07-403 Practical 3 - Soil Mechanics II Laboratory

January 22, 2003

Consolidation Test
Note that for a clay material, a consolidation test usually takes several weeks. For this
exercise, a demonstration on sample preparation will be performed and then youll be
asked to perform and record the measurements for one load increment of an ongoing
consolidation test.

Introduction
Consolidation is the process of time-dependent settlement of saturated clayey soil when
subjected to increased loading. The following laboratory procedure is for a one-dimensional
consolidation test, and includes methods of calculation to obtain the void ratio-pressure curve
(e vs. log p), the preconsolidation pressure, (pc), and the coefficient of consolidation (cv).

Equipment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Consolidation test apparatus.

Specimen trimming device.
Wire saw.
Balance, sensitive to 0.01 g.
Stop watch.
Moisture can.
Oven.

The consolidation test apparatus consists of an oedometer and a loading unit. The
consolidometer can be either a floating ring oedometer meter or a fixed ring oedometer (Fig.
8-1). The floating ring oedometer usually consists of a brass ring in which the soil specimen is
placed. One porous stone is placed at the top of the specimen and another porous stone is
placed at the bottom. The soil specimen in the ring with the two porous stones is placed on a
base plate. A plastic ring surrounding the specimen fits into a groove on the base plate. Load
is applied through a loading head that is placed on the top porous stone. In the floating ring
oedometer, compression of the soil specimen occurs from the top and bottom towards the
centre.

The fixed ring oedometer consists essentially of the same components, i.e., a hollow
base plate, two porous stones, a brass ring to hold the specimen, and a metal ring that can be
fixed tightly to the top of the base plate. The ring surrounds the soil specimen. A standpipe is
attached to the side of the base plate. This can be used for permeability determination of the
soil. In the fixed ring oedometer, the compression of the specimen occurs from the top
towards the bottom.

Fig. 8-1. Schematic diagram of (a) floating ring oedometer, and (b)
fixed ring oedometer.

The specifications for the loading devices of the consolidation unit vary depending on
the manufacturer. Fig. 8-2 shows a typical loading device.
During the consolidation test, when load is applied to a soil specimen, the nature of
variation of side friction between the surrounding brass ring and the specimen are different
for the fixed ring and the floating ring oedometer (Fig. 8-3). In most cases, a side friction of
10% of the applied load is a reasonable estimate.

Procedure
1. Prepare a soil specimen for the test. The specimen is prepared by trimming an undisturbed
natural sample collected from the field. For classroom instructional purposes, a specimen
can be molded in the laboratory.
2. Collect some excess soil that has been trimmed in a moisture can for moisture content
determination.
3. Determine the weight of the consolidation ring.
4. Place the soil specimen in the consolidation ring. Record the size of the specimen (sample
diameter and height).
5. Determine the weight of the consolidation ring and the specimen.
6. Saturate the lower porous stone on the base of the oedometer.

Fig. 8-2. Consolidation loading assembly with a leverarm ratio for loading of 1:10.

Fig. 8-3. Nature of variation of soil-ring friction per unit contact areas
in (a) fixed ring oedometer, and (b) floating ring oedometer.

7. Place the soil specimen in the ring over the lower porous stone.
8. Place the upper porous stone on the specimen in the ring.
9. Attach the top ring to the base of the oedometer.
10. Add water to the oedometer to submerge the soil and keep it saturated. In the case of the
fixed ring oedometer, the outside ring (attached to the top of the base) and the stand pipe
connection attached to the base should be kept full with water. This needs to be done for
the entire period of the test.
11. Place the oedometer in the loading device.
12. Attach the vertical deflection dial gauge to measure the compression of soil. It should be
fixed in such a way that the dial is at the beginning of its release run. The dial gauge used
should be calibrated to read as 1 small div = 0.0025 mm.
13. Apply load to the specimen such that the magnitude of pressure, p, on the specimen is 4
kN/m2. Take the vertical deflection dial gauge reading at regular time intervals, t, counted
from the time of the load application (this may sometimes be done automatically using a
computerized data logging system).

14. When the displacement readings appear to reach an equilibrium, add more load to the
specimen such that the total magnitude of pressure on the specimen becomes 12.5 kN/m2.
Take the vertical dial gauge readings at similar time intervals as used in Step 13.
15. Repeat Step 14 for soil pressure magnitudes of 25, 50, 100 and 200 kN/m2.
16. At the end of the test, unload the sample by removing the weights in the same order as
they were added. In between each unload interval, allow the sample displacements to
reach an approximate equilibrium state. If another load cycle is planned, do not remove
the final load of 4 kN/m2.
17. After all planned load/unload cycles are completed, remove the soil specimen and
determine its moisture content.

Calculation and Graph

The calculation procedure for the test can be explained with reference to Table 8-1, and Figs.
8-4, 8-5 and 8-6, which show the laboratory test results for a light brown clay (these
calculations and analyses may be also performed using a spreadsheet if the data is logged
automatically by a computer).
1. Collect all the time vs. vertical displacement data, for each load/unload increment, in a
spreadsheet. Table 8-1 shows the results of a pressure increase from p = 2 ton/ft2 to p+p
= 4 ton/ft2 (or in SI metric, from p =192 kN/m2 to p+p = 384 kN/m2).
2. Determine the time for 90% primary consolidation, t90, from each set of time vs. vertical
displacement dial readings (i.e. for each load/unload interval). An example of this is
shown in Fig. 8-4, which is a plot of the results of vertical dial reading vs. time given in
Table 8-1. Draw a tangent AB to the initial consolidation curve. Measure the length BC.
Plot the point D such that the length of CD = 1.15 times the length BC. Join AD. The
abscissa of the point of intersection of the line AD with the consolidation curve will
give t 90 . In Fig. 8-4, t 90 = 4.75 min., so t90 = (4.75)2 = 22.56 min. This technique is
referred to as the square-root-of-time-fitting method (Taylor, 1942).

Fig. 8-4. Plot of dial reading vs. time for the test
results given in Table 8-1. Determination of t90 by
square-root-of-time method.

Table 8-1. Example time vs. vertical displacement data sheet for a consolidation test.

3. Note that the same procedure, as described in Step 2, is often repeated for the time at 50%
primary consolidation, i.e. t50. For laboratory demonstration purposes, this step is optional.
4. On a new spreadsheet, organize your data so that you have columns giving the
load/pressure interval, vertical displacement (or final dial reading), and fitting times, t90,
obtained in Step 2.
5. Determine the % strain for each load/unload interval.

6. Calculate the coefficient of consolidation, cv, from t90 for each load interval as:
cv =

Tv(90%) H 2
t 90

where: Tv = time factor (e.g. T90 = 0.848)

H = maximum length of drainage path
(= Ht(av) / 2 if the specimen is drained at top and bottom).
7. Plot a semi-logarithmic graph of vertical strain vs. effective consolidation stress.
Remember that effective stress is plotted on the log scale, and vertical strain on the linear
scale.

8. Similarly, plot the coefficient of consolidation, cv, vs. effective consolidation stress. An
example plotting void ratio instead of vertical strain is shown in Fig. 8-5. Note: The plot
has a curved upper portion and, after that, e vs. log p has a linear relationship.

Fig. 8-5. Plot of void ratio and the coefficient of consolidation

against pressure for a light brown clay.

9. Determine the preconsolidation pressure, pc. The procedure can be explained with the aid
of the e-log p graph drawn in Fig. 8-6 (Casagrande, 1936). First, determine point A, which
is the point on the plot that has the smallest radius of curvature. Draw a horizontal line
AB. Draw a line AD, which is the bisector of the angle BAC. Project the straight-line
portion of the plot backwards to meet line AD at E. The pressure corresponding to point E
is the preconsolidation pressure. In Fig. 8-6, pc = 1.6 ton/ft2 (or 153 kN/m2).

Fig. 8-6. Casagrande construction for determining the preconsolidation stress.

General Comments
The magnitude of the compression index Cc (determined when analyzing consolidation test
results using the void ratio instead of vertical strain), varies from soil to soil. Many
correlations for Cc have been proposed in the past for various types of soils. A summary of
these correlations is given by Rendon-Herrero (1980). Following is a list of some of these
correlations.

Correlation

Region of Applicability

Cc = 0.007 (LL - 7)
Cc = 0.009 (LL - 10)
Cc = 1.15 (e0 - 0.27)
Cc = 0.0046 (LL - 9)
Cc = 0.208e0 + 0.0083

Remolded clay
Undisturbed clays
All clays
Brazilian clays
Chicago clays

Note: LL = liquid limit; e0 = in situ void ratio

Note that for a clay material, a consolidation test usually takes several weeks. For this exercise,
a demonstration on sample preparation will be performed and then youll be asked to perform
and record the measurements for one load increment of an ongoing consolidation test.

Falling Head Permeability Test

Note that the permeameter made available for this experiment can also be used to perform a
consolidation-type test on dry/wet sand. As such, a series of load-unload cycles will first be
performed on the dry sand sample (as shown in the program on the first page), before
performing the falling-head permeability test (also see supplement at the end of this section).

Introduction
The rate of flow of water through a soil specimen of cross-sectional area, A, based on Darcys
law, can be expressed as:
q = kiA
where: q = flow in unit time;
k = coefficient of permeability;
i = hydraulic gradient.
For coarse sands, the value of the coefficient of permeability may vary from 1 to 0.001
cm/s, and for fine sand it may be in the range of 0.01 to 0.001 cm/s.
The coefficient of permeability of sands can be easily determined in the laboratory
following one of two different methods the constant head test, and the falling head test. The
following experimental procedure describes the latter, the falling head permeability test.

Equipment
1.
2.
3.
4.

Falling head permeameter.

Balance, sensitive to 0.1 g.
Thermometer.
Stop watch.

Falling Head Permeameter

A schematic diagram of a falling head permeameter is shown in Fig. 9-1. The falling
head permeameter consists of a specimen tube, the top of which, is connected to a burette by
plastic tubing. The specimen tube and burette are held vertically by clamps from a stand. The
bottom of the specimen tube is connected to a plastic funnel by a plastic tube. The funnel is
held vertically by a clamp from another stand. A scale is also fixed vertically to this stand.

Fig. 8-1. Schematic diagram of falling head permeability test setup.

Procedure
1. Take the weight of the specimen holder, including the porous stones (W1).
2. Slip the bottom porous stone into the specimen holder and cover with a piece of filter
paper.
3. Measure the height that the sand interval will reach in the specimen holder.
4. Pour oven-dried sand into the specimen holder in small layers, and compact it by vibration
or using a tamper.
5. When the height of the sample is at the top of the containing ring, place the top porous
stone, with filter paper, to rest firmly on the specimen.
6. Place a spring or load on the top porous stone, if necessary.
7. Determine the weight of the assembly (W2).
8. Re-measure the height of the compacted sand specimen in the holder.
9. Assemble the permeameter near a water source and drain, as shown in Fig. 8-1.
10. Supply water, using a plastic tube from the water inlet to the burette. The water will flow
from the burette to the specimen and then to the funnel. Check to see that there is no leak.
Remove all air bubbles.

11. Allow the water to flow for some time in order to saturate the specimen. When the funnel is
full, water will flow out of it into the sink.
12. Using the pinch cock or valve, close the flow of water through the specimen. The pinch
cock/valve is located on the plastic pipe connecting the bottom of the specimen to the
funnel.
13. Measure the head difference, h1 (mm). Note: do not add any more water to the burette.
14. Open the pinch cock. Water will flow through the specimen and then out of the funnel.
Record time (t) with a stop watch until the head difference is equal to h2, in mm. Close the
flow of water through the specimen, using the pinch cock.
15. Determine the volume (V) of water that is drained from the burette in cm3.
16. Add more water to the burette to make another run. Repeat steps 13, 14 and 15. However,
h1 and h2 should be changed for each run.
17. Record the temperature, T, of the water in C.

Calculation
1. The permeability, k, is calculated with an attempt to account for the variability in downward
hydraulic gradients:
h
a l0
k =
ln 1 [cm/s]
A t
h2

where:

a = cross-section area of burette (0.77 cm2)

l0 = height of sample [cm]
A = cross-sectional area of sample [cm2]
t = test time [s]
h1 = water height at beginning of test [cm]
h2 = water height at end of test [cm]

The values for a, l0 and A remain constant during the test:

c=

A
l0 a

[cm-1].

Thus:
h
1
k =
ln 1 [cm/s].
ct
h2

Calculate c for the test equipment used in your experiments.

2. Plot the test results (t vs. ln[h1/h2]) as shown in Fig. 8.2. Determine the angle, , made by
the test data points. By finding the angle of the line one obtains the product:

tan = k c [s-1].

Fig. 8-2. Determination of factor.

3. Knowing and c, calculate k.

General Comments
The flow equations presented herein are based on Darcys law, which may be expressed as:
v = ki
where:

v = discharge velocity.

Darcys law is valid when the flow of water through the pore spaces of the soil is laminar.
However, for very coarse sands and gravels, a turbulent flow of water can be expected. In such
cases Darcys law is not valid and the hydraulic gradient, i, can be expressed as :
i = av + bv2
where:

a and b = constants.

Falling Head Permeability Test Supplement

Falling Head Permeability Test Data Sheet

Direct Shear Test on Sand

Note that for this experiment, we will not be using the computer/servo-controlled testing
machine as outlined in these procedures. Instead, more simplified manual devices will be
used. The theory and calculations given in the following sections are applicable, however
also check the supplementary notes included at the end.

Introduction
The shear strength of a soil is typically expressed through the Coulomb strength criterion:
= c + tan
where:

= shear strength;
c = cohesion;
= effective normal stress;
= angle of friction of sand.

However, in the case of a clean sand (i.e. one in which there is no clay or fines), cohesion is
not present and the Coulomb relationship simplifies to:
= tan
The angle of friction, , is a function of the relative density of compaction of sand, grain
size, shape, and distribution in a given soil mass. The general range of the angle of friction of
sand with relative density is shown in Fig. 10-1.

Equipment
1. Direct shear test machine (strain-controlled).
2. Balance, sensitive to 0.1 g.
3. Large glass evaporating dish.
4. Tamper (for compacting sand in the direct shear box).
5. Spoon.

Fig. 10-1. Range of the variation of the angle of

friction of sand with relative density of compaction.

Fig. 10-2 shows a direct shear test machine. It mainly consists of a direct shear box,
which is split into two halves (i.e. top and bottom) and holds the soil specimen, a proving ring
to measure the horizontal load applied to a specimen; two dial gauges (one horizontal and one
vertical) to measure the deformation of the soil during the test; and a yoke by which a vertical
load can be applied to the soil specimen. A horizontal load to the top half of the shear box is
applied by a motor and gear arrangement. In a strain-controlled unit, the rate of movement of
the top half of the shear box can be controlled.
Fig. 10-3 shows the schematic diagram of the shear box. The shear box is split into two
halves - top and bottom. The top and bottom halves of the shear box can be held together by
two vertical pins. There is a loading head that can be slipped from the top of the shear box to
rest on the soil specimen inside the box. There are also three vertical screws and two
horizontal screws on the top half of the shear box.

Fig. 10-2. A direct shear test machine.

Fig. 10-3. Schematic diagram of a direct shear testing box.

Procedure
1. Remove the shear box assembly. Back off the three vertical and two horizontal screws.
Remove the loading head. Insert the two vertical pins to keep the two halves of the shear
box together.
2. Weigh some dry sand in a large glass dish. Fill the shear box with sand in small layers. A
tamper may be used to compact the sand layers. The top of the compacted specimen should
be about 6 mm below the top of the shear box. Level the surface of the sand specimen.
Now determine the weight of the sand left in the glass dish. The difference between the
initial and final weights of sand is the weight of the sand in the shear box (W).
3. Determine the dimensions of the soil specimen (i.e., length, width, and height of the
specimen).
4. Slip the loading head down from the top of the shear box to rest on the soil specimen.
5. Put the shear box assembly in place in the direct shear machine.
6. Apply the desired normal load, N, on the specimen. This can be done by hanging dead
weights on the vertical load yoke. The top crossbars will rest on the loading head of the
specimen, which, in turn, rests on the soil specimen.
Note: In the equipment shown in Fig. 10-2, the weights of the hanger, the loading head, and
the top half of the shear box may already be accounted for (i.e. tared). With other loading
apparatuses, if the tare weights are not provided, the normal load should be calculated as N
= load hanger + weight of yoke + weight of loading head + weight of top half of the shear
box).
7. Remove the two vertical pins (which were inserted in Step 1 to keep the two halves of the
shear box together).
8. Advance the three vertical screws that are located on the side walls of the top half of the
shear box. This is done to separate the two halves of the box. The space between the two

halves of the box should be slightly larger than the largest grain size of the soil specimen
(by visual observation).
9. Set the loading head by tightening the two horizontal screws located on the top half of the
shear box. Now back off the three vertical screws. After doing this there will be no
connection between the two halves of the shear box except the soil.
10. Attach the horizontal and vertical dial gauges (0.01 mm/small division) to the shear box to
measure the displacements during the test.
11. Apply horizontal load, S, to the top half of the shear box. The rate of shear displacement
should be between 0.5 to 2.5 mm/min. For every tenth small division displacement in the
horizontal dial gauge, record the readings of the vertical dial gauge and the proving ring
dial gauge (which measures horizontal load, S). Continue this until after:
(a) the horizontal load gauge reading reaches a maximum and then falls, or
(b) the horizontal load gauge reading reaches a maximum and then remains constant.
Note: When a servo-controlled system is used, data recording is typically automated and
will therefore be provided in the form of computer generated output.

Calculation
Referring to test Data Sheet, the calculations can be done as follows:
Note: Again, as stated above, if a servo-controlled system is used, data recording is also
typically automated and will therefore be provided in the form of computer generated output.
Therefore, some of the following calculations may not be necessary.
1. Determine the dry unit weight of specimen, d:
d =
where:

W
W
or
LBH
V

W = weight of the specimen;

L, B, and H = length, width, and height of the specimen;
V = volume of specimen (if otherwise provided for).

2. Determine the void ratio of the specimen, e:

e=
where:

Gs
-1
d

Gs = specific gravity of soil solids (for sand assume 2.65);

= unit weight of water.

3. Determine the normal effective stress on the specimen, :

=

N
LB

4. The horizontal and vertical displacement dial gauge readings are obtained from the test
(Columns 1 and 2 in the test Data Sheet).

5. For each set of horizontal and vertical displacement dial gauge readings, record the shear
force (if provided by the servo-controlled loading unit).
6. If necessary (again, depending on the degree of automation), calculate the shear stress as:
=

shear force
S
=
area of specimen
LB

Note: If several tests are performed using varying normal loads, then a separate data sheet has
to be used for each test (i.e. for each nominal stress, ).

Graph
1. Plot a graph of shear stress, , vs. horizontal displacement (as shown in Fig. 10-4). Below
this plot, using the same horizontal scale, plot a graph of vertical displacement vs.
horizontal displacement. Determine the shear stresses at failure, , from the shear stress vs.
horizontal displacement graph (as shown in Fig. 14-4).

Fig. 10-4. Plot of and vertical displacement vs.

horizontal displacement for a direct shear test on sand.
2. Plot a graph of shear strength, , vs. normal stress, . This graph will be a straight line
passing through the origin. Fig. 10.5 shows such a plot for a sand where three different
normal stresses were tested for. The angle of friction of the soil can be determined from the
slope of the straight line plot of vs. ' as:

= tan 1

Fig. 10-5. Plot of vs. and the determination of the

friction angle, , for a direct shear test on sand.

General Comments
Typical values of the drained angle of friction, , for sands are given below.
Soil Type

I ()

Sand: Round-grained
Loose
Medium
Dense

28-32
30-35
34-38

Sand: Angular-grained
Loose
Medium
Dense

30-36
34-40
40-45

Direct Shear Test Supplement

Area of shear plane (flaeche schlitten): ________________________________

Gewicht schlitten: ___________________________

Gewichte
(g)

Gewichte +
Schlitten
(g)

Normal Force
(N)

Normal Stress
(kPa)

Shear force
(N)

Shear Stress
(kPa)

Area of shear plane (flaeche schlitten): ________________________________

Gewicht schlitten: ___________________________

Gewichte
(g)

Gewichte +
Schlitten
(g)

Normal Force
(N)

Normal Stress
(kPa)

Shear force
(N)

Shear Stress
(kPa)