Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
CHAPTER 2
This research study cited books, articles and laws, which are relevant to the
present investigation. It is composed of related literature and studies, both local and
foreign, which contain facts and information on the research problem at hand. It also
provides explanations and logical connections between previous researches and the
present work.
RELATED LITERATURE
Foreign
(Clerc, 1992)
The first report on the exercise of Medical Technology has been traced back to
1500 BC by Jean M. Clerc as intestinal parasites such as taenia and ascaris were
mentioned in writings of this age. The description of red blood cells, protozoans and
bacteria given by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek in the early 1700s supports claims that
The practice of medicine would be impossible without the tests performed in the
scientific data used to deal with problems identified by the clinical evaluation and are an
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essential part of the information that contributes to the patient data base (Sanchez, et. al,
1991).
Medical technologists may work in all general areas within the laboratory or may
specialize in certain areas like Clinical Chemistry, which is concerned with the
Hematology, which deals with abnormal conditions and diseases affecting the blood.
bacteria, fungi, viruses, and other organisms in the body; or Parasitology which is
concerned with the identification of parasites in stool and blood samples; and
transfusing blood products (Clerc, 1992). With these various areas of expertise, the
education of medical technologists extends beyond that of medical technicians such that
they not only perform laboratory procedures but are also able to correlate, interpret,
roles or perform tests to detect disease and may also be involved in research. They are
synthesize alternatives, and determine solutions. They are able to confirm and verify
correlate and interpret data based on knowledge of physiologic conditions affecting test
results, establish and monitor quality assurance programs, and establish and monitor
21
safety protocols. Clinical laboratory scientists assume responsibility for and are held
In the United States, certain requirements have to be met before one may be
laboratory sciences, or one of the sciences and one of the following: (1) Completion of
of Clinical Pathologists (ASCP) certification and three years of experience; (4) five years
Local
Medical Laboratory of the 6th US Army. The US Army established the first clinical
laboratory in the Philippines at Quiricada Street, Sta. Cruz, and Manila where the Manila
Public Health Laboratory is presently located. The laboratory offered training programs
The Philippine Union College (PUC) and Medical Sanitarium offered the first
four-year B.S. degree in Medical Technology. After two years (1956), PUC graduated its
In the school year 1957 – 1958, Dr. Antonio Gabriel and Dr. Gustavo Reyes of
elective to 4th and 5th year B.S. Pharmacy students. Because of the popularity of Medical
Technology among Pharmacy students, Rev. Fr. Lorenzo Rodriguez decided to offer it as
a course. It was in June 17, 1957 when a temporary permit was issued by the Department
of Education for first to third year students, then in June 1960, the permit for the
internship program was issued. The full recognition of the 4-year B.S. Medical
Many schools followed to offer the B.S. Medical Technology course. Today
approximately 68 colleges and universities offering the course. The University of the
Philippines offers a similar course but the degree conferred is B.S. Public Health.
University of Sto. Tomas Graduate School and the Philippine Women’s University are
The training of medical technologists has since then been clinical based. It
hospital. With the increasing realization of the contribution of the nurse, the training was
professions as well as to promote the public health of the people, has created the Medical
Technology Board in 1969 when the Philippine Legislature passed on June 1969
Republic Act 5527 entitled “ The Medical Technology Act of 1969 “. Duties and
medical technology;
proper for the maintenance of good ethics and standards in the practice of
medical technology;
e) Investigate such violations of this Act or of the rules and regulations issued
thereunder as may come to the knowledge of the Board and, for this purpose
Board; and
f) Draft such rules and regulations as may be necessary to carry out the
provisions of this Act; provided, that the same may be issued only after the
The government’s effort would have been in vain if the academic world remained
tacit. The remarkable concerted efforts of Medical Technology administrators paved the
way for further advancement of the Medical Technology education as both the Philippine
24
further the development of the academic and clinical training of would-be medical
further develop the practicing medical technologists who are both in the academe and in
the laboratory.
Republic Act no. 5527 also known as the Philippine Medical Technology Act of
1969 defined the practice of Medical Technology as a profession which aids the
physician in the diagnosis, study and treatment of disease and in promotion of health in
general:
1. Examination of tissues, secretions and excretions of the human body and body
provided such reagents, standards, stains and others are exclusively for
The same act under section two defined a Medical Technologist as a person who
pathologist and who having passed a prescribed course (Bachelor of Science in Medical
The four-year course program’s main goal is to contribute objective and accurate
laboratory data that will aid in the diagnosis of various disease processes. As a
performing laboratory tests designed to help the medical practitioner establish or confirm
clinical diagnosis, or aid in making a differential diagnosis that will ultimately influence
The subject areas for the academic and clinical training of Medical Technology
Laws and Ethics. The course descriptions of the subject areas enumerated are as follows:
26
The course includes the application of basic chemistry principles to the analysis of
various chemical metabolites in blood. The subject deals with basic procedures,
procedures. It also deals with the intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting the
determination.
The course includes the study of clinical enzymes, electrolytes, endocrine glands,
hormones and the most common toxins with regard to their specific characteristics,
Microbiology
viruses (Virology), and fungi (Mycology). It deals with the basic structure and
pathogenesis of disease is included. It also deals with their role in infection and
diagnosis of patients.
27
Parasitology
The subject emphasizes the study of the biology and ecology of parasites affecting
man. It also includes the study of the morphology, life cycle, physiology and
Hematology
This course deals with the fundamentals of blood as a tissue, including its
understanding and properly applying all laboratory tests associated with coagulation
defects. It also deals with the proper techniques of peripheral blood collection, marrow
tissue, splenic and lymph node specimen, also morphology of blood cells and mechanics
of hematologic procedures associated with the diseases, abnormalities of red cells and the
necessary corrections.
The course deals with the study of antigen and antibody reactions as applied to the
human body in both normal and in disease conditions. It also tackles the procedures and
Blood Banking
The subject deals with the study of the fundamentals of blood group specific
antibodies and antigens, mechanics of blood typing and crossmatching, Coomb’s test,
detection of antibodies and measurement of titers, as well as the proper way of reading
and reporting results. It also deals with certain screening tests done on prospective
donors for blood donation, techniques in bleeding, proper labeling, storing and disposal
28
demands of blood transfusion. It emphasizes the selection of high quality blood in order
The course deals with the various factors affecting man on al morphological and
histological level. It is also the laboratory diagnosis of diseases. It also involves the
different procedures performed in the processing of tissue sections from either biopsy or
autopsy, and staining techniques employed and the proper procedures in performing
them.
Clinical Microscopy
The subject deals with the macroscopic, chemical and microscopic study of the
different non-blood body fluids and their by products such as urine, feces, sputum, gastric
and duodenal contents, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, transudates, exudates, sweat,
seminal fluid, vaginal fluid and amniotic fluid. Macroscopic examination includes
Chemical examinations involve the detection of the presence of elements not normally
present or absence of elements normally present in body fluids and their clinical
and gravimetric tests. The microscopic study involves the closer inspection of the
procedures and techniques are also discussed to familiarize the students to modern
knowledge.
29
The course includes the study of the history of the Medical Technology profession
both local and abroad, history of the Philippine Association of Medical Technologists,
Technology profession, such as the Medical Technology Law of 1969, R.A. 6138, P.D.
1534, Clinical laboratory law, Blood Banking law, letters of instructions, Administrative
Orders from the Ministry of Health, also the study of the Medical Technology Code of
The Medical Technology Internship Program provides the training for the
development of medical technologists who possess the knowledge, technical skills and
research required in health care delivery in the country and the global community (MT
2. To equip the interns with technical skills and manual proficiency through
examinations.
30
The Internship Program entails actual exposure of the Medical Technology inters
at the Angeles University Foundation Medical Center, laboratory Department and other
training in the various sections of the clinical laboratory. They rotate in the different
sections of the laboratory for a prescribed period of time, where they perform actual
Technologists. The actual performance of laboratory tests develops and perfects their
technical skills in the field of clinical laboratory. The theoretical knowledge acquired in
the basic and clinical year helps the interns understand disease processes in relation to
The Medical Technology interns acquire a final grade from each of the affiliation
centers after the rotation period and after all the requirements have been fulfilled. This
final grade shall be computed by the Clinical Internship Coordinator and submitted to the
Internship 1
It is the first phase (first six months) of internship training for 4th year Medical
Histopathology, and ECG, EEG, is undertaken by the interns within a prescribed period
of time. During the rotation, they are made to do actual laboratory work under the
of laboratory tests will develop and perfect their technical skills in the field of Clinical
Internship 2
This is the second phase (last six months) of internship training. The interns
rotate in the different sections of the clinical laboratory as specified in Internship 1. The
interns undergo the same comprehensive, hands-on training in another hospital. The
purpose of this is to maximize their exposure to the various methods, procedures and
In addition to the clinical training of the fourth year BSMT students, the course
Seminar 1
32
Lectures are conducted every last Saturday of the month by Resource Speakers
who are highly specialized in their respective fields. This is done to update and review
the interns on their theoretical and clinical knowledge in the various laboratory sections.
Comprehensive examinations are given after every seminar and is complemented by the
continuing lectures, quizzes, oral and practical examinations given by the clinical
Seminar 2
Lectures are conducted every last Saturday of the month by another set of invited
Resource Speakers to update and review the interns on their theoretical and clinical
after every seminar and is also supplemented by the continuing lectures, quizzes, oral and
practical examinations given by the Clinical Internship Coordinators during weekly visits
knowledge, the ability to apply such knowledge skillfully and with good judgment and an
I)
33
Article I Section 2 of Resolution no. 338 series of 1994 states that the
examination should test whether a candidate merits the minimum standard of technical
uniform standard should be established and consistently followed to ensure the reliability
of examination results. Sections two and three of the above-mentioned resolution sets the
discussed in textbooks and other professional literature. Trivial, outdated, unsettled, and
controversial questions should be avoided. Section three of the resolution mentioned that
the examination should measure technical competence at the level of new entrants to the
profession. Questions should neither be too easy nor too difficult. Between two
The last two sections of Article I of Resolution no. 338, expressed that
section further stressed that it should include adequate tests of higher cognitive abilities
higher order thinking skills. The last section declared that each subject should have an
approved syllabus, which must be harmonized with the curriculum in the undergraduate
under the Professional Regulation Commission, shall jointly have charge over the
conduct of the examinations given by former according to the rules and regulations
The same board in January 17, 1994, resolved to revise Board Resolution No. 02,
S. 1994 by adopting the revisions and/or changes incorporated and indicated by the
underscored or underlined topics or items including the weight in percent in the revised
guidelines appended to the Resolution no. 15 series 1996 as Annex A. The resolution
indicated the weight of following board subjects: Hematology = 20%; Microbiology and
Parasitology = 20%; Clinical Chemistry = 20%; Blood Banking and Serology = 20%;
Combined subjects like Microbiology and Parasitology shall constitute 70% and 30%
respectively. Blood Banking and Serology shall each constitute 50% of the exam and
least seventy-five (75) percent in the written test with no rating below fifty percent in any
of the major subjects; provided, that the candidate has not failed in at least sixty percent
The Board of Medical Technology shall establish test banks for all licensure
examinations, which shall be set up using computer facilities and specially authorized
be deposited into the test bank should categorized according to (1) topic or concept in the
approved syllabus for the subject; (2) level of difficulty: easy, moderate and difficult; (30
35
analysis, problem solving, and other high order thinking skills or abilities; (4) knowledge
and proficiency level; and (5) question types – objective, essay, problem solving, or
design/drawing – shall have four (4) items for the choice of one (1) correct answer. The
questions for each category must be represented of the mass. Every question shall be
fully edited to avoid clerical error. A test construction expert shall appraise it, if
shall be specific calling only for one definite correct answer. (Resolution # 338 Series of
the Test Bank by each Board Member of each of his /her assigned subjects. At each
subsequent examination he/she shall deposit at least three hundred (300) additional
questions in the Test Bank until it shall reach the ideal level of three thousand (3,000)
Bank to be used in each examination subject shall be representative in each topic in the
the level of difficulty – easy, moderate and difficult. No single topic or topics shall
receive undue weight in the examination. Two (2) sets of differently arranged questions
shall be drawn and assembled in an encrypted disk before printing. (Resolution # 338
The licensure examination shall be given on the first Saturday and Sunday of
Hematology are given during the first day of the exam in the same order while
on the last day of the examination in the same order as presented in this text.
of the Department of Health and have passed the licensure examination administered by
Under PRC #223 Article III, Sec. 1, before an applicant for admission as a
applying for, he must on the first day of examination possess all the qualification
prescribed by law and the rules and regulations for the said examination.
Every applicant for examination must be a Filipino citizen, in good health and is
of good moral character, must have completed a course of at least four years of Bachelor
RELATED STUDIES
There are a number of studies, both local and foreign, related to the investigation.
Foreign
Taylow et al, cited by Cabalu (1995), attested that “ scholastic general percentage
average and scores from intelligence in achievement test batteries are no accurate
37
predictors”. They suggest that the usual psychological measures of motivation interest
and personality of student nurse contribute little to the predictor of success or failure.
the pupils as an important measure of pupils’ intelligence. The results of this study on
nursing students reveal a positive correlation between the two variables of attitude or
Voh (1970), determined the validity of the college qualification test as a predictor
of first year college success for freshmen in a teacher education program and revealed
that: (1) the junior high school index was but a single predictor of college grades and the
college qualification test was the next best simple predictor, and (2) the independent
variables were only capable of predicting college success on the basis of what had been
produced in the past. Some of the critical factors and motivation are, therefore, not
assessed.
1963 as they relate to performance in their licensure examination. They found out that in
general, the graduate potential as gauged from her relative rank in the graduating class
LOCAL
and ’97: Implication to AUF PT Education.” Their study showed that academic
Batch ’96 and ’97. The researchers recommended that a greater emphasis be placed on
the academic performance and pre-board examination preparations. The group found out
Their study is similar to the present research investigation in terms of the research
locale. It is also similar in the sense that the board examination performance of the
graduates was the focus of the study. However, it differs from it in terms of the subjects
of the study and the determinants used to predict board examination performance.
Further, unlike the aforementioned study, the present research did not consider pre-board
Philippine Union College.” She found out that academic achievement cannot be used as
valid criteria in predicting success in the board examination rating which led her to
conclude that the aptitude test result cannot be a used as a predictor of success in Nursing
Board Examinations.
The abovementioned study is similar to the study at hand since both focus on the
board examination performance and academic ratings of graduates. They differ in the
aspect of target population. The previous study dealt on Nursing graduates while the
study at hand dealt with Medical Technology graduates. Moreover, the present study did
39
of Santo Tomas, College of Nursing for the School Year 1971-1972. The objective of the
study was to determine the correlation between the college freshmen’s mental ability,
aptitude for nursing to their academic success. The study showed significant correlation
between college freshman grade average and the following: 1) aptitude for nursing
overall score, r = 0.51 less than 0.01 2) mental ability, 4 = 0.43 less than 0.01 3) over all
multiple correlation ranging from 4 - 0.64 to r = 0.67 using combined effects of aptitude
terms of the locale and target population. Although both studies have correlational
research design, the cited study focused on nursing aptitude than on board examination
The study completed in March 1995 by Cabalu, et. al., showed that all the
variables of their study have significant relationship indicating that students who
performed well during the first four years of their college also perform well during their
clinical internship.
The aforementioned study differs with the present research investigation since the
former did not look into the board examination performance of the graduates but rather
performance. Further, the subjects of the study are Physical Therapy graduates while the
present study attempted to determine the predictive value of academic, clinical and
40
Cruz, Rustico (1986) compared the academic achievement and National Entrance
Admission Test (NEAT) scores of private and public school graduates. It also determined
the relationship between academic achievement of the graduates and their NEAT scores.
The study proved that Science and HEKASI have predictive value in the NEAT and that
private school graduates performed better than their public school counterparts.
It can be seen that both studies dealt with predictive values. However, they differ
in terms of the subjects, research locale and variables whose predictive values were
determined. Further, the present study did not attempt to compare ratings of graduates
Dr. Gaddi (1986), explained in her dissertation entitled that the mean performance
in the board examinations of the schools with maximum admission requirements is higher
than the mean board examination performance of schools with minimum admission
74.33%, 75.1% and 78.0%% respectively. Her study also affirmed that admission ratings
are significant for they are predictors of success in board examinations and clinical
internships.
The aforecited work is similar to the present study since both dealt with predictive
values of certain variables on board examination performance. The two studies differ in
the subjects and the variables, which were correlated. The previous work looked into the
of Nursing graduates while the present study attempted to determine the predictive values
variables included in the study are age, sex, civil status, residence, type of HS where the
student graduated from and religion. The results of the investigation showed that sex,
civil status, religion and type of high school all have predictive value to the academic
performance. Two variables, type of high school and residence, have predictive value on
the clinical performance. Only three variables namely civil status, residence and religion
Both studies deal with the predictive value of certain variables on the board
made use of non-intellective variables such as age, status, sex, religion as predictors of
the Nursing graduate’s academic, clinical and board examination performance while the
present study focused on the predictive value of academic, seminar and clinical ratings on
and Dizon which included 122 graduates who took the board from 1995 – 1998 and 64
The group found out that there was significant difference in the board
examination performance of the two groups. The study further proved that the first
group, batch 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 performed better in the licensure examination
42
with a mean rating of 77.5%. Assuming equal variances, the T-test for independent
samples showed that the second group composed of MT graduates of 1999 & 2000 did
not perform as well as the other group who took the examination from l995 to l998. This
study is similar with the present one since both dealt with board examination
performance of Medical Technology graduates. The previous study, however, did not
attempt to determine the predictive values of certain variables that may affect board