Biología, La Vida en La Tierra, 8va Ed - Chap4

h
Cpqor`qro^ v crk`fk
ab i^ ìri^
<i^gZl l^bl f^l^l Zgm^l ]^ mhfZk ^lmZ _hmh`kZ_}Z( ^lm^ bg_Zgm^ ln_kb ngZ jn^fZ]nkZ fnr lô^kZ ^g ê
mkZq $o|Zl^ ê k^\nZ]kh%* @g eZ Z\mnZeb]Z]( ê mb^f ih ]^ \nkZ\bg ]^ ^lmZl a^kb]Zl l^ aZ k^]n\b]h
kZ]b\Zef^gm^ r ^l ihlb[e^ êbfbgZk \Zlb ihk \hfie^mh eZl \b\Zmkb\^l `kZ\bZl Z eZ ibê [bhZkmb_b\bZe*
BC QK R F O P U L
@NOP?DJ ?@ ><NJ6 Mîn^lmhl iZkZ \n^kihl
anfZghl
0*- Ln| ^l eZ m^hk}Z \êneZk:
0*. >n{e^l lhg eZl \ZkZ\m^k}lmb\Zl [{lb\Zl
]^ eZl \|eneZl:
J^p crk`flkbp ab i^p ìri^p ifjfq^k pr q^j^l
Rla^p i^p ìri^p qfbkbk `ô^`qbopqf`^p `ljrkbp
F^v alp qfmlp _~pf`lp ab ìri^p8 mol`ôfqf`^p v br`ôfqf`^p
0*/ >n{e^l lhg eZl \ZkZ\m^k}lmb\Zl ikbg\biZe^l
]^ eZl \|eneZl ^n\Zkbmb\Zl:
J^p môbabp `biriôbp pfosbk ab plpqk ^ îdrk^p ìri^p
br`ôfqf`^p
Ci `fqlbpnrbibql _ofka^ cloj^* plmloqb v jlsfjfbkql
Gksbpqfd^`fk `fbkqcf`^8 Ck _rp`^ a b i^ ìri^
Jlp `fiflp v ci^dbilp jrbsbk ^ i^ ìri^ l ^ ilp inrfalp mô^

nrb pqlp m^pbk mlo i^ ìri^
Ci kìbl bp bi `bkqol ab `lkqoli ab i^ ìri^ br`ôfqf`^
COPQBFL BC A OL
APCM O SC krk`^ e^_^ aâl rk dofql q^k
abpdôoâlo bk jf sfa^, ?p ob`rboa^ i^
j^j ab rk _b_ ^nrbi a^ q^k qboof_ib bk
n gb b i ^`bfqb efosfbkal nrb bpq^_^ bk rk^
pôqk pb aboo^j a b i^ bpqrc^ pl_ob pr efgl
ab jbpbp v nrb ib molsl` nrbjâro^p
bk b i 5 . mlo `fbkql abi `rboml, B b fkj b+
af^ql ii^j î pbosf`fl ab bjbodbk`f^ v
jb afgbolk nrb nrfqô^ i^ olm^ î _b_* mb+
ol bpq^_^ qla^ mbdâ^ ^ i^ mfbi, Jb nrfq ilp
`î`bqfkbp v i^ mfbi pb abpmobkaf `lk biilp ,
Qf bpqb ^``fabkqb er_fbo^ pr`bafal rk^p a +
`â^p ^qop* i^p nrbjâro^p e^_o^k pfal
jloqîbp, ?`qrîj bkqb* i^ kf`^ bsfabk`f^
ab bpq^ nrbjâro^ bk bi mbèl bp nrb i^
mfbi pb sb rk ml`l ôordâ^, X^èôv mral
p^kô do^`f^p ^ i^ jô^sfiilp^ mfbi ôqfcf`fî
òbâ^ mlo i^ _flfkdbkfbo^,
J^ mfbi `lkpfpqb bk sôflp qfmlp ab ìri^p
bpmb`fîfwâ^p `lk fkqbo^``flkbp `ljmibg^p,
J^p ìri^p buqboflobp &bmfqbifîbp' ab i^ mfbi
plk j^bpqo^p bk i^ jriqfmif`^`fk* ab j ^kb+
o^ nrb i^p nrbjâro^p jbklobp `f`^qofw^k
pfk abgô erbii^, Qfk bj _ôdl* pf i^p `^m^p fk+
qboflobp &abojfp' pb abpqorvbk mlo `lj mibql*
i^ `f`^qofw^`fk pb molar`b ibkq^jbkqb ^
môqfo ab i^p lofii^p ab i^ ebofa^, J^p nrbj ^+
aro^p molcrka^p pb qo^q^k ^ j bkral fkgbo+
q^kal mfbi* fkìrvbkal i^ aboj fp nrb pb
Ci `fqlmi^pj^ br`ôfqf`l fkìrvb rk `ljmibgl pfpqbj^ ab

jbj_o^k^p
J^p s^`rli^p abpbjmb^k jrè^p crk`flkbp* `ljl obdri^`fk
abi ^dr^* plmloqb v îj^`bk^jfbkql
J^p jfql`lkaof^p buqo^bk bkbod^ ab i^p jli`ri^p ab îfjbk+
ql v ilp ìlolmi^pqlp `^mq^k i^ bkbod^ pliô
J^p mi^kq^p rqfifw^k mi~pqfalp mô^ îj^`bk^jfbkql
0*0 >n{e^l lhg eZl \ZkZ\m^k}lmb\Zl ikbg\biZe^l
]^ eZl \|eneZl ikh\Zkbmb\Zl:
J^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p plk mbnrb^p v mlpbbk `ô^`qbopqf`^p
prmbocf`fîbp bpmb`fîfwâ^p
J^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p qfbkbk jbklp bpqor`qro^p bpmb`fîfw^+
a^p abkqol abi `fqlmi^pj^
Cki^`bp `lk i^ sfa^8 F r p m b a b p fkabpb^_ibp
JOMJ QDNO<UJ <G @NOP?DJ ?@ ><NJ Mîn^lmhl

iZkZ \n^kihl anfZghl
M@KP@NOJN
K<M< >P@MKJN C P H < I J N
qlj ^ ab lqo^p môqbp abi `rboml9 mbol mô^

i^p nrbjâro^p jrv buqbkp^p* i^ `ôbk`f^
ab mfbi p^k^ e^`b fjmlpf_ib ^mif`ôbpq^ q`+
kf`^, F^pq^ e^`b ml`l* i^ kf`^ îqbok^qfs^
bo^ rqfifwô i^ mfbi ab `âsbobp l ab `boalp,
Ck b i j bglo ab _ p `^plp* bpqlp qbgfalp pfosbk
`lj l sbka^gbp _flidf`lp qbj ml oîbp
mlonrb bi `rboml ab i^ s`qfj^ ^ i^ iôd^ ob+
è^w^ `rînrfbo^ ab bp^p alp ^mif`^`flkbp* v
bpql* mlo _ dbkboî* abg^ a bcloj ^`_kbp
v `f`^qof`bp buqbkp^p,
J^ afpmlkf_fifaâ ab i^ mfbi a b _ _ fk d b +
kfbo^ e^ jlafcf`âl bk cloj ^ oâf`î bi mol+
kpqf`l ab nrfbkbp prcobk nrbjâro^p, Ci
_b_* `rv^ clql ^môb`b î fk f` _ ab bpqb `^+
mqr _ * crb qo^qâl `lk bpqb qfml ab mfbi nrb
`lkqfbkb ìri^p ab mfbi sfs^p* i^p `rîbp pb
l_qfbkbk abi mobmr`fl ab _ p fkc^kqbp nrb
crbolk `fo`rk`faâlp î k^`bo v nrb alk^k
_ p mâobp, Bbpmrp ab nrb ilp mobmr`flp
pb pljbqbk ^ `riqfsl bk bi i^_lo^qlofl* rk^
pli^ mridâ^ `râoâ^ ab qbgfal mrbab pr+
jfkfpqoô ìri^p prcf`fbkqbp `lj l mô^ mol+
ar`fo 0 3 . *. . . mfbp `râoâlp ab m fbi
ôqfcf`fî, J^p ìri^p òb`bk _^gl `lkaf`_kbp
ofdrolp^p v pb pfbj_o^k bk _^pqfalobp ab
mlifpqbo __a bd oâ ^_ib ab ^môfbk`f^ bp+
mlkglp^, Jrbdl* `r^kal i^ mfbi ôqfcf`fî bpq
`lj mibq^* pb `lkdbi^ ^ + 5 . A &+7 2 D '* rk^
qbj mbo^qro^ âb`râ^ mô^ nrb i^p ìri^p

pl_obsfs^k, J^ mfbi bp bksfâ^ bk e fb _ pb`l
^ _ p elpmfqîbp bpmb`fîfwâlp bk b i qo^q^+
jfbkql ab m^`fbkqbp `lk nrbjâro^p,
J^p ìri^p sfs^p ab i^ mfbi ab _ _fkdbkfb+
o^ molar`bk rk^ sôfbaâ ab molqbk^p* fk+
ìrvbkal i^p molqbk^p cf_olp^p n r b pb
cloj^k bk bi buqboflo ab i^p ìri^p a b i^p
`^m^p klojîbp molcrka^p ab i^ mfbi* v _ p
c^`qlobp ab òb`fjfbkql `biriô nrb bpqfj r+
i^k i^ obdbkbo^`fk ab i^p `^m^p jp molcrk+
a^p ab qbgfal v clj bkq^k b i abpôoliil ab
krbslp s^plp p^kdrkblp mô^ krqofo b i qbgf+
al, Alkclojb pb s^ cloj^kal krbsl qbgfal
abkqol ab _ p _^pqfalobp bk bi i^_lo^qlofl* bi
mlifpqbo pb abp`ljmlkb bk afufal a b `ô+
_lkl* ludbkl v ^dr^,
J^ òb^`fk ab i^ mfbi ôqfcf`fî abjrbpqo^
krbpqol òb`fbkqb mlabo mô^ j^kfmriô i^p
ìri^p* i^p rkfaâbp crka^j bkqîbp ab i^ sf+
a^, Rlalp _ p pbobp sfslp bpqk cloj âlp ab
ìri^p* fkìrfalp _ p qbgfalp v od^klp nrb
mrbabk obpriqô a^âlp mlo ibp_kbp l b k +
cbojbaâbp, Qf bk i^ ^`qrîfaâ _ p `fbkqcf+
`lp plk `^m^`bp ab j^kfmriô i^p ìri^p
mô^ l_qbkbo mfbi ôqfcf`fî sfs^* îdk a^
pbok `^m^`bp ab bp`rimfo i^p ìri^p mô^
aôibp cloj^ ab erbplp* edâlp* oflkbp v
mrijlkbp=
13
A^mqril 2
C Q R P S A R S P ? W D S L A G L BC J? A | J S J ?
R^j^l
o_libp jp îqlp
+** b
/. `j
erbsl ab dîifk^
`j
bj_ofk ab o^k^
/ jj
/.. gqj
]<
`^pf qla^p i^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p
/. cfj
jfql`lkaof^
(Q
/ cfj
+
0l
6
`^pf qla^p i^p _^`qbof^p
1 D
/ 6
` l
kj
6/
sforp
kj
molqbk^p
afjbqol ab i^ al_ib eif`b ab BL?
kj
kj
qljlp
Skfaâbp ab jbaf`fk8
/ jbqol &j' ; 17,15 mridâ^p
`bkqjbqol &`j' j
/ jfijbqol &jj' ; /-/... j
jfbo^ &muj' ; - * j
k^kjbqol &kj' ^ - ** j
P E S P ? 2+/ R^j^lp obi^qfslp

J^p afjbkpflkbp nrb prbibk bk`lkqoôpb bk _flild^ s^k abpab rklp /.. jbqolp &îqro^ ab i^p pb`rlv^p jp îq^p'
e^pq^ rk^p `r^kq^p jfbo^p &afj bqol ab i^ j^vlo^ ab i^p ìri^p' v rklp `r^kqlp k^kjbqolp &afj bqol ab jrè^p
jli`ri^p do^kabp', M_pbos^ nrb bk bi pfpqbj^ jqof`l &bj mibâl `^pf buìrpfs^jbkqb bk i^ `fbk`f^ bk jrè^p ob+
dflkbp abi jrkal' pb a^k klj_obp afpqfkqlp ^ i^p afjbkpflkbp nrb afcfbobk bk c^`qlobp ab v ,
A S JC Q Q M L J?Q A ? P ? A R C P Q R GA ? Q @Q GA?Q BC J?Q A|JSJ ?Q=
=KA LPx @N G< O@J M < >@GPG<M:

? cfkbp ab i^ a`â^ ab /63.* bi m^qildl ^rpqo^`l Pralic
Tfoèlt bpòf_f8 Rlal ^kfjî ^môb`b `ljl rk `lkgrkql ab
rkfaâbp sfqîbp* `â^ rk^ ab i^p `rîbp `lkqfbkb qla^p i^p `^+
o^`qbopqf`^p ab i^ sfa^ , ?abj~p* Tfoèlt mobafgl8 Rla^p i^p
ìri^p molsfbkbk ab ìri^p , Ci afp`bokfjfbkql ab Tfoèlt
bpq^_^ _^pâl bk ilp `fjfbkqlp bpq^_ib`falp mlo ilp jfòlp`l+
mfpq^p fkf`fîbp* `ljl ^mobkabo~p j~p âbi^kqb bk Gksbpqfd^+
`fk `fbkqcf`^8 Ck _rp`^ ab i^ ìri^, Jlp qobp mofk`fmflp ab
i^ qblo^ `biriô j labok^* nrb `lkpqfqrvbk rk mob`bmql crka^+
jbkqî ab i^ _flild^* pb abofs^k bk cloj^ afob`q^ ab i^p ^cfo+
j^`flkbp ab Tfoèlt8
Rlal lod^kfpjl sfsl pb `ljmlkb ab rk^ l j~p ìri^p,
Jlp lod^kfpjlp sfslp j~p mbnrblp plk ìri^p fkafsfar^+
ibp v i^p ìri^p plk i^p rkfaâbp crk`flkîbp ab ilp lod^kfp+
jlp jriqf`biriôbp,
Rla^p i^p ìri^p k^`bk ab ìri^p mobbufpqbkqbp,
Rlalp ilp pbobp sfslp* abpab i^p _^`qbof^p jfòlp`mf`^p e^pq^
rk dfd^kqbp`l ol_ib v bi `rboml erj^kl* bpq~k `ljmrbpqlp ab
ìri^p, K fbkqo^p nrb `â^ _^`qbof^ `lkpfpqb bk rk^ pli^ ìr+
i^ obi^qfs^jbkqb pfjmib* krbpqol `rboml `lkpq^ ab _fiilkbp ab
ìri^p `ljmibg^p* `â^ rk^ bpmb`fîfwâ^ bk abpbj mbô rk^
bklojb sôfbaâ ab crk`flkbp, Nô^ pl_obsfsfo* qla^p i^p ìr+
i^p ab_bk l_qbkbo bkbod^ v krqofj bkqlp ab pr ^j_fbkqb* pfk+
qbqfwô rk^ sôfbaâ ab molqbk^p v lqo^p jli`ri^p kb`bpôf^p
mô^ pr òb`fjfbkql v obmô^`fk* v bifj fkô ilp abpbèlp, Kr+
è^p ìri^p kb`bpfq^k fkqbo^`qrô `lk lqo^p, Nô^ dô^kqfwô i^
`lkqfkrfaâ ab i^ sfa^* i^p ìri^p q^j_fk ab_bk obmolar`fopb,
Nôqbp bpmb`fîfwâ^p ab `â^ ìri^* nrb abpòf_fobjlp bk ilp
pfdrfbkqbp ^môqâlp pb bk`ôd^k ab obîfwô bpq^p ^`qfsfaâbp,
15
mi^kq^p v ^kfj îbp qfbkbk `ô^`qbopqf`^p `ljrkbp* `ljl pb

abpòf_b bk ilp pfdrfbkqbp ^môqâlp,
GZ g _g \l[h[ jf[mg xnc][ _h]c_ll[ [ f[ ]yfof[ s g _^c[
f[m chn_l[]]cih_m _ h nl_ f[ ]yfof[ s mo [ g \c_hn_
Aâ^ ìri^ bpq~ olabâ^ mlo rk^ jbj_o^k^ cirfa^ v buqob+

jâ^jbkqb abidâ^ ii^jâ^ j bj _o^k^ mi^pj qf`^ &DGE S P ?
2 +0 ', Aljl ^mobkabo~p bk bi `^mqril 3* pq^ v lqo^p j bj _o^+
k^p abkqol ab i^p ìri^p `lkpfpqbk bk rk^ _f`^m^ clpclifmaf`^
&s^pb bi `^mqril 1' bk i^ nrb bpq~ fkòrpqâ^ rk^ sôfbaâ ab
molqbk^p, J^ jbj_o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^ abpbjmb^ qobp crk`fl+
kbp mofk`fmîbp8
?pi^ bi `lkqbkfal ab i^ ìri^ abi ^j _fbkqb buqbokl,
Pbdri^ bi cirgl ab j^qbofîbp e^`f^ abkqol v e^`f^ crbo^ ab
i^ ìri^,
Nboj fqb i^ fkqbo^``fk `lk lqo^p ìri^p v `lk bi bkqlokl
buqo^`biriô,
Jlp `ljmlkbkqbp clpclifmaf`lp v molqbf`lp ab i^p jbj_o^k^p
`biriôbp abpbjmb^k afcbobkqbp crk`flkbp, Aâ^ clpclimfal
qfbkb rk^ `^_bw^ efaolcf`^ &qojfkl nrb bqfjlidf`^jbkqb
pfdkfcf`^ ^j^kqb abi ^dr^'* nrb jfo^ e^`f^ bi fkqboflo l bi bu+
qboflo ^`rlpl ab i^ jbj_o^k^, ?rknrb îdrk^p jli`ri^p mb+
nrb^p fkìrfa^p i^p ab ludbkl* afufal ab `ô_lkl v
^dr^ plk `^m^`bp ab afcrkafopb ^ qo^sp ab bii^* i^ _f`^m^ clp+
clifmaf`^ &nrb pb obcfbob ^ i^ al_ib `^m^ ab jli`ri^p' cloj^
Bfocî _rnl[]_coc[l %_rn_lcil&

Eir`lmolqbk^
>PG@N NJI G<N ><M<>O@MNOD><N

=ND><N ?@ G<N >xGPG<N:
GZl _ng\bhg^l ]^ eZl \|eneZl ebf bmZg ln mZf Z~h

A^pf qla^p i^p ìri^p jfabk bkqob / v /.. jfbo^p &jfiilkpf+
j^p ab jbqol' ab af~j bqol &DGE SP ? 2 +/ ', Aljl plk q^k mb+
nrb^p* pr abp`r_ofjfbkql qrsl nrb bpmboô i^ fksbk`fk abi
jfòlp`lmfl, Bbpab nrb pb l_pbosôlk i^p mofjbo^p ìri^p ^
cfkbp abi pfdil usk* ilp `fbkqcf`lp e^k fabâl jqlalp `â^
sbw j~p ^s^kwâlp mô^ bpqrafôi^p* qî `ljl pb abpòf_b bk
Gksbpqfd^`fk `fbkqcf`^8 C k _rp`^ ab i^ ìri^ ,
Nlo nr plk mbnrb^p `^pf qla^p i^p ìri^p= J^ obpmrbp+
q^ obpfab bk pr kb`bpfaâ ab fkqbo`^j _fô krqofjbkqlp v abpb+
èlp `lk pr ^j _fbkqb buqboflo ^ qo^sp ab i^ jbj _o^k^
mi^pj~qf`^, Aljl ^mobkabo~p bk bi `^mqril 3* jrèlp krqof+
jbkqlp v abpbèlp bkqo^k* pîbk l pb abpmi^w^k abkqol ab i^p
ìri^p ml o [`]lj`xe& nrb bp bi jlsfjfbkql ab jli`ri^p ab ir+
dôbp `lk îq^ `lk`bkqo^`fk ab bp^p jli`ri^p ^ irdôbp `lk
_^g^ `lk`bkqo^`fk, Cpqb mol`bpl obi^qfs^jbkqb ibkql obnrfb+
ob nrb kfkdrk^ môqb ab i^ ìri^ bpq jrv obqfoâ^ abi ^j +
_fbkqb buqboflo &s^pb i^ cfdro^ 3+/5* bk bi pfdrfbkqb `^mqril',
Oh]Zl eZl \|eneZl mb^g^g \ZkZ\m^k}lmb\Zl \hfng^l
? mbpô ab pr afsbopfaâ* qla^p i^p ìri^p abpab _^`qbof^p
mol`ôfqf`^p v ônrb^p e^pq^ molqfpq^p br`ôfqf`lp* elkdlp*
Sk^ _f`^m^ ab clpclimfalp

^vra^ ^ ^fpiô bi `lkqbkfal
ab i^ ìri^,
J^p molqbk^p ^vra^k ^ i^

ìri^ ^ `ljrkf`ôpb
`lk pr ^j_fbkqb,
Alibpqboli
a b i^ jbj_o^k
Dfi^jbkqlp molqbf`lp
? cnimif %Ehn_lcil&
DGESP? 2 +0 J^ j bj _ o^k ^ mi^pj qf`^
J^ j bj _o^k^ mi^pjqf`^ bk`fboo^ ^ i^ ìri^, Qr bpqor`qro^* môb`f+
a^ ^ i^ ab qla^p i^p jbj_o^k^p `biriôbp* `lkpfpqb bk rk^ al_ib
`^m^ ab jli`ri^p clpclimfa^p bk i^ `rî bpqk fkòrpqâ^p afsbo+
p^p molqbk^p,
2,
A^mqril 2
mlol krìbô
`rboml _^pî
( kìbl
`bkq oflil
ci^dbil
cfi^jbkqlp
fkqbojbaflp
obq`ril bkalmipjf`l
ordlpl
jbj_o^k^
mi^pjqf`^
of_lplj^
pl plj^
of_lplj^p
abi PC ordlpl
^mô^ql
ab Elidf
sbp`ri^
jfòlq_rilp
obq`ril
bkalmipjf`l
fpl
of_lplj^ if_ob
jfql`lkaof^ sbp`ri^
P E S P ? 2 +1 Sk^ ìri^ ^kfj î obmobpbkq^qfs^
rk^ _ôobo^ mô^ i^ j^vlo^ ab i^p jli`ri^p v ilp flkbp efaol+

cif`lp, J^ _f`^m^ clpclifmaf`^ ^vra^ ^ ^fpiô ^ i^ ìri^ ab pr
bkqlokl* il nrb ib mbojfqb j ^kqbkbo i^p afcbobk`f^p bk i^p `lk+
`bkqo^`flkbp ab ilp j^qbofîbp nrb e^v abkqol v crbo^* v nrb
plk ab q^kq^ fjmloq^k`f^ mô^ i^ sfa^,
Ck `lkqo^pqb* i^p molqbk^p c^`fifq^k i^ `ljrkf`^`fk bkqob
i^ ìri^ v pr bkqlokl, ?idrk^p ab bii^p mboj fqbk ^ jli`ri^p
bpmb`cf`^p l flkbp jlsbopb ^ qo^sp ab i^ jbj _o^k^ mi^pj~+
qf`^* jfbkqo^p nrb lqo^p moljrbsbk i^p ob^``flkbp nrjf`^p
abkqol ab i^ ìri^, ?idrk^p molqbk^p ab i^ j bj_o^k^ rkbk
^ i^p ìri^p* v lqo^p ob`f_bk v obpmlkabk ^ i^p pbîbp ab i^p
jli`ri^p &`ljl i^p elojlk^p' bk bi inrfal nrb olab^ ^ i^
ìri^ &s^pb i^ cfdro^ 2+0', C k bi `^mqril 3* bumif`ôbjlp
i^ j bj _o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^ `lk j ^vlo abqîib,
Pi^[m f[m ]yfof[m ]ihnc_h_h ]cnijf[mg [
Ci a ql mi^pj ^ bpq~ clojâl mlo qlal bi j^qbofî v bpqor`qro^p

nrb obpfabk abkqol ab i^ jbj_o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^* mbol crbo^ ab
i^ obdfk ab i^ ìri^ nrb `lkqfbkb BL? &P E S P ? Q 2 +1 v 2 +2 ',
J^ mlo`fk cirfa^ abi `fqlmi^pj^ bk i^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p v
br`ôfqf`^p* ii^jâ^ a ql pli* `lkqfbkb ^dr^* pîbp v rk^ sôfb+
aâ ab jli`ri^p lod~kf`^p* nrb fkìrvb molqbk^p* imfalp*
`ô_lefao^qlp* ^w`ôbp* ^jfkl~`falp v krìbqfalp &s^pb
bi `^mqril 1', Ci `fqlmi^pj^ fkìrvb bi `fqlpli v rk^ sôfbaâ
ab bpqor`qro^p, A^pf qla^p i^p ^`qfsfaâbp jbq^_if`^p ab i^p
ìri^p i^p ob^``flkbp _flnrjf`^p nrb mboj fqbk i^ sfa^
pb bcb`q^k bk bi `fqlmi^pj^ ab i^ ìri^, S k bgbjmil ab biil
bp i^ pkqbpfp ab i^p molqbk^p, Ci mol`bpl `ljmibgl l`roob bk
A S JC Q Q M L J?Q A ? P ? A R C P Q R GA ? Q @Q GA?Q BC J?Q A|JSJ ?Q=
jfòlq_rilp
&môqb abi `fql bpnrbibql'
2-
mipqfal jfql`lkaof^
aqlpli
alolmi^pql
^mô^ql ab Elidf
s^`rli^ `bkqoî
obq`ril
bkalmipjf`l
ifpl
mi^pjlabpjl
sbp`ri^
obq`ril
bkalmipjf`l
ordlpl
môba `biriô
jbj_o^k^
mi^pjqf`^
krìlil
kìbl
mlol krìbô
òlj^qfk^
bksliqro^ krìbô
cfi^jbkqlp
fkqbojbaflp
of_lplj^p
of_lplj^ if_ob
DGESP? 2 +2 Sk^ ìri^ s b d b q^ i obm obpbkq^qfs^
i^p bpqor`qro^p bpmb`fîbp ii^jâ^p i`YfjfdXj& nrb pb bk`rbk+

qo^k bk bi `fqlmi^pj^ ab qla^p i^p ìri^p, Jlp afsboplp qfmlp
ab molqbk^p pfkqbqfwâ^p mlo i^p ìri^p fkìrvbk ^nrbii^p nrb
pb bk`rbkqo^k bk i^p jbj_o^k^p `biriôbp v bkwfj^p nrb mbo+
jfqbk nrb l`roo^k i^p ob^``flkbp jbq^_if`^p* `ljl sbobjlp
bk bi `^mqril 4,
Pi^[m f[m ]yfof[m om[h _ f @ J = ]ig i j f[ h i ^_ f[ b_l_h]c[
s _ f NJ= j[l[ ]ijc[l s _ d_ ]on[l f[ chmnlo]]c|h
Aâ^ ìri^ `lkqfbkb j ^qbofî dbkqf`l* rk mi^kl ebobaâl

nrb îj ^`bk^ i^p fkpqor``flkbp mô^ e^`bo qla^p i^p abj ~p
môqbp ab i^ ìri^ v molar`fo krbs^p ìri^p, Ci j ^qbofî db+
kqf`l ab qla^p i^p ìri^p bp bi ` fa l a bpl ufoof_ lk rìbf`l
&f[\fopi`YfelZc\`Z XZ`[* B L ? ', Cpq^ c^p`fk^kqb jli`ri^*
nrb pb bpqrafô~ bk cloj^ abqîiâ^ bk bi `^mqril 7* `lkqfbkb

dbkbp nrb `lkpfpqbk bk pb`rbk`f^p mob`fp^p ab krìbqfalp
&s^pb bi `^mqril 1', B ro^kqb i^ afsfpfk `biriô* i^p ìri^p
jâob r lofdfkîbp* qo^kpj fqbk `lmf^p bu^`q^p ab pr BL? ^
pr abp`bkabk`f^ l ìri^p efg^p , Ci a a l of_lkrìbf`l #i`Yf'
elZc\`Z XZ`[* P L ? ' bpq~ nrjf`^jbkqb obi^`flkâl `lk bi
BL? v qfbkb sôf^p cloj^p nrb `lmf^k bi mi^kl ab ilp dbkbp
abi BL?* mlo il nrb ^vra^ ^ `lkpqorfo molqbk^p qlj^kal `l+
jl _^pb bpb mi^kl, Rla^p i^p ìri^p `lkqfbkbk PL?,
Pi^[m f[m ]yfof[m i\nc_ h_ h _h_laz[ s h onlcg _hnim
^_ mo [ g \c_hn_
Nô^ j ^kqbkbo pr fkòb_ib `ljmibgfaâ* qla^p i^p ìri^p ab+

_bk l_qbkbo v d^pqô bkbod^ bk cloj^ `lkqfkr^, Aljl bumif+
2.
A^mqril 2
`ôbjlp bk ilp `^mqrilp 4 *5 v 6* mo~`qf`^jbkqb qla^ i^ bkbo+

d^ nrb fjmrip^ i^ sfa^ bk i^ Rfboo^ molsfbkb ab i^ irw pliô,
J^p ìri^p nrb mrbabk `^mqô bpq^ bkbod^ afob`q^jbkqb i^
prjfkfpqo^k mô^ `^pf qla^p i^p abj ~p cloj^p ab sfa^, Jlp _il+
nrbp ab `lkpqor``fk ab i^p jli`ri^p _flidf`^p* `ljl bi `ô+
_lkl* kfqodbkl* ludbkl v afsboplp jfkboîbp* molsfbkbk bk
iqfj^ fkpq^k`f^ abi ^j_fbkqb8 bi ^fob* bi ^dr^* i^p ol`^p v lqo^p
cloj^p ab sfa^, Rla^p i^p ìri^p l_qfbkbk ilp j^qbofîbp mô^
dbkboô i^p jli`ri^p ab i^ sfa^ v i^ bkbod^ mô^ pfkqbqfwô+
i^p* ab pr ^j_fbkqb sfsl v abi fk^kfjâl,
CZr ]hl mbi h l [{lb\hl ]^ \|eneZl6 ikh\Zkbmb\Zl
r ^n\Zkbmb\Zl
Rla^p i^p cloj^p ab sfa^ pb `ljmlkbk ab pil alp qfmlp afcb+
obkqbp v crka^jbkqîbp ab ìri^p, J^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p
&qojfkl nrb molsfbkb abi dofbdl v pfdkfcf`^ ^kqbp abi kìbl9

s^pb i^ cfdro^ 2+0.^' cloj^k ilp `rbomlp ab _^`qbof^p v ^ o+
nrb^p* i^p cloj^p ab sfa^ j~p pfjmibp pl_ob i^ Rfboo^, J^p ìr+
i^p br`ôfqf`^p &nrb molsfbkb abi dofbdl v pfdkfcf`^ kìbl
sboaâbol 9s^pb i^p cfdro^p 2+1 v 2+2' plk jrèl j~p `ljmib+
g^p v pb bk`rbkqo^k bk `rbomlp ab ^kfjîbp* mi^kq^p* elkdlp v
molqfpq^p, Aljl fjmif`^k prp klj_obp* rk^ afcbobk`f^ klq^_ib
bkqob i^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p v i^p br`ôfqf`^p bp bi ebèl ab
nrb bi j^qbofî dbkqf`l ab i^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p bpq~ `lkqbkf+
al abkqol ab rk kìbl bk`booâl mlo rk^ jbj_o^k^, Ck `lk+
qo^pqb* bi j^qbofî dbkqf`l ab i^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p kl bpq~
`lkqbkfal abkqol ab rk^ jbj_o^k^, Mqo^p bpqor`qro^p bk`boo^+
a^p mlo jbj_o^k^* ii^jâ^p fi^Xe\cfj& `lkqof_rvbk ^ i^ j^vlo
`ljmibgfaâ bpqor`qroî ab i^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p, J^ q^_i^ 2+/
obprjb i^p `ô^`qbopqf`^p ab i^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p v br`ôf+
qf`^p* i^p `rîbp bumif`ôbjlp bk ilp pfdrfbkqbp ^môqâlp,
Ang\bhg^l r ]blmkb[n\bg ]^ eZl ^lmkn\mnkZl \êneZk^l

Cpqor`qro^
Drk`fk
Nol`ôflq^p
Cr`ôflq^p8
mi^kq^p
Cr`ôflq^p8
^kfjîbp
Qrmbocf`fb `biriô
Pôba `biriô
Nolqbdb v a^ plmloqb ^ i^ ìri^
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
^rpbkqb
Eiflp
Krbsbk i^ ìri^ jbaf^kqb cirfalp l e^`bk

m^pô cirfal mlo i^ prmbocf`fb `biriô
^rpbkqb
^rpbkqb
mobpbkqb
Di^dbilp
Krbsbk i^ ìri^ jbaf^kqb cirfalp
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
Kbj_o^k^ mi^pjqf`^
?pi^ bi `lkqbkfal ab i^ ìri^ abi ^j_fbkqb9

obdri^ bi jlsfjfbkql ab j^qbofîbp e^`f^ abkqol
v crbo^ ab i^ ìri^9 `ljrkf`^ `lk lqo^p ìri^p
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
Mod^kfw^`fk abi j^qbofî dbkqf`l

K^qbofî dbkqf`l
Alafcf`^ fkcloj^`fk kb`bpôf^ mô^ `lkpqorfo

i^ ìri^ v `lkqoliôi^ ^`qfsfaâ `biriô
BL?
BL?
BL?
Aoljlplj^p
Alkqfbkbk v `lkqoli^k bi rpl ab BL?
kf`lp* `fo`riôbp*
pfk molqbk^p
Krèlp* ifkbîbp*
`lk molqbk^p
Krèlp* ifkbîbp*
`lk molqbk^p
Lìbl
Alkqfbkb òljlplj^p* bpq abifjfqâl

mlo rk^ jbj_o^k^
^rpbkqb
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
Cksliqro^ krìbô
Ck`fboo^ î kìbl* obdri^ bi jlsfjfbkql

ab j^qbofîbp e^`f^ abkqol v crbo^ abi kìbl
^rpbkqb
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
Lrìlil
Qfkqbqfw^ of_lplj^p
^rpbkqb
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
Cpqor`qro^p aqlmipjf`^p
Kfql`lkaof^p
Nolar`bk bkbod^ mlo jbq^_lifpjl ^bo_f`l
^rpbkqb
mobpbkqb
Ailolmi^pqlp
Pbîfw^k clqlpkqbpfp
^rpbkqb
mobpbkqb
^rpbkqb
P_lplj^p
Qfqfl mô^ i^ pkqbpfp ab molqbk^p
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
Pbq`ril bkalmipjf`l
Qfkqbqfw^ `ljmlkbkqbp ab i^ jbj_o^k^*

molqbk^p v imfalp
^rpbkqb
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
?mô^ql ab Elidf
Klafcf`^ v bjm^`^ molqbk^p v imfalp9

pfkqbqfw^ îdrklp `ô_lefao^qlp
^rpbkqb
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
Jfplplj^p
Alkqfbkbk bkwfj^p afdbpqfs^p fkqo^`biriôbp
^rpbkqb
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
Nipqfalp
?ij^`bk^k îfjbkql v mfdjbkqlp
^rpbkqb
mobpbkqb
^rpbkqb
Zcb`rli^ `bkqoî
Alkqfbkb ^dr^ v abpbèlp9 _ofka^ mobpfk

ab qrodbk`f^ `ljl plmloqb ab i^ ìri^
^rpbkqb
mobpbkqb
^rpbkqb
Mqo^p sbp`ri^p v s^`rli^p
Ro^kpmloq^k molar`qlp ab pbòb`fk9 `lkqfbkbk

îfjbkqlp l_qbkfalp jbaf^kqb c^dl`fqlpfp
^rpbkqb
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
Afqlbpnrbibql
B^ cloj^ v plmloqb ^ i^ ìri^9

`lil`^ v jrbsb môqbp ab i^ ìri^
^rpbkqb
mobpbkqb
mobpbkqb
Abkqoflilp
Nolar`bk ilp jfòlq_rilp ab `fiflp v ci^dbilp*

v ^nrbiilp nrb cloj^k bi erpl aro^kqb i^
afsfpfk ab i^p ìri^p ^kfjîbp
^rpbkqb
^rpbkqb
&bk `^pf qlalp'
mobpbkqb
-<e`nghl ikh\ZkbhmZl mb^g^g ^lmkn\mnkZl eeZfZ]Zl .xa_fim) i^kh |lmhl gh ^lm{g a^\ahl ]^ fb\khm[nehl r l^ fnô^g _ng]Zf^gmZef^gm^ ]^ fZg^kZ ]blmbgmZ ]^
hhfh eh aZ\^g ehl _eZ`êhl ]^ eZl \|eneZl ^n\Zkbmb\Zl*
.ghl \nZgmhl mbihl ]^ ieZgmZl mb^g^g ^li^kfZ _eZ`êZ]h*
A S JC Q Q M L J?Q A ? P ? A R C P Q R GA ? Q N PGLA GN ?JC Q BC J?Q A |J S J ? Q C S A ? P G R GA ? Q =
ASAS >PG@N NJI G<N ><M<>O@MNOD><N

KMDI>DK<G@N ?@ G<N >xGPG<N
@P><MDOD><N:
J^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p pb il`îfw^k bk ^kfjîbp* mi^kq^p* mol+
qfpq^p v elkdlp* ^p nrb* `ljl mlao~p fj^dfkô* bpq^p ìri^p
plk buqobj â^j bkqb afsbop^p, B bk qol abi `rboml ab `rî+
nrfbo lod^kfpjl jriqf`biriô bufpqb rk^ sôfbaâ ab ìri^p
br`ôfqf`^p bpmb`fîfwâ^p bk abpbj mbô afcbobkqbp crk`fl+
kbp, C k `lkqo^pqb* ilp lod^kfpjlp rkf`biriôbp ab ilp molqfpq^p
v ab îdrklp elkdlp ab_bk pbo il prcf`fbkqbjbkqb `ljmibglp
`ljl mô^ obîfwô qla^p i^p ^`qfsfaâbp kb`bpôf^p nrb mbo+
jfqbk i^ sfa^* bi òb`fjfbkql v i^ obmolar``fk ab j ^kbo^ fk+
abmbkafbkqb, ? nr e^`bjlp kc^pfp bk i^p ìri^p ab i^p
mi^kq^p v ^kfjîbp9 i^ bpqor`qro^ bpmb`fîfwâ^ ab ilp molqfpq^p
v elkdlp pb bumif`ô~ `lk j^vlo abqîib bk ilp `^mqrilp 0. v
00* obpmb`qfs^jbkqb,
J^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p afcfbobk ab i^p mol`ôfqf`^p bk
jrèlp ^pmb`qlp, Nlo bgbjmil* i^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p* mlo il
obdriô* plk j~p do^kabp nrb i^p mol`ôfqf`^p* v^ nrb prbibk
jbafo j~p ab /. jfbo^p ab af~jbqol, Ci `fqlmi^pj^ ab i^p `+
iri^p br`ôfqf`^p î_bod^ rk^ afsbopfaâ ab lod^kbilp* nrb
plk bpqor`qro^p bk`booâ^p abkqol ab jbj_o^k^p nrb obîf+
w^k crk`flkbp bpmb`cf`^p abkqol ab i^ ìri^* `ljl bi kìbl
v i^p jfql`lkaof^p, Ci a ql b p n r b ib ql * rk^ oba ab cf_o^p molqbf+
`^p* a^ cloj^ v lod^kfw^`fk î `fqlmi^pj^ ab i^p ìri^p br`^+
ofqf`^p, K rèlp ab ilp lod^kbilp bpq~k âebofalp î
`fqlbpnrbibql,
J^p cfdro^p 2+1 v 2+2 firpqo^k i^p bpqor`qro^p nrb pb bk`rbk+
qo^k bk i^p ìri^p ab ^kfjîbp v sbdbqîbp* obpmb`qfs^jbkqb*
^rknrb ml`^p ìri^p fkafsfarîbp mlpbbk qlalp ilp bibj bkqlp
nrb pb j rbpqo^k bk bpq^p fj~dbkbp, Aâ^ qfml ab ìri^ qfbkb
rklp `r^kqlp lod^kbilp kf`lp nrb kl pb bk`rbkqo^k bk bi
lqol, J^p ìri^p sbdbqîbp* mlo bgbjmil* bpq~k olabâ^p mlo
rk^ gXi\[ Z\clcXi*v `lkqfbkbk ìlolmi^pqlp* mi~pqfalp v rk^ s^+
`rli^ `bkqoî, Qli^jbkqb i^p ìri^p ^kfjîbp mlpbbk `bkqofl+
ilp, P bpriqô~ qfi `lkpriqô bpq^p firpqo^`flkbp `lkclojb
abpòf_^jlp i^p bpqor`qro^p ab i^ ìri^ `lk j^vlo abqîib,
Jlp `ljmlkbkqbp mofk`fmîbp ab i^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p &s^+
pb i^ q^_i^ 2+/' pb bumif`^k `lk j^vlo abqîib bk ilp pfdrfbkqbp
^môqâlp,
2/
ab prp jbj_o^k^p mi^pj~qf`^p cloj ^kal ^p i^ gXi\[ Z\clcXi

gi`dXi`X( Krè^p ìri^p sbdbqîbp* `r^kal j âro^k v `bp^ pr
òb`fjfbkql* pbòbq^k j~p `birilp^ v lqolp mlifp^`~ofalp ab_^+
gl ab i^ môba mofjôf^ mô^ cloj ô rk^ gXi\[ Z\clcXi j\Zle'
[Xi`X&& bjmrg^kal ^ i^ môba `biriô mofjôf^ ibglp ab i^
jbj_o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^, J^p môbabp `biriôbp mofjôf^p ab i^p
ìri^p `lkqfdr^p pb rkbk mlo jbafl ab i^ cXdè`ccX èk\id\'
[`X* rk^ `^m^ ebè^ mofk`fmîjbkqb abi mlifp^`~ofal g\ZkèX
&D GE S P ? 2 +3 ', Qf îdrk^ sbw e^p mobmôâl l afpcorqâl ab i^
gîb^ ab corq^* bkqlk`bp qb fkqbobpô~ p^_bo nrb i^ mb`qfk^ ab
i^p môbabp `biriôbp ab i^ corq^ bp i^ nrb ib a^ i^ `lkpfpqbk`f^
ab gîb^,
J^p môbabp `biriôbp plmloq^k v molqbdbk ^ i^p ìri^p nrb
ab lqo^ j^kbo^ pbo^k co~dfibp, Nlo bgbjmil* i^p môbabp `bir+
iôbp mboj fqbk ^ i^p mi^kq^p v pbq^p obpfpqfo i^ crbow^ ab i^ do^+
sbaâ v abi sfbkql v mboj ^kb`bo bodrfa^p bk bi prbil, Jlp
qolk`lp ab ilp ~o_libp* `ljmrbpqlp bk i^ j^vlo môqb ab `bir+
ilp^ v lqolp j ^qbofîbp nrb pb cloj^k ^ il iôdl abi qfbjml v
nrb plk `^m^`bp ab plmloqô `ôd^p bu`bpfs^p* plk rk^ morb_^
`lkqrkabkqb ab i^ obpfpqbk`f^ ab i^p môbabp `biriôbp,
J^p môbabp `biriôbp mlo il dbkboî plk mlolp^p* il nrb
mbojfqb î ludbkl* afufal ab `ô_lkl v ^dr^* grkql `lk i^p
jli`ri^p afprbiq^p* jlsbopb `lk c^`fifaâ ^ qo^sp ab bii^p, J^
bpqor`qro^ nrb ofdb i^p fkqbo^``flkbp bkqob rk^ ìri^ v pr ^j +
_fbkqb buqboflo bp i^ j bj _o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^* i^ `rî bpq~ pfqr^+
a^ grpql ab_^gl ab i^ môba `biriô &`r^kal pq^ bufpqb', J^
jbj_o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^ pb bumif` î fkf`fl ab bpqb `^mqril v pb
bumif`ô~ ^ clkal bk bi `^mqril 3,
@e \bmh^ljnê^mh [kbg]Z _hkf Z( lhihkm^ r f hobf b^gmh
Jlp lod^kbilp v lqo^p bpqor`qro^p abkqol ab i^p ìri^p br`^+
ofqf`^p kl pb abpmi^w^k ^ i^ abofs^ l ab j^kbo^ îb^qlof^ î+
obabalo abi `fqlmi^pj^9 i^ j^vlo^ ab biilp bpq~k âebofalp î
ôj^wk ab i^p cf_o^p molqbf`^p nrb cloj^ bi `fqlbpnrbibql
&DGE S P ? 2 +4 ', Gkìrpl i^p bkwfj^p fkafsfarîbp* nrb ^ j bkral
môba `biriô
pb`rkaôf^
môba `biriô
mofjôf^
jbj_o^k^
mi^pjqf`^
GZl iZk^]^l \êneZk^l lbko^g ]^ lhlm|g Z Ze`ngZl

\|eneZl ^n\Zkbmb\Zl
J^p prmbocf`fbp buqboflobp ab i^p mi^kq^p* elkdlp v îdrklp
molqfpq^p qfbkbk ob`r_ofjfbkqlp obi^qfs^jbkqb odfalp v pfk sf+
a^ nrb pb ii^j^k môbabp `biriôbp* i^p `rîbp plmloq^k v mol+
qbdbk i^ abif`â^ j bj _o^k^ mi^pj ~qf`^, Jlp molqfpq^p
rkf`biriôbp nrb sfsbk bk bi l`^kl mrbabk qbkbo bpq^p môb+
abp ebè^p ab `birilp^* molqbk^p v pfif`fl _ofii^kqb &s^pb bi
`^mqril 0.', J^p môbabp `biriôbp ab i^p mi^kq^p bpq~k `lj+
mrbpq^p ab `birilp^ v lqolp gfc`jXZti`[fj* jfbkqo^p nrb i^p môb+
abp `biriôbp ab ilp elkdlp bpq~k ebè^p ab mlifp^`~ofalp v
nrfqfk^ &rk mlifp^`~ofal jlafcf`âl* nrb pb abpòf_f bk bi `^m+
qril 1', J^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p q^j_fk qfbkbk môbabp `biri^+
obp* ebè^p ab rk ôj^wk môb`fal ^ i^ nrfqfk^ î `rî pb
âefbobk i^p `âbk^p `loq^p ab ^jfkl~`falp v lqo^p jli`ri^p,
J^p môbabp `biriôbp plk molar`fa^p mlo i^p ìri^p ^ i^p
nrb olab^k, J^p ìri^p sbdbqîbp pbòbq^k `birilp^ ^ qo^sp
P E S P ? 2 +3 Nôbabp ab ìri^p s b d b q^ ib p
J^p môbabp `biriôbp mofjôf^ v pb`rkaôf^ bpqk ebè^p mofk`fmî+
jbkqb ab `birilp^, J^p ìri^p bk òb`fjfbkql qfbkbk pil rk^ m^+
oba `biriô mofjôf^ cibuf_ib, ?idrk^p ìri^p sbdbqîbp* `r^kal
iibd^k ^ i^ jârobw* pbòbq^k i^ môba `biriô pb`rkaôf^* nrb bp
jp odfa^, J^p ìri^p `lkqfdr^p bpqk rkfa^p mlo rk^ i^jfkfii^ fk+
qboj baf^ ebè^ ab mb`qfk^,
GLTCQRGE?AGL AGCLRDGA?
@g [nl\Z ]^ eZ \|eneZ
J^ `ljmobkpfk erj^k^ ab i^ k^qroîbw^ `biriô ab i^ sfa^ iib+

d ibkq^jbkqb, Ck /443* bi `fbkqcf`l b fksbkqlo fkdip Pl_boq
Fllhb fkcloj pl_ob prp l_pbos^`flkbp `lk rk jfòlp`lmfl
orafjbkqôfl, Bfofdf bpqb fkpqorjbkql ^ rk qolwl ab `loèl,,,
buqobjâ^jbkqb abidâl v sfl rk^ j riqfqra ab `^gfq^p &DG+
ESP? C2+/^', Fllhb ii^j ìri^p &`biafii^p' ^ bpq^p mbnrb+
^p `^g^p mlonrb mbkp nrb pb môb`^k ^ _ p afjfkrqlp `rôqlp*
l`bh^p* alkab e^_fq^_^k _ p jlkgbp, Ci `loèl molsfbkb ab i^
`loqbw^ buqboflo pb`^ abi ^hloklnrb* rk^ bpmb`fb ab ol_qb* v
êlo^ p^_bjlp nrb _ nrb Fllhb l_pbos crbolk i^p môbabp
lbiri^ obp pfk sfa^ nrb olab^k ^ qla^p i^p ìri^p sbdbqîbp, Fll+
hb bpòf_f nrb bk _ p ol_ibp sfslp v lqo^p mi^kq^p* bpq^p ìr+
i^p bpqk iibk^p ab grdlp ,
Ck i^ a`â^ ab /45.* b i jfòlp`lmfpq^ eli^kap ?kqk T^k
Jbbrtbkelbh `lkpqorv jfòlp`lmflp pfjmibp mô^ l_pbosô rk
jrkal e^pq^ bkqlk`bp abp`lkl`fal, A lj l bo^ rk `fbkqcf`l ^cf+
a l k â l ^rqlafa^`q^* prp abpòfmalkbp a b i^ jfoâ^ ab ^kf+
j`r_p &`lj l ii^j^_^ ^ _ p molqfpq^p' nrb sfsbk bk b i ^dr^ ab
irsf^* ab bpq^knrbp l ab mlwlp* `^rp do^k `lkjl`fk mlonrb
bk bplp a^p b i ^dr^ pb `lkprj^ pfk pljbqboi^ ^ kfkdk qo^q^+
^' Kfòlp`lmfl abi pfdil usff v ìri^p ab `loèl
jfbkql, Alk bi qfbj ml* T^k Jbbrtbkelbh efwl `rfaâlp^p l_+

pbos^`_kbp ab rk^ buqbkp^ d^j ^ ab bpmb`jbkbp jfòlp`mf+
`lp* `lj l d __ rilp olglp* bpmboj^qlwlfabp v erbsb`fi_p ab
fkpb`qlp mbnrblp* `lj l dlodlglp* mridlkbp v mrid^p, Qrp
abp`r_ofjfbkqlp ^pbpqôlk rk arol dlimb ^ i^ òbbk`f^ `lj k
bk i^ dbkbo^`fk bpmlkqkb^9 bk bp^ ml`^ pb òb^ nrb i^p mri+
d^p gpî^k bpmlkqkb^j bkqb ab i^ ôbk^ l a bi mlisl* v _ p dlo+
dlglp ab _ p do^klp ?rknrb _ p jfòlp`lmflp c^_of`âlp mlo
T^k Jbbrtbkelbh môb`^k pbo jp orafjbkqôflp nrb _ p ab
Fllhb* a^_^k fjdbkbp jp ìô^p v j ^vlo ^jmifcf`^`fk &DG+
E SP? C2+/ _',
Ro^kp`roof jp ab rk pfd_ ^kqbp ab nrb _ p _fildlp b j +
mbwô^k ^ `lj mobkabo b i m^mbi nrb abpbj mb^k i^p ìri^p bk
i^ sfa^ ab krbpqol mi^kbq^, Jlp jfòlp`lmfpq^p klqôlk mofjbol
nrb jrè^p mi^kq^p `lkpq^k bk pr qlqîfaâ ab ìri^p, J^ dorb+
p^ môba nrb olab^ ^ qla^p i^p ìri^p sbdbqîbp* nrb Fllhb s _
mlo mofjbo^ sbw* c^`fifq prp l_pbos^`_kbp, Qfk bj _ôdl* kl
crb mlpf_ib l_pbosô i^p ìri^p ^kfjîbp pfkl e^pq^ i^ a`â^
ab /61.* `r^kal bi wlildl îbjk R e bla lo Qèt^kk s _ nrb
b i `ôqi^dl `lkqfbkb ìri^p nrb pb môb`bk klqlof^j bkqb ^ i^p
_' Kfòlp`lmfl ab T^k Jbbrt bkelbh
ìri^p p^kdrkb^p clqldo^cfâ^p ^ qo^sp

abi jfòlp`lmfl a b T^k Jbbrtbkelbh
`' Kfòlp`lmfl bib`qokf`l
DGE SP? C2+/ Kfòlp`lmflp a b ^vbo v elv

^' Bf_rglp ab i^p ìri^p abi `loèl ebèlp mlo Pl_boq Fllhb* pbdk il nrb sfl `lk rkl ab ilp
mofjbolp jfòlp`lmflp mqf`lp* pfjfiô î nrb pb jrbpqo^ ^nr, Qil pb afpqfkdrbk i^p môbabp
`biriôbp* \ & Skl a b ilp jfòlp`lmflp ab T^k Jbbrtbkelbh v i^ clqldo^c^ ab ìri^p p^kdr+
kb^p ql j â ^ ^ qo^sp a b rkl ab biilp, Ci bpm`fjbk pb l_pbos^ ^ qo^sp ab rk mbn rb l lofcf`fl
pfqrâl grpql a b_ ^gl ab i^ ibkqb* `' Cpqb jfòlp`lmfl bib`qokf`l bp `^m^w ab obîfwô q^ k ql bi
_ôofal `lj l i^ qo^kpjfpfk ab i^ jfòlp`lm^ bib`qokf`^,
20
ìri^p a b i^p mi^kq^p , Ck /617* abpmrp ab ^lp ab bpqrafô

_p ìri^p* Qèt^kk pb pfkqf qb _^pq^kqb `lkcfâl `lj l mô^
mr_if`ô pr n_ilz[ ]_ fo f[ l) nrb `lkpfabo^_^ ^ i^p ìri^p `lj l
môq`ri^p bibjbkqîbp* q^kql ab mi^kq^p `lj l a b ^kfjîbp, N^+
o^ jbafâlp abi pfdil ufu* bi _lqkf`l îbjk K^qqef^p Qèibf+
abk obcfk ^k jp i^ `lk`bm`fk `fbkqcf`^ ab i^p ìri^p
`r^kal bpòf_f8 Cp,,, c`fi mbo`f_fo nrb bi mol`bpl sfqî ab i^p
ìri^p fkafsfarîbp a b_b `lkpqfqrfo i^ mofjbo^ v ^_plirq^jbkqb
fkafpmbkp^_ib _^pb crka^j bkqî Yab i^ sfa^[,
? môqfo ab ilp bpcrbowlp* mob`roplobp ab Pl_boq Fllhb v ? k+
qk s^k Jbbrtbkelbh* ilp _fildlp* cpf`lp b fkdbkfbolp e^k `l+
i^_loâl bk i^ fksbk`fk a b afsboplp jfòlp`lmflp ^s^kwâlp
mô^ bpqrafô i^ ìri^ v prp `ljmlkbkqbp,
Jlp g c]lim]ijcim |jnc]im rp^k ibkqbp* `^pf pfbjmob a b sfaofl*
mô^ bkcl`ô qbp o^vlp ab irw nrb m^p^k ^ qo^sp ab rk bpm`fjbk*
l _fbk* nrb ob_lq^k bk pqb* ^jmifcf`^kal ^p i^ fj^dbk, Cpqlp
jfòlp`lmflp lcob`bk rk^ ^jmif^ d^j^ ab fjdbkbp* a b m b k +
afbkal ab `j l pb firjfkb bi bpm`fjbk v ab pf pb ib e^ qbf+
al l kl &DGESP? C2+0^', Ci j i ^ _ l ^ _ l_mifo]c|h ab ilp
jfòlp`lmflp mqf`lp* bp ab`fo* i^ bpqor`qro^ jp mbnrb^ nrb

mrbab sbopb* bp ab ^molufj â^jbkqb jfbo^ &rk^ jfiilkpfj^
ab jbqol',
Jlp g c]lim]ijcim _ f_ ] nl| h c] i m &DGE SP? C2+/`' rqfifw^k e^+
lbp ab bib`qolkbp bk sbw a b irw* nrb pb bkcl`^k mlo j ba fl ab
`^jmlp j^dkqf`lp v kl ab ibkqbp, ?idrklp qfmlp ab jfòlp`l+
mflp bib`qokf`lp mbojfqbk l_pbosô bpqor`qro^p ab rklp `r^k+
qlp k^kjbqolp &jfi jfiilkpfj^p ab jbqol', Jlp g c]lim]ijcim
_ f_ ]nl| h c]i m ^ _ nl[h mg cmc| h &qo^kpjfppflk _ f_ ]nl| h g c]li m]i *
^' K fòlp`lmfl mqf`l
_' K fòl`lmfl bib`qokf`l ab qo^kpjfpfk
jfò^p
a' K fòlp`lmfl bib`qokf`l a b _ôofal
ZYXU
`' K fòlp`lmfl bib`qokf`l

ab _ôofal
ZYXU
3, ZYXU
j_m) RCK ' e^`bk m^pô bib`qolkbp ^ qo^sp ab rk bpm`fjbk

abidâl v mrbabk obsbiô qbp abqîibp ab i^ bpqor`qro^ `biriô fk+
qbok^* fkìrfalp qbp lod^kbilp v i^p jbj_o^k^p mi^pjqf`^p &DG+
E SP? C2+0_', Jlp g c]li m]i j ci m _ f_ ] nl| h c] i m ^ _ \ [ llc^ i
%m][hhcha _f_]nl|h g c]lim]ij_m) QCK' ob_lq^k bib`qolkbp bk bp+
mb`jbkbp nrb pb e^k ob`r_fboql `lk jbqîbp v lcob`bk fj db+
kbp qofafjbkpflkîbp, Cpqlp QCK mbojfqbk l_pbosô qbp abqîibp
prmbocf`fîbp ab bpqor`qro^p `rvl q^j ^l sô^ abpab fkpb`qlp
bkqbolp e^pq^ ìri^p b fkìrpl lod^kbilp &DGESP? C2+0`*a',
DGE SP? C2+0 A l j m ôâ k ab fj dbkbp jfòlp`mf`^p

^' L[l[g _]cog sfsl &molqfpq^ rkf`biriô ab ^dr^ ari`b' sfpql ^ qo^sp ab rk jfòlp`lmfl mqf`l* _' Dlqldo^c^ mlo
RCK `lk `lilo cîpl ab rk L [l[g _]cog ) nrb jrbpqo^ i^p pb``flkbp ab i^p jfql`lkaof^p v ab i^p _^pbp ab ilp `fiflp
nrb `r_obk ^ bpq^ ^plj_olp^ ìri^* `g Dlqldo^c^ mlo QCK ab îdrklp bgbj miôbp ab L [l[g _]cog ) `r_fboqlp ab
`fiflp* a ' Dlqldo^c^ mlo QCK `lk rk^ ^jmifcf`^`fk jrèl j^vlo* nrb jrbpqo^ i^p jfql`lkaof^p &^ jrè^p a b i^p
`rîbp pb obîfw rk `loqb' abk qol abi `fqlmi^pj^,
21
44
A^mqril 2
Z%
jbj_o^k^
mi^pjqf`^
jfòlcfi^jbkqlp
jfql`lkaof^
fkqbojbaflp
of_lplj^p
obq`ril
bkalmipjf`l
jfòlq_ril
sbp`ri^
_'
P E S P ? 2 +5 Afiflp v ci^d b il p
R^kql ilp `fiflp `lj l ilp ci^dbilp `lkqfbkbk jfòlq_rilp afpmrbp+
qlp bk rk ^kfiil buqbokl ab krbsb môbp crpflkâlp ab jfòlq_r+
ilp nrb olab^k ^ rk mô `bkqoî kl crpflkâl, Jlp môbp buqboklp
qfbkbk _o^wlp ebèlp ab molqbk^ nrb fkqbo^`q^k `lk ilp môbp
`lkqfdrlp mô^ _ofkaô i^ crbow^ kb`bpôf^ nrb mboj fq^ i^ cibufk,
Jlp `fiflp v ci^dbilp k^`bk ab ilp `rbomlp _^pîbp r_f`âlp grpql
ab_^gl ab i^ jbj_o^k^ mi^pjqf`^,
P E S P ? 2 +4 . `fql bpnr bibql

^' Ci `fqlbpnrbibql ib a^ cloj ^ v lod^kfw^`fk ^ i^p ìri^p br`ôf+
qf`^p9 bpq cloj âl mlo qobp qfmlp ab molqbk^p8 jfòlq_rilp* cfi^+
jbkqlp fkqboj bafl p v j fòlcfi^j bkqlp, \ & Cpq^ ìri^ abi
obsbpqfjfbkql ab i^ ôqbof^ ab rk^ s^`^ e^ pfal qo^qâ^ `lk qfkqr+
o^p cirlobp`bkqbp mô^ l_pbosô ilp jfòlq_rilp* ilp jfòlcfi^jbk+
qlp v bi kìbl,
cloj^k môqb ab s^p jbq^_if`^p `ljmibg^p* mrbabk prgbqôpb

bk pb`rbk`f^ î `fqlbpnrbibql* ab j ^kbo^ nrb i^p jli`ri^p il+
do^k m^pô ab rk^ bkwfj^ ^ i^ pfdrfbkqb bk rk loabk `loob`ql
mô^ rk^ qo^kpcloj^`fk nrjf`^ môqf`riô, Tôflp qfmlp ab
cf_o^p molqbf`^p* fkìrfa^p ilp j fòlcfi^j bkqlp abidâlp* ilp cf+
i^j bkqlp fk qb oj b a fl p ab dolplo jbaf^kl* v ilp j fòlq_rilp
dorbplp* cloj^k î `fqlbpnrbibql,
Ci `fqlbpnrbibql abpbjmb^ i^p pfdrfbkqbp crk`flkbp fj+
mloq^kqbp8
=X ]fid X X cX ZuclcX( Ck i^p ìri^p pfk môba `biriô* bi `f+

qlbpnrbibql* bk bpmb`fî i^ oba ab cfi^jbkqlp fkqbojbaflp*
abqbojfk^ i^ cloj^ ab i^ ìri^,
F fm`d`\ekf Z\clcXi( Ci bkp^j_iâl* abpbkp^j_iâl v abp+
ifw^jfbkql ab ilp jfòlcfi^jbkqlp v jfòlq_rilp molar+
`bk bi jlsfjfbkql `biriô, Cgbjmilp abi jlsfjfbkql
`biriô fkìrvbk bi abpmi^w^jfbkql ab ilp molqfpq^p rkf`bir+
iôbp mlo j bafl ab prp `fiflp* bi kâl abi bpmboj^ v i^ `lk+
qo^``fk ab i^p ìri^p jrp`riôbp,
Ffm`d`\ekf [\ fi^Xe\cfj( Jlp jfòlq_rilp v jfòlcfi^+
jbkqlp jrbsbk lod^kbilp ab rk irdô ^ lqol abkqol ab i^
ìri^, Nlo bgbjmil* ilp jfòlcfi^jbkqlp pb âefbobk ^ i^p
sbp`ri^p clojâ^p aro^kqb i^ \e[fZ`kfj`j* `r^kal i^ j bj +
_o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^ bksrbisb môq`ri^p do^kabp* v qfo^k ab
bp^p sbp`ri^p mô^ fkqolar`foi^p bk i^ ìri^ &s^pb bi `^m+
qril 3', J^p sbp`ri^p bpqo^kdriâ^p mlo bi i\kvZlcf \e[f'
gctjd`Zf &PC' v bi XgXiXkf [\ @fc^` mol_^_ibjbkqb plk
drfâ^p q^j _fk mlo bi `fqlbpnrbibql,
=`m`j`xe Z\clcXi( Jlp jfòlq_rilp v jfòlcfi^jbkqlp plk
crka^jbkqîbp mô^ i^ afsfpfk `biriô bk i^p ìri^p br`^+
ofqf`^p, Nofjbol* `r^kal ilp kìblp br`ôfqf`lp pb afsf+
abk* rklp jfòlq_rilp iibs^k ilp ZifdfjfdXj &m^nrbqbp

ab j^qbofî dbkqf`l' ^ ilp kìblp efglp, Qbdrkal* i^p ìri^p
^kfjîbp pb afsfabk `r^kal pb `lkqo^b rk ^kfiil ab jfòl+
cfi^jbkqlp* bpqo^kdri^kal ^ i^ ìri^ moldbkfqlo^ j âob
îobabalo ab i^ `fkqro^ mô^ cloj ô alp krbs^p ìri^p
efg^p , Jlp `bkqoflilp &s^pb i^ cfdro^ 2+1'* nrb cloj^k bi
erpl nrb ^vra^ ^ i^ afpqof_r`fk abi j^qbofî dbkqf`l ar+
o^kqb i^ afsfpfk `biriô ^kfjî* bpq~k `lkpqfqrfalp mlo jf+
òlq_rilp, J^ afsfpfk `biriô pb bumif`^ `lk j^vlo abqîib
bk bi `^mqril //,
Ghl \bebhl r _eZ`êhl fnô^g Z eZ \|eneZ h Z ehl e}jnb]hl
iZkZ jn^ |lmhl iZl^g i h k eZ \|eneZ
R^kql ilp a fflp &abi i^qk* mbpq^^p' `ljl ilp i^ d b il p & i~qf+
dlp' plk abidâ^p buqbkpflkbp ab i^ j bj _o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^*
plmloqâ^p fkqbok^j bkqb mlo ilp jfòlq_rilp abi `fqlbpnrb+
ibql, Aâ^ `fifl v ci^dbil `lkqfbkb rk ^kfiil ab krbsb môbp
ab jfòlq_rilp* `lk lqol mô bk bi `bkqol &DGE S P ? 2 +5 ', Cp+
qlp jfòlq_rilp* nrb pb buqfbkabk bk qla^ i^ ilkdfqra abi `f+
ifl l ci^dbil* pb afofdbk e^`f^ ôof_^ abpab rk `rboml _^pî
&abofsâl ab rk `bkqoflil9 s^pb i^ cfdro^ 2+1' ^kìâl grpql
ab_^gl ab i^ jbj_o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^,
Bfjfkrqlp _o^wlp molqbf`lp rkbk ^ ilp môbp âv^`bkqbp
ab jfòlq_rilp ab ilp `fiflp v ci^dbilp, Ar^kal bpqlp _o^wlp
pb cibuflk^k* abpifw^k rk mô ab jfòlq_rilp obpmb`ql ^ ilp
môbp âv^`bkqbp* il nrb e^`b nrb bi `fifl l bi ci^dbil pb j rb+
s^, J^ bkbod^ if_boâ^ mlo bi qofclpc^ql ab âbklpfk^ &?RN'
e^`b mlpf_ib bi jlsfjfbkql ab ilp _o^wlp molqbf`lp aro^kqb
bi abpifw^jfbkql ab ilp jfòlq_rilp, Jlp `fiflp v ci^dbilp ^
jbkral pb j rbsbk ab cloj^ `^pf `lkqfkr^9 i^p jfql`lkaof^p*
nrb klojîjbkqb ^_rka^k `bo`^ ab ilp `rbomlp _^pîbp* prjf+
kfpqo^k i^ bkbod^ mô^ fjmripô bpqb jlsfjfbkql,
J^p mofk`fmîbp afcbobk`f^p bkqob ilp `fiflp v ci^dbilp oâf+

`^k bk pr ilkdfqra* kj bol v afob``fk ab i^ crbow^ nrb dbkb+
o^k, Nlo il obdriô* ilp `fiflp plk j~p `loqlp v j~p krjbolplp
nrb ilp ci^dbilp b fj môqbk rk^ crbow^ bk afob``fk môîbi^ ^
i^ jbj_o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^* `ljl ilp objlp ab rk^ i^kè^, Cpql
pb ildo^ j baf^kqb rk jlsfjfbkql ab obj âl &DGE S P ? 2 +6 ^ *
fwnrfboa^', Jlp ci^dbilp plk j~p iôdlp v jbklp krjbolplp b
fjmôqbk rk^ crbfw^ mbombkaf`riô ^ i^ jbj_o^k^ mi^pj~qf+
`^* `ljl i^ eif`b ab rk^ i^kè^ ab j lqlo &F E S P ? 2 +6 _ * fw+
nrfboa^',
?idrklp lod^kfpjlp rkf`biriôbp* `ljl bi IXiXd\Z`ld
&s^pb i^ cfdro^ C2+0^*`'* rqfifw^k `fiflp mô^ kâô bk bi ^dr^9
lqolp rqfifw^k ci^dbilp, ?idrklp fksboqb_oâlp ^`r~qf`lp mb+
nrblp kâ^k î _^qfo* bk cloj^ `lloafkâ^* prp efibo^p ab `f+
iflp `ljl ilp objlp ab i^p ^kqfdr^p dîbo^p olj^k^p, Jlp `fiflp
^kfjîbp* mlo il dbkboî* abpmi^w^k ilp cirfalp v i^p môq`ri^p
prpmbkafa^p mô^ e^`boilp m^pô ml o rk^ prmbocf`fb, J^p ìr+
i^p `fifâ^p obsfpqbk bpqor`qro^p q^k afsbop^p `ljl i^p _o^k+
nrf^p ab ilp lpqflkbp &alkab j rbsbk pl_ob pq^p bi ^dr^ of`^
bk îfjbkql v ludbkl'* ilp lsfar`qlp ab i^p ebj_o^p ab j ^+
jcbolp &alkab abpmi^w^k ilp srilp abi lsôfl î qbol ^ qo^+
sp ab cirfalp'* v i^p s^p obpmfo^qlof^p ab `^pf qlalp ilp
sboqb_oâlp qboobpqobp &abpmbg^kal bi jl`l nrb iibs^ obpf+
arlp v jfòllod^kfpjlp ab i^ qo~nrb^ v mrijlkbp9 cfdro^
2+6^* abobè^', A^pf qlalp ilp bpmboj^p ab ^kfjîbp v îdrklp
qfmlp ab i^p ìri^p bpmboj~qf`^p sbdbqîbp abmbkabk ab ilp
ci^dbilp mô^ jlsbopb &cfdro^ 2+6_* abobè^',
@e g\e^h ^l ê \^gmkh ]^ \hgmkhe
]^ eZ \|eneZ ^n\Zkbmb\Z
Ci BL? ab rk^ ìri^ îj^`bk^ qla^ i^ fkcloj^`fk kb`bp^+
of^ mô^ `lkpqorfo pq^ v afofdfo i^p fkkrjbo^_ibp ob^``flkbp
ofifk
molmripfk abi cirfal
_o^wâ^ ab mlqbk`f^ Z
afflp abi
obsbpqfjfbkql
ab i^ qonrb^
_o^wâ^ ab obqlokl
jbj_o^k^ mi^pjqf`^
_' Di^dbil
afob``fk ab il`ljl`fk
molmripfk ab cirfal
23
ci^dbil a b
bpmboj^qlwlfab
erj^kl
molmripfk `lkqfkr^
P E S P ? 2 +6 Aj l pb j rbsbk ilp ^ ifl p v ci^d b il p
^' &Gwnrfboa^' Jlp `fiflp kloj îj bkqb obj ^k * fj môqfbkal rk jlsfjfbkql môîbil ^ i^ j bj _o^k^ mi^pjqf`^, Qr
jlsfjfbkql pb ^pbjbg^ ^ ilp _o^wlp ab rk^ mboplk^ `r^kal kâ^ `lk _o^wâ^ ab mbèl, &Bbobè^' Dlqldo^c^ mlo
QCK ab ilp `fiflp nrb obsfpqbk i^ qonrb^ &i^ `rî `lkar`b ^fob ^ ilp mrijlkbp'9 bpqlp `fiflp bumrip^k bi j l`l v i^p
môq`ri^p ^qo^mâ^p* _' &Gwnrfboa^' Jlp ci^dbilp qfbkbk rk jlsfjfbkql lkari^qlofl v a^k molmripfk `lkqfkr^ m bo+
mbkaf`riô ^ i^ jbj_o^k^ mi^pjqf`^, Bb bpq^ cloj^* rk ci^dbil rkfal ^ rk bpmboj^qlwlfab mrbab fjmripôil e^+
`f^ abi^kqb, &Bbobè^' Cpmboj^qlwlfab erj^kl bk i^ prmbocf`fb ab rk sril,
46
A^mqril 2
òlj^qfk^
òljlplj^
_'
P E S P ? 2 +/ . Aolj lplj ^p
Jlp òljlplj^p* sfpf_ibp ^nr bk rk^ jfòldo^c^ mqf`^ a b rk^
ìri^ nrb pb afsfab &^ i^ abobè^' bk i^ mrkq^ ab rk^ o^w ab `b_l+
ii^* `lkqfbkbk bi jfpjl j^qbofî &B L ? v molqbk^p'* mbol bk rk bp+
kìbl
qâ l jp `lj m^`ql* nrb i^ òlj^qfk^ nrb pb l_pbos^ bk i^p

ìri^p âv^`bkqbp* nrb kl bpqk bk mol`bpl ab afsfpfk,
GZ _hpifnol[ ho]f_[l j _ lg cn_ _ f chn_l][g \ci m_f_]ncpi

^_ g [n_lc[f_m
Ci kìbl pb ^pi^ abi obpql ab i^ ìri^ mlo j bafl ab rk^ b k +

nrb `lkpq^ ab rk^ al_ib jbj_o^k^* i^ `rî bp+
q~ mbocloâ^ mlo afjfkrqlp `^kîbp obsbpqfalp ab jbj _o^k^
nrb ob`f_bk bi klj_ob ab gfifj elZc\Xi\j( Ci ^dr^* flkbp v
jli`ri^p mbnrb^p `ljl i^p ab ?RN mrbabk m^pô if_objbk+
qb mlo qîbp mlolp* mbol bi m^pl ab jli`ri^p do^kabp pl_ob
qlal ab molqbk^p* qolwlp ab of_lplj^p v PL? pb obdri^ j b+
af^kqb molqbk^p mloqbol nrb obsfpqbk `â^ mlol krìbô, J^
jbj_o^k^ krìbô buqboflo qfbkb of_lplj^p fkòrpqâlp v bp
`lkqfkr^`fk ab i^p jbj_o^k^p abi obq`ril bkalpmi~pjf`l
ordlpl* nrb bumif`ôbjlp j~p âbi^kqb &s^pb i^p cfdro^p 2+1
v 2+2',
sliqro^ krìbô
P E S P ? 2 +7 Ci k a b l
^' Ci kabl bpq abifj fqâl mlo rk^ al_ib jbj_o^k^ buqboflo, Ck
bi fkqboflo e^v òlj^qfk^ v rk krìlil* \& Kfòldo^c^ bib`qokf`^
ab rk^ ìri^ ab ibsâro^ nrb pb `lkdbi v olj mf mô^ obsbiô
prp bpqor`qro^p fkqbok^p, Qb afpqfkdrb `lk ìôfaâ bi bkloj b k+
ìbl v ilp mlolp nrb mbkbqo^k pr jbj_o^k^ krìbô, J^p bpqor`qr+
o^p ab `lilo olp^ plk i^p molqbk^p drôaf^kbp nrb obsfpqbk ilp
mlolp,
nrjf`^p kb`bpôf^p mô^ i^ sfa^ v i^ obmolar``fk, J^ ìri^

bjmib^ i^ fkcloj^`fk dbkqf`^ abi BL? bk cloj^ pbib`qfs^*
abmbkafbkal ab pr bq^m^ ab abpôoliil* ab i^p `lkaf`flkbp ab
pr ^j _fbkqb v ab pr crk`fk bk rk `rboml jriqf`biriô, Ck i^p
ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p* bi BL? pb îlg^ abkqol abi kìbl,
Ci k a b l bp rk lod^kbil &`ljkjbkqb bi j~p do^kab ab i^
ìri^' nrb `lkpq^ ab qobp môqbp mofk`fmîbp8 \emfckliX el'
Zc\Xi& ZifdXkèX v elZcufcf& nrb pb j rbpqo^k bk i^ DGESP? 2 +7
v pb abpòf_bk bk ilp pfdrfbkqbp ^môqâlp,
GZ ]lig [nch[ ]ihmn[ ^ _ @J=) k o_ ]i^c`c][ f[ mzhn_mcm

^_ j lin_zh[m
Nrbpql nrb bi kìbl ânrfbob rk `lilo fkqbkpl `lk ilp qfkqbp

`ljrkbp bjmibâlp bk i^ jfòlp`lm^ mqf`^* ilp mofjbolp fk+
sbpqfdâlobp bk bpq^ o^j^* î abp`lkl`bo pr crk`fk* ii^jôlk
òlj ^qfk^ î j ^qbofî krìbô* nrb pfdkfcf`^ prpq^k`f^ `lil+
obâ^ , Jlp _fildlp* abpab bkqlk`bp* e^k abp`r_fboql nrb i^
òlj^qfk^ `lkpq^ ab BL? ^pl`fâl `lk molqbk^p, Ci BL?
br`ôfqf`l v prp molqbk^p ^pl`fâ^p cloj^k iôd^p `âbk^p
ii^jâ^p òljlplj^p &`rbomlp `lilobâlp', Ar^kal i^p `+
iri^p pb afsfabk* `â^ òljlplj^ pb bkolii^ v pb srbisb j~p
dorbpl v `loql, Jlp òljlplj^p `lkabkpâlp obpriq^kqbp pb
mrbabk sbo `lk c^`fifaâ ^rk `lk jfòlp`lmflp mqf`lp &D GE S +
P? 2 +/ . ',
Jlp dbkbp bk bi BL? ^mloq^k rk mi^kl l àfdl jlib`r+

iô mô^ rk^ fkjbkp^ afsbopfaâ ab molqbk^p, ?idrk^p ab p+
q^p cloj^k ilp `ljmlkbkqbp bpqor`qroîbp ab i^ ìri^, M qo^p
obdri^k bi jlsfjfbkql abi j^qbofî ^ qo^sp ab i^p jbj_o^+
25
j^, Nô^ obîfwô bpql* pb `lmf^ i^ fkcloj^`fk dbkqf`^ abi

BL? bk jli`ri^p ab PL? &ii^jâ^p K G : d\ejXa\iXj f
dKG:&6UU`\ bk i^ FESP? 2+// pb sbk rkfbkal rk^ pbofb ab of_l+
plj^p'* nrb pb abpmi^w^k ^ qo^sp ab ilp mlolp ab i^ bksliqr+
o^ krìbô e^`f^ bi `fqlmi^pj^, Cpq^ fkcloj^`fk* `lafcf`â^
mlo i^ pb`rbk`f^ ab ilp krìbqfalp abi dK G : &q^j_fk abpfd+
kâl `ljl PL?j'* pb rqfifw^ bkqlk`bp mô^ afofdfo i^ pkqbpfp
ab molqbk^p `biriôbp* rk mol`bpl nrb pb obîfw^ bk ilp of_l+
plj^p* `ljmrbpqlp ab K G : i`Yfjxd`Zf v molqbk^p, Ck bi `^+
mqril /. sbobjlp `lk j~p ^j mifqra bpqlp mol`bplp,
Ghl lc\imig [m m_ _hm[g\f[h _h _ f h o ^ _ i fi
P E S P ? 2+// Pf_lplj^p
Jlp of_lplj^p mrbabk bk`lkqoôpb if_obp bk bi `fqlmi^pj^* v^ pb^
plilp l bkpôqâlp bk jli`ri^p ab PL? jbkp^gbol* `r^kal môqf+
`fm^k bk i^ pkqbpfp ab molqbk^p* `lj l pb l_pbos^ bk bpq^ jfòl+
do^c^ bib`qokf`^, R^j_fk e^v of_lplj^p fkòrpqâlp î obq`ril
bkalmipjf`l ordlpl &s^pb i^ DGESP? 2+/0',
^p `biriôbp* v lqo^p j~p plk bkwfj^p nrb molj rbsbk i^p

ob^``flkbp nrjf`^p abkqol ab i^ ìri^* nrb plk obpmlkp^_ibp
abi òb`fjfbkql v i^ obmô^`fk* ab i^ ânrfpf`fk v rpl ab kr+
qofjbkqlp v ab bkbod^* ^p `ljl ab i^ obmolar``fk,
Nrbpql nrb i^p molqbk^p pb pfkqbqfw^k bk bi `fqlmi^pj^* i^p
`lmf^p abi mi^kl ab molqbk^p bk bi BL? ab_bk qo^kpmloqôpb
^ qo^sp ab i^ jbj _o^k^ krìbô e^`f^ bi fkqboflo abi `fqlmi^p+
Efj kìblp br`ôfqf`lp qfbkbk rk^ l j~p obdflkbp nrb pb qf+

bk ab `lilo lp`rol* ii^jâ^p elZcufcfj & mbnrblp kìblp9
s^pb i^ cfdro^ 2+7^', Efj krìlilp plk ilp pfqflp alkab pb ob^+
ifw^ i^ pkqbpfp ab ilp of_lplj^p, Ci krìlil `lkpfpqb bk PL?
of_lpjf`l* molqbk^p* of_lplj^p bk afsbop^p bq^m^p ab pkqb+
pfp v BL? &`lk dbkbp nrb bpmb`fcf`^k `jl pfkqbqfwô bi PL?
of_lpjf`l',
S k of_lplj ^ bp rk^ mbnrb^ môq`ri^ `ljmrbpq^ ab PL?
v molqbk^p nrb pfosb `ljl rk^ bpmb`fb ab _^k`l ab qo^_^gl
mô^ i^ pkqbpfp ab molqbk^p abkqol abi `fqlmi^pj^ `biriô, ?p
`ljl rk _^k`l ab qo^_^gl pfosb mô^ `lkpqorfo jrèlp l_gb+
qlp afpqfkqlp* rk of_lplj^ mrbab rqfifwôpb mô^ pfkqbqfwô
`rînrfbo^ ab ilp jfibp ab molqbk^p nrb rk^ ìri^ molar`b,
Ck i^p jfòldo^c^p bib`qokf`^p* ilp of_lplj^p ^môb`bk `l+
jl do~krilp lp`rolp* v^ pb^ afpqof_rfalp bk bi `fqlmi^pj^ &cf+
dro^ 2+//' l ^mfâlp bk i^p jbj_o^k^p ab i^ bksliqro^
krìbô v bi obq`ril bkalmi~pjf`l &DGESP? 2 +/ 0 ',
obq`ril bkalmipjf`l
ordlpl
obq`ril bkalmipjf`l
ifpl
P E S P ? 2 +/ 0 Pbq`ril bkalmipj f`l
F^v alp qfmlp ab obq`ril bkalmipjf`l8 bi PC ordlpl v bi ifpl, Ck îdrk^p ìri^p ilp obq`rilp ordlpl v ifpl plk
`lkqfkrlp* `lj l pb jrbpqo^ bk i^ firpqo^`fk, Ck lqo^p* bi PC ifpl bpq jp _fbk pbmôâl, J^ `ô^ `fqlmipjf`^ ab
i^ jbj_o^k^ abi PC ordlpl bpq pîmf`â^ ab of_lplj^p &kbdol',
3,
A^mqril 2
@e \bmhieZlf Z ^n\Zkbmb\h bg\enr^ ng \hf ie^ch

lblm^fZ ]^ f^f[kZgZl
Rla^p i^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p qfbkbk rk `ljmibgl pfpqbj^ ab
jbj_o^k^p nrb bk`fboo^k ^ i^ ìri^ v òb^k `ljmôqfjfbkqlp
abkqol abi `fqlmi^pj^, Gj^dfk^ rk^ c~_of`^ do^kab `lk rk^
pbofb ab pb``flkbp* bk `â^ rk^ ab i^p `rîbp e^v rk^ j^nrfk^+
of^ bpmb`fîfwâ^, J^p pb``flkbp `lk cob`rbk`f^ pb fkqbo`lkb`+
q^k mô^ mboj fqfo i^ c^_of`^`fk mlo bq^m^p ab rk molar`ql
`ljmibgl, ?idrklp molar`qlp ab_bk jlsbopb bkqob bafcf`flp
^kqbp ab qbojfkôilp, J^ c~_of`^ qfbkb nrb fj mloqô i^ j ^qbof^
mofj^* mbol bk bii^ pb j^krc^`qro^ v obmô^ i^ j^nrfkôf^ nrb
kb`bpfq^* v irbdl bumloq^ îdrklp ab ilp molar`qlp nrb c^_of+
`^, C k cloj^ `ljmô^_ib* i^p obdflkbp bpmb`fîfwâ^p abkqol
abi `fqlmi^pj^ pbmô^k rk^ sôfbaâ ab ob^``flkbp _flnrjf+
`^p v mol`bp^k afcbobkqbp qfmlp ab jli`ri^p bk cloj^p bpmb+
`cf`^p, J^ cirfabw ab i^p jbj_o^k^p ibp mbojfqb rkfopb bkqob
p* ab cloj^ nrb ilp `ljmôqfjfbkqlp fkqboflobp mrbabk fkqbo+
`lkb`qôpb* fkqbo`^j _fô co^djbkqlp ab j bj_o^k^ v qo^kpcb+
ofo pr `lkqbkfal ^ lqolp `ljmôqfj fbkqlp alkab pb plj bqbk ^
sôflp qfmlp ab mol`bplp, Jlp p^`lp jbj_o^klplp ii^jâl s b +
p`ri^p qo^kpmloq^k i^p jbj_o^k^p v bi `lkqbkfal bpmb`fîfw^+
al bkqob i^p obdflkbp pbmôâ^p abi pfpqbj^ ab jbj_o^k^p,
J^p sbp`ri^p q^j _fk pb crpflk^k `lk i^ jbj _o^k^ mi^pj~qf+
`^* bumloq^kal pr `lkqbkfal î buqboflo ab i^ ìri^ &s^pb i^
cfdro^ 2+/2', Ajl p^_bk i^p sbp`ri^p ^ akab fo abkqol abi
`ljmibgl pfpqbj^ ab jbj_o^k^p=
Jlp fksbpqfdâlobp e^k abp`r_fboql nrb sôf^p molqbk^p
fkòrpqâ^p bk i^p jbj _o^k^p pfosbk `ljl bqfnrbq^p ab `l+
oobl nrb fkaf`^k bi aljf`fifl î nrb ab_b bksfôpb i^ sbp`r+
i^ v pr `lkqbkfal,
Ci pfpqbj^ ab jbj_o^k^p `biriôbp fkìrvb i^ jbj_o^k^

mi^pj~qf`^* i^ jbj_o^k^ krìbô* bi obq`ril bkalmi~pjf`l* bi
^mô^ql ab Elidf* ilp ifplplj^p* i^p sbp`ri^p v i^p s^`rli^p* ilp
`rîbp pb bumif`ô~k j~p ^ clkal bk ilp pfdrfbkqbp ^môqâlp,
Af l_nz]ofi _hîjfxmg c]i ìlg [ ][h[f_m _h]_ll[îm j i l
g _g \l[h[ ^ _ h nli ^ _ f ]cnijf[mg [
Ci obq`ril bkalmipj f`l &PC' bp rk^ pbofb ab qr_lp v `^kîbp

fkqbo`lkb`qâlp bk bi `fqlmi^pj^* bk`booâlp mlo jbj_o^k^*
#i\kvZlcf pfdkfcf`^ oba v \e[fgctjd`Zf pfdkfcf`^ abkqol abi
`fqlmi^pj^9 cfdro^ 2+/0', J^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p qfbkbk alp
cloj^p ab PC8 ordlpl v ifpl, Nôqbp abi PC ordlpl plk `lkqf+
kr^`fk ab i^ jbj_o^k^ krìbô &s^pb i^ cfdro^ 2+1', Lrj b+
olplp of_lplj^p pîmf`^k bi buqboflo abi i\kvZlcf \e[fgctjd`Zf
il^fjf a~kalib pr ^môfbk`f^ `ô^`qbopqf`^, C k `lkqo^pqb* bi
i\kvZlcf \e[fgctjd`Zf c`jf `ôb`b ab of_lplj^p, J^p j bj _o^+
k^p abi P C q^kql ordlpl `ljl ifpl `lkqfbkbk bkwfj^p nrb
mrbabk pfkqbqfwô sôflp imfalp* `ljl ilp clpclimfalp v bi `l+
ibpqboli* ilp `rîbp pb kb`bpfq^k mô^ c^_of`ô i^p mlo`flkbp ab
imfal ab i^p j bj_o^k^p `biriôbp,
JYhsWi`c YbXcd`qga]Wc `]gc
Ci P C abpbjmb^ rk^ sôfbaâ ab crk`flkbp v pb bpmb`fîfw^
bk i^p afcbobkqbp ^`qfsfaâbp ab i^p afsbop^p ìri^p, Ck îdr+
k^p ìri^p* bi P C ifpl j^krc^`qro^ do^kabp `^kqfaâbp ab
imfalp `ljl i^p elojlk^p bpqbolfabp ebè^p ^ môqfo abi `libp+
qboli, Nlo bgbjmil* bi P C ifpl molar`b i^p elojlk^p pburîbp
bk ilp od^klp obmolar`qlobp ab ilp j^jcbolp, Ci PC ^_rk+
a^ q^j _fk bk i^p ìri^p ebm~qf`^p* nrb `lkqfbkbk bkwf+
j^p `rv^ crk`fk bp abpfkqluf`ô ml o ilp a^lp `^rpâlp mlo bi
F E S P ? 2 +/ 1 Ci ^ mô^ql a b E lidf
Ci ^mô^ql ab Elidf bp rk^ mfi^ ab _lip^p jbj_o^klp^p ^mi^kâ^p nrb pb abofs^k abi obq`ril bkalmipjf`l, J^p sbp`ri^p pb crpflk^k
ab j^kbo^ `lkqfkr^ v pb pbmô^k abi ^mô^ql ab Elidf v abi PC* qo^kpmloq^kal j^qbofî abi PC î ^mô^ql ab Elidf v ab obdobpl, J^
cibè^ iôd^ fkaf`^ i^ afob``fk abi jlsfjfbkql a b ilp j^qbofîbp abkqol abi ^mô^ql ab Elidf `lkclojb plk jlafcf`âlp v pbmôâlp,
J^p sbp`ri^p _olq^k abi ^mô^ql ab Elidf mlo rk^ `ô^ lmrbpq^ î PC9 îdrk^p molar`bk ifplplj^p* v lqo^p qo^kpmloq^k prpq^k`f^p ^ i^
jbj_o^k^ mi^pjqf`^ mô^ i^ bul`fqlpfp,
`lkprjl ab aold^p `ljl bi î`leli v pr_molar`qlp jbq^ _if+

`lp `ljl bi ^jlkf^`l, Mqo^p bkwfj^p bk bi P C ifpl abi edâl
qo^kpcloj^k bi dir`dbkl &rk mlifp^`~ofal îj^`bkâl bk bp+
qb od^kl' bk jli`ri^p ab dir`lp^ mô^ prjfkfpqoô bkbod^,
Ci P C ifpl îj^`bk^ `î`fl bk qla^p i^p ìri^p* mbol bk ilp
jp`rilp bpnrbiqf`lp pb ^do^ka^ v pb bpmb`fîfw^ bk îj ^`b+
kô do^kabp `^kqfaâbp ab bpqb jfkboî nrb pb obnrfbob mô^ i^
`lkqo^``fk ab ilp jp`rilp,
JYhsWi`c YbXcd`qga]Wc fi[cgc
Jlp of_lplj^p abi P C ordlpl plk pfqflp alkab pb pfkqbqfw^k
molqbk^p, Nlo bgbjmil* i^p afsbop^p molqbk^p fkòrpqâ^p bk
i^p jbj_o^k^p `biriôbp pb c^_of`^k ^nr* ab j ^kbo^ nrb bi
PC ordlpl bp `^m^w ab molar`fo qlalp ilp `ljmlkbkqbp ab i^p
krbs^p jbj_o^k^p, J^ molar``fk `lkqfkr^ ab krbs^p jbj+
_o^k^p bp fj mloq^kqb mlonrb i^ j bj_o^k^ abi PC pb bpqo^k+
dri^* ab j ^kbo^ `lkqfkr^* v bp qo^kpmloqâ^ e^`f^ bi ^mô^ql
ab Elidf* ilp ifplplj^p v i^ j bj _o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^,
Jlp of_lplj^p abi P C ordlpl q^j _fk c^_of`^k i^p molqb+
k^p `ljl i^p bkwfj^p afdbpqfs^p v elojlk^p molqbf`^p &mlo
bgbjmil* i^ fkprifk^'* nrb îdrk^p ìri^p buòbqlo^p bumloq^k
^ pr ^j_fbkqb, Alkclojb pb pfkqbqfw^k bpq^p molqbk^p* plk fk+
pboqâ^p ^ qo^sp ab i^ jbj_o^k^ abi P C e^`f^ bi `lj môqf+
jfbkql fkqboflo, J^p molqbk^p pfkqbqfwâ^p v^ pb^ mô^
buòbqôpb ab i^ ìri^ l mô^ rpôpb abkqol ab i^ ìri^ pb
abpmi^w^k bkqlk`bp mlo ilp `^kîbp abi PC, ?nr pb jlafcf`^k
nrjf`^jbkqb v pb mifbd^k bk prp bpqor`qro^p qofafjbkpflk^+
ibp âb`râ^p, Jrbdl bpq^p molqbk^p pb ^`rjri^k bk _lip^p
ab jbj_o^k^ nrb pb bpqo^kdri^k `ljl sbp`ri^p* i^p `rîbp
iibs^k pr `ôd^ molqbf`^ î ^mô^ql ab Elidf,
Af [ j[l[ni ^ _ C i fa c ]f[mc`c][) [fn_l[ kozg c][g _hn_
s _gj[][ f[m gify]of[m cg j iln[ hn_m
Ci ^mô^ql ab E lid f &l E lidf* ii^jâl ^p bk elklo abi jaf+

`l v _fildl `biriô fqîf^kl A^jfiil Elidf* nrfbk il abp`r_of
^ cfkîbp abi pfdil VBA' bp rk `lkgrkql bpmb`fîfwâl ab jbj+
_o^k^p* abofsâ^p abi obq`ril bkalmi~pjf`l* nrb pbjbg^ rk^
mfi^ ab _lip^p ^mi^kâ^p b fkqbo`lkb`qâ^p &DGE S P ? 2 +/ 1 ', Qr
crk`fk mofk`fmî bp jlafcf`ô* ì^pfcf`ô v bj m^`ô i^p molqb+
k^p nrb c^_of`^ bi P C ordlpl, Jlp `ljmôqfjfbkqlp abi ^mô^+
ql ab Elidf ^`q^k `ljl ilp abmôq^j bkqlp ab ^`^_âl ab
rk^ c~_of`^* alkab pb obîfw^k ilp qlnrbp cfkîbp ^ ilp molar`+
qlp v pb bj m^`^k mô^ bumloqôpb, J^p sbp`ri^p abi P C ordl+
pl pb crkabk `lk rk^ `ô^ abi ^mô^ql ab Elidf* ^dobd^kal prp
jbj_o^k^p ^ pqb v s^`f^kal pr `lkqbkfal bk ilp p^`lp ab
Elidf, B bkqol ab ilp `ljmôqfjfbkqlp ^mi^kâlp ab Elidf* i^p
jli`ri^p ab molqbk^p pfkqbqfwâ^p bk bi P C ordlpl pb jlaf+
cf`^k j~p âbi^kqb, Jlp `ô_lefao^qlp pb ^dobd^k mô^ cloj ô
dir`lmolqbk^p, ?idrk^p molqbk^p iôd^p pb co^dj bkq^k bk
mlo`flkbp j~p mbnrb^p, Nlo iqfjl i^p sbp`ri^p pb bpqo^kdr+
i^k bk i^ `ô^ lmrbpq^ abi ^mô^ql ab Elidf* iibs~kalpb mol+
ar`qlp ^`^_âlp* ifpqlp mô^ rpôpb l bumloqôpb,
Ci ^mô^ql ab Elidf abpbjmb^ i^p pfdrfbkqbp crk`flkbp8
Klafcf`^ îdrk^p jli`ri^p9 rk m^mbi fjmloq^kqb bp ^dob+
dô `ô_lefao^qlp ^ i^p molqbk^p mô^ clojô dir`lmolqb+
k^p, R^j_fk pbmô^ îdrk^p molqbk^p bk mmqfalp ab
jbklo q^j^l,
Qfkqbqfw^ îdrklp mlifp^`~ofalp* `ljl i^ `birilp^ v mb`qfk^
nrb pb bj mib^k bk i^p môbabp `biriôbp ab ilp sbdbqîbp,
Qbmô^ i^p molqbk^p v ilp imfalp ob`f_falp abi PC pbdk pr
abpqfkl9 mlo bgbjmil* pbmô^ i^p bkwfj^p afdbpqfs^p* abpqf+
3-
. J^p sbp`ri^p pb crpflk^k

`lk i^ jbj_o^k^ mi^pjqf`^
v if_bo^k ^kqf`rbomlp
mlobul`fqlpfp,
)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))X
M Ci ^kqf`rboml
\r`lmolqbf`l `ljmibql bp
bjm^`âl bk sbp`ri^p bk
bi iâl lmrbpql abi ^mô^ql
ab Elidf,
J^p sbp`ri^p pb crkabk

`lk bi ^mô^ql ab Elidf
v pb ^dobd^k `ô_lefao^qlp
`lkclojb i^p molqbk^p
m^p^k ^ qo^sp ab ilp
`ljmôqfjfbkqlp,
J^p molqbk^p plk

bjm^`â^p bk i^p
sbp`ri^p v sf^g^k e^`f^
bi ^mô^ql a b Elidf,
M Nolqbk^p abi
^kqf`rboml pfkqbqfwâ^p bk
ilp of_lplj^p v
qo^kpmloqâ^p ^ ilp
`^kîbp abi PC ordlpl,
DGESP? 2 +/ 2 D^_of`^`fk v bumloq^`fk ab rk^ m ol qb k ^
kâ^p ^ ilp ifplplj^p* abi `libpqboli bj mibâl bk i^ pkqbpfp

ab krbs^p jbj_o^k^p v ab i^p molqbk^p `lk crk`fk ab
elojlk^p nrb pbòbqô~ i^ ìri^,
Cjm^`^ i^p jli`ri^p qbojfkâ^p bk sbp`ri^p nrb irbdl
pb qo^kpmloq^k ^ lqo^p môqbp ab i^ ìri^ l ^ i^ jbj_o^k^
mi^pj~qf`^ mô^ pr bumloq^`fk,
H[m j lin_zh[m m_]l_n[^[m pc[d[h [ nl[pym ^ _ f[ ]yfof[ j[l[
mo _ rjiln[]c|h
Nô^ `lj mobkabo `jl qo^_^g^k grkqlp îdrklp `ljmlkbkqbp

abi pfpqbj^ jbj_o^klpl* sb^jlp i^ c^_of`^`fk v bumloq^`fk
ab rk^ molqbk^ prj^jbkqb fj mloq^kqb ii^jâ^ Xek`Zl\igf
&DGE S P ? 2 +/ 2 ', Jlp ^kqf`rbomlp* molar`falp mlo ilp di_rilp
_i^k`lp* plk dir`lmolqbk^p nrb pb âefbobk ^ ilp lod^kfpjlp
fks^plobp &`ljl i^p _^`qbof^p nrb `^rp^k bkcboj baâbp' v
^vra^k ^ abpqorfoilp, J^p molqbk^p ab ilp ^kqf`rbomlp pb pfk+
qbqfw^k bk ilp of_lplj^p abi P C ordlpl abkqol ab ilp di_r+
ilp _i^k`lp ab i^ p^kdob v irbdl pb bj m^`^k bk sbp`ri^p
clojâ^p ^ môqfo ab i^ jbj_o^k^ abi PC, Cpq^p sbp`ri^p sf^+
g^k e^`f^ bi ^mô^ql ab Elidf* alkab i^p jbj_o^k^p pb crpfl+
k^k v if_bo^k i^ molqbk^ bk pr fkqboflo, B bkqol abi ^mô^ql ab
Elidf* ilp `ô_lefao^qlp pb âefbobk ^ i^ molqbk^* i^ `rî pb
srbisb ^ bjm^`ô bk i^p sbp`ri^p clojâ^p ^ môqfo ab i^
3.
A^mqril 2
j bj_o^k^ ab Elidf, J^ sbp`ri^ nrb `lkqfbkb bi ^kqf`rboml

qbojfkâl sf^g^ bkqlk`bp ^ i^ jbj_o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^ v pb crk+
ab `lk bii^* if_bo^kal ^p bi ^kqf`rboml crbo^ ab i^ ìri^* ab
alkab m^pô~ î qloobkqb p^kdrkbl mô^ ^vraô ^ abcbkabo î
lod^kfpjl `lkqo^ rk^ fkcb``fk,
jbj_o^k^
mi^pjqf`^
M Ci ifplplj^ pb
crpflk^ `lk i^ s^`rli^
îfjbkqô^ v i^p
bkwfj^p afdfbobk bi
îfjbkql,
Him fcmimig[m []n}[h ]igi mcmn_g [ ^ca_mncpi ^_ f[ ]yfof[
?idrk^p ab i^p molqbk^p c^_of`â^p mlo bi PC v bksfâ^p î

^mô^ql ab Elidf plk bkwfj^p afdbpqfs^p fkqo^`biriôbp nrb
mrbabk abp`ljmlkbo molqbk^p* do^p^p v `ô_lefao^qlp bk prp
pr_rkfaâbp `ljmlkbkqbp, C k bi ^mô^ql ab Elidf* bpq^p bkwf+
j^p pb bj m^`^k bk sbp`ri^p jbj_o^klp^p ii^jâ^p cfplpl+
j^p &P E S P ? 2 +/ 3 ', Sk^ crk`fk fj mloq^kqb ab ilp ifplplj^p
bp i^ ab afdbofo môq`ri^p ab îfjbkql* nrb s^k abpab molqb+
k^p fkafsfarîbp e^pq^ jfòllod^kfpjlp bkqbolp,
Aljl sbobjlp bk bi `^mqril 3* jrè^p ìri^p `lj bk
m l o ]X^fZ`kfj`j& bkslisfbkal i^p môq`ri^p nrb bk`rbkqo^k bk
bi buqboflo `lk i^p buqbkpflkbp ab pr jbj _o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^,
Jrbdl* i^p môq`ri^p ab îfjbkql bkqo^k î `fqlpli bk`booâ^p
bk _lip^p jbj_o^klp^p v cloj ^k rk^ s^`rli^ îfj bk qôf^, Jlp
ifplplj^p ob`lkl`bk bpq^p s^`rli^p îfjbkqôf^p v pb crkabk
`lk bii^p, Ci `lkqbkfal ab i^p alp s^`rli^p pb jbwì^ v i^p bk+
wfj^p ifplpjf`^p afdfbobk bi îfjbkql mô^ molar`fo jli`r+
i^p ab j bklo q^j^l `ljl ^jfkl~`falp* jlklp^`~ofalp v
~`falp do^plp* nrb mrbabk rpôpb abkqol ab i^ ìri^, Jlp ifpl+
plj^p q^j _fk afdfbobk i^p jbj_o^k^p `biriôbp bu`babkqbp
v ilp lod^kbilp abcb`qrlplp l nrb kl bpq~k crk`flk^kal _fbk,
J^ ìri^ ilp bk`fboo^ bk sbp`ri^p clojâ^p ^ môqfo ab i^
j bj_o^k^ abi P C* nrb pb crkabk irbdl `lk ilp ifplplj^p, J^p
bkwfj^p afdbpqfs^p abkqol abi ifplplj^ e^`bk nrb i^ ìri^ ob+
`fìb i^p jli`ri^p sîflp^p ab ilp lod^kbilp fkpbosf_ibp,
DU aYaVfUbU ZìmY U hfUjrg XY` g]ghYaU XY aYaVfUbUg XY Ù WrìÙ
J^ bksliqro^ krìbô* bi P C ordlpl v ifpl* bi ^mô^ql ab E li+
df* ilp ifplplj^p* i^p s^`rli^p îfjbkqôf^p v i^ jbj _o^k^
mi^pj~qf`^ cloj^k grkqlp rk pfpqbj^ fkqbdoâl ab j bj _o^+
k^p, ?i obsfpô i^p cfdro^p 2+/2 v 2+/3* mlao~p aôqb rk^ fab^ ab
`jl i^p jbj _o^k^p pb fkqbo`lkb`q^k bkqob p, Ci P C pfkqbqf+
w^ ilp clpclimfalp v i^p molqbk^p nrb `lkpqfqrvbk i^ j bj _o^+
k^ mi^pj~qf`^ v bpqo^kdri^ môqb ab bpq^ jbj _o^k^ mô^ òbô
sbp`ri^p* i^p `rîbp pb crpflk^k `lk i^p jbj_o^k^p abi ^mô^+
ql ab Elidf, S k^ môqb ab i^ j bj_o^k^ abi PC nrb pb crpfl+
k^ `lk bi ^mô^ql ab Elidf qfbkb bqfnrbq^p ab `loobl ab
molqbk^p nrb i^p bks^k ab obdobpl î PC* v ab bpq^ j ^kbo^
pb obpq^ro^k i^p molqbk^p fj mloq^kqbp &qîbp `ljl îdrk^p
bkwfj^p' ab i^ jbj_o^k^ abi PC, M qo^p môqbp ab i^ j bj _o^+
k^ abi P C plk jlafcf`â^p mlo bi ^mô^ql ab Elidf9 mlo bgbj +
mil* pb mrbabk ^dobdô `ô_lefao^qlp mô^ cloj ô jbj_o^k^p
ab dir`lmolqbk^p, Nlo iqfjl* bpq^ j bj_o^k^ abg^ bi ^mô^ql
ab Elidf qo^kpclojâ^ bk sbp`ri^* i^ `rî pb crpflk^ `lk i^
j bj_o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^* ob^_^pqb`fkali^ v ^do^ka~kali^,
GZl oZ\nheZl ]^l^fi^~Zg fn\aZl _ng\bhg^l( \hf h
k^`neZ\bg ]ê Z`nZ( lhihkm^ r ZefZ\^gZfb^gmh
A^pf qla^p i^p ìri^p `lkqfbkbk rk^ l j~p oZ\nheZl( nrb plk
_lip^p ab jbj_o^k^ `biriô iibk^p ab cirfal v nrb `lkqfbkbk
sôf^p jli`ri^p, ?idrk^p* `ljl i^p s^`rli^p îfjbkqôf^p*
nrb pb cloj^k aro^kqb i^ c^dl`fqlpfp &s^pb i^ cfdro^ 2+/3'*
plk bibjbkqlp qbjmloîbp ab i^ ìri^, Qfk bj_ôdl* jrè^p
ìri^p `lkqfbkbk s^`rli^p mboj^kbkqbp nrb abpbj mb^k m^+
mbibp fjmloq^kqbp bk bi j ^kqbkfjfbkql ab pr fkqbdofaâ* pl+
_ob qlal bk i^ obdri^`fk abi `lkqbkfal ab ^dr^,
îfjbkql
Jlp ifplplj^p
pîbk abi ^mô^ql
ab Elidf,
. Ci ^mô^ql ab
Elidf jlafcf`^
i^p bkwfj^p,
bkwfj^p
afdbpqfs^p
M J^p bkwfj^p
plk pfkqbqfwâ^p
bk bi P C
DGESP? 2 +/ 3 Dloj^`fk v crk`fk a b ifplplj^p v s^`rli^p îf+

j bkqô^p
Him g c]liila[hcmg im ^ _ [ao[ ôf]_ nc_h_h

p[]oif[m ]ihnlx]ncf_m
Jlp molqfpq^p ab ^dr^ ari`b `ljl bi IXiXd\Z`ld `lkpq^k ab

rk^ pli^ ìri^ br`ôfqf`^, Krèlp ab bpqlp lod^kfpjlp ml+
pbbk s^`rli^p `lkqo`qfibp clojâ^p mlo `lkar`qlp ab ob`lib`+
`fk* rk abmpfql `bkqoî v rk qr_l nrb `lkar`b ^ rk mlol ab
i^ jbj_o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^ &P E S P ? 2 +/ 4 ', Cpq^p ìri^p `ljmibg^p
sfsbk bk bi ^dr^ ari`b* i^ `rî aobk^ ab j^kbo^ `lkpq^kqb ^
qo^sp ab prp jbj_o^k^p mi^pj~qf`^p &abpòf_fobjlp bpqb
mol`bpl ii^jâl fjdfj`j bk bi `^mqril 3', J^ bkqoâ^ ab ^dr^
obsbkqô^ bpqlp co~dfibp lod^kfpjlp* pf kl crbo^ mlonrb qfbkbk
rk jb`^kfpjl nrb i^ bumrip^, J^ bkbod^ `biriô pb rp^ mô^
_lj_bô i^p pîbp abi `fqlmi^pj^ abi molqfpq^ e^`f^ ilp `lk+
ar`qlp `lib`qlobp, Ci ^dr^ cirvb mlo pjlpfp v aobk^ e^`f^ bi
abmpfql `bkqoî, Ar^kal bi abmpfql ab i^ s^`rli^ `lkqo~`qfi
bpq~ iibkl* pb `lkqo^b* bumrip^kal bi ^dr^ ^ qo^sp ab rk mlol
ab i^ j bj _o^k^ mi^pj~qf`^,
GZl ]yfof[m p_a_n[f_m nc_h_h p[]oif[m ]_hnl[f_m
Robp `rôq^p môqbp l j~p abi slirjbk ab jrè^p ìri^p sb+
dbqîbp bpq~k l`rmâ^p mlo rk^ do^k s^`rli^ ` bkqoî &s^pb i^
cfdro^ 2+2', J^ s^`rli^ `bkqoî qfbkb sôf^p crk`flkbp, ?i bpqô
3/
s^`rli^
`lkqo`qfi
abmpfql iibkl
abmpfql `lkqoâl
DGESP? 2 +/ 4 T^`rli^p `lkqo`qfibp

Krèlp molqfpq^p ab ^dr^ ari`b `lkqfbkbk s^`rli^p `lkqo`qfibp* ^' Ci ^dr^ bkqo^ ab cloj ^ `lkqfkr^ bk i^ ìri^ mlo pjlpfp, Ck i^
ìri^* bi ^dr^ bp `^mqâ^ mlo ilp `lkar`qlp `lib`qlobp v aobkâ^ e^`f^ bi abmpfql `bkqoî ab i^ s^`rli^* _ ' Sk^ sbw iibkl* bi a b +
mpfql pb `lkqo^b v bumrip^ bi ^dr^ ^ qo^sp ab rk mlol bk i^ j bj _o^k^ mi^pjqf`^,
iibk^ mofk`fmîjbkqb ab ^dr^* bpq^ s^`rli^ `bkqoî môqf`fm^

bk bi bnrfif_ofl eaof`l ab i^ ìri^, R^j_fk pfosb `ljl qf+
oâbol ab ilp abpbèlp mbifdolplp nrb bk jrèlp `^plp i^p
ìri^p sbdbqîbp kl mrbabk buòbqô, ?idrk^p ìri^p sbdbq^+
ibp îj^`bk^k bk prp s^`rli^p prpq^k`f^p prj^jbkqb quf`^p*
`ljl bi ~`fal pricof`l, Cpqlp sbkbklp afprâbk ^ ilp ^kfj ^+
ibp ab j^pqf`ô i^p elg^p nrb* ab lqo^ cloj^* ibp obpriqô^k p^+
_olp^p, J^p s^`rli^p q^j _fk mrbabk îj^`bkô ^w`ôbp v
^jfkl~`falp nrb kl kb`bpfq^ ab fkjbaf^ql i^ ìri^* mô^
rpôilp abpmrp, Jlp mfdjbkqlp ^wribp l momro^p îj ^`bk^+
alp bk i^p s^`rli^p `bkqoîbp fj môqbk `lilo ^ jrè^p cilobp,
Aljl ^mobkabo~p bk bi `^mqril 3* i^p prpq^k`f^p afprbiq^p
^qo^bk bi ^dr^ e^`f^ i^ s^`rli^, J^ mobpfk abi ^dr^ abkqol ab
i^ s^`rli^* ii^jâ^ gi\j`xe [\ kli^\eZ`X* bjmrg^ i^ mlo`fk
cirfa^ abi `fqlmi^pj^ `lkqo^ i^ môba `biriô `lk _^pq^kqb
crbow^, J^p môbabp `biriôbp prbibk pbo cibuf_ibp* ^p nrb q^k+
ql i^ cloj^ dbkboî `ljl i^ ofdfabw ab i^ ìri^ abmbkabk ab
i^ mobpfk ab qrodbk`f^ abkqol ab pq^, Cpq^ mobpfk _ofka^ pl+
mloqb ^ i^p môqbp kl iblp^p ab i^p mi^kq^p &s^pb bk bi pf+
drfbkqb `^mqril i^ cfdro^ 3+//* mô^ sbo il nrb pr`bab `r^kal
kl ofbd^p i^p mi^kq^p ab qr `^p^',
j~p ZcfifgcXjkfj& nrb mrbabk `^mqô bkbod^ afob`q^j bkqb ab

i^ irw pliô v îj^`bkôi^ bk jli`ri^p ab ^w`ô,
J^ j^vlo^ ab ilp _fildlp ^`bmq^k i^ efmqbpfp ab nrb q^k+
ql i^p jfql`lkaof^p `ljl ilp ìlolmi^pqlp bslir`flkôlk ^
môqfo ab i^p _^`qbof^p mol`ôfqf`^p nrb pb ^pbkqôlk e^`b
jrèl qfbjml abkqol abi `fqlmi^pj^ ab lqo^p ìri^p mol`^+
ofqf`^p* mlo j bafl ab rk mol`bpl ii^jâl \e[fj`dY`fj`j
&ifqboîjbkqb abi dofbdl* sfsfo grkqlp âbkqol', J^p jfql`lk+
aof^p v ilp ìlolmi^pqlp qfbkbk jrè^p pfjfifqrabp bkqob p v
`lk i^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p bk afsbop^p cloj^p, ?j_lp plk
^molufjâ^jbkqb abi jfpjl q^j ^l nrb îdrk^p ìri^p mol+
`ôfqf`^p &ab / ^ 3 jfbo^p ab af~jbqol'9 q^j_fk bpq~k olab^+
alp ml o rk^ al_ib jbj_o^k^* i^ buqboflo qî sbw molsbkd^ ab
i^ ìri^ ^kcfqoflk^ lofdfkî v i^ fkqboflo ab i^ ìri^ erpmba,
?j_lp qfbkbk bkp^j_ibp ab bkwfj^p nrb pfkqbqfw^k ?RN* qî
`ljl il kb`bpfqô^ rk^ ìri^ fkabmbkafbkqb, Nlo iqfjl* ^j +
_lp mlpbbk pr molmfl BL? v of_lplj^p nrb pb ^pbjbg^k j~p
^ ilp of_lplj^p mol`ôfqf`lp nrb ^ ilp of_lplj^p v î BL?
br`ôfqf`lp, J^ efmqbpfp bkalpfj _fqf`^ ^`bo`^ ab i^ bslir+
`fk ab i^p jfql`lkaof^p v ìlolmi^pqlp pb bumif`ô~ j~p ^ clkal
bk bi `^mqril /5,
GZl f bmh\hg]kbZl ^qmkZ^g ^g^k`}Z ]^ eZl fhe|\neZl

]^ Zebf ^gmh r ehl \ehkhieZlmhl \ZimZg eZ ^g^k`}Z lheZk
GZl g cni]ih^lc[m oncfct[h f[ _h_laz[ [fg[]_h[^[
Rla^ ìri^ obnrfbob rk ^_^pql `lkqfkrl ab bkbod^ mô^ c^+

_of`ô jli`ri^p v bpqor`qro^p `ljmibg^p* l_qbkbo krqofjbk+
qlp abi ^j_fbkqb* buòbqô j^qbofîbp ab abpbèl* jlsbopb v
obmolar`fopb, Rla^p i^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p qfbkbk d`kfZfe'
[i`Xj& nrb `lksfboqbk i^ bkbod^ îj^`bkâ^ bk ilp ^w`ôbp
bk ?RN, J^p ìri^p sbdbqîbp &v îdrklp molqfpq^p' qfbkbk âb+
Rla^p i^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p qfbkbk j fql `lkaof^p* ^ i^p `rîbp

^ sb`bp pb ibp ii^j^ `bkqoîbp bi`qof`^p ab i^ ìri^ mlonrb
buqo^bk bkbod^ ab i^p jli`ri^p ab îfjbkql v i^ îj^`bk^k
bk ilp bki^`bp ab îq^ bkbod^ abi ?RN, Aljl sbobjlp bk bi
`^mqril 6* bp mlpf_ib if_boô afcbobkqbp `^kqfaâbp ab bkbod^
ab rk^ jli`ri^ ab îfjbkql* abmbkafbkal ab i^ cloj^ bk
_h f[m gify]of[m ^ _ [ fcg _ h ni j[l[ j li ^ o ]cl =PL
52
A^mqril 2
P E S P ? 2 +/ 5 Sk^ j fql `l ka of^

J^p jfql`lkaof^p `lkpfpqbk bk rk mô ab jbj_o^k^p nrb bk`fboo^k alp `lj môqfj fbkqlp ab cirfal8 bi `lj môqf+
jfbkql fkqbojbj_o^k^p r_f`âl bkqob i^ jbj_o^k^ buqbj ^ b fkqbok^* v i^ j^qofw abkqol ab i^ jbj_o^k^ fkqboflo,
J^ jbj_o^k^ buqboflo bp ifp^* mbol i^ fkqboflo cloj ^ mifbdrbp molcrkalp ii^jâlp òbpq^p,
nrb pb jbq^_lifw^, J^ abp`ljmlpf`fk ab i^p jli`ri^p ab îf+

jbkql pb fkf`f^ `lk i^p bkwfj^p abi `fqlpli v kl rp^ ludbkl,
Cpqb jbq^_lifpjl ^k^bo_f`l &pfk ludbkl' kl `lksfboqb j r+
è^ bkbod^ îfjbkqôf^ bk bkbod^ ab ?RN, J^p jfql`lkaof^p
mboj fqbk ^ i^ ìri^ br`ôfqf`^ rqfifwô ludbkl mô^ abp`lj+
mlkbo ^k j~p i^p jli`ri^p ab îq^ bkbod^, Cpq^p ob^``flkbp
^bo_f`^p &`lk ludbkl' dbkbo^k bkbod^ `lk j^vlo bcf`fbk+
`f^9 pb dbkbo^ /6 sb`bp j~p ?RN mlo jbafl abi jbq^_lifpjl
^bo_f`l bk i^p jfql`lkaof^p nrb abi jbq^_lifpjl ^k^bo_f+
`l bk bi `fqlpli, Ll bp ab plomobkabo* bkqlk`bp* nrb i^p j fql+
`lkaof^p pb bk`rbkqobk bk do^kabp `^kqfaâbp bk i^p ìri^p
jbq^_if`^jbkqb ^`qfs^p* `ljl i^p jrp`riôbp* v pb^k jbklp
^_rka^kqbp bk i^p ìri^p jbklp ^`qfs^p* `ljl i^p ab ilp erb+
plp v `ôqi^dlp,
J^p jfql`lkaof^p plk lod^kbilp obalkalp* lsîâlp l qr_r+
iôbp nrb qfbkbk rk mô ab jbj_o^k^p &DGE SP ? 2 +/ 5 ', ?rknrb
i^ jbj_o^k^ jfql`lkaof^ /buqboflo bp ifp^* i^ jbj_o^k^ fkqb+
oflo cloj^ mifbdrbp molcrkalp ii^jâlp Zi\jkXj( J^p jbj_o^+
k^p jfql`lkaof^ ibp bk`fboo^k alp bpm^`flp iibklp ab cirfal8 bi
ZfdgXik`d`\ekf èk\id\dYiXeXj r_f`âl bkqob i^p jbj_o^k^p
buqbok^ b fkqbok^* v i^ dXki`q& l ZfdgXik`d`\ekf èk\i`fi9 abk+
qol ab i^ jbj_o^k^ fkqbok^, ?idrk^p ab i^p ob^``flkbp nrb
abp`ljmlkbk i^p jli`ri^p ab îq^ bkbod^ qfbkbk irdô bk bi
cirfal ab i^ j^qofw abkqol ab i^ jbj_o^k^ fkqboflo9 bi obpql pb
obîfw^ mlo jbafl ab rk^ pbofb ab bkwfj^p rkfa^p ^ i^p jbj+
_o^k^p ab i^p òbpq^p abkqol abi `ljmôqfjfbkql fkqboj bj_o^+
k^p, Ci m^mbi ab i^p jfql`lkaof^p bk i^ molar``fk ab bkbod^
pb abpòf_b `lk qlal abqîib bk bi `^mqril 6,
Ah fim ]filijf[mnim m_ _`_]n}[ f[ ìnimzhn_mcm
Qf kl er_fbo^ ìlolmi^pqlp* kl bpqô^p ibvbkal bpql8 kl bufpqf+

o^ kfkdrk^ ab i^p cloj^p ab sfa^ br`ôfqf`^p ^`qrîbp nrb
aljfk^k i^ Rfboo^* `ljl sbobjlp bk bi `^mqril 5, J^ clqlpk+
qbpfp ab i^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p ab i^p mi^kq^p v molqfpq^p clql+

pfkqqf`lp qfbkb irdô bk ilp a lolm i^pqlp &DGE S P ? 2 +/ 6 '* nrb
plk lod^kbilp bpmb`fîfwâlp olabâlp mlo rk^ al_ib j bj +
_o^k^, J^ jbj_o^k^ fkqboflo abi ìlolmi^pql bk`fboo^ rk cirf+
al ii^jâl \jkifdX( B bkqol abi bpqolj^ e^v mfi^p ab _lip^p
jbj_o^klp^p* erb`^p b fkqbo`lkb`qâ^p, J^p _lip^p fkafsfar^+
ibp pb ii^j^k k`cXZf`[\j& v rk^ mfi^ ab _lip^p pb `lkl`b `lk bi
klj_ob ab îXeld &miroî îXeX$(
J^p jbj_o^k^p ab ilp qfi^`lfabp `lkqfbkbk i^ jli`ri^ abi
mfdjbkql sboab ii^jâl a l ol cfi^ &nrb fj môqb bi `lilo sboab
^ i^p mi^kq^p'* ^p `ljl lqo^p jli`ri^p ab mfdjbkql, B ro^k+
qb i^ clqlpkqbpfp i^ ìlolcfi^ `^mq^ i^ bkbod^ pliô v i^ qo^kp+
cfbob ^ lqo^p jli`ri^p ab i^p jbj_o^k^p ab ilp qfi^`lfabp,
Cpq^p jli`ri^p* ^ i^ sbw* qo^kpcfbobk i^ bkbod^ î ?RN v ^
lqo^p jli`ri^p mloqâlo^p ab bkbod^* i^p `rîbp pb afcrkabk
e^`f^ bi bpqolj^* alkab pr bkbod^ pb rqfifw^ mô^ pfkqbqfwô
^w`ô ^ môqfo ab afufal ab `ô_lkl v ^dr^,
GZl ieZgmZl nmbebsZg ie{lmb]hl
iZkZ Zef Z\^gZf b^gmh
Jlp ìlolmi^pqlp plk mipqfalp îq^jbkqb bpmb`fîfwâlp* ilp
`rîbp plk lod^kbilp nrb pb bk`rbkqo^k pil bk i^p mi^kq^p v
bk ilp molqfpq^p clqlpfkqqf`lp, Jlp mi~pqfalp bpq~k olabâlp
mlo rk^ al_ib j bj _o^k^ v abpbjmb^k afsbop^p crk`flkbp,
J^p mi^kq^p v ilp molqfpq^p clqlpfkqqf`lp rqfifw^k qfmlp ab mi~p+
qfalp nrb kl plk ìlolmi^pqlp* mô^ îj^`bkô afsbop^p jli`r+
i^p* fkìrfalp ilp mfdjbkqlp nrb fjmôqbk ^ i^p corq^p jâro^p
pr `lilo ^jôfiil* ^kô^kgâl l olgl, C k i^p mi^kq^p nrb pfdrbk
òb`fbkal ab rk ^l î pfdrfbkqb* ilp mi~pqfalp îj^`bk^k mol+
ar`qlp clqlpfkqqf`lp abi sbo^kl nrb pb rpô~k aro^kqb bi fk+
sfbokl v i^ mofj ^sbo^ pfdrfbkqbp, A^pf qla^p i^p mi^kq^p
`lksfboqbk ilp ^w`ôbp molar`falp aro^kqb i^ clqlpkqbpfp bk î+
jfak* nrb pb îj^`bk^ q^j_fk bk ilp mi~pqfalp &DGE SP? 2+/ 7 ',
ASJCQ Q M L J?Q A ? P ? A R C P Q R GA ? Q N P GL A GN ? J C Q BC J?Q A| J S J ? Q N P M A ? P G R G A ? Q =
31
buqbok^
jbj_o^k^ fkqbok^
bpqolj^
ifi^`lfab
`^kî nrb
fkqbo`lkb`q^
qfi^`lfabp
qfi^`lfabp'
P E S P ? 2 +/ 6 Sk ìlolmi^pql
Jlp ìlolmi^pqlp bpqk olabâlp mlo rk^ al_ib jbj_o^k^* ^rknrb mlo il obdriô i^ j bj _o^k^ fkqbok^ kl pb afp+
qfkdrb bk i^p jfòldo^c^p bib`qokf`^p, J^ j bj _o^k^ fkqbok^ bk`fboo^ bi bpqolj^9 abkqol ab pqb e^v mfi^p ab _li+
p^p nrb ob`f_bk bi klj_ob ab al[h[+ J^ ìlolcfi^ bpq bj _b_fa^ bk i^ jbj_o^k^ ab ilp qfi^`lfabp,
J^p m^m^p* mlo bgbjmil* bpq~k `ljmrbpq^p `^pf bk pr qlqîfaâ ab

ìri^p nrb `lkqfbkbk mi~pqfalp iibklp ab îjfak,
NJI G<N ><M<>O@MNOD><N

=< >PG@N
KMDI>DK<G@N ?@ G<N >xGPG<N
KMJ><MDOD><N:
mipqfal
di_rilp
ab
îjfak
GZl \|eneZl ikh\Zkbmb\Zl lhg i^jn^~Zl r ihl^^g

\ZkZ\m^k}lmb\Zl lni^k_b\bZe^l ^li^\bZebsZ]Zl
J^ j^vlo^ ab i^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p plk jrv mbnrb^p
&jbklp ab 3 jfbo^p ab af~j bqol' `lk rk^ bpqor`qro^ fkqbok^
pbk`fii^ bk `ljmô^`fk `lk i^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p &P E S P ?
2 +0 . v `ljm~oî^ `lk i^p cfdro^p 2+1 v 2+2', A^pf qla^p i^p `+
iri^p mol`ôfqf`^p bpq~k olabâ^p mlo rk^ môba `biriô odf+
a^* nrb i^p molqbdb v ibp a^ pr cloj^ `ô^`qbopqf`^, J^ j^vlo
môqb ab i^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p qlj^k i^ cloj^ ab _^pqlk`f+
iilp &_^`filp9 P E SP? 2 +0 . ^ '* bpcbo^p &`l`lp* DGESP? 2 +0 . _ '* l
eif`bp nrb môb`bk dô^_^qlp &bpmfofilp* DGESP? 2 +0 . _ ',
Tôflp qfmlp ab ^kqf_fqf`lp* fkìrfa^ i^ mbkf`fifk^* `lj _^qbk
i^p fkcb``flkbp _^`qbofîbp î l_pqorfo i^ pkqbpfp ab i^ môba `b+
iriô* il nrb l`^pflk^ bi olj mfjfbkql ab i^p _^`qbof^p, ?idr+
k^p _^`qbof^p v ônrb^p mrbabk jlsbopb* fjmripâ^p mlo
ci^dbilp &afcbobkqbp ^ ilp ab i^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p', J^p ìr+
i^p mol`ôfqf`^p `ôb`bk ab `fiflp,
J^p _^`qbof^p nrb fkcb`q^k ^ lqolp lod^kfpjlp* `ljl i^p
nrb `^rp^k i^p `ôfbp abkqîbp* i^ afôob^* i^ kbrj lk^ l i^p fk+
cb``flkbp abi qo^`ql rofkôfl* qfbkbk `ô^`qbopqf`^p prmbocf`f^+
ibp nrb ibp ^vra^k ^ âebofopb ^ qbgfalp bpmb`cf`lp abi
erpmba* `ljl i^ prmbocf`fb ab rk afbkqb l bi obsbpqfjfbkql
abi fkqbpqfkl abidâl* mrijlkbp v sbgfd^, Cpq^p `ô^`qbopqf`^p
prmbocf`fîbp fkìrvbk i^p ZtgjlcXj v ZXgXj c\^XdfjXj* nrb plk
obsbpqfjfbkqlp ab mlifp^`~ofalp nrb îdrk^p _^`qbof^p pbòb+
q^k bk bi buqboflo ab prp môbabp `biriôbp* ^p `ljl g\cfj& nrb
,*1 fb^kZl
P E S P ? 2 +/ 7 Sk m ipqfal
Jlp mipqfalp* mobpbkqbp bk i^p ìri^p sbdbqîbp v ab molqfpq^p cl+
qlpfkqqf`lp* plk lod^kbilp olabâlp mlo rk^ al_ib j bj _o^k^ bu +
qbok^, Jlp ìlolmi^pqlp plk bi qfml jp `lkl`fal ab mipqfalp*
òqolp qfmlp îj^`bk^k afsboplp j^qbofîbp* `lj l bi îjfak nrb
iibk^ bpqlp mipqfalp ab ìri^p ab m^m^,
òljlplj^
Pbdfk krìblfab'
môba `biriô
, *
% % % ,
, Zv ,
jbj_o^k^ mi^pjqf`^
,,
of_lplj^p

òljlplj^
&obdfk krìblfab'f
`mpri^
of_lplj^p
dokril ab
îfjbkql
ci^dbil mol`ôfqf`l
`mpri^ l `^m^
jr`fi^dfklp^
môba `biriô
mi^pjqf`^
jbj_o^k^p
clqlpfkqqf`^p
FESP? 2+0. Airi^p mol`ôfqf`^p

^' i^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p plk jp pbk`fii^p nrb i^p br`ôfqf`^p, ?idrk^p* `lj l i^p nrb pb jrbpqo^k bk bpq^ firpqo^`fk*
qfbkbk cloj ^ ab _^pqlk`fiilp* _' Mqo^p qlj ^k i^ cloj^ ab bpcbo^p l eif`bp* `' Sk^ clqldo^c^ mlo RCK ab rk^ _^`qbof^ bp+
cof`^ `lk `mpri^* ^ & ?idrk^p _^`qbof^p clqlpfkqqf`^p mlpbbk jbj_o^k^p fkqbok^p alkab pb bcb`q^ i^ clqlpkqbpfp,
plk molqbk^p nrb pb molvb`q^k e^`f^ crbo^ ab i^ môba ab i^

ìri^ mol`ôfqf`^, Ar^kal T^k Jbbrtbkelbh l_pbos bi
j ^qbofî nrb e^_^ o^pmâl ab prp afbkqbp _^gl pr jfòlp`l+
mfl orafjbkqôfl* sfl jrè^p _^`qbof^p âebofa^p ^ i^p `^m^p
ibd^jlp^p &s^pb Cki^`bp `lk i^ sfa^8 Frpmbabp fkabpb^+
_ibp', J^p `~mpri^p v i^p `^m^p ibd^jlp^p ^vra^k q^j_fk ^
îdrk^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p ^ bsfqô nrb pb pbnrbk, ?idrklp
qfmlp ab _^`qbof^p cloj^k mbilp pburîbp* nrb plk qr_lp molqbf+
`lp erb`lp nrb pb rqfifw^k mô^ fkqbo`^j_fô j^qbofî dbkqf`l
&BL?' bkqob i^p ìri^p ab i^p _^`qbof^p, J^p `ô^`qbopqf`^p ab
i^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p pb bumif`^k `lk j^vlo abqîib bk bi `^+
mqril /7,
GZl \|eneZl ikh\Zkbmb\Zl mb^g^g f^ghl ^lmkn\mnkZl
^li^\bZebsZ]Zl ] ^ gmkh ]ê \bmhieZlf Z
Ci `fqlmi^pj^ ab i^ j^vlo^ i^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p bp j~p
_fbk ab ^môfbk`f^ eljldkb^ pf pb ib `ljmô^ `lk i^p ìr+
i^p br`ôfqf`^p, Nlo il dbkboî* i^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p qfbkbk
rk plil ZifdfjfdX `fo`riô nrb `lkpfpqb bk rk^ eb_o^ iôd^
ab BL? nrb `lkqfbkb fkcloj^`fk dbkqf`^ bpbk`fî mô^ i^
ìri^, Cpqb òljlplj^ ml o il `ljk bpq~ bkolp`âl v pb b k +
`rbkqo^ bk i^ obdfk `bkqoî ab i^ ìri^* ii^jâ^ obdfk kr+
a bl fa b &cfdro^ 2+0.'* v kl bpq~ pbmôâ^ abi obpql abi
`fqlmi^pj^ mlo rk^ jbj_o^k^, J^ j^vlo^ ab i^p ìri^p mol+
`ôfqf`^p `lkqfbkbk q^j _fk mbnrblp ^kfiilp ab BL? ii^+
jâlp gctjd`[fj r_f`âlp crbo^ ab i^ obdfk krìblfab, Nlo
il dbkboî* ilp mi~pjfalp qfbkbk dbkbp nrb fjmôqbk ^ i^ ìr+
i^ molmfbaâbp bpmb`fîbp9 mlo bgbjmil* îdrk^p _^`qbof^p nrb
`^rp^k bkcboj baâbp mlpbbk mi~pjfalp nrb ibp mbojfqbk
fk^`qfsô ^ ilp ^kqf_fqf`lp* mlo il nrb obpriq^ jrèl j~p afc+
`fi ^kfnrfiôi^p,
32
J^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p `ôb`bk ab kìbl v ab lqolp lo+

d^kbilp bk`booâlp bk jbj_o^k^p &`ljl ilp ìlolmi^pqlp* jf+
ql`lkaof^p* PC* ^mô^ql ab Elidf v lqolp `ljmlkbkqbp abi
pfpqbj^ ab jbj_o^k^p' nrb mlpbbk i^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p,
Ll l_pq^kqb* îdrk^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p bjmib^k j bj _o^+
k^p mô^ lod^kfwô i^p bkwfj^p bk`ôdâ^p ab obîfwô rk^ pb+
ofb ab ob^``flkbp _flnrjf`^p, J^p bkwfj^p bpq~k pfqrâ^p bk
rk^ pb`rbk`f^ môqf`riô ^ il iôdl ab i^ jbj_o^k^ mô^ bpqfjr+
iô i^p ob^``flkbp bk bi loabk kb`bpôfl, Nlo bgbjmil* i^p _^`+
qbof^p clqlpfkqqf`^p qfbkbk jbj_o^k^p fkqbok^p bk i^p `rîbp
i^p molqbk^p nrb `^mq^k i^ irw v i^p bkwfj^p nrb `^qîfw^k i^
pkqbpfp ab i^p jli`ri^p ab îq^ bkbod^ bpq~k afpqof_rfa^p bk
rk loabk bpmb`cf`l &cfdro^ 2+0.a', Ck i^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf+
`^p* i^p ob^``flkbp nrb ob`lib`q^k i^ bkbod^ molsbkfbkqb ab i^
abp`ljmlpf`fk ab ilp ^w`ôbp pb `^qîfw^k mlo i^p bkwfj^p
nrb mrbabk bpqô il`îfwâ^p ^ il iôdl ab i^ j bj _o^k^ mi^p+
j~qf`^ fkqboflo l cilq^kal if_objbkqb bk bi `fqlpli,
Ci `fqlmi^pj^ _^`qbofî `lkqfbkb of_lplj^p &s^pb i^ cfdr+
o^ 2+0.^', ?rknrb pr crk`fk bp môb`fa^ ^ i^ ab ilp of_lplj^p
br`ôfqf`lp* plk j~p mbnrblp v `lkqfbkbk molqbk^p afcbobk+
qbp, Cpqlp of_lplj^p pb môb`bk ^ ilp nrb pb bk`rbkqo^k bk i^p
jfql`lkaof^p ab i^p ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p v ìlolmi^pqlp* bk bi
pbkqfal ab nrb _ofka^k ^mlvl ^ i^ efmqbpfp bkalpfj_fqf`^
bumif`â^ `lk ^kqboflofaâ, Ci `fqlmi^pj^ mol`ôfqf`l mrbab
`lkqbkbo q^j_fk îtelcfj [\ Xc`d\ekf nrb îj^`bk^k jli`r+
i^p of`^p bk bkbod^* `ljl bi dir`dbkl* mbol nrb kl pb b k +
`rbkqo^k bk`booâlp mlo jbj_o^k^p,
Orfw~ bk bpqb jljbkql nrfbo^p obdobpô v `lkpriqô i^ q^_i^
2+/ mô^ obm^pô i^p afcbobk`f^p bkqob i^p ìri^p mol`ôfqf`^p v
br`ôfqf`^p, J^ afsbopfaâ v i^p bpqor`qro^p bpmb`fîfwâ^p ab
i^p _^`qbof^p v ônrb^p pb bumif`ô~k `lk j~p abqîib bk bi `^m+
qril /7,
M R P M T GQ R ? X M ?J C Q R S B G M BC A ? Q M
CLJ?ACQ AM L J? TGB?
55
C n|li^]^l bg]^l^Z [e^l
? cfkbp a bi pfdil usk* ?kqk T^k Jbbrtbkelbh o^pm i^ j^qbof^

_i^k`^ nrb bpq^_^ ^`rjriâ^ bkqob prp afbkqbp v i^ l_pbos
`lk b i jfòlp`lmfl orafjbkqôfl nrb i jfpjl e^_^ `lkpqorf+
al, Nô^ pr plomobp^* sfl j fi_kbp ab ìri^p ^ i^p nrb ii^j
^kfj `r_p * lod^kfpjlp rkf`biriôbp jfòlp`mf`lp nrb êl+
o^ fabkqfcf`^jlp `lj l _^`qbof^p, Nobl`rmâl mlo i^ mobpbk`f^
ab bpq^p cloj^p ab sfa^ bk pr _l`^* fkqbkq j^qôi^p `lk sfk^+
dob v `^c `îfbkqb* `lk jrv ml`l ufql, Ci ^j _fbkqb qf_fl v e+
jbal ab i^ _l`^ erj^k^* bk môqf`riô bkqob ilp afbkqbp v
bk`^p* bp bi e_fq^q fabî mô^ rk^ sôfbaâ ab _^`qbof^p, ?idr+
k^p cloj^p ab _^`qbof^p molar`bk `^m^p ab jrì^dl nrb ibp
^vra^k kl p _ ^ bii^p* pfkl q^j _fk ^ lqo^p jp* ^ âebofopb ^
_ p afbkqbp, Aâ^ _^`qbof^ pb afsfab mlo pbmôâl e^pq^ cloj ô
f o ^ ` l _ k f^ ab abp`bkabk`f^, Eorbp^p `^m^p ab _^`qbof^p* j r+

ì^dl v dir`lmolqbk^p cloj ^k bp^ prpq^k`f^ _i^k`^* ii^jâ^
mi^`^* nrb T^k Jbbrtbkelbh o^pm ab prp afbkqbp, Ci ^w`ô ab
_ p îfjbkqlp v _b_fa^p krqob ^ i^p _^`qbof^p* nrb qo^kpcloj^k
bi ^w`ô bk `fal i`qf`l, Cpqb `fal `loolb bi bpjîqb ab _ p
a bk qbp * _ nrb molar`b `^sfaâbp mbnrb^p bk i^p nrb pb j ri+
qfmif`^k i^p _^`qbof^p v `lk bi qfbj ml ^môb`bk i^p `ôfbp, Ci ci+
l o fkqbdoâl ^ i^ m^pq^ abkqcof`^ v î ^dr^ mlq^_qb ^vra^ ^
bsfqô i^p `ôfbp î fk`lomloôpb î bpjîqb* _ nrb ^vra^ ^ obpfp+
qfo _ p ^q^nrbp a bi `fal, Bb j^kbo^ nrb* ^rknrb T^k Jbbrt bk+
elbh kl p^_^ m lo nr* qbk^ o^wk î mobl`rmôpb mlo i^
mobpbk`f^ a b bplp ^kfj `r_p bk pr _l`î
W O O W L P N L R F O P U L I C O P Q B F L BC A O L
M@KP@NOJN K<M< >P@MKJN C P H< I J N
Jlp qbgfalp v _ p od^klp `lj l i^
nrb pb l_qfbkbk mlo j b a _
ab i^ __fkdbkfbo^ obnrfbobk ab
_ p bpcrbowlp `lloafkâlp a b _ p
_flnrjf`lp* fkdbkfbolp _olj+
`f`lp* _fildlp `biriôbp v jaf`lp,
Alk b i cfk ab `roô _ p erbplp co^`qroâlp*
bnrfmlp ab fksbpqfdâlobp bpqk qo^_^g^kal
mô^ rqfifwô mipqf`lp _flabdoâ^_ibp b fk+
`lomloô c^`qlobp a b òb`fjfbkql ab molqb+
k^p bk bpqb j ^qbofî, Cpqlp c^`qlobp ab
òb`fjfbkql eô^k nrb i^p ìri^p pb^p `bo+
`^k^p v _ p afjfkrqlp s^plp p^kdrkblp fks^+
afbo^k b i mipqf`l î fopb abdoâ^kal* v ^ i^
iôd^ _ obbjmi^wô^k `lk bi erbpl abi m^+
`fbkqb jfpjl,
Ck _ p i^_lo^qloflp îobabalo abi jrkal*
dormlp ab `fbkqcf`lp qo^_^g^k pl_ob `j l
e^`bo òb`bo kl p _ mfbi v erbplp* pfkl q^j +
_fk `ôqi^dlp* sisri^p `ôaf^`^p* sbgfd^p v
qbgfal j^jôfl* v bpqk e^`fbkal fjmi^kqbp
`lk îdrklp ab bpqlp qbgfalp ôqfcf`fîbp bk
^kfjîbp ab i^_lo^qlo_, Ci o^qk nrb pb
jrbpqo^ bk i^ FESP? 2+0/ bpq fk`r_^kal
rk fkgboql bk cloj ^ ab lobg^ pbj _oâl `lk
ìri^p ab `ôqi^dl erj^kl &bi `ôqi^dl pl+
mloq^ ^ i^ lobg^ k^qroî', Ck b i crqrol* pbo
mlpf_ib e^`bo òb`bo lobg^p ôqfcf`fîbp afob`+
q^j bkqb bk i^p mboplk^p nrb `ôbw`^k ab
bii^p l nrb i^p qbkd^k abclojâ^p,
Jlp fksbpqfdâlobp `lkqfk^k j bglo^kal
i^p q`kf`^p mô^ bi `riqfsl ab qbgfalp v bk bi
abpôoli_ ab jbglobp j^qbofîbp ab fjmi^k+
qb `lk b i l_gbqfsl ab armif`ô od^klp b k qb +
olp, J^p sbgfd^p _olôqfcf`fîbp pb e^k òbâl
bj mib^kal ìri^p jrp`riôbp v a bi obsbpqf+
jfbkql ab i^ sbgfd^* qlj â^p ab _ p m^`fbk+
qbp nrb mobpbkq^k rk crkòlk^j fbkql
abcf`fbkqb ab bpqb od^kl, J^p ìri^p crbolk
pbj_oâ^p bk rk fkgboql bk cloj ^ ab sbgfd^
`ljmrbpql ab `lidbkl v irbdl pb qo^pmi^k+
qôlk ^ _ p m^`fbkqbp, Qfbqb ab bpqlp ob`bm+

qlobp ab sbgfd^p a b __fkdbkfbo^ `lkqfk^k
fkcloj^kal nrb e^ jbgloâl bi crkòlk^+
jfbkql ab prp sbgfd^p ^ mbpô ab nrb e^k
m^pâl `r^qol ^lp abpab bi fkgboql,
Sk obql mofk`fmî î e^`bo òb`bo krbslp
od^klp bp n rb* ^ afcbobk`f^ ab rk^ sbgfd^*
i^ j^vlo^ ab _ p od^klp plk obi^qfs^jbkqb
dorbplp* mlo il nrb bp afc`fi prjfkfpqoô kr+
qofjbkqlp ^ i^p ìri^p fkqboflobp, Nô^ obpli+
sbo bpqb mol_ibj^* b i al`qlo Hlpbme T^`^kqf
a bi Flpmfqî E bkboî ab K^pp^+
èrpbqqp* bk @lpqlk* v rk
bumboql bk jfòlfkdb+
kfbo^ afpbôlk rk
edâl `lk pr mol+
mol prjfkfpqol a b
p^kdob, Cpqlp `fbk+
qcf`lp òbôlk rk^
ok krbslp s^plp p^kdrkblp, A lj l i^ `lj +

mibgfaâ ab bpqb molvb`ql bp plomobkabkqb*
bp fjmol_^_ib nrb îdrk^ ab i^p jp ab
/5*... mboplk^p nrb bk i^ ^`qrîfaâ bpmb+
o^k ob`f_fo qo^kpmi^kqbp ab edâl bk Cpqâlp
Skfalp pb _bkbcf`fbk ab bpq^ fksbpqfd^`fk,
Qfk bj _ôdl* bk bi crqrol* _ p od^klp ab
__fkdbkfbo^ mlao^k pîsô^ `fbkqlp ab jf+
ibp ab sfa^p bk qlal bi jrkal `â^ ^l,
Nfbkp^ bk bpql Ci o^qk ab i^ clql òb `lk+

qolsbopf^ v îdrklp fkafsfarlp bumobpôlk pr
apdrpql `lk bii^ mlonrb mbkpôlk
nrb bo^ rk^ cloj^ fk^molmfâ^
ab rqfifwô ^ _ p ^kfjîbp bk
bi i^_lo^qlofl, Nbol mo`qf+
`^jbkqb qlalp _ p jb+
af`^jbkqlp jlaboklp
v _ p mol`bafjfbkqlp
jaf`lp pb abp^+
ooliiôlk rqfifw^k+
a l ^kfjîbp bk i^p
esbpqfd^òlkbp,
Aobbp nrb rqfifwô `fbo+
mfbw^ j l iabâ ^
ab mipqf`l `lk
s^plp p^kdrkblp abi
edâl
fkvb`q^kal
mipqf`l inrfal bk p+
q^p ì^pbp ab ^kfjîbp l
qlp &abpmrp ab nrb bi
abpôoliiô îdrklp
mipqf`l pb bkarob+
qfmlp ab bumbofjbk+
`f' afplisfbkal bi
PESP? 2+0/ Gkgboql `lk cloj^ ab lobg^
q^`fk `lk b i_ p bp
qbgfa l âv^`bkqb,
_^gl i^ mfbi ab rk o^qk
ml`l qf`l v a b_b+
Jrbdl* bk i^ `l j +
o^ molef_fopb= Qf ^p
mrqâlo^* molargb+
olk rk^ fj^dbk qofafjbkpolkî ab i^ oba a b bp* bumif`^ qr mrkql ab sfpq^, Qf qb lmlkbp ^
s^plp p^kdrkblp ab mipqf`l v i^ bj mibôlk `rînrfbo bjmibl ab ^kfjîbp bk i^ fksbpqfd^+
mô^ òbô rk jliab mô^ b i j^qbofî, |pqb `fk* nr q`kf`^p mfbkp^p nrb ab_bo^k bj +
pbo pbj_oâl `lk î jbklp pfbqb qfmlp afcb+ mibô _ p jaf`lp fksbpqfdâlobp mô^
obkqbp ab ìri^p nrb cloj^k i^ j^p^ a bi e+ abpôoliiô jbglobp qo^q^jfbkqlp `lk bi cfk ab
d â l, J^ oba a b s^plp p^kdrkblp pb îfsfô i^p bkcbojbaâbp ab _ p erj^klp=
obmobpbkq^ mlo jbaol ab `^kîbp ab afcbobk+
qbp q^j^lp nrb mbkbqo^k bi jô`l abi fkgbo+
ql , Jlp fksbpqfdâlobp fkvb`qôk bpqlp
`^kîbp `lk ìri^p ab s^plp p^kdrkblp*
nrb pb bpmbo^ obsbpqfok _ p `^kîbp v cloj ^+
34
A^mqril 2
P C N ? Q M BCJ A ? N G R S J M
M@NPH@I ?@ >JI>@KOJN >G<Q@
2,/
Or bp i^ qblo^ `biriô=
Dcg df]bW]d]cg XY Ù hYcfsU WYìÙf gcb `cg g][i]YbhYg4

y LcXc cf[Ub]gac j]jc gY WcadcbY XY ibU c aqg WrìÙg(
y Dcg cf[Ub]gacg j]jcg aqg dYeiYtcg gcb ib]WYìÙfYg& m Ùg Wrì'
Ùg gcb Ùg ib]XUXYg ZibW]cbU`Yg XY `cg cf[Ub]gacg ai`h]WYìÙ'
fYg(
y LcXUg Ùg WrìÙg gif[Yb XY WrìÙg dfYYl]ghYbhYg(
2,0
Aribp plk i^p `ô^`qbopqf`^p _pf`^p ab i^p ìri^p=
DUg WrìÙg gcb XY hUaUtc `]a]hUXc dcfeiY XYVYb ]bhYfWUaV]Uf

aUhYf]U`Yg Wcb gi UaV]YbhY dcf aYX]c XY Ù X]Zig]ub& ib dfcWYgc
`Ybhc eiY fYei]YfY eiY Y` ]bhYf]cf XY Ù WrìÙ bibWU Yghr XYaUg]U'
Xc `Y^cg XY Ù aYaVfUbU dÙgaqh]WU( LcXUg Ùg WrìÙg Yghqb fcXYU'
XUg dcf ibU aYaVfUbU dÙgaqh]WU eiY fY[iÙ Y` ]bhYfWUaV]c XY
aUhYf]U`Yg Wcb gi UaV]YbhY( DUg WrìÙg Wcbh]YbYb W]hcdÙgaU eiY
Wcbg]ghY Yb ib W]hcgc` UWicgc m jUf]cg cf[UbY`cg& g]b ]bWì]f Y` bv'
XYc( LcXUg Ùg WrìÙg Yad`YUb Y` <F9 Wcac dÙbc [Ybrh]Wc m Y`
JF9 UmiXU Yb Ù gsbhYg]g XY Ùg dfchYsbUg VUgUXU Yb YgY dÙbc( Lc'
XUg Ùg WrìÙg cVh]YbYb `cg aUhYf]U`Yg dUfU [YbYfUf Ùg ac`rWiÙg
XY Ù j]XU m Ù YbYf[sU bYWYgUf]U dUfU YghU gsbhYg]g U dUfh]f XY gig
UaV]YbhYg j]jcY ]bYfhY( =l]ghYb Xcg h]dcg ZibXUaYbhUàYbhY X]ZY'
fYbhYg XY WrìÙg4 Ùg dfcWUf]uh]WUg m Ùg YiWUf]uh]WUg(
U b_ qrqlofî 2,/ Cpqor`qro^ `biriô
2 ,1 Aribp plk i^p `ô^`qbopqf`^p mofkmîbp ab i^p ìri^p
br`ôfqf`^p=
DUg WrìÙg XY dÙbhUg& \cb[cg m U`[ibcg dfch]ghUg Yghqb gcdcfhUXUg

dcf dUfYXYg WYìÙfYg dcfcgUg ZiYfU XY Ù aYaVfUbU dÙgaqh]WU(
LcXUg Ùg WrìÙg YiWUf]uh]WUg h]YbYb ib W]hcYgeiY`Yhc ]bhYf]cf XY
Z]ÙaYbhcg XY dfchYsbU eiY Ùg cf[Ub]nU m `Yg XU ZcfaU& m eiY gY Yb'
WUf[U XY acjYf m UbWÙf U `cg cf[UbY`cg( 9`[ibUg WrìÙg YiWUf]uh]'
WUg h]YbYb W]`]cg c ZÙ[Y`cg& eiY gcb YlhYbg]cbYg XY Ù aYaVfUbU
dÙgaqh]WU eiY Wcbh]YbY a]WfchvVi`cg Wcb ib dUhfub WUfUWhYfsgh]'
Wc( =ghUg YghfiWhifUg aiYjYb Zì]Xcg aqg U``q XY Ù WrìÙ c aiY'
jYb U rghU U hfUjrg XY gi UaV]YbhY Zì]Xc(
=` aUhYf]U` [Ybrh]Wc #<F9$ gY YbWiYbhfU XYbhfc XY` bvW`Yc& Y`
WiU` Yghq fcXYUXc dcf ibU XcV`Y aYaVfUbU XY Ù Ybjc`hifU bi'
XYUf5 `cg dcfcg XY rghU fY[iÙb Y` acj]a]Ybhc XY Ùg ac`rWiÙg Yb'
hfY Y` bvW`Yc m Y` W]hcdÙgaU( =` aUhYf]U` [Ybrh]Wc Yghq cf[Ub]nUXc
Yb \YVfUg `ÙaUXUg ZifdfjfdXj & Ùg WiU`Yg Wcbg]ghYb Yb <F9 m
dfchYsbUg( =` biW`rc`c Wcbg]ghY Yb JF9 m dfchYsbUg f]Vcgua]WUg&
Ugs Wcac `cg [YbYg eiY WcX]Z]WUb Ù gsbhYg]g XY f]VcgcaUg5 rghcg gcb
dUfhsWiÙg XY JF9 m dfchYsbUg& m gcb `cg g]h]cg XcbXY gY g]bhYh]nUb
Ùg dfchYsbUg(
=` g]ghYaU XY aYaVfUbUg XY ibUWrìÙ Wcbg]ghY Yb Ù aYaVfU'
bU dÙgaqh]WU& Y` fYhsWi`c YbXcd`qga]Wc #J=$& Y` UdUfUhc XY ?c`[]&
Ùg jUWicÙg m Ùg jYgsWiÙg XYf]jUXUg XY YghUg aYaVfUbUg( =` fYhs'
Wi`c YbXcd`qga]Wc Wcbg]ghY Yb ibU gYf]Y XY WcadUfh]a]Ybhcg ]b'
hYfWcbYWhUXcg WimUg aYaVfUbUg h]YbYb Ybn]aUg dUfU dfcXiW]f
aqg `sd]Xcg( =` J= Yg Y` g]h]c df]bW]dU` XY Ù gsbhYg]g XY aYaVfUbUg

XYbhfc XY Ù WrìÙ =` J= fi[cgc&eiY Wcbh]YbY U `cg f]VcgcaUg& ZU'
Vf]WU aiW\Ug dfchYsbUg WYìÙfYg( =` J= `]gc& U` WUfYWYf XY f]Vcgc'
aUg& ZUVf]WU `sd]Xcg Wcac Ùg \cfacbUg YghYfc]XYg& XYg]bhcl]WU U`
cf[Ub]gac XY Xfc[Ug m XYgYW\cg aYhUVu`]Wcg& hfUbgZcfaU Y` [ìWu'
[Ybc Yb [ìWcgU m UàUWYbU Y` WU`W]c( =` UdUfUhc XY ?c`[] Yghq
Wcbgh]hi]Xc dcf ibU gYf]Y XY Vc`gUg aYaVfUbcgUg XYf]jUXUg XY`
J=( =` UdUfUhc XY ?c`[] dfcWYgU m acX]Z]WU Y` aUhYf]U` g]bhYh]nUXc
Yb Y` J= fi[cgc( DUg gighUbW]Ug acX]Z]WUXUg Yb Y` UdUfUhc XY ?c`'
[] gcb YadUWUXUg Yb jYgsWiÙg dUfU gi hfUbgdcfhY U WiUèi]Yf g]h]c
XY Ù WrìÙ( Dcg `]gcgcaUg gcb jYgsWiÙg eiY Wcbh]YbYb Ybn]aUg X]'
[Ygh]jUg& Ùg WiU`Yg X][]YfYb Ùg dUfhsWiÙg XY U`]aYbhc m `cg cf[UbY'
`cg XYZYWhicgcg(
LcXUg Ùg WrìÙg YiWUf]uh]WUg Wcbh]YbYb a]hcWcbXf]Ug& cf[UbY'
`cg eiY Yad`YUb cls[Ybc dUfU Wcad`YhUf Y` aYhUVc`]gac XY Ùg
ac`rWiÙg XY U`]aYbhc& WUdhUbXc ViYbU dUfhY XY gi YbYf[sU Wcac
9LH( DUg WrìÙg jY[YhU`Yg m U`[ibcg dfch]ghUg Wcbh]YbYb d`qgh]Xcg&
]bWì]Xcg `cg W`cfcdÙghcg eiY WUdhUb Ù YbYf[sU gcÙf XifUbhY Ù Zc'
hcgsbhYg]g& `c eiY WUdUW]hU UÙg WrìÙg dUfU ZUVf]WUf ac`rWiÙg cf[q'
b]WUg& dUfh]WiÙfaYbhY UnvWUfYg U dUfh]f XY ac`rWiÙg ]bcf[qb]WUg
gYbW]`Ùg( LUbhc Ùg a]hcWcbXf]Ug Wcac `cg W`cfcdÙghcg dfcVUV`Y'
aYbhY gY cf][]bUfcb XY Ùg VUWhYf]Ug( Dcg d`qgh]Xcg UàUWYbUb
d][aYbhcg c Uà]Xub(
EiW\Ug WrìÙg YiWUf]uh]WUg Wcbh]YbYb Vc`gUg `ÙaUXUg jUWic'
Ùg& XY`]a]hUXUg dcf ibU gcÙ aYaVfUbU&WimUg ZibW]cbYg gcb UàU'
WYbUf U`]aYbhc c XYgYW\cg& YlWfYhUf U[iU& c XUf gcdcfhY U Ù WrìÙ(
9`[ibcg dfch]ghUg h]YbYb jUWicÙg WcbhfqWh]`Yg& Ùg WiU`Yg fYWc[Yb m
YldY`Yb Y` U[iU( DUg dÙbhUg Yad`YUb Ùg jUWicÙg WYbhfU`Yg dUfU
XUf gcdcfhY U Ù WrìÙ& Ugs Wcac dUfU UàUWYbUf XYgYW\cg m aUhY'
f]U`Yg hul]Wcg(
U b_ qrqlofî 2,0 Rokpfql ab jbj_o^k^p
2 ,2 Aribp plk i^p `ô^`qbopqf`^p mofk`fmîbp ab i^p ìri^p
mol`ôfqf`^p=
Hcf _$ [YbYfUXÙg WrìÙg dfcWUf]uh]WUg gcb aim dYeiYtUg m h]YbYb

ibU YghfiWhifU ]bhYf]cf gYbW]`Ù( DU aUmcfsU XY Y`Ùg Yghqb fcXYU'
XUg dcf dUfYXYg WYìÙfYg fYÙh]jUaYbhY fs[]XUg =` W]hcdÙgaU XY
Ùg WrìÙg dfcWUf]uh]WUg WUfYWY XY cf[UbY`cg YbWYffUXcg dcf aYa'
VfUbUg #UibeiY U`[ibUg VUWhYf]Ug Zchcg]bhrh]WUg h]YbYb aYaVfU'
bUg ]bhYfbUg YlhYbgUg$( MbU gcÙ \YVfU W]fWiÙf XY <F9 gY
YbWiYbhfU Yb Ù fY[]ub biW`Yc]XY( =b Ù hUVÙ .'+ gY \UWY ibU Wca'
dUfUW]ub YbhfY Ùg WrìÙg dfcWUf]uh]WUg m Ùg YiWUf]uh]WUg XY dÙb'
hUg m Ub]aU`Yg(
Llq^ ab bpqrafl
DUg Z][ifUg .'-&.'. m .',* ]ìghfUb Ù YghfiWhifU [YbYfU` XY Ùg Wrì'

Ùg Ub]aU`Yg& jY[YhU`Yg m dfcWUf]uh]WUg& fYgdYWh]jUaYbhY( DU hUVÙ
.'+ `]ghU `cg cf[UbY`cg df]bW]dU`Yg& gig ZibW]cbYg m gi dfYgYbW]U Yb
Ub]aU`Yg& dÙbhUg m dfcWUf]chUg(
N?P? K ? W M P G L D M P K ? A G L
35
OxMHDIJN >G<Q@
`fal abplufoof_lkrìbf`l
&BL?' gt^( 0+
`fal of_lkrìbf`l &PL?'
gt^( 0+
^bo_f`l gt^( 1.
^k^bo_f`l gt^( 1.
^mô^ql ab Elidf gt^( 1+
ônrb^p gt^( 0,
_^`qbof^p gt^( 0,
ìri^ br`ôfqf`^ gt^( 0,
ìri^ mol`ôfqf`^ gt^( 0,
`bkqoflil gt^( 01
`fifl gt^( 01
`fqlbpnrbibql gt^( 0-
`fqlmi^pj^ gt^( 0*
`fqlpli gt^( 0*
alolcfi^ gt^( 1.
alolmi^pql gt^( 1.
òlj^qfk^ gt^( 02
òljlplj^ gt^( 02
`rboml _^pî gt^( 01
bksliqro^ krìbô gt^( 02
xi^j bkql fkqbojbafl gt^( 00

i^ d b il gt^( 01
efmqbpfp bkalpfj_fqf`^
gt^( 1-
ifplplj^ gt^( 1,
jbj_o^k^ mi^pjqf`^ gt^( /3
oofòlcfi^jbkql gt^( 00
jfòlq_ril gt^( 00
jfql`lkaof^ gt^( 1-
kìbl gt^( 02
krìlil gt^( 03
lod^kbil gt^( 0-
mipqfal gt^( 1.
obq`ril bkalmipjf`l &PC'
gt^( 1*
obdfk krablfab gt^( 10
of_lplj^ gt^( 03
s^`rli^ gt^( 1,
s^`rli^ îfjbkqôf^ gt^( 1,
s^`rli^ `bkqoî gt^( 1,
s^`rli^ `lkqo`qfi gt^( 1,
sbp`ri^ gt^( 1*
M < U J I < H D@ I O J ?@ >JI>@KOJN

+( <]ViÛ Ùg WrìÙg dfcWUf]uh]WUg m YiWUf]uh]WUg hsd]WUg m XYgWf]VY
gig gYaYÛbnUg m X]ZYfYbW]Ug(
0( };iq` Yg Ù ZibW]ub XY `cg f]VcgcaUg8 }=b eir dUfhY XY Ù WrìÙ

gY YbWiYbhfUb8 }Ku`c gY `Yg YbWiYbhfU Yb Ùg WrìÙg YiWUf]uh]WUg8
,( };iq`Yg cf[UbY`cg gcb WcaibYg hUbhc Yb Ùg WrìÙg jY[YhU`Yg Wc'

ac Yb Ùg Ub]aU`Yg& m Wiq`Yg gcb vb]Wcg dUfU ibUg m chfUg8
1( <YgWf]VY Ù YghfiWhifU m ZibW]ub XY` fYhsWi`c YbXcd`qga]Wc m XY`

UdUfUhc XY ?c`[](
-( <YZ]bY \jkifdX m dXki`q(
2( };uac gY ZcfaUb hcg `]gcgcaUg8 };iq` Yg gi ZibW]ub8
2, <YgWf]VY U` bvW`Yc& ]bWì]Xcg Ù Ybjc`hifU biW`YUf& Ù WfcaUh]bU&
3( <]ViÛ Ù YghfiWhifU XY `cg W]`]cg m ZÙ[Y`cg(
`cg WfcacgcaUg& Y` <F9 m `cg biW`rc`cg(
/( };iq`Yg gcb Ùg ZibW]cbYg XY Ùg a]hcWcbXf]Ug m hcg W`cfcdÙghcg8

}AS7feir `cg W]YbhsZ]Wcg WfYYb eiY Yghcg cf[UbY`cg gif[]Yfcb XY Ùg
WrìÙg dfcWUf]uh]WUg8
< K GD> < > D I ?@ >JI>@KOJN

+( K] gY hcaUfUb aiYghfUg XY hY^]Xc aigWiÙf XY ib WcffYXcf XY aUfU'
hub XY b]jY` aibX]U` m XY ib ]bX]j]Xic gYXYbhUf]c& }Wiq` YgdYfUfsUg
eiY hij]YfU ibU XYbg]XUX aiW\c aqg Y`YjUXU XY a]hcWcbXf]Ug8
}Hcf eir8
,( MbU XY Ùg ZibW]cbYg XY` W]hcYgeiY`Yhc Yb Ùg WrìÙg Ub]aU`Yg Yg
Ù XY XUf`Yg ZcfaU( DUg WrìÙg jY[YhU`Yg h]YbYb ibU dUfYX WYìÙf
VUghUbhY fs[]XU eiY fcXYU U Ù aYaVfUbU dÙgaqh]WU( }=ghc g][b]'

Z]WU eiY Yg ]bbYWYgUf]c ib W]hcYgeiY`Yhc dUfU Ù WrìÙ jY[YhU`8
-( DU aUmcfsU XY Ùg WrìÙg gcb aim dYeiYtUg( }Iir fYghf]WW]cbYg
Zsg]WUg m aYhUVu`]WUg `]a]hUb Y` hUaUtc XY Ù WrìÙ8 }Iir dfcV`Y'
aUg YbZfYbhUfsU ibU WrìÙ YbcfaY8 }Iir UXUdhUW]cbYg dcXfsUb
UmiXUf U gcVfYj]j]f U ibU WrìÙ aim [fUbXY8
K<M< H <TJM DI A J M H < > D I

ab Brsb* A,* Reb @foqe l c Aljmibu Abiip , LZ`\ek`]`Z :d\i`ZXe& ^_ofi ab
/7#, Bbpòf_b ilp jb`^kfpjlp mlo ilp nrb pb molargbolk i^p mofj bo^p
ìri^p br`ôfqf`^p ^ môqfo ab ^kqbm^pâlp mol`ôfqf`lp,
F lmmboq* K, v K^vbo* D,* Nolhôvlqbp, LZ`\ek`]`Z :d\i`ZXe& klsfbj_ob+

af`fbj_ob ab /777, Cpq^p ìri^p obi^qfs^j bkqb pfjmibp mlpbbk obî+
j bkqb rk^ `lkpfabo^_ib lod^kfw^`fk fkqbok^,
Dloa* C H, *Reb Côifbpq Tfbtp , LZ`\ek`]`Z:d\i`ZXe& ^_ofi ab /774, LZ`\e'

k`]`Z:d\i`ZXe( Ci ^rqlo rqfifw ilp jfòlp`lmflp lofdfkîbp ab ? kqk s^k
Jbbtbkelbh mô^ l_pbosô bi j rkal jfòlp`mf`l `ljl il sfl bpqb fk +
sbpqfdâlo, J^p fj~dbkbp clqldo~cf`^p qljâ^p ^ qo^sp ab bpqlp jrv
mofjfqfslp fkpqorj bkqlp obsbi^k klq^_ibp abqîibp,
Gkd_bo* B, C,* Reb ? oèfqb`qrob lc Jfcb , LZ`\ek`]`Z :d\i`ZXe& bkbol ab

/776, J^p crbow^p ab ^``fk `lkqoôf^ bpq^_fifw^k bi afpbl ab i^p bpqor`+
qro^p lod~kf`^p* abpab ilp `lj mrbpqlp abi `ô_lkl e^pq^ i^ ônrfqb`qro^
obclowâ^ abi `fqlbpnrbibql ab i^ ìri^,

Biología, La Vida en La Tierra, 8va Ed - Chap4

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Biología, La Vida en La Tierra, 8va Ed - Chap4

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