Viruses, Bacteria,

Protists and Fungi

Module Two: Life at a
Molecular, Cellular and
Tissue Level
Paper One

Overview
Owing to evolution, we have a large diversity of life
on planet Earth. The earliest organisms that were
thought to have developed were viruses, protists,
bacteria and fungi. These are the organisms we will
be focussing on. They:
Are an extremely diverse group found in virtually all of the
planets environments.
Occur in vast numbers.
Vary in size. Some are micro-organisms (microbes) while
others are macro-organisms (e.g. fungi and some algae).
Can be acellular (fungi) or cellular (bacteria, protists,
fungi)
Cellular forms can be prokaryotes (bacteria) or eukaryotes
(protists and fungi)
Unicellular, or form colonies of similar cells, or are made

 Micro-organisms can be useful.

Pathogenic/non-pathogenic:
Pathogenic (disease-causing), i.e. germs
Non-pathogenic (harmless to plants and animals).

Viruses
Viruses can infect animals, plants and even bacteria.
Viruses are not included in the major plant kingdoms.
Viruses were discovered after bacteria, as they are
smaller and can only be seen by an electron
microscope.
In 1900, a Dutch scientist became the first to discover
and investigate viruses. He did experiments on
tobacco plants suffering from mosaic disease.
The word virus is Latin, meaning poison.
In 1940, more experiments could be carried out due to
the development of the electron microscope.

Viruses:
Characteristics

Exist in two distinct states: a virus (when active) and a

virion (when dormant and not in contact with a host cell).
Can also remain dormant within an organism (latency).
A viriod (NOT VIRION) is an infectious RNA particle that
resembles a virus but is smaller.
Are not really living: they dont respire, eat, excrete, grow
or move on their own.
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites and can only
survive inside the cells.
Can only reproduce within a living cell, or when the viral
nucleic acids use the host cell material to replicate.
Associated with disease. After the virus leaves the host
cell, the host cell is destroyed.

Viruses: Structure
envelop
e

DNA/RN
A

Capsid

A virus is acellular, i.e. it is NOT

a cell as it has no nucleus,
cytoplasm or organelles.
Viruses have a simple structure
consisting of a core of DNA or
RNA, but not both. The
DNA/RNA is not contained in a
nuclear membrane.
The nucleic acid is surrounded
by a protein coat or capsid,
In some viruses, the capsid is
covered by an envelope of a
lipid bilayer.

Viruses: Structure
Viruses can have different shapes:
Polyhedral
cubical
e.g. adenovirus
Helical
spiral cylinder
e.g. tobacco virus
Complex
tadpole-like
e.g. bacteriophage

Viruses: Life Cycle

1) Adsorption
Virus approaches a cell.

2) Penetration
Virus attaches to the cell, injecting
nucleic acid into the cell. Capsid
left outside cell.

3) Latent phase
Virus multiplies its nucleic acid
using materials from the host cell.

4) Lysis
Protein coats form around strands
of nucleic acid. The cell releases
viruses.

Viruses: Effects on Body

Host cells are affected in three ways:
The host cells may be destroyed. They may swell and
burst, as with nerve cells infected with the rabies virus.
The host cells may not be able to function correctly, e.g.
ciliated epithelial cells infected with the influenza virus.
The virus can interact with the host cells chromosomes
causing a mutation, e.g. warts and cancer cells.

The immune system becomes activated in order

to fight the infection. This may lead to fever,
tiredness or an opportunistic disease.

HIV, a Viral Disease

HIV/Aids is the most serious disease facing the world
today. South Africa has the highest prevalence of HIV in
the world; 18% of the adult population is infected with
HIV.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) affects the
immune system because it is specialised to infect CD4
cells (helper T lymphocytes ), which play a significant
role in immunity.
As it effects the immune system, the infected
individual is prone to many new opportunistic
diseases, which the immune system is too weak to
fight off. This can kill the individual if certain
procedures arent adhered to.

Effects of HIV
Physical effects:
Weakened immune system, resulting in fatigue, weight
loss, frequent fevers and sweats, fungal infections,
shingles (nerve disease), skin rashes and flaky skin,
diarrhoea, spots or blemishes on tongue, in mouth or
throat.
When the CD4 count is less than 200 cells/ml blood
(normal is 600-1200), it is said that the illness has
progressed to full-blown AIDS (Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome).
At this point, many viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa
are able to invade the body. Other infections could include
drug resistant TB, cancer and pneumonia as well as
memory loss, depression and other neurological disorders.

Effects of HIV
Economic Effects
The affected family will lose money as the ill person may be
unable to work, for the travel costs to clinics and dispensaries
and burial costs.
The country loses money as many productive people are sick
and unable to work. The government has to spend money on
medication as well as maintaining health facilities and staff.
In countries which are badly affected by HIV/AIDS, such as
ours, such costs can slow down economic growth.

Emotional Effects
Feelings of depression, loneliness and ostracism as there is
often a stigma attached to HIV/AIDS.
Families are being destroyed. Orphaned children may become
heads of houses or would have to live with other family.

Management of HIV
Awareness of ones HIV status is the first step.
Treatment with a combination of anti-retrovirals
(ARVs).This doesnt cure HIV but slows down viral
replication, allowing the immune system to recover and
helping the individual to feel healthy again.
Monitoring the viral load (amount of HIV in ones blood)
enables medical staff to adjust the combination of ARVs.
Treat opportunistic infections immediately.
Boost the immune system.
Care for the mental and emotional health of sufferers.
Sensible financial planning.
Giving ARVs to pregnant women to reduce the chance of
infecting the baby.

Drug-resistant HIV
Drug-resistance is the ability of disease-causing
viruses to continue multiplying, despite the presence
of drugs which usually kill them.
ARVs consist of a cocktail of various classes of
drugs, specific to the stage of the disease, to attack
the viruses at different stages of its replication.
If the virus is allowed to multiply it would do so
rapidly, blocking the working of the ARVs, and
becoming drug resistant.
This is caused by not taking the drugs exactly as
prescribed, poor absorption of the ARVs or unsafe
sex with a drug-resistant HIV positive person.

Life-Cycle of HIV
1. HIV locater spikes attach to
receptor proteins of CD4 cell
2. HIV cell RNA penetrates CD4
cell, shedding protein coat.
3. RNA enters cell. Reverse
transcriptase enzyme uses a
single strand of RNA to create
a double strand of DNA,
destroying RNA.
4. Viral DNA enters nucleus,
joining with cell. It reprograms
the cell DNA to form viral RNA.
5. Cell stops normal functions,
and instead becomes a
factory, sending out replicas
of the virus.

Bacteria
Ancestors of current bacteria were unicellular microorganisms which were the first forms of life to develop on
earth, 4 billion years ago. They belong to the kingdom
Monera.
The idea of micro-organisms and pathogens which cannot
be seen with the naked eye, dates back to 400AD Rome.
Bacteria was only officially discovered in the 17th century,
after the invention of a microscope.
Bacteria are the most diverse and abundant group of
organisms on Earth. They inhabit practically all
environments on earth. Some, extremophiles, thrive in
climatic or environmental extremes, e.g. intense heat or
intense cold.
Bacteria are mostly useful, but some cause disease.

Bacteria: Characteristics
Bacteria are unicellular and are among the smallest
organisms.
In favourable conditions, bacteria will reproduce rapidly
by binary fission, an asexual process whereby one
bacteria can split into two every 10-15 minutes.
In unfavourable conditions, bacteria may survive by
becoming dormant. They form spores with a thick,
protective coat around them, which will split open in
favourable conditions.
Endospores are spores created by a small group of
bacteria. They are specialized to withstand
unfavourable conditions. They can survive for thousands
of years and can cause diseases such as tetanus and
anthrax.

Bacteria:
Characteristics

Bacteria vary in shape and can

be classified accordingly:

Spherical bacteria are called cocci

Rod-shaped bacteria are called
bacilli
Spiral shaped bacteria are called
spirilla
Comma-shaped bacteria are called
vibrios.

Can occur singly, in chains

(streptococcus) or in clumps
(staphylococcus).

Bacteria: Structure

Bacteria are unicellular and are made up of simple cells, but

can carry out all the functions of living organisms.
Have a rigid cell wall which consists of large peptidoglycan*
molecules.
They have a plasma membrane, which serves as a
mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum and sometimes a
chloroplast. Also controls exit and entry of materials.
As prokaryotes, they do not have a true nucleus. This is
because they do not have a true nuclear membrane and the
DNA isnt combined with the protein found in eukaryotes.
Single chromosome of DNA closed loop.
Pathogenic bacteria have a waxy capsule.
Some bacteria have flagella to enable them to move around.

Bacteria: Effects on Body

Pathogenic bacteria infect our bodies in order to
get food.
They may:
Destroy body cells which are then used as a
source of food.
Absorb material directly from body fluids such as
blood.
Release harmful substances, called toxins. Toxins
may:
Cause symptoms like a rash or a high temperature.
Block metabolic pathways in the host cells which can
have a devastating effect on the body.

Tuberculosis
TB is a chronic infection caused by myocardium
tuberculosis, aka the TB bacillus. It is covered in a waxy
layer which protects it from drying out, heat, and being
destroyed by the immune system.
It affects all organs, including the brain and bones, but
especially the lungs. This is called pulmonary
tuberculosis.
It is highly contagious and is spread by moisture droplets.
After infection one of the following might occur:
If the person has a strong immune system, the infection would be
contained. It will be walled off and can lie dormant for years. The
person will display little/no symptoms of TB.
If the person has a weak immune system, the bacilli will multiply
further and within four to six weeks, the individual will be ill with
pulmonary TB.

Effects of Tuberculosis
The sufferer feels tired and weak. They may cough
up blood, lose weight rapidly, and have fevers and
night sweats.
The patient could lose earnings while ill and unable
to work.
The government has to cover the cost of
medication, clinics and medical staff.
There is a stigma attached to this disease. Thus, an
infected person could feel ostracized and lonely.
If left untreated, a person could infect on average
between 10-15 people each year.

Treatment of TB
TB can be cured by an anti-biotic which is free and
easily available. The treatment is a six-month regime,
known as DOTS (Directly Observed Therapy, Short
Course).
The patients are carefully monitored to ensure they
take the full course of antibiotics. Within days of
starting the treatment, the patient will be unable to
infect others.
Many patients stop taking medication when they start
to feel better. As a result:
illness is prolonged
the patient becomes infectious again
they can develop multi-drug-resistant TB, which is difficult to
treat and can be fatal.

Management of TB
Areas most affected by TB are poverty stricken and
overcrowded. Malnutrition and bad sanitation
exacerbate the situation.
To prevent the spread of TB:
screen those at risk
treat the infected ASAP
reduce overcrowding, bad sanitation and malnutrition

Quality education and information about TB must be

given out via schools, clinics, pamphlets, posters etc.
Health care workers must be passionate, trained and
well-equipped.
People should be immunised against TB with the BCG
vaccine.

Uses of Bacteria*
Bacteria can be used to:
Replace pesticides
Degrade herbicides
Eat or neutralize toxic waste
Synthesise riboflavin
Decompose sewage waste
Produce food by fermentation processes
Make probiotics
Separate the fibres of jute, hemp and flax in
preparation for making sacks and ropes.

Protista
The Protista do not form part of any other kingdom.
They share the following characteristics:
All are eukaryotic (have a true nucleus)
All live in moist environments as they have no means of
preventing themselves from drying out.

However, there is a lot of variety in this group. The

following characteristics are variable:
Can be unicellular or multicellular
Can be microscopic or over 100 metres long
Can be heterotrophs or autotrophs.

The Protista Kingdom is grouped into the following

subcategories:
Plant-like protista
Animal-like protista

Plant-like Protista
Plant-like Protista are known as algae.
Algae are simple, aquatic eukaryotes (have true nuclei)
Contain chlorophyll. They photosynthesis, thus they are
autotrophic.
Release large chains of oxygen during photosynthesis.
Mostly free-floating but some, e.g. kelp, are attached.
Can be unicellular: e.g. diatoms, or multicellular: e.g.
seaweeds.
Usually reproduce asexually.
Grouped into: green algae, brown algae, red algae,
diatoms and dinoflagellates.

Plant-like Protista
Algae can be divided into the following groups:
Green algae
e.g. spirogyra (slime found in fresh water) and green
seaweeds (found in shallow water for photosynthesis)

Brown algae,
e.g. kelp (found in deep water)

Red algae,
e.g. red seaweeds (found in deep water)

Diatoms
microscopic, unicellular algae whose cell walls contain
silica.

Dinoflagellates
microscopic, unicellular algae with flagella. Found in
surface waters.

Animal-like Protista
All animal-like protista, or protozoa, are:
Unicellular.
Heterotrophs.
They cannot make their own food. Some kinds engulf
their food, e.g. Amoeba, while others absorb it directly
through their cell membranes, e.g. plasmodium.

Swim around actively looking for food.

Groups consist of: amoeboids, cilliates,
flagellates, parasitic.

Malaria
Malaria is a chronic, life-threatening parasitic
disease transmitted through a bite of a female
Anopheles mosquito. The mosquito acts as a vector.
It affects mainly poor countries as the mosquitoes
thrive in tropical environments.
In 1880, scientists discovered it originates from a
unicellular protozoan called Plasmodium.
Plasmodium is carried in the salivary glands of the
mosquito.

Effects of Malaria
Physical effects:
Flu-like. Fever, chills, headache, muscle ache, vomiting,
tiredness, anaemia, brain disease, kidney failure.

Can result in the destruction of red blood cells

(anaemia) or clogging of capillaries surrounding
the brain (cerebral malaria), which results in
death.
Can be costly to individuals and government,
impeding economic growth.

Treatment of Malaria
Treat the illness:
with a multi-drug called Coartem.
It contains sweet wormwood which is an important
natural herb.
It is unfortunately quite expensive.
It is a 3 day course.

Kill the mosquitoes:

insecticide-treated mosquito nets act as a physical
barrier and actively kill the mosquitoes.
Spraying with DDT, a repellent. This is, however, harmful
to the environment.

Economic Uses for Algae*

Extracts from algae can be used as the following:
Plant growth regulators.
Phycocolloids are used:
As gelling agents
As thickening and stabilizing agents
To make agar plates

Natural pigments, used as an alternative to

chemical dyes.
Nutrient extracts.
Iodine from kelp is used in mineral salt tablets.
Used in food, e.g. in sushi and in Eastern soups.
Kelp feeds harvested abalone.

Fungi
Fungi were put into a single kingdom because of
their:
Similar ecological roles i.e. theyre
decomposers of organic matter.
Similar anatomical and biochemical features.
The kingdom contains about 1 million species.

Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi are found everywhere, usually invisible to the
naked eye.
They are mostly free-living, living in the soil, air and
dead matter.
They are heterotrophs; they obtain food from other
organisms.
Most feed on dead organisms, i.e. are saprotrophic.
Some are parasitic and cause ill health e.g. thrush and
athletes foot in humans, and rust in plants.

Some live in symbiotic relationships with plants and

animals, e.g. lichen (a combination of fungi and
algae), and mycorrhizae.
Most are useful
Reproduce:

Structure of Fungi
Mostly multicellular
Multicellular fungi consist of a mass of
branched filaments (hyphae), enclosed by a
rigid cell wall of chitin and glucan.
The hypha is a multi-branched tubular cell that
could be separated or continuous.
When the fungi produce asexually they form
spore-producing bodies, e.g. mushrooms or
sporangia.

Candidiasis Thrush
Caused by Candida albicans, a yeast or fungus.
Affects the mucous membranes in the mouth
(babies) or vagina (adult females)
Makes one more vulnerable to HIV, as it affects
mucous membranes.
Can occur harmlessly in the intestine.
The immune system usually keeps this in check, but
in certain cases overgrowth may occur:
Excessive taking of antibiotics
Weak immune system due to AIDS, stress, lack of sleep,
poor diet or illness.
Warmth and moisture from tight underwear and being
obese.

Treatment of Thrush
75% of women at child-bearing age would have
suffered from this condition at least once.
Oral thrush is treated with an antifungal mouth
wash.
Vaginal yeast infections can be treated with a
topical medication.

Athletes Foot
Caused by a fungus called Tinea which grows in
damp areas.
It is quite common. It usually affects the skin
between the toes and makes the skin crack and
flake.
It feeds on keratin, found in skin cells.
Treated with dryness and an antifungal powder.

Uses of Fungi
As a food source, i.e. mushrooms.
Produce biological compounds, e.g. alcohol, plant
growth regulators and enzymes.
Produce anti-biotics, e.g. penicillin.
Control haemorrhage after birth.
Control cholesterol levels
For fermentation processes, e.g. yeast.

Uses of Micro-organisms
Most micro-organisms are extremely useful. They
can be:
Plant-degraders. Cellulose-degrading fungi and
bacteria clean up dead plant matter.
Micro-regulators of nutrients. They further break
down the nutrients left behind by scavengers.
Algae such as cyanobacteria and phytoplankton
regenerate oxygen in the atmosphere.
Transform nitrogen.
Biological control agents they control pests,
pathogens and weeds.

Symbiotic Relationships
Escherichia coli and humans
this is found in the colon and is part of the normal gut
flora.
Bacteria benefit by obtaining glucose and other nutrients
from undigested food remains in the colon.
Humans gain vitamin K2, which helps blood clotting. We
are also protected from pathogenic bacteria within the
gut.

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria and plants

bacteria converts nitrogen into useful forms for living
organisms. Lives in root nodules of legumes.
Rhizobium benefits by gaining glucose and other
nutrients as well as a favourable habitat.
Plant gains ammonia forms amino acids, which form
protein.

Symbiotic Relationships
Mycorrhizal fungi and plant roots
The fungus gets glucose.
The plant has an increased surface area, improving
nutrient uptake, as well as protection against pets and
diseases.

Immune response by Plants

Plants have an innate immune system. The infected
cells will:
Produce salicylic acid
Activate resistance genes e.g. to resist viral
replication.
Self-destruct so that the disease cannot spread.
The SA moves around the plant to activate the
immune system, making the cells become
resistant to the pathogen.
The closing of stomata can play an active role in
limiting bacterial infection.

Immune Response by Animals

First line of defence is the skin. Prevents entry of
pathogen.
The second like of defence involves two
responses.
The primary response is to prevent pathogens
from spreading, by:
Inducing inflammation (if it is a local infection)
Inducing fever (raised body temperature.)

The secondary response is to activate the

immune system.

Immune System
Essentially involves:
The destruction of the invading germs
Holding a memory of this response.
The immune processes involve two groups of
WBC:
Lymphocytes
Phagocytes

Lymphocytes
B-lymphocytes destroy germs by:
Reading the antigen on the pathogen, which tells it
that it is dangerous. There are many Blymphocytes, all specific to their own antigen.
If a B-lymphocyte recognizes its pathogen, it
replicates itself many times.
They are then stimulated to produce antibodies
which are secreted into the plasma.
The antibodies combine with antigens on the
germs surface, thus neutralizing or destroying the
pathogen. Some cause the cell to burst, others
label the germs for phagocytosis, others clump the
germs together, thus weakening them.

Lymphocytes
Some of the B-lymphocytes stay on in the lymph
glands as memory cells. If the antigen is
encountered again, the immune response will be
faster. This is the basis of immunity.
Natural immunity occurs when an attack of a
disease is prevented by antibodies and memory
cells