make general trends as clear at posible, and thie should be bome in rind at al times ‘We are right in the middle of a transitional phase from the cites ofthe past to the City ofthe Future, 2 phase which may last about ten to twelve generations for about 300 years. Since about 150 of these years have alveady passed, we are ‘exacly in the mile of the peviod in 1975, Our confusion today i the same 25 the confusion ofthe fst hunters, when they were inventing cttle-breeding and farming and stating to form the fst vilages, or that ofthe is farmer, wen they Started bulding cites. They succeeded in their efforts, so we can do the same, and we wit do so. When this tansitional phase is over, and we reach Ecumenopais, we wil once more move into an era of static settlements, and out ofthe era of dynamic setaments in which we are todsy. By that ie, the walls fof the City of Anthopos will be formed by the area beyond the atmcsphere ‘where there is not erough oxygen for him. He wil avel beyond these wal, but the wil only be sae inside them ‘The foundation for ll our statements snot simply what we have eamed from ‘Anthropos’ achievement in the past, but also the very important fat that we are ‘moving from the phite of cvlization to that of ecumenization. Thi sa big re volutionary change, which wil be gradually understood and welcomed by every- fone on this globe — If his or her mind is not frozen. The big change is that while civilization meant advantages forthe citizens inside their cer but ex- Ploitation for the farmers living outside, ecumenization wil fot the fst time create conditions in which all pope can be equal all over the earth — equal not only according t their politcal constitutions, but in actual fact. There will no longer be some people inside and others ouside: everybody wil be Inside the City of anthropos. Part two The settlements of the pastNotes and References No. Page Preface 1X We began with the term settlement in order to remain open-minded 3 ow 5 x 2 ‘Then we found that this setvement was to be an urban system, and la keeping with the ancien wadiion which created the term pois snd formed mstre-pois and megalopolis, we decided to use polis 3 the sux of our new term since it would be universally understood. We ‘examined several alternatives, such as geo-polis — which had to be ‘cluded because the new city wil coverthe whole earth — oF comm polis—which had to be excluded because we do aot at present fore- See going into space beyond the moon, andi we do, then cosmo-polie willbe needes for a much larger unit than ths present one. We ended With the term Ecumenopols, since it serves our realistic goals bert Gee also Clowary. CA. Doxials, Anthropopols: City for Human Development, Athens Publishing Center, Athens, 1974, CA. Doxiadis, Ecwmenopolis: the Settlement of the Future, intern document published by Dosiads Associates, R-ERES-IB, June 23,1961 CA. Doxieis, Ecumenopolis: the Settlement ofthe Futur, Research Report No. 1, Athens Center of Eises, Athens Technological Organ. laaton, 196, Throughout this book we use the American billion, which is thousand, ‘milion (000,000,000), and not the Bish billion, which is «milion, milion 100,000,090 00) Laster 8 Brown, Inthe lamar Interess,W.W. Norton, New York, 1974, For years | thought that “Amthropos” (the ancient Greek word for ‘human would be better than the English word “Man” to describe human beings or mankind, because the word “Man is also confused With the masculine gender. Now the American Anthropological As Socation has passed a resolution (November 7973) and has taken the following decision: “tn view of the fact thatthe founders ofthe die ciple of anthropology were men socialized in « male-dominated society which systematically excluded women from the professionsPage and thereby prevented their participation in the formation of our iecipline, including its terminology; and being tained as anthropo- logis to understand that language reinforces and perpetuates the prevailing values and socio-economic paterns that contbute 10 the ‘oppression of women; we move that the American Anthropological [Association | urge amhropotogiets to become aware inthe writing and teach= ing that thelr wide use ofthe term “man” as genetic fr the pecies Isconceptually confusing (since “man” isalsotheterm forthe male) | and that it be replaced by more comprehensive terms such as “people” and “human being” which include both sexes », further arge that members of the Association select texxbooks tht have eliminated this form of sexism which has become increas- ingly ofensive to more and more women both within and outside the dsepines. | agree with this basic goal and throughout this book have used the sword Antiropos (and where necessary the Greek plural Anthropol 1s meaning humans of both sexes. Unfortunately, however, Because: ‘of the grammatical structure of the English language, in several ‘Stance it has been Impossible to avoid the use of masculine pronouns when refering to Anthropos. In-autumn of 1971, under the sponsorship of two environmental oF ganizations, “Operation Oxygen” and “Stamp out Smog", more thang 400 companies in Los Angeles agreed to organize computerized ca sharing pools in an attempt to reduce the ciy’s pollution feom ci ‘orhaust funes. Additionally, the city's bus company laid on spec ‘buses to take people to work and all vehicles cooperating inthe & periment were asked to tum on ther headlights to zproad the cau However, despite wide advance publicty in newspapers and on levsion and radio the result was zero — only fve people tuned to ride in the buses and traffie monitors reported secing one cat wi its healighs on S. Runciman, Fall of Constantinople, Cambridge University Landon, 1965, p.226. CA. Doxiadle, Ecwmenopolit: the Settlement of the Pure, i document aublished by Doses Associates, R-ERES1B, June 23, GA. Doxitdis, Ecumenopols: Towards a Universal Settlem Internal document published by Dexiadis Associates, R-GA 305, 1 The need for a science specifically devoted to the study of settlement fist because apparent to CA. Doxadis during the days of World War Il when he realized that existing practices i No. Page 66 7 a 8 0 on Chitecture and community planring could not reclaim Greece from devastation, and he started teaching ekistics In the underground ‘ovement. After the war af fist Miniter of Housing 8 Reconstas ton, he was able to further develop his ideas through practical ap Plication and through many of hit writings. Doxiagis Asocltes, which was formed in'1851, has continued to study and develop the Science of ekistis through thet innumerable building and study Projects throughout the world. (See also Glossar). Plato, Theseus, 152A, Loeb Castical Library, trans. Harold North Fowler, Wiliam Heinemann Publshers, London, 1961p. 4. ‘Quoted in The Mind as Nesure by Loren Eseey, Harper 8¢ Row, New York, 1962, p36. ET. Mall, The Silent Language, Doubleday, Garden City, New York, 1959, Chapter 10, EX, Hall, The Hidden Dimensim, Doubleday, Carden City, New York, 1966 ‘Throughout this hook we use thé ekisic logarithmic scale which is ‘he foundation for classification o all haman setlementson the basi thee population. More informstion can be found in CA. Doxiey’ book Ekisis: a Introduction to the Science of Haman Settlements, Oxford Universiy Press, New York 1968, pp 2,31, fig. 2. During the many years this scale hat been uted, CA. Doxiadis has been working on the nomenclature and nally concluded thatthe most, Proper names are those which we use inthis serles of four Books. ‘These are listed below together with the names used up until now other ekistie studies: {1 Anthropos instead of Mans explained n ote, Part One) 3. house — instead of dwelling 4. housegroup — instead of dwalling group 5. small neighborhood 5 neighborhood 7. small pols — instead of smal town, 8. polis—instead of town 3, small metropolis — instead of large city 10. metropolis ‘71 small megalopolis — instead of conurbation 12, megalopoiis 13. small eperopotis— instead of urbanized tegion 14. eperopolis— instead of urbinized continent 35. Feumenopoli0 n 2 “ 6 6 v * ~” 450 5. Page 11 The “central place theory” was conceived by the Bavarian geographer Walter Chrsaller in the 1930's In his own words it is» "genera Seductive theory” designed “to explain the size, number and dist bution of towns” in the bellet that "some ordering principles govern the elstbution” CChistaller developed this theory in his book Central Places in South- erm Germany (trans. by CW. Baskin ftom the German original of 193, Die Zentralen Orte in Siddeutecbland), Prentice-Hall, Englewood: cits, NJ, 1986. AT CA. Doxiadis, “The Future of Human Sextements", The Place of Vale in a World of Facts, edited by Ame Tielivs and Sam Nilson, ‘Wiley tntescience Division, John Wiley & Sons, Ine, London, 1970, pp.334.335, 19 Quoted in The Mind as Nature by Loren Eisley, Harper 8 Row: New York, 1962 frontispiece, 9.13. 21 Barbara Ward and René Dubos, Only One Earth: the Care and Main- tenance of a Small Planet, W.W. Notton & Co, Ine, New York, 1972, 23 Frandis Bell, “The Young Scientists”, FORTUNE, June 1950, pb. 152- 159. 27 PB. Medawar, The Future of Man, Basic Books, New York, 1960, p11. 27. principles: CA. Doxiatis, “The Future of Human Settlements”, The Place of Value ix # World of Facts, eited by Ame Telus and Sam Nilsson, Wiley Interscience Division, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New ‘Yor, London, 1970, pp. 310-31, laws: CA. Donati, Ekistics: an lvoduction tothe Science of Human Settlements, Oxford Universy Press, New York, 1968, pp. 287-316. 28 Quoted in The Mind as Nature by Loren Eley, Harper & Row, New York, 1962.56. 28, Since 1959, Dosiadis Avociates have been involved in the cretion (of slamabad, the new capital of Pakistan. They advised on the location (of the new capital, prepared the long-term and the first 5-year dave- lopment programs, the plan of the metropolitan area including the city of Rawalpindl, the masterplan of Islamabad, and detailed plans for a number of residential and commercial sectors ofthe city. Be ‘ween 1966 and 1968, Doxiadis Associates prepared studies for Nypes of houses and infrasvuctute works as well tof 3 number of road and traffic projects which were completed by 1969 (CA. Doxiadis,“slamabad: the Creation of a New Capital”, THE TOWN, PLANNING REVIEW, Vo. 36, No, 1, April 1965, pp. 1-17. 29. CA Doxiads, The TworHeaded Eagle: from the past to the fiaure of human settlements, tyabets Pest, Athens, 1972 20 a 2 2 Page 30 CA. Doxiads, Ecumenopoliss she Setlament of the Future, interns document published by Dowads Associates, R-ERES-1, June 23,196 CADonials, Ecumenopolis: the Seteloment of the Fussre, Research Report No. 1, Athens Center of Ekisties, athens Technological Or- ganization, 1968 33. In 1963 the fist Delos Sympotion organized by C.A. Doxiadis took place in Greece. it was atended by 34 experts of various disciplines ‘rom around the world who were bound together by their common concem for the ftute of cities. Since then, the Delos Symposia have taken place every year with the participation of an everavidening Circle of Intemational experts. Additionally, from 195572, an Inter: national Seminar on Ekistis was organized annually by the Athens Center of Ekstics ofthe Athens Technologiesl Organization, 2 sister, Institution of Doradis Associates, 38 Amold Toynbee, Cities of Destiny, Thames 8c Hudson, London, 1967. ‘Arnold Toynbee, Cities on the Move, Oxford University Press, London, ‘970, 37 Amold Toynbee, Cities othe Move, Oxford Unverty Pres, London, 1970, Chapter 10, Part two 1 42_Dragostav Srejové, Lepenski Vir, Thames 8 Hudson, London, 1972. James Mellart, Gatal Hiéyik:« Neolithic Town in Anatolia, ames & Hudson, London, 1967. 42. CA. Doxlals, “The Formation of a Human Room”, EKISTICS, March 1972, pp. 718-229, CA. Doxiais, “One Room for Every Human’, paper presented atthe Third international Symposium on Lower-Cost Housing Problems, May 27,1974, Monteal, Canada 44 The “Ancient Greek Settlements” project was begun by the Athens Center of Ekstics of the Athens Technological Organization in 1968 with the ai of creating aflly comprehensive archive of information fn settements in ancient Greece which would lead to a better un derstanding ofthe evolution of human settlements in general The project, which is stil continuing, has produced mumerous reports 45 ATLAS ALA DECOUVERTE DU MONDE, May 1971, p. 72. 45. Grahame Clark and Stuart Piggot, Prehistoric Societies, Hutchinson, London, 1965, p.130. 45 Grahame Clark and StuarPiggot, Prehistoric Societies, Hutchinson, London 1965, p64 Carleton S. Coon, The Hueting Peoples, onathan Cape Lid, London, 1972, p.191 451