EXPERIMENTS GUIDE Due to problems of technique, electrostatic experiments have traditionally been limited to the simplest demonstrations using the most elementary equipment. PASCO scientific has attempted to remedy this situation by designing their complete electrometer systems. This guide will hopefully explain the use of the PASCO Laboratory Electrometer and provide both the instructor and student with the necessary exercises in electrostatic experimentation to develop the technique of an accomplished experimenter in electrostatics. In fact, the aim is to help the student develop sufficient technique to devise and perform his own experiments. ONE WORD OF CAUTION IS IN ORDER. THE SECTIONS ON OPERATING THE ELECTROMETER AND THE SECTION EXPLAINING THE USE OF THE EXPER- IMENTAL APPARATUS MUST BE READ BEFORE ATTEMPTING THE EXPERI- MENTS. OTHERWISE FRUSTRATION MAY BE THE ONLY RESULT. BEFORE CONDUCTING AN EXPERIMENT, CAREFULLY OBSERVE THE FOL- LOWING PRECAUTIONS: a) ALWAYS KEEP YOURSELF GROUNDED. b) ALWAYS GROUND THE ELECTROMETER UNLESS SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS ARE GIVEN TO THE CONTRARY. ¢) ALWAYS CONSIDER HOW THE EQUIPMENT ARRANGEMENT MAY AFFECT THE EXPERIMENT. A MISPLACED POWER SUPPLY CAN CHANGE CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS, AND THE EXPERIMENTER’S ARM CAN EASILY DO THE SAME. IN ESSENCE, ALL CHARGED BODIES CAN AFFECT EACH OTHER.EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT MAO FB wR = © TABLE OF CONTENTS FARADAY ICE PAIL AND CHARGE PRODUCTION CHARGE DISTRIBUTION EQUIPOTENTIALS AND FIELD GRADIENTS CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS MOVING CHARGES AND CURRENT CAPACITORS - CHARGING AND DISCHARGING POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS PRINCIPLE OF ELECTROSTATIC GENERATORSEXP - 7 EXPERIMENT 1: FARADAY ICE PAIL AND CHARGE PRODUCTION Since the Faraday ice pail is used so frequently in electrostatic experiments, one should examine the relation between the charge induced on the ice pail by an inserted object and the actual charge on that object. Using the ice pail, one can then investigate the nature of charging an object by contact as compared to charging by induction. Apparatus: Connect the electrometer to the Faraday ice pail as shoun in Figure A. When Performing the experiment, adjust the sensitivity of the electrometer such that most readings are in the upper 2/3 of the scale. To ground the ice pail (i.e., connect the inner pail to the shield), momentarily push the "ZERO" Switch on the electrometer to the “ClECK" position, The charge producers will be used as the charged objects. Before beginning, the electrometer should read "zero", indicating that there is oo charge on the ice pail. FIG. AEXP - 1 Procedure: ine Insert a charged object (rub the charge producers together and insert one) into the ice pail, but DO NOT let the charged wand touch the pail. Note the electrometer reading. Remove the object and again note the electrometer reading. Again insert the object, touch it to the ice pail, and then remove it. Note the electrometer reading. Momentarily ground the ice pail and then again touch the object to the ice pail and note the electrometer reading. Does any charge remain on the object? What can one conclude about the induced charge on the ice pail, as compared to the charge on the object? CAUTION: i) The charged object must be inserted at least into the lower half of the ice pail. Try inserting it, say, one centimeter below the tip of the pail, and attempt to explain your results. ii) There may be a small charge retained on the exposed plastic between the aluminum disk and the aluminum rod on the charge producers. This residual charge does not transfer readily when the disk is touched to the pail. Therefore, (before starting the experiment) breathe on the exposed plastic of the charge producer so that the moisture in your breath will tend to remove any residual charge. i) Starting with initially uncharged charge producers, rub the blue and white materials together. Using the Faraday ice pail, measure the magnitude and polarity of their charges. (By the results of Part A, one does not need to touch the charge producer to the pail. What relation is there between these charges produced by contact? ii) Ground the charge producers and rub them together inside the ice pail. What does the electrometer read? Remove one charge producer and note the electrometer reading. Re- place the charge producer, remove the other, and note the reading. iii) Ground the charge producers again, Rub the white material with the aluminum proof plane. Measure the magnitude and polarity of the charges. Try rubbing the blue material with the aluminum proof plane. Re- cord your measurements, Construct a list of materials such that if a material lower on the list is rubbed with a material higher on the list, the higher ma- terial is always positive. Such a list is called an electrostatic series.EXPERIMENT 2: CHARGE DISTRIBUTION Investigating the variations of charge density (or charge distributions) involves sampling the charge on a surface with a proof plane, inserting the proof plane in the Faraday ice pail, and observing the relative charge indicated by the electrometer. Not all surfaces have a uniform charge density throughout. An important aspect of measuring charge distributions involves charge conservation. The proof plane removes some charge from the surface it samples. If the proof plane is grounded after each measurement, the charge on the surface will be depleted with consecutive measurements. However, by not grounding the proof plane or touching it to the Faraday ice pail, the charge on the surface is not depleted. That charge which the proof plane removed for one measurement is always returned to the surface when the next sampling is made. (Also, to minimize distortion of the surface shape when sampling, hold the proof plane as explained in the equipment instructions.) Apparatus: Electrometer (3 VDC range will usually provide the needed sensitivity), proof plane, Farady ice pail, power supply, and spheres. Procedure: A. Place the two aluminum spheres at least 50 cm. apart. Connect one to the GREEN SAFETY TERMINAL of the power supply and set the power supply to 1000 VDC. Connect the ground terminal of the power supply to ground. This sphere maintained at 1000 VDC will provide a charging body. The other, or second, sphere should be momentarily grounded to remove all charge Sample and record the charge density at several points on the second sphere (give some thought as to the points to be sampled). Place the 1000 VDC sphere about 1 cm, from the second sphere. Again, sample and record the charge density at the points sampled before. Ground the second sphere; touching one hand to the Faraday ice pail shield (which is supposed to be connected to earth ground!!!) and the other hand to the second sphere is sufficient. Again, sample and record the charge density at the points sampled before. Remove the 1000 VDC sphere at least 50 cm. from the second sphere. Again, sample and record the charge density at the points sampled before. What produced the charge distributions at each step of the experiment? Why did any charge remain on the second sphere even after it was grounded?B. A charged conductive body will have a1] points on its surface at the same potential. However, all points do not necessarily have the same charge density. In order to investigate this phenomenon and to determine how the charge density varies with the surface geometry, a series of con- ductive shapes may be formed, charged to a given potential, and the potentials and charge densities mapped on the surface. The aluminum spheres provide a spherical shape. Other shapes, such as cylinders, cones, cubes, etc. may be formed from the 12" by 18" sheets of black conductive paper supplied with the PASCO charge plotter. See Section II-G for directions on forming shapes and connections to the power supply. Once the desired shape has been formed and connected to the power supply, set the power supply to 30 VOC. Use the electrometer to measure the potential at several points on the surface (ground the electrometer and power supply). Be certain that some of the points are located on edges and inner surfaces. What is the relation be- tween the surface geometry and the potential at various points? Connect the electrometer to the Faraday Ice Pail, switch the power supply to 1000 VOC, and investigate the charge distributions at varicus points, The method of investigating charge distributions is given in the previous experiment. ) What generalizations can be made about existence of charge on the inside of a conauctor? About relation between charge density and radius of curvature? About the effect on the measurement produced (cn the flat or on the edge) by how the proof plane is touched to tie surface? C. Charge Distributions Produced by Two Conductors: In the above experiment, the conductor was charged to 1000 VDC with respect to ground, and any grounded surface was at least 50 cm. away. The way in which two conductors in close proximity and at different potentials distribute their respective charges will now be investigated. The experimental set-up and techniques are the same as for the previous experiment except that two shapes are used at varfous separa- tions ranging downward to 1 cm. One shape should be at ground, the other at 1000 VDC, or both at 1000 Voc. The charge densities for each of the two shapes are investigated for various separations and orientations of the shapes. Some sug- gested combinations are: two cylinders, a cylinder and plane (flat sheet), a cone and plane, or a point charge and plane. The 2.8 cm. disc with plastic insulation on one side acts as a point source. Place the disc on a sheet of conductive paper, and connect the power supply lead to the thumb nut on top of the disc. Determine the charge density at various distances from the disc.EXP-3 What generalizations can be made about how the shape of the bodies, their orientation and distances affect their respective charge distributions? About how the polarity of the bodies (both the same or opposite) affect the respective charge distributions? About how the power supply connecting wires affect the charge distributions? EXPERIMENT 3: EQUIPOTENTIALS AND FIELD GRADIENTS SEE Also XE&E-00p FOR Br 3 Section II-F of the Equipment Instructions provides an extensive description of how to measure equipotentials and field gradients. Included in the sec- tion are diagrams showing the electrometer and power supply connections nec- essary for each type of measurement. The following brief explanations give several suggested electrode arrangements for the student to try when exploring electric fields. (Note that only the power supply connections are indicated ‘in the schematics.) A. PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR Questions: What is the field outside the capacitor plates? How does the ratio of the plate + length (1) versus separation (d) affect the q fringing effect at the edges of the plates? What redesign of the plates, or perhaps extra electrodes, could help elimi- nate the fringing effect? B. POINT SOURCE AND GUARD RING Questions: What relation can be derived between the distance from the center of the point source and the equipotential value? " Would this same relation hold if the system were three dimensional? What purpose does the large outer ring serve in this experiment? C. DIPOLES OF OPPOSITE CHARGE Questions: What is the relation between the direction of a maximum value field gradient and equipotential line at the same point? (A geometrical relation is desired.) What effect does the finite size of the black paper have on the field?SEE AxSo DIPOLES OF LIKE CHARGE Questions: How does the field of this Configuration compare with dipoles of oppo- site charge? (See previous experiment. ) What distortion of the field is Produced by the large electrode around the perimeter of the paper? FLOATING ELECTRODE Before drawing the circular electrode, map the equipotentials of the two straight electrodes. Draw the circular electrode and again map the equipotentials. KEE-00/0 fOR Ker z Questions: How does the circular electrode O . distort the field? Nhat is the potential of the circular electrode? Of the area inside the electrode? that effect would moving the circular electrode have? FLOATING INSULATOR Before cutting the rectangular insulator, map the equipotentials of the two str electrodes. Cut out a rectangular section aight of the paper and again map the equipoten- + tials. Questions: How does the rectangular insu- lator distort the field? What effect would moving the rectangular insulator have? LINE AND CIRCULAR SOURCE Draw only the line and point source “a”. ipotentials. Add circular and again map the equipoten- tials. Add circular electrode "c" and Map the eq electrode again map the equipotentials. Questions: How is the spacing of equipo- tentials affected by the increasing diame- ter of the circular electrode?SEE ALSO XEE-00/0 POR Ex’r? EXP - 4 H. LINE AND "SHARP" POINT At first do not draw the two electrodes marked "a". Map the equipotentials. Add the electrodes "a" and again map the equi- potentials. Questions: What effect did adding the ex- tra electrodes have on the spacing of the equipotentials (field strength) around the point? Why did the field strength change even though the radius of the point did not change? I. TRIODE Use a 5K potentiometer to provide three potentials. Connect the three short electrodes with wires "a". Do not let these wires touch the black paper except at the silver electrodes. la Questions: How is the field in the area between the short electrodes affected by a the potential between the short electrodes and the closer, long electrode? Could this paper model of a triode act as an amplifying device? If not, why not? In the course of the experiment, attempt to determine what relation exists between equipotentials and field gradients. In particular, what is the value of the field gradient parallel to an equipotential? Perpendicular to an equipo- tential? EXPERIMENT 4: CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS After examining the theoretical nature of a capacitor, there emerges a re- lation between charge, voltage, and capacitance. We can experimentally inves- tigate this relation and perhaps verify that Q=CV. We may proceed by holding each of the variables constant in turn, varying one of the others, and measuring the third with the electrometer. Going further, the capacitance of a capacitor is C=cA/d, where e is the dielectric coefficient, A is the plate area, and d is the plate separation.Exp = 4 One can insert various materials between the Capacitor plates, hold Q con- stant, measure changes in V, and, in fact, calculate the dielectric con- stant of a given material, NOTE: It is assumed that the student understands the theory of capacitors (Part). in parallel, If not, turn to the appendix of this experiment art C). : Apparatus: Use the experimental capacitor and connect it to the electrometer with the low capacitance (unshielded) cable provided. It is important to remember that the electrometer and cable add approximately 35 pf. capacitance in Parallel with the experimental capacitor (Figure B). In order to measure the electrometer's capacitance at the probe end of the unshielded cable, ob- tain a low leakage (polystyrene or air dielectric) capacitor of know value (about 100 Picofarads). Connect the Capacitor across a known voltage (about 30 volts). “Disconnect the power Supply and reconnect the capacitor across the electrometer input cable. Take care not to discharge the capacitor by grounding it in any way, Note the voltage V, indicated by the electrometer, [he capacitance C, can then be calculated from the known capacitor's value Ca and the known charging voltage Vo (See Figure & for the formula). Cy (Vo-¥) Vv FIG. B A proof plane, power supply, and sphere will also be used for transferring charges and maintaining voltages. The Faraday ice pail is necessary to measure charge. Procedure; A. There are six ways in which one can hold one of the variables (capacitance, voltage, charge) constant, vary another, and measure the third, Two of these ways are minor variations of two others and hence do not represent a significantly different method of performing the ex- periment, i) v Measured, Q Variable, C Constant: Connect one of the aluminum spheres to the green binding post of the power suprly and set the power supply to 1000 voc.ii) iii) EXP - 4 Since the electrometer should be grounded, momentarily depress- ing the "zero check" button will remove any excess charge from either of the capacitor plates. With an initial plate separation of about 2 mm.,.use the proof Plane to transfer charge from the sphere to the ungrounded capa- citor plate (i.e., the plate connected to the red electrometer lead), The charge is transferred merely by touching the proof plane to the sphere and then to the capacitor plate, If the proof plane is touched to the sphere and capacitor in the same manner each time, then equal amounts of charge will be trans- ferred each time. Why is it sufficient to add charge to only one plate? Adjust the electrometer's sensitivity so that each charge transfer results in a measurable deflection of the meter needle. Make several charge transfers and record the electrometer reading each time. How does the potential vary with charge? Double the plate separation and again make the charge transfers. What changes in potential now result? CAUTION: Take care to place the charged sphere and power supply sufficiently far from the electrometer and capacitor so that the plates are not charged by induction or affected in any other way. Set the capacitor plates about 6 cm. apart. Connect the power supply (black and green binding posts) across the capacitor plates and set the supply to about 1000 VOC. Next connect the electrometer to the Faraday ice pail as in Figure A. Ground the proof plane and then touch it to the inner surface of one of the capacitor plates. Measure the charge on the proof plane with the ice pail. Investigate the charge density at various points on the plates -- both on the inner and outer surfaces. How does the charge density vary over the plates? Choose a point near the center of one capacitor plate and measure charge density in this area at various plate separations. (Remem- ber capacitance varies inversely with the plate separation. ) How does the charge vary with capacitance? Q Measured, V Variable, C Constant: With the same set-up in (ii), keep the plate separation constant, vary the potential across the plates by adjusting the power supply and measure the resulting charge densities-Cap-4 iv) V Measured, C Variable, Q Constant: Connect the electrometer to the experimental capacitor with the black lead fastened to the fixed plate. With an initial plate separation of about 2 mm., charge the plates by momen- tarily connecting the power supply (set at about 6 volts) across the plates. Adjust the electrometer's sensitivity so that the initially charged plates represent a meter reading of about 1/5 scale. Increase the plate separation and note the electrometer's reading at various separations. How does the potential vary with capacitance? When correlating the measurement results, remember that the total capacitance of the system is equal to the capacitance of the variable capacitor plus the Capacitance of the electrometer and cable -- see Figure C. Hence, the capacitance of the experimental capacitor must be determined. This can be done experimentally as in Figure B or by actual cajgulatign usjng C= coA/d, where C is in farads, €> = 8.85 x 10-'4 coul“yn me, A is the area of one plate in Square meters, and d is the plate separation in meters. The calculation need only be done for one value of d. Since Capacitance varies inversely as plate separation, the capaci- tance at any plate separation is easily calculated from the original result. Finally, the total capacitance at each plate separation can easily be calculated by adding the capacitance of the electro- meter and cables (which can be determined experimentally or taken to be 35 pf.) to the calculated capacitance of the parallel plates. To determine dielectric coefficients, it would be ideal to just slip a sheet of dielectric between a set of charged capacitor plates and note the resulting potential changes. However, there are experimental Problems with such a procedure. Sliding the dielectric between the Plates can generate a significant static charge. Hence, it is best to proceed as follows: First method: With the electrometer connected across the plates of the experimental capacitor, raise the end opposite the Stationary plate by settino it on a block about 3 cm. high, With the plates set at about 3 m., charge the plates to about 4/5 full scale. Record the reading. Carefully increase the separation of the plates enough to insert the dielectric sheet and lean it against the stationary plate. Return the plates to the original separation and record the new electrometer reading across the plates. Finally, pull the plates apart again and remove the dielectric sheetEXP ~ 4 carefully. Return the plates to the original position and check that the electrometer reading agrees with the original reading. (Caution: Before using the phenolic dielectric sheet, it may be necessary to breathe on it in order that the moisture in your breath will leak off any residual charge.) The calculations necessary to determine the dielectric constant are involved, but straightforward. First we assume that the dielectric fills the entire space between capacitor plates. Referring to the diagrams, we proceed: FIG. C q + 2— Flectrometer q 4 Dielectric Co / ead if fa, Le 1 a | ly I 1 | 4; is the charge on plates of capacitor c; (i = 1,2) Vo,.Vy is the voltage indicated by the electrometer fa) +a) = (C) + C5) ¥, (ay + 93) = (C) + C3) but a, +4, = 9) +45 e and dielectric coefficient K = c/e, ot : 2 hence (C, + C,) V, = (C) +05) vy Cy WW, =v) + Oy, (Cy Calculated as in A, iv.) oe Cy In the actual experiment, the dielectric does not fill the entire snace between capacitor plates. Therefore we alter our calculations slightly. Recall that the electric field between two charged plates is constant at each point between the plates. The small electric field in the di- electric is also constant and acts to reduce the capacitor's electric field. Hence the reduction depends linearly on the thickness of the dielectric, With this in mind, let K be the coefficient calculated above, and let K be the actual dielectric coefficient. Then, K d KR ot4K (d-t) Where d is the plate senaration and t is the thickness of the dielectric. From this eouation, students can calculate the actual coefficient aiven the experimentally determined one.Exp - 4 Alternate method: Connect the electrometer across the variable canacitor, the meatily ground the plates together and scr them 5 mm apart. Using Capacitor plate. After several transfers note the voltage. Let Ve be the average change in voltage Per one charge transfer, Repeat the pro~ cedure with a dielectric between the plates. Let AV) be the new average change in voltage. The dielectric coefficient can be calculated as iq the first method by simply replacing Vo with aVo and Vywith av, C, Appendix: To examine the effects of Placing capacitors in parallel or series, caper eR network, DC power supply. and the electrometer, The experimental circuits can be duplicated by tracing through the sche- matic on the front of the RC network. 1) If one capacitor is charged to potential V and a second, initially uncharged, capacitor fs placed in parallel with a Charged Capacitor, the potential across the two will change, Before setting up the circuit in Figure D » make certain all mepecitors are uncharged. Use a short length of wire to momentari'y short each one. os ap FIG. 0 After the circuit has been set up and C7 charged to 30 volts, piace cane battery or power supply. Closing the sui ten will Place C2 in parallel with Cl. Measure the potential across the two capacitors, Repeat the experiment using a different value of Cl. What is the relation between the capacitances and potentials before and atter the second capacitor is added? (The capacitors in the RC network are sufficiently large to Justify disregarding the electrometer's internal Capacitance.) 11) If ‘two capacitors are placed in series, as in Figure E, and center agua '® Placed across them what is the potential a@ the center node? Before setting up the circuit in Figure & , make certain alt Capacitors are uncharged. Use a Short length of wire to momen- tarily short each one.EXP - 5 ea st Pits e Set up the circuit as shown and use the electrometer to measure the potentials across both Capacitors, TOUCH THE CENTER TERMINAL OR NODE ONLY WITH THE ELECTROMETER PROBE TIPS; DO NOT TOUCH IT WITH YOUR HAND. YOU CAN EASILY DISCHARGE THE CAPACITOR. Discharge both capacitors, change the value of C2, and repeat the above experiment. What is the relation between capaci- tance and potential for Capacitors in series? Is the charge the same on both capacitors? EXPERIMENT 5: MOVING CHARGES AND CURRENT ihe electrometer can be used to investigate the effects of moving charges on a macroscopic scale. Two parallel plates such as those used in the experi- "ental capacitor provide an effective representation of a section of wire. Moving the charge producers between the plates provides the macroscopic counterpart of current in a wire. Apparatus: if The HodeD 224 Electrometer (with a shunt resistor, the electrometer becomes an ammeter to measure relative current). The variable capacitor with jumper wire and the charge producers are also used. In the second method of per- forming the experiment, the Faraday ice pail is used in place of the experi- mental capacitor. t+—A | Electrometer ——] Electrometer -— Power Supply FIG. F FIG. FtExp - 5 Procedure: ic First method: Use the jumper wire to put the 109 ohm resistor (located on the capacitor unit) in parallel with the experimental capacitor. Then connect the electrometer across the capacitor as in Figure F, Separate the capacitor plates to their maximum. Rub the charge pro= ducers together and insert one between the plates. If the charge Producer is held motionless, the electrometer will read zero indi- cating no current. (Note: The capacitance of the system may cause the meter needle to take a few seconds in returning to zero.) Nove the charge producer in various directions at various velocities and note the resulting magnitude and polarity of the current produced Now use the other charge producer and repeat the experiment. What is the relation between current and charge velocity? What is the relation between charge polarity and current polarity? Start with initially uncharged charge producers, rub them together and move both between the capacitor plates at the same time What current is oroduced if they are moved together? In opposite directions? Alternate method: Set up the circuit represented in Figure F! The resistor on the experimental capacitor unit suffices as the resistor across the electrometer. This time the inner and outer cylinders of the Faraday ice pail serve as the parallel plates. With the power supply set at about 30 VOC and the electrometer set on the 3 VDC scale, move a proof plane from one cylinder to the other making contact each time, When touched to the positive cylinder, the proof plane acquires a positive charge. When the posi- tive proof plane is touched to the negative plate, the plane loses it Positive charge and becomes negative. The resulting transfer of Charge is in fact an electric current and is measured by the electro- meter, If the proof plane is moved at a fairly rapid but constant rate, the electrometer will indicate a constant current i) What is the polarity of the current? Is it always the same? If so, then positive charges moving in one direction produce the same current as negative charges moving in the opposite direction, ii) Reverse the polarity of the power supply, and repeat the Procedure. What is the relation between potential and current polarity? iii) Increasing the frequency with which the proof plane is moved between the plates reduces the resistance in the circuit, What is the effect on the current? iv) Keep the frequency of the proof plane movement constant and vary the potential. What is the relation between current and potential?EXP - 6 Note: In Part B, the transfer of charge is not continuous, but rather discrete. A constant quantity of charge is transferred each time. However, the capacitance of the entire system acts to "average" the discrete quantities to give a fairly steady state meter reading. EXPERIMENT 6: CAPACITORS - CHARGING AND DISCHARGING It takes a definite amount of time to charge or discharge a capacitor through a resistance. We now turn to discovering the relationships between capaci- tance, resistance, and the time required to charge the capacitor. Apparatus: Use the PASCO RC Network and DC Power Supply. The experimental circuits can be easily duplicated by tracing through the schematic on the front of the network and setting the switches accordingly. The battery in the experimental schematics is replaced with the DC Power Supply. Use the electrometer to measure voltages. DO NOT GROUND THE ELECTROMETER. (We want relative voltages.) Procedure: A. Charging Capacitors: i) Set up the circuit in Figure G . At time t = 0, the switch is closed and capacitor voltage is recorded at reqular time intervals. (A simple way to collect data is to open the switch at regular intervals and record the steady state reading, Why is this possible?) e FIG. G Plot time versus capacitor voltage for several values of R and C. What is the shape of the curve? Let us define T as the time required for the capacitor to charge from 10% to 90% of its final value. What is the relation be- tween R, C, and T? (Hint: Convert R to ohms, C to farads, and T to seconds.) ii) Repeat the same experiment as in (i), but measure the voltage across R as a function of time. (This time opening the switch stops the current flow, hence steady-state readings cannot be made. )EXP - 7 According to Ohm's law, potential is proportional to resistance multiplied by current. Hence, the potential across the resistor is proportional to the charging current. What relation is there between the charging current and the charge on the capacitor? (Hint: Part (i) gives the relation between charge and time, whereas part (ii) gives the relation between time and charging current.) B. Discharging Capacitors: i) Set up the circuit in Figure H. Charge the capacitor to an initial potential of 30 VOC. At time t = 0, close the switch and use the electrometer to measure the voltage across the capacitor. (Use the switch for steady state readings as in Part A(i). Repeat the experiment with several other values of Rand C. Plot time versus capacitor voltage, FIG. H Does the RC-time constant (T) remain the same for discharging capacitors as it does for charging capacitors? ii) Using the same circuit as in B(i), charge the capacitor to 30 VDC, and close the switch and measure the voltage across the resistor, Determine the relation between discharging current and capacitor potential. EXP - 7 EXPERIMENT 8: POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS When a grounded conducting sphere is placed in an electric field, a charge is induced on the sphere. Moreover, the charge varies directly as the potential of a similarly charged, but ungrounded, sphere, since the sphere is an equipotential. With this concept in mind, we can investigate the relation between potential and distance from the electric field source.EXP ~ 7 Apparatus: Electrometer, DC power supply, two spheres on stands, Procedure: A. Potential function of a point source: Dismantle one sphere and use just the stand with the screw in the top as a point source. Connect the screw to the positive terminal of the power supply. Connect a sphere to the electrometer (ground the electrometer) and Place it near the point source and charge the sources to about 500 volts. Momentarily ground the spheres, and then turn off the power supply to allow the charge to distribute itself uniformly over the sphere, Record the electrometer reading. Move the sphere to another distance from the point source (measure from the center of the sphere to the point source), and repeat the measurement taking care to charge the point source to the same potential each time, What is the relation between the electrometer readings and the distance between sphere and point source? The electrometer is measuring the potential at the center of the sphere. Explain why. B. Repeat part A using a charged sphere in place of the point source. Is the charge on the source sphere uniformly distributed when the grounded sphere is brought close? The source sphere is actually acting as a dipole source; hence the potentials vary inversely as the square of the distance, C. Logarithmic potential: Approximate an infinite line source by stretchina a wire (about 130 cm. long) between two insulated posts at a height of 30 cm. Cismantle one sphere and use just the stand with the screw in the ton. Clin the electrometer's input cable to this screw. Set the input assembly about 3 cm. from the wire. Use the nover supply to charae the wire to about 800 volts. Record the electrometer notential reading. Turn the power supply off, move the input assembly one centimeter fur- ther from the wire and repeat the procedure. What is the relation between the electrometer readings and distance from the wire to innut cable? Try using a sphere instead of the dismantled sphere as the input assembly. ~ Explain any differences in results.Exp - 3 EXPERIMENT $: PPINCIPLE OF ELECTROSTATIC GENERATORS Clectrostatic generators usually rely on the simple properties of charae transfer by induction and contact. Objects (proof planes) are charged by induction and mechanically separated to create a potential difference. Apparatus: Electrometer, variable capacitor, two proof planes (or one proof plane and a charge producer). Procedure: i) Connect the electrometer across the variable capacitor and set the capacitor plates about 19 cm. apart. Set the electrometer on the three volt scale. ii) Take one proof plane in each hand. Position the proof plane between the capacitor plates and touch them edge to edge. iii) Carefully separate the proof planes, then withdraw them. iv) Cross your hands and touch each nroof plane to the outside faces of the capacitor plates. v) Uncross your hands and repeat stens ii), iii), and iv). After 10 or 15 cycles the electrometer should indicate cuite a potential dif- ference between the plates. To insure success, keep yourself grounded and do not move the proof planes too quickly. Avoid touching the capacitor plates inadvertently. Of course, the potential build up proceeds much more cuickly when you start with one capacitor plate slightly charged. However, you can always depend on a stray cosmic ray to charge one plate slightly. What are the limits on the potential difference attainable?