AP Biology Complete Study Guide

Big Idea #1:

Darwin developed two main ideas:
Descent with modification explains lifes unity and diversity.
Natural selection is a cause of adaptive evolution.
Darwin noted that humans have modified other species by selecting and breeding individuals
with desired traits, a process called artificial selection.
Darwin then described four observations of nature and from these drew two inferences.
*Observation #1:Members of a population often vary greatly in their traits.
*Observation #2: Traits are inherited from parents to offspring.
*Observation #3: All species are capable of producing more offspring than the
environment can support.
*Observation #4: Overproduction leads to competition for food or other resources.
The individuals best adapted to their environment will survive and reproduce.
Inference #1: Individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and
reproducing in a given environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals.
Inference #2: This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the
accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations.
If some heritable traits are advantageous, these will accumulate in the population, and this will
increase the frequency of individuals with those adaptations.
Survival of the Fittest: Individuals with certain heritable adaptive characteristics survive and
reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals.
Natural selection increases the adaptation of organisms to their environment over time.
Speciation: If an environment changes over time, natural selection may result in adaptation to
these new conditions and may give rise to new species.
Hardy-Weinberg equation tests whether a sexually reproducing population is evolving
A population is a localized group of individuals (a species in an area) capable of interbreeding
and producing fertile offspring.
A gene pool consists of all the alleles for all loci in a population.
A locus is fixed if all individuals in a population are homozygous for the same allele.
The frequency of an allele in a population can be calculated.
If there are 2 alleles at a locus, p and q are used to represent their frequencies.
The frequency of all alleles in a population will add up to 1:

p+q=1
The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes an ideal population that is not evolving.
The closer a population is to the criteria of the Hardy-Weinberg principle, the more stable the
population is likely to be.
Calculating Genotype Frequencies
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
where p2 and q2 represent the frequencies of the homozygous genotypes and 2pq represents
the frequency of the heterozygous genotype.
The five conditions for nonevolving populations are rarely met in nature:
No mutations
Random mating
No natural selection
Extremely large population
No gene flow
Average heterozygosity measures the average percent of loci that are heterozygous in a
population.
Most species exhibit geographic variation, differences between gene pools of separate
populations or population subgroups.
Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA.
Mutations cause new genes and alleles to arise.
Only mutations in cells that produce gametes can be passed to offspring.
A point mutation is a change in one base in a gene.
The effects of point mutations can vary:
Mutations in noncoding regions of DNA are often harmless.
Mutations in a gene might not affect protein production because of redundancy in the genetic
code.
Mutations that result in a change in protein production are often harmful.
Mutations that result in a change in protein production can sometimes increase the fitness of
the organism in its environment.
Sexual reproduction can shuffle existing alleles into new combinations.
Natural selection does not create new traits, but edits or selects for traits already
present in the population.
The local environment determines which traits will be selected for or selected against in any
specific population.
Homology is similarity resulting from common ancestry.
Homologous structures are anatomical resemblances that represent variations on a
structural theme present in a common ancestor.
Comparative embryology reveals anatomical homologies not visible in adult organisms:
Vestigial structures are remnants of features that served important functions in the organisms
ancestors.
Convergent evolution is the evolution of similar, or analogous, features in distantly related
groups.

Analogous traits arise when groups independently adapt to similar environments in

similar ways.

Three major factors alter allele frequencies and bring about most evolutionary change:
\
Natural selection - nonrandom
Genetic drift - random
Gene flow - random
Natural Selection: Differential success in reproduction results in certain alleles being passed
to the next generation in greater proportions by the more fit individuals.
Genetic drift: describes how allele frequencies fluctuate randomly from one generation to the
next.
The smaller a sample, the greater the chance of deviation from a predicted result.
Genetic drift tends to reduce genetic variation through losses of alleles.
The founder effect occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population.
Allele frequencies in the small founder population can be different from those in the larger
parent population.
The bottleneck effect is a sudden reduction in population size due to a change in the
environment, such as a natural disaster.
The resulting gene pool may no longer be reflective of the original populations gene pool.
1.Genetic drift is significant in small populations.
2.Genetic drift causes allele frequencies to change at random.
3.Genetic drift can lead to a loss of genetic variation within populations.
4.Genetic drift can cause harmful alleles to become fixed.

Gene flow consists of the movement of alleles among populations.

Alleles can be transferred through the movement of fertile individuals or gametes (for example,
pollen).
Gene flow tends to reduce differences between populations over time.
Gene flow is more likely than mutation to alter allele frequencies directly.
Relative fitness is the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation,
relative to the contributions of other individuals.
Three modes of natural selection:
Directional selection favors individuals at one end of the phenotypic range.
Disruptive selection favors individuals at both extremes of the phenotypic range.
Stabilizing selection favors intermediate variants and acts against extreme phenotypes.

Natural selection increases the frequencies of alleles that enhance survival and
reproduction.
Adaptive evolution = the match between an organism and its environment.
Because environments change, adaptive evolution is a continuous process.
Diploidy maintains genetic variation in the form of hidden recessive alleles.
Heterozygote advantage occurs when heterozygotes have a higher fitness than do both
homozygotes. Natural selection will tend to maintain two or more alleles at that locus.
The sickle-cell allele causes mutations in hemoglobin but also causes malaria resistance.
Selection favors whichever phenotype is less common in a population.
Neutral variation is genetic variation that appears to confer no selective advantage or
disadvantage.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species.

Taxonomy is the ordered division and naming of organisms.
The two-part scientific name: Genus species.
The first letter of the genus is capitalized, and the entire species name is italicized
The taxonomic groups from broad to narrow are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus, and species.
Systematists depict evolutionary relationships in branching phylogenetic trees.

Macroevolution is the cumulative effect of many speciation and extinction events.

Speciation, the origin of new species, is at the focal point of Darwins evolutionary
theory.
Evolutionary theory must explain how new species originate and how populations
evolve.
Microevolution consists of adaptations that evolve within a population, confined to one
gene pool.
Macroevolution refers to evolutionary change above the species level.
Reproductive isolation is the existence of biological factors (barriers) that impede two
different species from producing viable, fertile offspring.
Hybrids are the offspring of crosses between different species.
Prezygotic barriers block fertilization from occurring by:
Impeding different species from attempting to mate.
Preventing the successful completion of mating.
Hindering fertilization if mating is successful.
Prezygotic barriers maintain reproductive isolation and include:
Temporal, Habitat, Behavioral, Mechanical, and Gamete Isolation.
Temporal Isolation: Species that breed at different times of the day, different seasons, or
different years cannot mix their gametes.
Behavioral isolation: Courtship rituals and other behaviors unique to a species are
effective barriers.
Mechanical isolation: Morphological differences can prevent successful mating.
Gametic isolation: Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize eggs of another
species.
Speciation can occur in two ways:
Allopatric speciation: geographic barrier separates populations.
Sympatric speciation: no geographic barrier

Big Idea #2
Metabolism is the totality of an organisms chemical reactions
A metabolic pathway begins with a specific molecule and ends with a product
Catabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler
compounds
Anabolic pathways consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones
Bioenergetics is the study of how organisms manage their energy resources
Kinetic energy is energy associated with motion
Heat (thermal energy) is kinetic energy associated with random movement of atoms or
molecules
Potential energy is energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure
Chemical energy is potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction

ATP is a renewable resource that is regenerated by addition of a phosphate group to

adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
A catalyst is a chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the
reaction
An enzyme is a catalytic protein

Cofactors are nonprotein enzyme helpers

Competitive inhibitors bind to the active site of an enzyme, competing with the substrate
Noncompetitive inhibitors bind to another part of an enzyme, causing the enzyme to change
shape and making the active site less effective
Allosteric regulation may either inhibit or stimulate an enzymes activity
In feedback inhibition, the end product of a metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway
Fermentation is a partial degradation of sugars that occurs without O2
Aerobic respiration consumes organic molecules and O2 and yields ATP

Cellular respiration includes both aerobic and anaerobic respiration but is often used to refer
to aerobic respiration
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP + heat)
NADH passes the electrons to the electron transport chain
Cellular respiration has three stages:
Glycolysis (breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate)
The citric acid cycle (completes the breakdown of glucose)
Oxidative phosphorylation (accounts for most of the ATP synthesis)
Fermentation uses phosphorylation instead of an electron transport chain to generate
ATP
Two common types are alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation

Photosynthesis is the process that converts solar energy into chemical energy
Autotrophs sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms
Heterotrophs obtain their organic material from other organisms
Their green color is from chlorophyll, the green pigment within chloroplasts
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + Light energy C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O

Photosynthesis consists of the light reactions (the photo part) and Calvin cycle (the
synthesis part)

The light reactions (in the thylakoids):

Split H2O
Release O2
Reduce NADP+ to NADPH
Generate ATP from ADP by photophosphorylation

The Calvin cycle (in the stroma) forms sugar from CO2, using ATP and NADPH
The Calvin cycle begins with carbon fixation, incorporating CO2 into organic molecules
There are two types of photosystems in the thylakoid membrane
Photosystem II (PS II) functions first (the numbers reflect order of discovery) and is best
at absorbing a wavelength of 680 nm
Photosystem I (PS I) is best at absorbing a wavelength of 700 nm
The Calvin cycle has three phases:
Carbon fixation (catalyzed by rubisco)
Reduction
Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP)

An animals size and shape directly affect how it exchanges energy and materials with its
surroundings.
Organisms use homeostasis to maintain a steady state or internal balance regardless of
external environment.
Metabolic rate is the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time.
Metabolic rate is inversely related to body size among similar animals.
A behavior is the nervous systems response to a stimulus and is carried out by the muscular
or the hormonal system.
A kinesis is a simple change in activity or turning rate in response to a stimulus.
A taxis is a more or less automatic, oriented movement toward or away from a stimulus.
A fixed action pattern is a sequence of unlearned, innate behaviors that is unchangeable.
Migration is a regular, long-distance change in location

Innate behavior is developmentally fixed and under strong genetic influence / inborn.
Learning is the modification of behavior based on specific experiences.
Habituation is a simple form of learning that involves loss of responsiveness to stimuli that
convey little or no information.
Imprinting is a behavior that includes a specific critical period learning and innate components
and is generally irreversible.
In associative learning, animals associate one feature of their environment with another.
Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning in which an arbitrary stimulus is
associated with a reward or punishment
Operant conditioning is a type of associative learning in which an animal learns to associate
one of its behaviors with a reward or punishment.
Cognition is a process of knowing that may include awareness, reasoning, recollection, and
judgment
Mating behavior results from a type of natural selection called sexual selection.
Population ecology is the study of populations in relation to environment, including
environmental influences on density and distribution, age structure, and population size.
Immigration is the influx of new individuals from other areas.
Emigration is the movement of individuals out of a population.
Demography is the study of the vital statistics of a population and how they change over time.
Exponential population growth is population increase under idealized conditions.
Carrying capacity (K) is the maximum population size the environment can support.
In the logistic population growth model, the rate of increase declines as carrying capacity is
reached.
In density-independent populations, birth rate and death rate do not change with population
density.
In density-dependent populations, birth rates fall and death rates rise with population density.
An ecosystem consists of all the organisms living in a community, as well as the abiotic factors
with which they interact.
Energy and nutrients pass from primary producers (autotrophs) to primary consumers
(herbivores) to secondary consumers (carnivores) to tertiary consumers (carnivores that
feed on other carnivores).

Detritivores, or decomposers, are consumers that derive their energy from detritus, nonliving
organic matter.

The water molecule is a polar molecule: The opposite ends have opposite charges
Four of waters properties that facilitate an environment for life are:
Cohesive behavior
Ability to moderate temperature
Expansion upon freezing
Versatility as a solvent
Collectively, hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together, a phenomenon called cohesion
Adhesion is an attraction between different substances, for example, between water and plant
cell walls
Surface tension is a measure of how hard it is to break the surface of a liquid

A hydrophilic substance is one that has an affinity for water

A hydrophobic substance is one that does not have an affinity for water
All organisms are made of cells
The cell is the simplest collection of matter
that can live
The basic structural and functional unit of every organism is one of two types of cells:
prokaryotic or eukaryotic
Basic features of all cells:
Plasma membrane
Semifluid substance called cytosol
Chromosomes (carry genes)
Ribosomes (make proteins)
Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having
No nucleus
DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
No membrane-bound organelles
Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane
Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having
DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope
Membrane-bound organelles
Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and nucleus
The plasma membrane is a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen,
nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell
In the nucleus, DNA and proteins form genetic material called chromatin

Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein

Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations:
In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
Components of the endomembrane system:
Nuclear envelope
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Vacuoles
Plasma membrane
These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many
eukaryotic cells
The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope
There are two distinct regions of ER:
Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
Rough ER, with ribosomes studding its surface
The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae
Functions of the Golgi apparatus:
Modifies products of the ER
Manufactures certain macromolecules
Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules
Mitochondria and chloroplasts
Are not part of the endomembrane system

Have a double membrane

Have proteins made by free ribosomes
Contain their own DNA
The plasma membrane exhibits selective permeability, allowing some substances to cross it
more easily than others
Six major functions of membrane proteins:
Transport
Enzymatic activity
Signal transduction
Cell-cell recognition
Intercellular joining
Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrTransport proteins allow passage of
hydrophilic substances across the membrane
Diffusion is the tendency for molecules to spread out evenly into the available space
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
Isotonic solution: Solute concentration is the same as that inside the cell; no net water
movement across the plasma membrane
Hypertonic solution: Solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water
Hypotonic solution: Solute concentration is less than that inside the cell; cell gains water

Finished chapter 3,6,7,8,9,10,22,23,24,25,26,40,51,53,55