Viscosity 2.4 Where do stresses come from? For a solid, stresses develop when the material is elastically deformed or strained: for a uid, shear stresses arise due to viscous Mlow (we will discuss a fuid’s normal stresses shortly). Hence we say solids are elasic, and fluids are viscous (and i's interesting to note that many biological tissues are viscoelastic, ‘meaning they combine features of a solid and fluid). For a fluid at rest, there will be rao shear stresses. We will see that eack fluid can be categorized by examining the clation between the applied shear stresses and the ow (specifically the rate of deformation) of the fluid Consider the behavior of a fluid clement between the two infinite plates shown in Fig. 29a, The rectangular fluid element is initially at ret at time ¢, Let us now suppose «constant rightward force OF, is applied to the upper plate so that itis dragged across the fluid at constant velocity dw. The relative shearing action of the infinite plates produces a shear stress, ry, Which acts on the fluid element and is given by2 cluptor2. Fundamental Concepts Fig. 2.9 (Fluid element at tine #, (8) deformation of fluid element at time 8, and (@ deformation of uid element at time ¢ 26h tim ror a, where #, isthe area of contact of the fui element with the plate and 6P, isthe force ‘exerted by the plate on that clement. Snapshois of the fluid element, shown in Figs, 2.9a-¢, iustrate the deformation of the uid clement from position MNOP at time ¢, lo MOP’ at time ¢+ 6: to M"NOP” at time ¢+ 261, due lo the imposed shear stress, [As mentioned in Section 1.2, its the fact that a fluid continually deforms in response to an epplied shear stress that sets it apart {rom solids. Focusing on the time interval 5 (Fig. 29), the deformation of the fluid is given by fa _ da deformation rate = fim, > = We want to express davdi in terms of readily measurable quantities. This ean be done easily. The distance, %, between the points M and Af is given by Bsiian Alternatively, for small angles, fyb Equating these two expressions for 8! gives fo _ be eS By ‘Taking the limits of both sides of the equality, we obtain da _ du aay ‘Thus, the fluid clement of Fig. 2.9, when subjected to shear stress ry. experiences & rate of deformation (shear rare) given by du/dy. We have established that any fluid that experiences a shear stress will Bow (it will have a shear rate). What is the relation betwecn shear stress and shear rate? Fluids in which shear stress i directly propor- tional to rate of deformation are Newtonian fluids. The term non-Newtonian is used to classify all uids in which shear stress is not directly proportional to shear rate, Newtonian Fluid Most common ids (the ones diseussed in this text) such as water, ait, and gesoline save Newtonian under normal coaditions. Ifthe Buid of Fig. 2. is Newtonian, then as We are familiar with the fact that some Muids resist motion more than others. For eaample, « Lonteiner of SAE SOW vil is mmucls Ihavder tw stit dat One Of water Hence SAE 30W oil is much more viscous—it basa higher viscosity. (Note that a con- tainer of mercury is also harder to stir, but for a different reason!) The constant of24 Viscosity 33 proportionality in Eo. 2.14is the absolute (or dynamic) viscasiy,y. Thus in terms of the coordinates of Fig. 29, Newton's law of viscosity is given for one-dimensional flow by (215) Note tha, sine the dimensions of are [FIL?] and the dimensions of dy are [1], j.has dimensions [FUL"]-Since the dimensions of foree, F, mass, M, length, L, and time, tare related by Newton's second law of motion, the dimensions of 1 can also be expressed 1s [MIL] In the British Grav:tatioral system, the units of viscosity ore Ibf- tor siug/ ({1-5)-Jnthe Absolute Metieysem, the basic uit of viscosity isealled a poise poise liy(em:s)}; in the SI system the units of viscosity are kg/(an-s) or Pass (1Pavs LN m2) ‘The calculation of viscous shear sess is illustrated in Example 2.2. Tn fid mechanies the ratio of absolute viscosity, 10 density, p, often arses, This ratio is given the name kinematic visosity and i represerted by the symbol. Since density bas dimensions [A/L'], the dimensions of» are '/)- ln the Absolute Metric sysiem of units, the unit for» is astoke (I stoke = 1 em"). Viscosity data for number of common Newtonian fuids are given in Appendix A. Note that for gases, viscosity inereases with temperature, wherees for Fquic, viscosity decreases with inereasing temperature ee See SHEAR STRESS IN NEWTONIAN FLUID ‘An infinite plate is moved over a second plate on a layer of liquid as shown. For small gap width, d, we assume a linear velocity distribution in the liquid. The liquid viscosity ix 0.65 centipoise and its speciic gravity is OSS Determine: (9) Tho ahsolite viscosity of the Kiquid i Tht {(b) The kinematic viscosity of the liquid, in. mf, {c) The sheat stress om the upper plate, i Itt? fe yc me (2) The shear stress on the lower plate, in Pa. {e) The direction of each shear stress calculated in parts (¢) and (@). 4=030m Given: Linear velocity profile in the liquid between infinite parallel plates as showa, 2 SG 11.69 ep 88 Finds (0) yin units of ot sft, (6) v in units of m's, (6) + on upper plate in units of Itt? (2) on lover plate in units of Pa. “— . (6) Diceetion of steeses in parts (€) and (a) [7 2-namm Solution: el ene ul! petiony = Governing equation: ry, = iq. Definition: = © Assumptions: (1) Linear velocity distribution (given) @) Steady flow G) #=constant poise Tim Sug yg. gom y, Ibs 100 ep * em-s-pose * 454g“ 322 bm ~ ™ slug Tt DS —_—_—_—_—_————— (a) =065epx34 Ciupler2 Fundamental Concepts #20 P OS 1 Sima ST = lbs we slug-ft im Ke = 136 SE Tah * MEE x (03087 a meet aT. = TAL 07 fs ice O pee Unper speed (©) Papper = xp — Co - ee oeae ae Cais oe ined a varies nearly Wi0 J, Peed ee ne 1 (e) Directions of shear stresses on upper and lower plates. L N (8) twmer = 1g = 00136 4.45 ‘The upper plate is a negative y susfaces so positive ryacts in the negative rdirection. ‘The lower plate is a postive y surface: so positive7,,aeis in the postive x direction rr Non-Newtonian Fluids Fluids in which shear stress is nor directly proportional to deformation rate are non- [Nesitonian, Although we will not diseus hese much inthis text, many common fis exhibit non-Newtonian behavior Iwo lamar examples are toothpaste and Lucite™ Print, The latter i very “thick” when inthe can, bat becomes “thin” when shearee by rushing. Toothpaste behaves as a “Maid” wien squeezed fom the tube. However, i does not run out by itself when the cap is removed. Taere is a thresbold or yield stress below hich toothpaste behaves sa slid. Silly speaking. our deiton of a Mud valid only for materials that bave zero yield stress. Non-Newonian fds evenly de clmsided a lying tine-idepeadent of Hinedepeadent beh, Exp of time-independent behavior are shown inthe theologcal diagram of Fig. 2.10 ‘Numerous empirical equations have becn proposed (3, 4] to model the observed relations between 7, an! di/dy for tiiesndependent Buids. They may be adequately trademark, E, 1 du Pont de Nemours & Company.