Causes, Practices, and Effects of Wars:

World War I, 1914-1918

I. Origins and Causes
A.Long-term
1. Nationalism
a. French Revolution (Sovereignty lies with nation
a people based on common language, religion,
national symbolsnot king)
b. Napoleons spread of Nationalism to fight other
kings
c. Unification of Italy, 1859-1870
d. Unification of Germany, 1866-1870
2. Industrial Capitalism
a. Raw Materials
b. Markets
c. Excess Production
d. Population Increase
3. Balkan Conflict
a. Decline of Ottoman Empire
b. Smaller states break away
c. Larger states want to swallow smaller states
d. Austria v. Russia
B.Short-term
1. Imperialism
a. Symptom of industrial capitalism
b. Competition for colonies
c. Social Darwinism
d. Creates rivalries, tension, and crises
2. International Rivalries
a. France v. Germany
b. England v. France
c. Germany v. England

d. Monarchies v. Republics
3. Alliance system
a. Initiated by Bismarck at end of Franco-Prussian
War to keep France isolated
b. Great powers distrusted one another (competition
over colonies)
c. Felt way to dissuade attack
d. Two large military blocs
1) Triple Alliance: Ger, A-H, Italy
2) Triple Entente: GB, Fr, Russ
4. Militarism
a. As rivalries, competition increased, size of armies
increased
b. European armies 2x 1890-1914
c. As armies grow, so too influence of military
leaders
d. Created complex military plans in case of war;
deviation from plans would be disaster
e. British-German Naval race
C.Immediate
1. Serbian Nationalism
a. Want to create Greater Serbia, south slav state
b. Sees Austria-Hungary as obstacle
c. Assassination of Austrian Archduke in Sarajevo
by Serbian terrorist group
2. German Militarism
a. Kaiser Wilhelm backed Austrian punishment of
Serbia with blank check (gobble up Serbia like
Bosnia-Herzegovina) so Austria declares war on
Serbia
b. Strict adherence to Schlieffen Plan, other military
timetables (Russia could not partially mobilize;
Germany must invade Belgium, France)

II. Nature of the War

A. Technological developments
1. Rifled breach-loaders v. smoothbore muzzleloaders
2. siege artillery
3. machine guns
4. poison gas
5. submarines
6. aircraft
7. HMS Dreadnaught
8. Tanks
B. Strategies and Tactics
1. Strategies
a. German Schlieffen Plan
b. French Plan 17
c. British Plan W
d. Russian war plans (part of Plan 17)
2. Tactics
a. Offensive movement (RRs, forced marches)
b. Defensive trenches (machine guns, barbed wire)
c. Attempts to break stalemate
1) Human waves
2) Artillery
3) Gas
4) Mines
C. Home front: Economic and Social Impact
1. Economic Impact
a. Most combatants thought war would be over by
Christmas and did not plan for long war
b. As war dragged on, governments expanded
power over economies
c. Free-market capitalism temporarily suspended

d. Governments established planned economies

revolving around needs of military
1) Price, wage, and rent controls
2) Rationed food supplies and materials
3) Regulated imports and exports
4) Took over transportation systems and
industries
e. What results is concept of total warcomplete
mobilization of all of societys resources and
people
f. Conscription and military service increased
g. Governments see civilians at home and in
factories as just as vital as soldiers in war effort
2. Social Impact
a. Manipulation of public opinion
1) Patriotic enthusiasm wanes due to high
casualties and no victory in sight
2) to keep war machines producing,
authoritarian governments used force to
suppress opposition (Ger, A-H, Russ)
3) GB Defense of Realm Act (DORA) and US
Espionage (1917) and Sedition Acts (1918).
Could arrest people who spoke against war as
traitors
4) Governments relied heavily on war
propaganda to arouse enthusiasm for war
b. Changing roles for women
1) Since governments mobilizing every
available man for combat, women asked to do
jobs of men (chimney sweeps, truck drivers,
farm and factory workers)
2) Governments quickly returned these jobs to
men after war

3) Women in many countries gained right to

vote (Ger, Aus, US, GB)
D. Resistance and Revolutionary Movements
1. Russian Revolutions of 1917
a. Background
1) Russia unprepared militarily, technologically
for WWI (poor leadership, still using horsedrawn carts to transport men & material)
2) Poor industrial strength led to many
battlefield deaths (1914-1916: 2 million dead,
4 million wounded/captured)
3) Problems in royal family (Nicholas,
Alexandra, Alexis, Rasputin)
4) By 1917, all classes saw need for change in
government, most want out of war
b. March Revolution
1) February government institutes bread rations
in capital city Petrograd
2) Worker strikes in Petrograd, Womens March
protest bread rationing (women in factories
2x since 1914)
3) Tsar orders troops disperse crowd (violence if
necessary)
4) Initially troops follow orders, but join in
protests
5) Russian Duma met, declared assuming
government responsibility; created
provisional government, tsar abdicates
6) Constitutional Democrats (middle-class,
liberal aristocratic minority) created
provisional government (guaranteed freedom
of speech, religion, assembly, various civil
liberties)

7) Wanted to keep Russia in war; workers,

peasants want out
c. November
1) Rise of soviets (councils of workers and
soldiers deputies) in Petrograd, army units,
factory towns, rural areas
2) Lenin and Bolsheviks (political party
dedicated to violent revolution to destroy
capitalist system) saw soviets as alternate
power to provisional govt
3) Was in exile in Switzerland for revolutionary
activity but sent by German High Command
in sealed train to Russia
4) Peace, Land, Bread; All power to the
Soviets
5) Lenin gained support of soviets, especially
Petrogradtime was right to take power
6) November 6, 1917 pro-soviet/pro-Bolshevik
forces took control of Petrograd, Provisional
Government collapsed
7) Lenin created new Communist government
(Council of Peoples Commissars) with
consent of all-Russian Congress of Soviets
8) Lenin and new Communist government
withdraw Russia from war w/Treaty of BrestLitovsk
9) Germany now able to transport troops from
Eastern Front to Western Front against
France, Britain, USA.

2. German Revolution of 1918

a. Sailors Mutiny
1) 1916 Battle of Jutland largest battle of
modern battleships
2) Indecisive results: GB lost more ships, Ger
failed objective and never threat again
3) April 1917 US enters war on side of Allies
4) Germany to take on last offensive gamble in
summer 1918
5) Despite initial gains, offensive loses
momentum as combined forces of GB, FR,
and US too much for Germany
6) German defensive lines crumbling against
combined forces, German army close to
collapse
7) German naval high command decides to order
final honorable suicide mission against
Royal Navy
8) German sailors resist, refuse to put to sea
9) Sailors mutiny encourages soldiers and
workers to strike, look to socialist parties for
leadership in revolutionwant Kaiser to
abdicate
10) Kaiser refuses, socialists resign from
Reichstag, call for general strike many
declare soviet republics
b. Abdication of Kaiser William II
1) Military leaders say war cannot be won, must
request armistice
2) Kaiser wants army to crush rebels (by now 11
cities)
3) Generals told Kaiser was impossible;
revolutionaries controlled RRs, many soldiers

joining revolutionaries, if told to fight

countrymen would not do so
4) Country no longer standing behind him,
Allies would not negotiate peace with Kaiser;
wanted government representing people
5) Only way to end war was get rid of Kaiser;
German Chancellor announced abdication
and handed over power to leader of SPD
6) Socialist leaders from steps of Reichstag
proclaim Socialist Republic, Kaiser goes into
exile in Netherlands where he lives rest of life
7) Representatives of new socialist government
accept Allies armistice terms, ending war on
11:00 November 11, 1918; beginning of stab
in back theory (Hitler)
III. Effects and Results
A. Peace Settlements
1. Aims of Allies after war
a. France: protection from another war with
Germany; cash payment for damage in
northeastern France
b. Great Britain: cash payment in reparations
c. United States: Wilsons Fourteen Points
(national self-determination of peoples, League
of Nations)
d. All: Buffer between Europe and USSR
2. Treaty of Versailles
a. Germany not invited to participate in
composition of treaty (Dictated Peace)
b. Germany solely responsible for starting war
(Article 231: War Guilt Clause)
c. Germany to pay for costs and damages of war
through reparations

d. Germany to reduce size of army to 100,000

e. German territory lost: Alsace-Lorraine, Polish
Corridor, Rhineland (demilitarized)
B. Attempts at Collective Security: League of Nations
a. Congress of representatives of European nations
b. to convene and discuss issues rather than
resorting to secret treaties and military conflict
c. US isolationist sentiments prohibited Senate
from ratifying Treaty of Versailles (League of
Nations, alliances w/FR and GB)
d. US did not want to be involved in future
European wars
e. postwar arrangements already breaking down
C. Political Repercussions and Territorial Changes
1. Political Repercussions
a. GB: Since US did not fulfill promises of
entering League of Nations and went back on
word concerning alliance w/France, GB also
renege on plans for alliance w/Fr.
b. France: Feel abandoned by wartime allies (Russ,
GB, US); feel weak and insecure; act as new
bully in Europe and form alliances with weak
eastern European states (Little Entente)
c. Ger.: Feel resentful at War Guilt Clause (Lie),
dictated peace, heavy reparation (pay until
1973)
2. Territorial Changes (National Self-Determination
of Peoples)
a. Russian Empire: Finland, Latvia, Lithuania,
Estonia, Poland
b. Austro-Hungarian Empire: Austria, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania

c. German Empire: Germany, Poland, Rhineland,

Alsace-Lorraine
D. Post-War Economic Problems
1. French enforced Treaty of Versailles (felt no one
else would)
2. France wanted to safeguard security of state and
rebuild war-torn area of country
a. Make Germany pay
b. Keep Germany militarily and economically
weak so could not attack again
3. Germany paid RM 132 million after first year,
could not pay any more
4. France occupied Ruhr valley to extract payments
in raw materials and profit generated by German
industry (coal, steel)
5. Made things worse; took away Germanys ability
to pay for own economic problems and
restructuring of society
6. German government printed more money to meet
reparations payments
7. Huge inflation resulted:
a. 1914: $1 = RM 4.2
b. 1923: $1 = RM 4,200,000,000,000
c. Wheelbarrows full of cash to pay for groceries
d. Had to go shopping in morning because prices
would increase by evening
e. German use money for wallpaper and firewood
8. French realize occupation of Ruhr not working;
Germany really could not make payments Allies
were demanding; decided needed to work with
Germany instead of against it.

9. Held international conference to decide best way

to address problem of reparations (GB, Fr, Ger,
US)
10. Resulted in Dawes Plan:
a. Decided economically healthy Germany good
for overall European economic and political
climate
b. Reduce reparations payments
c. Give Germany loan to help rejuvenate economy
so can resume payments