Running head: HIV AMONG HETEROSEXUAL WOMEN IN THE USA

HIV among Heterosexual Women in the USA

Anika Davis
Wayne State University
SW 3710

HIV among Heterosexual Women in the USA

HIV AMONG HETEROSEXUAL WOMEN IN THE USA

AIDS epidemic did not emerge abruptly; the first disturbing cases perplexed the
medics for a long time before the official discovery of the disease. The episode of untreatable
illness mowed through young women, men, and children. The history of AIDS and HIV
virus erupted in the seventies when a group of scholars were investigating sexually
transmitted infections among gay men. In the first incident, physicians discovered an unusual
lymphadenopathy or swollen lymph nodes, which were initially considered as cancerous
tumours. When the biopsies returned negative, medical doctors began to study the problem
deeper sharing their knowledge with peers. After years of research, the medical community
came up with a new, deadly, and frequently disseminating disease. Officially, AIDS was
called an epidemic in June 1981. The news triggered panic and dread among the society,
including physicians who did not know either the nature of the infection, or the ways of
transmitting it. Some scholars call these days medieval as no one knew what caused immune
systems to collapse. Utmost fear of contagion produced severe discrimination against those
who fell ill, triggering job loss and alienation within the society.
It is crucial to mention that those days are to blame for the emergence of one of the
greatest misconceptions about disease. As the primary group of the study were exclusively
gay men, communities thought that they are responsible for the spreading of the infection
among the society. Such notions led to the acts of violence against ill gay men and their
families. Even now, gay men are forbidden to donate blood as it is still assumed they are the
biggest risk to spreading AIDS. Due to this misconception, other groups of people were
studied with less attention. A topic of HIV among women and heterosexual partners began to
worry the medical community in the early nineties when studies estimated a disturbing
increase in the percentage of women infected with HIV. According to Kerr (1991), As of the
end of December 1990, the Centers for Disease Control reported 15,493 cases of AIDS
among U.S. women. This represents about 10% of all reported AIDS cases (p. 139). These

HIV AMONG HETEROSEXUAL WOMEN IN THE USA

statistics experienced many alterations, though one can say that heterosexual women and
couples in the context of the AIDS epidemic attracted a lot of attention. The concept that
women with AIDS represent one of the most vulnerable groups appeared in the researches of
various scholars.
Recent issues of the HIV Surveillance Report found an increased number of cases of
individuals infected with HIV in the USA. According to statistics, today there are more than
a million people living with AIDS, among which 21 percent are women. According to the
National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention (2010) Out of the
total new cases of HIV 86 percent were attributed to heterosexual contacts. The same data
states that the vast majority of women with HIV consist of African American heterosexual
women whose cases overrun the number of African American heterosexual men
contaminated with the infection. Heterosexual white women and women of other ethnicities
are in the minority in the statistical data. Higher density of contaminated individuals within
the African American population has always been a steady fact.
However, the main factors are independent of skin color, but in the socio-economical
factors, like low incomes, discrimination, inability to access good healthcare, etc. High levels
of poverty, especially in impoverished neighborhoods where people live in substandard
conditions, result in high rates of male imprisonment. Lack of job opportunities, and poor
education often leads to illegal activities, usually ending with imprisonment. The spread of
AIDS among prison inmates is significantly higher than the rest of the population. As a result
of the huge amount of African American men in prisons, there is a greater danger of
spreading the infection among the African American community when men return home from
prison and engage in sex with heterosexual women. It creates a closed circle with women in
the position as the most unprotected category of the population. On a broader scale, the
prevalence of poverty within the African American community creates an environment fertile

HIV AMONG HETEROSEXUAL WOMEN IN THE USA

for increased levels of vulnerability among Black women (Jones-DeWeever, 2005, p. 80).
One must take into consideration that impoverished people seek medical attention less
frequently making it easier for them to unwittingly spread the infection. Many of those who
test positive do not have proper funds or medical insurance for the supportive retroviral
therapy. According to the presented statistics, the severe conditions of living in impoverished
neighborhoods will more likely result in catching the infection than in other regions of the
country.
Welch Cline, McKenzie and Glassman stated that when women and AIDS are
discussed, several groups of women attract enhanced attention of scientists: prostitutes, drug
addicts, and women of color (as cited in Kimberly, Serovich, & Greene, 1995, p. 316). In the
result of such context, women are viewed mostly as the transmitters of the disease. There has
been little research on the topic examining women as victims of this deadly disease.
Historically, there has been an unpleasant tendency of neglect by scholars of the topic.
Examinations of the role of women in the HIV/AIDS epidemic have been limited to
women's relationships with others (e.g., prostitutes, mothers of infected children) (Kimberly,
et al., 1995, p. 318). This tendency still holds true today. The central focus of most studies is
the infected males of all groups, ethnicities, and sexual orientation. Though, nowadays the
results illustrate that the landscape of the AIDS contamination has changed drastically.
If considering the ways of contamination in the context of women studies,
heterosexual contact results in seventy percent of the cases when a female was infected with
HIV. It is incorrect to blame researchers for the preference of the study group, as the largest
group of contaminated individuals remains to be gay men. However, today researchers have
to admit that many infected women acquired the disease through their primary and secondary
heterosexual partners. Today, there are a lot of social campaigns, informational centers, and

HIV AMONG HETEROSEXUAL WOMEN IN THE USA

aiding funds aimed to support the most vulnerable population and to help prevent the spread
of the disease.
Despite modern conditions, prior statistical data points out the fact that women are
still not equal to men. Females in disadvantaged groups like prostitutes, are considered a
threat of contamination, but not as the victims. A woman who discloses that she is HIV
positive is often faced with condemnation and stigmatization. Such women are frequently
blamed for their indecent behavior implying not only unprotected sex, but the quantity of
sex partners. Women who have several sexual partners are frowned upon, whereas men who
do are not.
Today, despite the figures representing the increased number of contaminated
individuals, the attitude towards HIV is somehow milder then it was at the beginning of the
epidemic. Such an approach to this deadly infection is connected to the illusion that AIDS
has changed its geographical position, transferring to Third World countries. The notion that
the illness is more prevalent in developing countries allows people to lower their guards with
respect to the spread of the infection. Heterosexual partners usually do not pay much
attention to the risks due to several factors, such as lack of knowledge of the quantity of
heterosexual cases involving AIDS, and the misconception that only the gay male community
is responsible for the spreading of the disease.
Age can be an additional factor of the high prevalence of HIV infection among
heterosexual females. Today, individuals engage in sexual relationships earlier than their
counterparts did in the past. Because some women are especially vulnerable in their
adolescence, men can sometimes easily persuade them to participate in unprotected sex. As
researchers state, a womans natural motivation is to build a connection with her partner.
Relationships, whether they are with men or other women, play a significantly greater role in
the lives of the female population. Women often transfer the role of protector to their

HIV AMONG HETEROSEXUAL WOMEN IN THE USA

partners, trusting them with their lives and health. When women depend on men for financial
support and the relationship becomes unhealthy, it is sometimes difficult for women to
remove themselves from the negative situation. These poor relationships can in turn trigger
low self-esteem and confidence where the woman lives in a demoralizing situation. A
qualitative study of poor, urban, African American women, found that women relied on
perceptions of partners, and not their own, sexual risk in deciding to get tested for HIV
(Longmore, Johnson, Manning & Giordano, 2013, p. 493). Females are still more vulnerable
than males in the contemporary society; women living under severe negative conditions are
twice as defenseless.
Despite high risks of infection being due to the behavioral choices of ones partner,
researchers consider gender-related dynamics as one of the most important factors in the
contamination of heterosexual women. These dynamics concentrate on the feelings of love,
affection, sexual communication troubles, lack of power, and pregnancy. The observation
suggests that a woman believes she has less control over the sexual act and expressing her
feelings than men do. This is a disappointing assumption in todays modern world. The
belief is that women are negatively affected by their own failure to control their lives and
sexual relationships. It is alarming that the amount of sexual abuse and rape has not been
taken into consideration.
Abusive relationships can also be a contributing factor to women having a greater risk
of be infected with HIV. Abusive partners tend to use physical power to force a woman into
intercourse under their terms. Research also indicates that abusive males tend to have several
sexual partners, or risky sexual behavior. For a woman in an abusive relationship it is
extremely difficult and even dangerous to contradict the decisions of her abuser. Research
suggests that asking steady partners, especially abusive partners, to use condoms can increase
the risk of negative outcomes, including increased risk of further abuse (Cole, Logan, &

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Shannon, 2008, p. 293). Psychologically abused women are extremely vulnerable, it is quite
difficult for them to end an abusive relationship. The risks to get infected with HIV among
women in abusive relationship, who live in severe conditions, are significantly higher. The
voice of these abused women is left unheard by the society and government. Hence the
reason of the misconception that AIDS is now a disease of the Third World countries or the
gay male community. As one can see there still exists a misjudgment about both
geographical and social dissemination of HIV.
Throughout the history of fighting with the epidemic of AIDS the government
implemented several policies and services to prevent, research the infection designing the
legislative base and means of intervention in the case of discrimination against HIV-positive
individuals. New initiatives were proposed to enhance the quality of living of individuals
infected with HIV. Additionally, the Centers for Disease Control announced their willingness
to implement HIV testing as a routine procedure in medical facilities, together with the
demand of mandatory screening for the infection among at least some groups of specialists.
As obligatory testing is not supported by the law and is an ethically controversial procedure,
such initiatives have been faced with strong opposition. In the history of preventing further
spread of the disease there have been many similar policies granting support for medical care
and social work. However, due to lack of proper funding and attention, some layers of
society do not get proper support. Local, state, and federal HIV/AIDS policies and
regulations, the historical underfunding of HIV/AIDS programs, the lack of mental health
coverage in HIV/AIDS policies, and limited access to care that promotes health care
disparities--all find HIV/AIDS as the quintessential social work practice issue (Kaplan,
Tomaszewski, & Gorin, 2004, p. 157). As it was found that women are severely vulnerable
in coping with abusive behavior of their partners, poverty, and lack of employment, the
absence of psychological support makes them a primary target for the disease. The problems

HIV AMONG HETEROSEXUAL WOMEN IN THE USA

is especially burning within urban settings where the quantity of social workers cannot satisfy
growing needs for support of vulnerable women.
There are several reasons for the increase of the contamination rates among
heterosexual women. As data states, the most risky group is African American women who
mostly live in impoverished neighborhoods. Poverty, abusive behavior, lack of access to
medical care, and low self-esteem leave women few choices with which to protect their
bodies. It is important to recognize that a lack of effective social work and psychological
help, especially in poor areas of big cities enable the problem to grow every year.
Misconceptions about the nature of the disease, creates a barrier to diligently finding
resources and support for heterosexual women infected with HIV. As the number of cases is
growing, it is crucial to investigate the problem deeper to defend against the further spread of
AIDS.

HIV AMONG HETEROSEXUAL WOMEN IN THE USA

References
Cole, J., Logan, T. K., Shannon, L. (2008). Self-Perceived risk of HIV among women with
protective orders against male partners. Health and Social Work, 33(4), 287-298.
doi: 10.1093/hsw/33.4.287
Jones-DeWeever, A. A. (2005). Saving ourselves: African American women and the
HIV/AIDS crisis. Harvard Journal of African American Public Policy, 11, 79-87.
Kaplan, L. E., Tomaszewski, E., Gorin, S. (2004). Current trends and the future of HIV/AIDS
services: A social work perspective. Health and Social Work, 29(2), 153-160.
Retrieved from http://hsw.oxfordjournals.org/content/29/2/153.full.pdf+html
Kerr, D. L. (1991). Women with AIDS and HIV Infection. Journal of School Health, 61(3),
139-140.
Kimberly, J. A., Serovich, J. M., Greene, K. (1995). Disclosure of HIV-Positive status: Five
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http://www.jstor.org/stable/585531
Longmore, M. A., Johnson, W. L., Manning, W. D., & Giordano, P. C. (2013). HIV testing
among heterosexual young adults: The influence of partners' risk behaviors and
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National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention. (2010). HIV
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