Concept of Ojas in Ayurveda

FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON CONCEPT
OF OJAS
By
Dr. JIRANKALGIKAR YOGESH MUKUND B.A.M.S.,

Dissertation submitted to the
Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Karnataka, Bangalore.
In the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF MEDICINE (AYURVEDA)

In
AYURVEDA SIDDHANTA
Under The Guidance of
DR. N. ANJANEYA MURTHY M.D. (AYU), Sahitya Shastry

Professor and HOD,
Department of Post Graduate Studies in Ayurveda Siddhanta,
G.A.M.C., Mysore.
Co-Guide
DR. K VENKAT SHIVUDU M.D. (Ayu)

Asst. Professor,
J.S.S. Ayurveda Medical College,
Mysore.
DEPARTMENT OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES IN AYURVEDA SIDDHANTA

GOVERNMENT AYURVEDA MEDICAL COLLEGE, MYSORE.
2008
RAJIV GANDHI UNIVERSITY OF HEALTH SCIENCES, KARNATAKA

DEPARTMENT OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES IN AYURVEDA SIDDHANTA,
GOVERNMENT AYURVEDA MEDICAL COLLEGE
MYSORE.
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this Dissertation FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON
CONCEPT OF OJAS is a bonafide and genuine research work carried out by me
under the guidance of Dr. N. Anjaneya Murthy, Professor, Department of Post
Graduate Studies in Ayurveda Siddhanta, Government Ayurveda Medical College,
Mysore.
Date:
Signature of the Candidate
Place: Mysore
Dr. Jirankalgikar Yogesh Mukund

MYSORE.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation entitled FUNDAMENTAL STUDY
ON
CONCEPT
OF
OJAS
is
bonafide
research
work
done
by
Dr.JIRANKALGIKAR YOGESH MUKUND in partial fulfilment of the

requirement for the degree of Doctor of Medicine (Ayurveda).
Date:
Signature of the Guide
Place: Mysore
Dr. N.Anjaneya Murthy

Professor and H.O.D,
Department of Post Graduate Studies In
Ayurveda Siddhanta,
Government Ayurveda Medical College,
Mysore.

MYSORE.
CERTIFICATE
ON
CONCEPT
OF
OJAS
is
bonafide
research
work
done
by

Date:
Signature of the Co-Guide
Place: Mysore
DR. K VENKAT SHIVUDU M.D.

H.O.D. & Asst. Professor,
Dept. of Ayurveda Siddhanta
Mysore.
(AYU)

MYSORE.
ENDORSEMENT BY THE HOD, PRINCIPAL /

HEAD OF THE INSTITUTION
This is to certify that the dissertation FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON

CONCEPT
OF
OJAS
is
bonafide
research
work
done
by
Dr.JIRANKALGIKAR YOGESH MUKUND under the guidance of Professor

Dr.N.Anjaneya Murthy, Department of Post Graduate Studies in Ayurveda
Siddhanta, Government Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore.
Seal & Signature of the HOD
Seal & Signature of the Principal
Dr. N. Anjaneya Murthy

Ayurveda Siddhanta,
Mysore.
Dr. Ashok D. Satpute

Principal
Government Ayurveda Medical
College, Mysore.
Date:
Date:
Place: Mysore
Place: Mysore

MYSORE.
COPY RIGHT
Declaration by the Candidate
I hereby declare that the Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences,

Karnataka shall have the rights to preserve, use and disseminate this dissertation /
thesis in print or electronic format for academic / research purpose.
Date :
Place : Mysore
Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Karnataka
Dedicated with due regards

to the sacred commemoration of my deceased
grandfather
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives me immense pleasure to acknowledge all of them who have helped/
blessed me for successful completion of this dissertation.
I owe my deepest sense of gratitude to my Honble guide Dr.N.Anjaneya
Murthy, Professor and H.O.D, Department of Post Graduate studies in Ayurveda
Siddhanta, G.A.M.C. Mysore, for his valuable suggestions, guidance, affection, care
and all sorts of help in successful completion of this study.
I am also grateful to my co-guide Dr.K. Venkat Shivudu, Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Ayurveda Siddhanta, J.S.S Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore, for his
continuous encouragement and suggestions during the course of study.
I am obliged by continuous inspiration, suggestions and guidance given by my
respected teacher Dr.Malhari Kamalakar Sirdeshpande, Assistant Professor, Dept. of
Dravya guna, Manjara Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya, Latur, Maharashtra.
I am thankful to Dr.Ashok, D. Satpute Principal, G.A.M.C. Mysore, for his
valuable support and apt suggestions.
I am thankful to my teachers Dr.T.D.Ksheresagar, Dr.S.G.Mangalgi,
Dr.Naseema Akhtar, Dr.G.Gopinath, Dr.H.M.Chandramauli, Dr.T.Balakrishna,
Dr.Shanthala Priyadarshini, Dr.Shantharam, Dr.Lancy Disuza and Dr.R.C.Maitreyae
for their timely suggestions and encouragement.
I am grateful to Dr.V.A.Chate and Dr.A.B.Katti for their special attention,
continuous support and suggestions which have very crucial role in completion of this
study. I am also thankful to all other teachers of G.A.M.C. Mysore, for their support
and suggestions.
I express my deep sense of gratitude to Vidwan Shri Gangadhara Y.Bhat,
Professor, Dept. of Naveen Nyaya, Maharajas Sanskrit College, Mysore, for his kind
support in understanding grammatical aspects of Ayurvedic literature in this course of
study.
I express my gratitude to Dr.S.M.Purshottama, Assistant Professor, Dept. of

Physiology, M.M.C and R.I., Mysore for his valuable guidelines and suggestions
during review of modern literature in this course of study.
I will like to thank Dr.Shivaramaprasad Professor and H.O.D. Dept of
P.G.Studies in Kayachikitsa, D.G.A.M.C.Gadag for his whole hearted support and
help which he rendered to me at a very crucial period.
I also thank Dr.T.Nagaraja, Dr.P.Sudhakar Reddy, Dr.Alka Jayavanth Kumar,
and Mrs.K.Leela, all my teachers from J.S.S Ayurveda Medical College for their help
and guidance during the course of the study.
I also thank Dr.Venkateshulu, Consulting cardiologist, Wockhardt hospital,
Bangalore, Dr.Rajsimha, Simha Heart Foundation, Mysore, Dr.Gorkal, Prof. and
H.O.D Dept of Physiology, J.S.S.Medical College, Mysore, Dr.Shamsundar, Prof and
H.O.D Dept of Anatomy J.S.S.Medical College, Mysore, Dr.H.B.Shashidhar,
Assistant Professor, Dept of Pathology, M.M.C and R.I, Mysore, Dr.Bimal Chajer,
Saool Heart Foundation, New Delhi, Dr.Gurudeep Singh, Dean of P.G.Studies,
S.D.M. College of Ayurveda, Hassan, Dr.D.G.Thatte, Lucknow, Dr.S.R.Joshi, Sangli,
Maharashtra, and many other experts in the field of Ayurveda as well as modern
medicine who have given their valuable suggestions during this course of study.
I extend my thanks to my seniors, Dr.Abdul Khadar and Dr.Kiran Mutanalli. I
am thankful to my classmates Dr.Savitha.R.Shenoy, Dr.K.S.D.Sharma, Dr.Soubhagya
Bilagi and Dr.H.D.Vijaylakshmi for their continuous help, encouragement and
suggestions. I also extent my thanks to my junior collogues Dr.Rajesh Bhat,
Dr.Pankaj Pathak, Dr.A.Annaporani, Dr.Aparna.K, Dr.Rameshkumar.K, Dr.Kalyani
Bhusane, Dr.Ranjithkumar Shetty and Dr. Geetha for their timely support during my
course of study. I also thank Mr. Prasad, Microdot Creators, Mysore, for his efforts in
successful and attractive presentation of this work. I extent my sense of
acknowledgement to all those persons, who have knowingly, unknowingly helped in
this course of study and also beg pardon for missing names.
ii
I will like to remember my family; my father and mother, grand father and
grand mother, my elder brother at this moment as I would not have achieved this feet
without the love , care they are bestowing on me in my life.
Finally it is benediction of God Venketeshwara that I have reached to this

stage in my life.
Date
Place : Mysore
(Dr. Jirankalgikar Yogesh Mukund)
iii
ABSTRACT
Need for the Study and Objectives
Immunological disorders are one of the biggest questions in front of medical
fraternity in this era. Immunity has been compared to bala in Ayurveda, bala being a
functional entity is karya and ojas is karana for it. Comprehensive understanding of
this concept of ojas may help to understand immunological disorders in a better way
and will brighten the perspective of treatment of these disorders.
Recent advances in
modern medicine are also needed to be reviewed for any parallel concept to ojas.
Different versions in description of ojas of various authors in Ayurvedic literature are
also needed to be analysed for better understanding.
Taking these needs into
consideration objectives was formed.
Methods
Collection, compilation, rearrangement, analysis of data from various
Ayurvedic as well as modern medicine textbooks, journals, websites was done.
Discussions with large number of scholars both from the field of Ayurveda as well as
modern medicine were also carried out.
Interpretation and Conclusion

Different versions of various authors in Ayurvedic classics regarding ojas are
not contrary to each other. Never the less their collective understanding cohesively
enrich the various aspects of concept of ojas.
Prostaglandins are having great similarities with ojas when compared on the
basis of gunas and karmas. Structural basis of immune response collectively comes
nearer to concept of ojas in perspective of immunity / bala.
Key Words
Ojas, Ayu, Prostaglandins, Bala, structural basis of immune response.
iv
CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
i iii
Abstract
iv
Introduction
01
Objectives
04
Review of Ayurvedic Literature
05
Review of Modern Literature
37
Materials and Methods
79
Discussion
82
Conclusion
117
Recommendation for Further Study
118
Summary
119
Bibliographic Reference s
120
LIST OF TABLES
T.No.
Name of the Table
Page No.
01
Showing Gunas of Ojas
11
02
Showing Karmas of Ojas
13
03
Showing Sthanas of Ojas
17
04
Showing different opinions in Ayurvedic classics about

pramana of ojas
18
05
Showing Aaharapariposhana karma according to Acharya

Charaka
19
06
Showing the Aharapariposhana Krama according to Acharya

Sushruta
20
07
Showing different views on poshana of ojas according to

various Ayurvedic classics
21
08
Showing different lakshanas of ojokshaya as per various

Authors
25
09
Showing Comparison between properties of Ojas, Madya and

Visha
27
10
Showing different concepts quoted as ojas according to various

authors
36
11
Showing various ligants and receptors of prostaglandins

with their actions
40
12
Showing major components of the innate immune system
60
13
Showing Cytokines of clinical importance and their

description
66
14
Showing Properties of human immunoglobulins (Ig)
76
15
Showing the Mahabhuta Predominance and Karmas of

Ojogunas
88
16
Showing the Summary of Gunas of Ojas
103
17
Showing Differences in ojas and bala
107
18
Showing Similarities in physico-chemical properties of

Ojas and Prostaglandins
111
19
Showing Similarities in Functions of Ojas and Prostaglandins
111
20
Showing Other Similarities in Ojas and Prostaglandins
111
21
Showing Comparison of Structural basis of Immune structures
114
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
No.
01
Name of Figure
Showing schematic representation of different layers of
Page No.
57
Immunity in human body

02
Showing schematic presentation of Immune mechanism
59
03
Showing schematic representation of complement system
64
04
Showing components of immunoglobulin
72
LIST OF FLOW CHARTS

No.
Name of Flow Chart
Page No.
01
Showing the Derivation of word Ojas from Ubje - Bale Verb
05
02
Showing the Nishpatti of Rupa Ojaha from word Ojas
06
03
Showing relation between diet and synthesis of PG and its
42
effects on human body.
vii
FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON CONCEPT

OF OJAS
By
Dr. JIRANKALGIKAR YOGESH MUKUND B.A.M.S.,

Dissertation submitted to the
Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Karnataka, Bangalore.
In the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF MEDICINE (AYURVEDA)

In
AYURVEDA SIDDHANTA
Under The Guidance of
DR. N. ANJANEYA MURTHY M.D. (AYU), Sahitya Shastry

Professor and HOD,
Department of Post Graduate Studies in Ayurveda Siddhanta,
G.A.M.C., Mysore.
Co-Guide
(Ayu)
Asst. Professor,
Mysore.

GOVERNMENT AYURVEDA MEDICAL COLLEGE, MYSORE.
2008

MYSORE.
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this Dissertation FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON
CONCEPT OF OJAS is a bonafide and genuine research work carried out by me
under the guidance of Dr. N. Anjaneya Murthy, Professor, Department of Post
Graduate Studies in Ayurveda Siddhanta, Government Ayurveda Medical College,
Mysore.
Date:
Place: Mysore

MYSORE.
CERTIFICATE
ON
CON CEPT
OF
OJAS
is
bonafide
research
work
done
by

Date:
Signature of the Guide
Place: Mysore
Dr. N.Anjaneya Murthy

Ayurveda Siddhanta,
Mysore.

MYSORE.
CERTIFICATE
ON
CONCEPT
OF
OJAS
is
bonafide
research
work
done
by

Date:
Signature of the Co-Guide
Place: Mysore

H.O.D. & Asst. Professor,
Dept. of Ayurveda Siddhanta
Mysore.
(AYU)

MYSORE.
ENDORSEMENT BY THE HOD, PRINCIPAL /

HEAD OF THE INSTITUTION
This is to certify that the dissertation FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON

CONCEPT
OF
OJAS
is
bonafide
research
work
done
by
Dr.JIRANKALGIKAR YOGESH MUKUND under the guidance of Professor

Dr.N.Anjaneya Murthy, Department of Post Graduate Studies in Ayurveda
Siddhanta, Government Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore.
Seal & Signature of the HOD
Seal & Signature of the Principal
Dr. N. Anjaneya Murthy

Ayurveda Siddhanta,
Mysore.
Dr. Ashok D. Satpute

Principal
Government Ayurveda Medical
College, Mysore.
Date:
Date:
Place: Mysore
Place: Mysore

MYSORE.
COPY RIGHT
Declaration by the Candidate
I hereby declare that the Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences,

Karnataka shall have the rights to preserve, use and disseminate this dissertation /
thesis in print or electronic format for academic / research purpose.
Date :
Place : Mysore
Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Karnataka
Dedicated with due regards

to the sacred commemoration of my deceased
grandfather
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives me immense pleasure to acknowledge all of them who have he lped/
blessed me for successful completion of this dissertation.
I owe my deepest sense of gratitude to my Honble guide Dr.N.Anjaneya
Murthy, Professor and H.O.D, Department of Post Graduate studies in Ayurveda
Siddhanta, G.A.M.C. Mysore, for his valuable suggestions, guidance, affection, care
and all sorts of help in successful completion of this study.
I am also grateful to my co-guide Dr.K. Venkat Shivudu, Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Ayurveda Siddhanta, J.S.S Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore, for his
continuous encouragement and suggestions during the course of study.
I am obliged by continuous inspiration, suggestions and guidance given by my
respected teacher Dr.Malhari Kamalakar Sirdeshpande, Assistant Professor, Dept. of
Dravya guna, Manjara Ayurveda Mahavidyalaya, Latur, Maharashtra.
I am thankful to Dr.Ashok, D. Satpute Principal, G.A.M.C. Mysore, for his
valuable support and apt suggestions.
I am thankful to my teachers Dr.T.D.Ksheresagar, Dr.S.G.Mangalgi,
Dr.Naseema Akhtar, Dr.G.Gopinath,
Dr.H.M.Chandramauli,
Dr.T.Balakrishna,
Dr.Shanthala Priyadarshini, Dr.Shantharam, Dr.Lancy Disuza and Dr.R.C.Maitreyae

for their timely suggestions and encouragement.
I am grateful to Dr.V.A.Chate and Dr.A.B.Katti for their special attention,
continuous support and suggestions which have very crucial role in completion of this
study. I am also thankful to all other teachers of G.A.M.C. Mysore, for their support
and suggestions.
I express my deep sense of gratitude to Vidwan Shri Gangadhara Y.Bhat,
Professor, Dept. of Naveen Nyaya, Maharajas Sanskrit College, Mysore, for his kind
support in understanding grammatical aspects of Ayurvedic literature in this course of
study.
I express my gratitude to Dr.S.M.Purshottama, Assistant Professor, Dept. of

Physiology, M.M.C and R.I., Mysore for his valuable guidelines and suggestions
during review of modern literature in this course of study.
I will like to thank Dr.Shivaramaprasad Professor and H.O.D. Dept of
P.G.Studies in Kayachikitsa, D.G.A.M.C.Gadag for his whole hearted support and
help which he rendered to me at a very crucial period.
I also thank Dr.T.Nagaraja, Dr.P.Sudhakar Reddy, Dr.Alka Jayavanth Kumar,
and Mrs.K.Leela, all my teachers from J.S.S Ayurveda Medical College for their help
and guidance during the course of the study.
I also thank Dr.Venkateshulu, Consulting cardiologist, Wockhardt hospital,
Bangalore, Dr.Rajsimha, Simha Heart Foundation, Mysore, Dr.Gorkal, Prof. and
H.O.D Dept of Physiology, J.S.S.Medical College, Mysore, Dr.Shamsundar, Prof and
H.O.D Dept of Anatomy J.S.S.Medical College, Mysore, Dr.H.B.Shashidhar,
Assistant Professor, Dept of Pathology, M.M.C and R.I, Mysore, Dr.Bimal Chajer,
Saool Heart Foundation, New Delhi, Dr.Gurudeep Singh, Dean of P.G.Studies,
S.D.M. College of Ayurveda, Hassan, Dr.D.G.Thatte, Lucknow, Dr.S.R.Joshi, Sangli,
Maharashtra, and many other experts in the field of Ayurveda as well as modern
medicine who have given their valuable suggestions during this course of study.
I extend my thanks to my seniors, Dr.Abdul Khadar and Dr.Kiran Mutanalli. I
am thankful to my classmates Dr.Savitha.R.Shenoy, Dr.K.S.D.Sharma, Dr.Soubhagya
Bilagi and Dr.H.D.Vijaylakshmi for their continuous help, encouragement and
suggestions. I also extent my thanks to my junior collogues Dr.Rajesh Bhat,
Dr.Pankaj Pathak, Dr.A.Annaporani, Dr.Aparna.K, Dr.Rameshkumar.K, Dr.Kalyani
Bhusane, Dr.Ranjithkumar Shetty and Dr. Geetha for their timely support during my
course of study. I also thank Mr. Prasad, Microdot Creators, Mysore, for his efforts in
successful and attractive presentation of this work. I extent my sense of
acknowledgement to all those persons, who have knowingly, unknowingly helped in
this course of study and also beg pardon for missing names.
ii
I will like to remember my family; my father and mother, grand father and
grand mother, my elder brother at this moment as I would not have achieved this feet
without the love , care they are bestowing on me in my life.
Finally it is benediction of God Venketeshwara that I have reached to this

stage in my life.
Date
Place : Mysore
(Dr. Jirankalgikar Yogesh Mukund)
iii
ABSTRACT
Need for the Study and Objectives
Immunological disorders are one of the biggest questions in front of medical
fraternity in this era. Immunity has been compared to bala in Ayurveda, bala being a
functional entity is karya and ojas is karana for it. Comprehensive understanding of
this concept of ojas may help to understand immunological disorders in a better way
and will brighten the perspective of treatment of these disorders.
Recent advances in
modern medicine are also needed to be reviewed for any parallel concept to ojas.
Different versions in description of ojas of various authors in Ayurvedic literature are
also needed to be analysed for better understanding.
Taking these needs into
consideration objectives was formed.
Methods
Collection, compilation, rearrangement, analysis of data from various
Ayurvedic as well as modern medicine textbooks, journals, websites was done.
Discussions with large number of scholars both from the field of Ayurveda as well as
modern medicine were also carried out.
Interpretation and Conclusion

Different versions of various authors in Ayurvedic classics regarding ojas are
not contrary to each other. Never the less their collective understanding cohesively
enrich the various aspects of concept of ojas.
Prostaglandins are having great similarities with ojas when compared on the
basis of gunas and karmas. Structural basis of immune response collectively comes
nearer to concept of ojas in perspective of immunity / bala.
Key Words
Ojas, Ayu, Prostaglandins, Bala, structural basis of immune response.
iv
CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
i iii
Abstract
iv
Introduction
01
Objectives
04
Review of Ayurvedic Literature
05
Review of Modern Literature
37
Materials and Methods
79
Discussion
82
Conclusion
117
Recommendation for Furthe r Study
118
Summary
119
Bibliographic Reference s
120
LIST OF TABLES
T.No.
Name of the Table
Page No.
01
Showing Gunas of Ojas
11
02
03
Showing Karmas of Ojas

Showing Sthanas of Ojas
13
17
04
Showing different opinions in Ayurvedic classics about

pramana of ojas
18
05
Showing Aaharapariposhana karma according to Acharya

Charaka
19
06
Showing the Aharapariposhana Krama according to Acharya

Sushruta
Showing different views on poshana of ojas according to
various Ayurvedic classics
Showing different lakshanas of ojokshaya as per various
Authors
Showing Comparison between properties of Ojas, Madya and
Visha
20
10
Showing different concepts quoted as ojas according to various

authors
36
11
Showing various ligants and receptors of prostaglandins

with their actions
40
12
13
Showing major components of the innate immune system

Showing Cytokines of clinical importance and their
description
60
66
14
15
Showing Properties of human immunoglobulins (Ig)

Showing the Mahabhuta Predominance and Karmas of
Ojogunas
Showing the Summary of Gunas of Ojas
Showing Differences in ojas and bala
76
88
07
08
09
16
17
18
21
25
27
103
107
111
19
Showing Similarities in physico-chemical properties of

Showing Similarities in Functions of Ojas and Prostaglandins
20
Showing Other Similarities in Ojas and Prostaglandins
111
21
Showing Comparison of Structural basis of Immune structures
114
vi
111
LIST OF FIGURES
No.
01
Name of Figure
Showing schematic representation of different layers of
Page No.
57
Immunity in human body

02
Showing schematic presentation of Immune mechanism
59
03
Showing schematic representation of complement system
64
04
Showing components of immunoglobulin
72
LIST OF FLOW CHARTS

No.
Name of Flow Chart
Page No.
01
Showing the Derivation of word Ojas from Ubje - Bale Verb
05
02
Showing the Nishpatti of Rupa Ojaha from word Ojas
06
03
Showing relation between diet and synthesis of PG and its
42
effects on human body.
vii
INTRODUCTION
Ayurveda word literally means veda of Ayu. Word veda has various meanings
such as jnyana, labha, satta, shastra, etc. Thus Ayurveda is a science which deals
with jnyana of Ayu, methods to achieve ayu, protection of ayu etc. For this the
knowledge of ayu is a must. Ayu is anuvrutti of chetana; if there is nivruti of chetana
then it is death. Anuvrutti of chetana in other words is stated as samyoga of shareera,
indriya, satva and atma. Thus this samyoga itself is ayu and viyoga is mrutyu.
Initiation of this samyoga and maintaining it is the most important prerequisite of
human life. Without any such mechanism which initiates, maintains and protects this
samyoga life cannot exist.
Satva, atma and shareera are three pillars of life. Aatma being drashta does
not actively participate in any of body actions. All the body actions thus can be
ascribed to shareera and or manas. A regulatory mechanism which controls shareera
as well as manas independently and collectively is also an important pre-requisite for
existence of life / ayu.
All the multi cellular organisms including human beings need a mechanism
which co-ordinates the different functions of individual at the levels of systems,
tissues and cells. This communication and co-ordination between various actions/
functions in human body, complementing actions of various systems with one another
is the essence of multicellularity. Such mechanism of co-operation, communication,
regulation and sometimes complementation is also one among prerequisites for
bringing synergism in functions of human body.
Prayojana of Ayurveda is dhatu samya. This samya/homeostasis in

dehadhatus is the karya of Ayurveda. Maintenance of this homeostasis in healthy and
restoration/re-establishment of it in a diseased is to be achieved by chikitsa. External
milieu i.e. loka has its influence on internal milieu i.e. purusha. Any changes,
transformations in external milieu influence the condition of internal milieu and
enforce changes in it. This external milieu continuously undergoes changes because of
kala and is bound to influence homeostasis of internal milieu. A mechanism is
Fundamental Study on Concept of Ojas
2
essential to protect and maintain homeostasis of purusha by preventing the influence
from changes in external milieu. Sometimes factors from internal milieu itself may
reason for vitiation.
Such a mechanism is very essential for healthy life. This
mechanism in addition helps to fasten recovery of homeostasis after its derailment /

vaishamya.
These necessities/requirements for initiation, maintenance of ayu, coordination between shareera and manas and its protection from influencing harmful
factors are to be fulfilled for healthy life and longevity. For this purpose of initiation
and maintenance of these mechanisms a dravya should be adhara. Ayurveda believes
in karya karana siddhanta. These mechanisms being karyas need to have a
dravya/structural basis. Ayurveda has established the concept of ojas for this purpose.
Dehadharaka samyoga dharana, sarva cheshtasu apratighata, deha sthiti nibandhana
are few of the functions attributed to ojas.
Thus the concept of ojas has its own
importance and a very essential role extending from utpatti to mruthyu, ie., in all the
three stages of human life utpatti, sthiti and laya.
With advances in the field of applied sciences, modern medicine is also

accepting holistic nature of life. Newer and newer understandings of body
mechanisms are emerging. Newer roles of substances that were conventionally
accepted as a part of only one system in human body are emerging in this era.
Multifaceted actions of various body components are being understood and accepted
in modern medicine. This prompts or re-ascertains the quest for searching a modern
equivalent entity to ojas. A critical survey and analysis of these advances may not
only help to find an equivalent for concept of ojas but also to understand and utilize
this concept in a greater and better manner.
Among various functions of ojas one is bala poshana. Bala is karya and ojas
is karana. One of the biggest problems in front of medical fraternity in this era is
treatment of immuno-deficiency disorders. Immunity is capacity of human body to get
protected from harmful stimulus. Scope of immunology which was limited to mere
infectious diseases has evolved largely to take metabolic disorders, autoimmune
disorders, tumor immunology, and transplants of human organs under its preview.
3
This highlights the need of hour to understand concept of ojas with its all
aspects in order to elicit better understanding of these immunological diseases from
Ayurvedic perspective. This will help in strengthening chances of better treatment
options for these immunological disorders by applying Ayurvedic principles of
management.
Ojas has got a vital role not only in swasthya rakshana/protection of health but
also in achievement of extra-ordinary status of health, which is called as positive
health. A prima- facie overview of available literature on ojas in Ayurvedic classics
sometimes may lead to doubts/ambiguities by virtue of different versions available in
explanation of ojas. Sthira and sara gunas of ojas, quoting ojas as upadhatu and mala
of shukra and also shukra vishesha are few of such versions. An attempt to understand
the reason of difference in various different classics, as well as different citations of
same classic is also necessary for comprehensive understanding of concept of ojas.
Hence taking above all points into consideration an attempt is designed to

study this very important and the unique concept in Ayurveda. A literary surve y of
available Ayurvedic literature would help to create foundation for all the works on
ojas and thus a fundamental study is designed to understand concept of ojas.
This dissertation is a humble attempt to compile, analyze and represent

concept of ojas in conventional methodology of description. An attempt to find
equivalent concept from modern medicine has also been undertaken in order to
understand concept of ojas in a better way and its presentation in front of modern
world.
Thus in nutshell this study aims at understanding concept of ojas along with its
role in trividha avastatas of life, effort for better understanding of so called different
schools of thoughts, finding an equivalent from modern medicine and understanding
practical utility of this concept .
OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
1.
To understand and explain precisely the fundamental concept of ojas on the

basis of available Ayurvedic literature.
2.
To co relate different schools of thoughts about the concept of ojas in

Ayurvedic literature.
3.
To study the concept of ojas in the light of modern medical literature in an

attempt to find a parallel entity to it.
4.
To evaluate the utility of this concept in day to day practice.
REVIEW OF AYURVEDIC LITERATURE

Aarogya is the moola of for achieving dharma, artha, kama and moksha.
Protection of aarogya of a healthy person and achievement of aarogya in a diseased
individual is Aim of Ayurveda. The concept of ojas has a very important role to play
in achievement of this aim. Ayurvedic Samhitas are having vast material related to
concept of ojas but it is scattered in various different contexts. Compilation of these
various references collectively is necessary for comprehensive description of ojas.
Thus this chapter aims to compile available literature on ojas and represent it in
conventionally accepted form of description.
Utpatti of word Ojas

The word Ojas is derived from dhatu Ubje-Bale. By aadesha of sutra
Ubje-bale balopascha ll lopa of Ba-kara takes place. Now the dhatu becomes
Uj. While making krudanta by Asun pratyaya in Unadi prakriya; by aadesha of
sutra Sarvadhatubhyo asun ll and word becomes Uj+Asun. Now by aadesha of
Sarvadhatukardhadhatukayoho ll U-Kara undergoes vruddhi and becomes OKara.
Now
word
becomes
Oj+Asun.
By
aadesha
of
sutra
Upadesheajnanunasikaha ll lopa of U-kara takes place. By aadesha of sutra

Halyantam ll lopa of Na-kara takes place and word now becomes Oj+As =
Ojas. This process can be shown in a flow chart as follows.1
Flow Chart 1 Showing the Derivation of word Ojas from Ubje - Bale Verb
Ubje Bale
Ubje bale balopascha ll
Ba-kara lopa
Uj
Sarvadhatukayoho asun ll
Asun Pratyaya
Uj + Asun
Sarvadhatukardhadhatukayoho ll
Gunavruddhi of U
Oj + Asun
Halantyam ll
Na-kara lopa
Oj + As
Upadesheajanunasikaha ll
Krut taddshitasamascha ll
U-kara lopa
Ojas
Krudanta pratipadika of Ubje-Bale
6
Nishpatti of rupa Ojaha from word Ojas
Ojas is Sa karnata (i.e. ending with consonent sa) word in
napumsakalinga (neutral gender). Ojaha is prathama ekvachana of this word. In
prathma ekvachana pratyaya of napumsakalinga is Sun. So now word is Ojas +
Sun. By aadesha of sutraSwamolruk ll lopa of Sun pratyaya takes place and
word becomes Ojas. By aadesha of sutra Susajusho ruhu ll padanta Sa-kara
gets converted into refa i.e. Ra-kara and word becomes Ojar. By aadesha of
sutra Kharavasanayoho Visarjaneeyaha ll padanta khar pratyaya is converted to
visarga and thus Ojaha rupa is formed. This process can be shown in a flow chart
as follows.2
Flow Chart 2. Showing the Nishpatti of Rupa Ojaha from word Ojas
Ojas
Prathma Ekvachana
Sun pratyaya
Ojas + Sun
Swamolruk ll
Lopa of Sun pratyaya in

Napumsakalinga
Ojas
Sasajusho rahu ll
Padanta Sa karasya rakara

Ojar
Kharavasanayohovisarjaneeyaha
Prathama eka vachana of word Ojas
Visarga of rakara
Ojaha
Other words related to Ojas

Ojaha It is a karant pumlingi shabda which means odd numbers.
Oja It is a kavyaguna which means in formation of large samasas, composite

words/samasika padas not only loose their own meaning but also collectively lead
towards one another meaning. This guna is called Ojoguna of kavya and quoted as
atma of kavya.3
7
Different meanings of word Ojas
1) Meaning of the sutra Ubje-bale balopascha is ubja dhatu when used in
meaning of bala then lopa of bakara takes place. Ojas word is formed by this
process so it has to be used in meaning bala.
2) Another meaning is Ubje-Aarjave. Word Aarjava is originated from Ruju
word which means sahaja in this context.
So Ubj-arjave means
Sahaja/Prakruta/ avaikarika bala.4

3) Medini kosha gives meanings of word ojas as
a. Deeptau
b. Avashtambhe
c. Prakashe
d. Balayoho
a) Deeptau one which is swayamprakashi
b) Avashtambha one which maintains Sthairya.
c) Prakasha Prakarshena deeptau which gives light/prakasha to others.
d) Balam This enforces prakuta avastha or opposes/resists vikruti.5
4) In Yaska Nighantu 28 different words are used in meaning of bala. Infact they
stress on different aspects of bala. Those words are,
Ojaha, Pajaha, Shavaha, Tavoha, Taraha, Twaksha, Shadhaha, Badhaha,
Nrumnam, Tavirshi, Shushmam, Shushnam, Daksha, Veelu, Choutram, Shusham,
Saha, Yaha, Vadhaha, Vargaha, Vrujanam, Vruk, Majmana, Poumsyani,
Dhamasi, Dravinam, Sandrasa, Shyambarum6 .
Different Meanings of word Ojas in Sanskrit - English dictionaries

1.
Bodily strength
2.
Vigour
3.
Energy
4.
Ability
5.
Power 7
6.
Virility
7.
The generative faculty
8.
Splendour
8
9.
Light
10.
An elaborate form of style
11.
Water
12.
Metallic luster 8
Definition of Ojas
Acharya Charaka defines ojas as; a shuddha/clear substance having rakta
varna along with ishat peeta varna and residing in hrudaya is called ojas in shareera.
Acharya Chakrapani has commented on this as shuddha means shukla i.e. white,
raktam ishat means kinchit/slight rakta/ red, sapitakam means slight peeta. Thus
according to him ojas has shweta varna along with peeta and rakta as anugata
varnas. Acharya Gangadhara comments on it as ojas is shubhra/white, ishat rakta
and peeta9 .
Acharya Sushruta defines ojas as param/supreme tejas of dhatus from rasa to
shukra. It is called bala as per swashastra siddhanta. Acharya Dalhana comments as
param means utkrushta, teja means sneha, as ghruta is sneha of whole milk; similarly
ojas is sneha of all dhatus in body. Acharya Chakrapani comments as here teja
means saara as in context of ghrita and madhu.11
Ashtanga Sangraha quotes as para teja of all shareera dhatus is called as ojas.
Acharya Indu comments as para word here is related to ojas and thus it is definition
of para ojas.12 Ashtanga Hrudaya defines ojas as it is para teja of shukranta (rasa to
shukra) dhatus.16 Acharya Arunadatta comments as para is utkrushta thus Ojas is
utkrushta teja of all seven deha dhatus. Acharya Hemadri comments as ojas is mala
as it is explained after other malas.13 Acharya Chandranandana comments as ojas is
pradhana moola of deha dhatus. Ojas is prakrushta dhama of saaras.14
Acharya Sharangadhara defines ojas as a substance residing in whole body
having snigdha, sheeta gunas.
Acharya Kashiram Vaidya comments on this as
snigdha is sachikkana, ojas is sheeta and not ushna, sitam means shubra in colour and
as it is karana for srushti utpatti so soumya in nature. It does poshana of bala.15
Acharya Bhavamishra defines ojas as sarwasharisastha snigdha, sheeta, and
sthira substance which is somatmaka in nature and does balapushti.16
9
Gunas of Ojas
Acharya Charaka quotes that ojas is having sarpirvarna/colour like ghee,
madhu rasa/ taste like honey and lajagandha/smell like paddy at the time of utpatti in
shareera.17 Acharya Gangadhara comments as ojas when first created in body then it
is sarpirvarna and madhu rasa after words it becomes lajagandhi.18 Acharya Charaka
in another context explains about colour and nature of ojas when it is in hrudaya as
shuddha, ishat rakta peetaka. Acharya Chakrapani comments on this as shuddha
means shukla/white, raktam ishat means slight reddish, sapeetakam means slight
yellowish; so ojas is having shukla varna and rakta and peeta as anugata varnas.
Second interpretation of ishat word can also be taken as less in quantity signifying
ashtabindukatva of ojas. Acharya Gangadhara accepts another patha as shubhram
which means shukla/white colour having ishat rakta and ishat peet varnas i.e. red and
yellow shades.19 Acharya Charaka has explained that ojas is having same gunas as
that milk. Acharya Chakrapani quotes as these sweet taste etc. ten gunas are same in
ojas and milk. Acharya Gangadhara comments as all milks are having
ojovriddikaratva still ojovardhaka guna in cows milk is again mentioned because of
its more samanata in gunas than other varities of milk.20 Acharya Charaka explains
ten gunas of goksheera as swadu, sheeta, mrudu, snigdha, bahal, shlakshna, picchila,
guru, manda & prasanna. Acharya Chakrapani comments as prasanna means
nirdosha, nirdosha is called guna by prashastata or consider prasanna as guna other
than gurvadi gunas.21
Acharya Charaka quotes ojas as madhura swabhavam.22 Acharya Charaka
quotes ten gunas of ojas as guru, sheeta, mrudu, kshlaksha, bahala, madhura, sthira,
prasanna, picchila and snigdha.23
Acharya Sushruta quotes gunas of ojas as somatmaka, snigdha, shukla, sheeta,

sthira, saram, vivikta, mrudu and mrutsna. Acharya Dalhana comments on it as
somatmaka meaning soumya, snigdha means having onctiousness, shuklam as
atishwetam. Another patha is shukra which signifies taila and kshaudra as anugata
varnas of ojas along with shukla. Sheeta is veerya, it is sthira as it gives sthairya to
shareera avayavas, sara means prasaransheela/ easily spreading nature, vivikta
10
means having supreme qualities and mrudu means tendere or soft to touch, mrutsam
means picchila, by word cha gurvadi anukta gunas are also to be included.24
Acharya Chakrapani comments as gunas of ojas are told for knowledge of

treatment. Shukla is prime or important colour and it does not have tantrantara
virodha with other anugata varnas in tantrantaras (Charaka Samhita). Sthira means
stable. Rasam is another patha in place of saram which means madhura rasa.
Vivikta means pratyagram i.e. which does not undergo paryushitata/staleness.
Mrutsna means soft to touch. 25 Acharya Haranachandra Chakravarthy quotes as
sthira means one which makes a person stable in the conditions of sukha and dukha.
Sara means which moves through out body. Vivikta is nirmala/clear.26
Ashtanga Sangraha quotes gunas of ojas as mrudu, somatmaka, shuddha,

rakta, ishat sapeetakam. Acharya Indu comments as shuddha means anupahata, ishat
raktam sapeetakam means slight reddish and slight yellowish. 27
Ashtanga Hrudaya explains ojas gunas as snigdha, somatmaka, shuddha, ishat

lohit peetaka.28
Acharya Kashyapa explains gunas of ojas as it is anupashtista/separated from

sheshma, aashyava (not having back colour), and rakta peeta in colour.29 Acharya
Sharangadhara quotes ojogunas as sheeta, snigdha and somatmaka.30 Acharya
Bhavamishra quotes white colour of ojas.31
11
Table No.1. Showing Gunas of Ojas
Name of the Guna
Snigdha
Sheeta
Guru
Mrudu
Kshakshna
Bahala
Madhura
Sthira
Prasanna
Mrutsna
Sara
Vivikta
Picchila
Sarpivarna
Madhurasa
Lajagandhi
Ishatrakta
Ishatpeeta
Somatmaka
Shuddha
Shukla
C.S
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
S.S
+
+
A.S.
A.H
+
K.S Sh.S B.P.

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Karmas of Ojas
Karmas of ojas in Garbhavastha are discussed under utpatti of ojas.
Acharya Sushruta explains karmas of ojas as sthiraupachita mamsata,
sarvachestasu apratighata, swaraprasada, varnaprasada, bahyanam karanam
aatmakarya pratipatti and abhyantaranam karanam aatmakarya pratipatti. Acharya
Dalhana comments on this as these are prakruta/physiological karmas of ojas here
stiraupachita mamsata means bala by upachaya/prosperity of all dhatus, sarva
cheshta means kaya, vacha, manovyapara, apratihgata means unimpaired power
which
is
seen
by
bhara
grahanadi
bala,
swaravarna
prasada
means
nairmalya/clarity, bahya karana means karmendriyas, abhyantara karana means

jnyanendriyas or bahya means both jnyanendriyas as well as karmendriyas and
abhyantara means mana, buddhi etc.32 Acharya Chakrapani comments on this as
sthira upachita mamsatva means sarvadhatu sneharupa mamsa apyayana. Here
12
mamsa is told as it can be seen from outside. Like this stability and prosperity of all
other dhatus is to be understood.
Here chesta means kaya parispanda,
apratighata/non obstuctiveness to these kriyas; bahya karana means karmendriyas

where as abhyatara karana means jnyanendriyas with manas. Atmakarya means
visargadi, budhyadi, and chintyadi vishayas of these karanas. Pratipatti means
anusthiti. Thus all indriyas are anushhita in their swakarya by ojo anugraha. It can
be understood as indriyas are bhautika, and then vishista bhutamaya ojas does bala
brumhana of vishishta indriya. Same karmas of ojas has been shown by Acharya
Charaka in vyatireka in ojo kshaya lakshanas.33 Acharya Haranachandra comments
as bahya karana means payu adi and abhyantara means chakshuradi : pratipatti
means pravrutti as pratipathi pravruttim cha is stated by Medini Kosha34
Acharya Sushruta further adds as if deha ayayavas are vyapta by ojas then
they are in existence/bhavati if there is abhava of ojas in deha avayavas then
nasha/sheeryana of deha avayavas takes place. Acharya Dalhana comments as
bhavati means utpadyate, sheeryante means vinashyanit/getting destructed.35 Acharya
Chakrapani accepts different patha which means its abhava causes shareera nasha.36
Acharya Haranachandra comments as cha kara is for avadharana, sheeryante
means himsyante, gets destructed which is having similarity of a Acharya Charakas
version of tannashanna vinashyanti.37
Acharya Charaka explains preenana of sarva shareera is done by ojas.
Without ojas life of sarva bhutas/all living organisms can not be continued. If nasha
of ojas residing in hrudaya takes place then nasha of shareera will take place. It is
shareera rasa sneha and pranas are pratishita in it. Acharya Chakrapani comments
on it as this is applicable for both types of ojas; vartayanti means jeevanti, preenita
means tarpita. If kshaya of ojas takes place without kshaya of dhatus then marana
will take place. Word dhari means jeeva dharaka samyoga pradhanata. Shareera
rasa sneha means shareerasaara saara; words rasa and sneha here mean saara
which means saara of shareeradhatus. Acharya Gangadhara comments as
sarvajantus can have anuvartana of jeevana if preena by ojas is done. Without ojas
life of all bhutas can not be present. He accepts other patha which says that unless
and until there is no loss of ojas there can not be loss of purusha.38
13
Ashtanga Sangraha explains karmas of ojas as pranas are pratishithita in ojas
and it does preenana of deha. If there is no nasha of ojas then there will not be nasha
of deha. Acharya Indu comments that without nasha of ashtabindwatmaka ojas
nasha of shareera can not take place.39
Ashtanga Hrudaya quotes karmas of ojas as dehasthiti nibandhana. Unless
ojas is in state of normalcy, health/aarogya is maintained. When nasha of ojas takes
place nasha of shareera is fixed. Nishpatti of vividha dehasamshrita bhavas is also
done by ojas. Acharya Arunadatta comments as dehasya sthiti nibandhanam means
adhisthana/abode of jeevita. If abhava of ojas takes place then there will be abhava
of prani. In body, pranas stay in ojas. Vividha bhavas having samshraya in deha
originate form ojas. Acharya Hemadri comments as dehasya sthiti is different
avasthas of deha, and ojas is karana for these avasthas.40
Acharya Sharangadhara explains karmas of ojas as it does balaposhana of
shareera.41 Acharya Bhavamishra also quotes as ojas does balaposhana of shareera
42
. He further add that vividha deha samshrita bhavas which are originated from ojas
such as utsaha, pratibha, dhairya, lavanya, sukumarata and ojas also performs
function of dehasthiti nibandhana43 .
Table No.2. Showing Karmas of Ojas
Karmas
Sthira upachila mamsata
Sarva chesthasu
apratighata
Swaraprasada
Varnaprasada
Bahya karanam atma
karya pratipatti
Abhyatara karanam atma
karya pratipatti
Shareera dharana
Dehapreena
Prana ashraya
Dehasthiti nibandhana
Dehasamsthita bhava
nishpandana
Shareerabala pushti
S.S
+
C.S
A.S
A.H
Sh. S
B.P
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
14
Types of Ojas
Acharya Charaka quotes as sthana of para ojas is hrudaya. Acharya
Chakrapani while commenting on this shloka says that word para means superior
which indicate two types of ojas para and apara.
Para is alpa pramana and
explained by hrudi tishtati ll where as apara is shlaishmika ojas explained in

context of anjalimana of Shareera sthana as Tavadeva parimana ll
44
Acharya
Chakrapani quotes ojas which is ashraya for prana is asthabindu in pramana and
having ashraya in hrudaya.45 Acharya Gangadhara comments as hrudaya is sthana of
shreshtha/superior ojas which is ashta bindurupa.46
Acharya Charaka quotes that shuddha; ishat rakta sapeetaka dravya having
sthana in hrudaya is called as ojas. Acharya Chakrapani comments on word ishat as
very less quantity & indicative of ashtabinduka ojas. Acharya Gangadhara comments
on word ishat as less and it is related to rakta & sapeetaka. He further condemns two
different types of ojas and says that ashtabinduka ojas and ardhanjali ojas are one
and the same. Word bindu is having meaning as karsha which means ashtabinduka
means eight karshas.
Ardhanjali means ashta karsha only so both are one and
same.47 Ashtanga Sangraha also quotes two types of Ojas as para and rasatmaka.48
Sthanas of Ojas
Hrudaya is quoted mainly as sthana of ojas by Acharya Charaka. Acharya
Chakrapani has commented on this as hrudaya is sthana of para ojas which is
astabindwatmaka. Acharya Gangadhara opines that hrudaya is seat of ojas and he
states that there are no different types of ojas as para and apara.49
Acharya Charaka in another context has quoted sthana of para ojas is

hrudaya and vahana of ojas is done by dhamanis in shareera continuously.He further
describes these dhamanis as tatphala and mahamoola. Acharya Chakrapani
commentes as sthana of apara ojas is hrudaya shrita dasha dhamanis. Acharya
Gangadhara comments as hrudaya is sthana of para ojas. 50 Acharya charaka quotes
thatdasha/ten dhamanis along with hrudaya perform vidhamana of ojas in all
shareera and hence called as ojovaha mahamula dhamanis.
dhamani/siras divide in bahudha means in many branches.
These mahaphala
Acharya Chakrapani
15
comments as hrudaya along with dhamanis do visarpanna of ojas through shareera.
These ten siras are attached with hrudaya and hrudaya is moolasthana of these siras
hence these siras are called mahamoola siras. Acharya Sushrutas references
regarding dasha dhamanis are quoted by Acharya Gangadhara.51 Acharya
Chakrapani comments as these hrudayashrita dasha dhamanis divide in large number
to acquire shareera in a shape like a growing pratana / creeper and supply ojas to
complete body. Acharya Gangadhara comments as tatphala means having ojas as
phala. Mahaphala means sakta to mahat/hrudaya or these dasha siras divide in
various ways so called mahaphala. 52
Acharya Sushruta quoes as if ojas is vyapta in deha then only avayavas and
shareera can be in proper state. Acharya Dalhana comments as deha and avayavas
utpatti can take place if ojas is vyapta in complete body.53 Acharya Chakrapani
comments as ojas is hrudayasthayi still it is vyapta in sampurna deha.54 Acharya
Dalhana quotes hrudaya as sthana of ojas.55
Ashtanga Sangraha quotes hrudaya as sthana of ojas but it is vyapta in
shareera. Acharya Indu comments on this as ojas is seated in hrudaya but is vyapta in
shareera.56 Ashtanga Hrudaya quotes sthana of ojas as hrudaya but it is vyapi.
Acharya Arunadatta comments as sakalashareera vyapi shadbinduka ojas is having
vishesha sthana as hrudaya.57
Ashtanga Hrudaya comments as dasha moola sthita siraras do vahana of
rasatmaka ojas in all over body and all cheshtas depend on this. Acharya Arunadatta
comments on this as hrutstha meaning having ashraya in hrudaya. These siras do
vahana of ojas in all shareera. Rasatmaka means rasa swabhava/fluid nature,
nibaddha means nischayena sthita. Cheshta means vakkayamanasovyaparara.58
Acharya Kashyapa also quotes hrudaya as sthana of ojas.59 Acharya
Sharangadhara quotes sarva shareera as sthana of ojas.60 Acharya Bhavamishra
quotes sthana of ojas as sarvashareera.61 Acharya Bhela has quoted twelve sthanas of
tejas/ojas. These are (rasa) shonita, mamsa, meda, asthi, majja, shukla, sweda, pitta,
shleshma, mutra and purisha.62
16
Utpatti of Ojas
Primordial creation (origination) of ojas is considered here, nutrition of ojas
will be explained under poshana.
Acharya Charaka has explained regarding utpatti of ojas as during utpatti of
shareera (garbha) ojas is first padartha to be formed.63 Utpatti of shareera takes
place in stree shareera when shukra and shonita of good qualities undergo samyoga
inside garbhashaya.64 Acharya Charaka quotes ojas as aadisaara of garbha. It is
present in all stages of garbha and enters hrudaya when hrudaya becomes pravyakta
/manifested. Before manifestation of hrudaya it is in the form of garbha saara.
Acharya Chakrapani comments on it as before garbha utpatti ojas is in form of saara
of shukra and shonita. After shukra shonita samyoga ojas is in the state of garbh
saara.After manifestation of hrudaya in garbha; ojas acquires its position in garbha
hrudaya and perform its all functions. In this way it is present and essential in all
stages garbhavastha.
Acharya Gangadhara comment as ojas is saara of shukra
before shukra, shonita samyoga; after samyoga it is separated from shukra and hence
called as saara of garbha rasa. After vyaktata of hrudaya in garbha, ojas acquires its
position in hrudaya.65
Acharya Hemadri opines as, at shukra shonita samyoga garbha (saara) and
ojas (mala) are formed. Here word kitta/mala used for ojas is to show its inferiorty
from garbha.66 Ashtanga Sangraha quotes ojas as addi saara of garbha and it is rasa
of garbharasa before vyaktata of hrudaya in garbhavastha.
After vyaktata of
hrudaya it takes ashraya in hrudaya. Acharya Indu comments as without ojas there
will not be jeeva anupravesha in shukra and shonita, garbhasya prathama dhatu is
rasadhatu, saara of this rasadhatu is ojas. It first does ashraya in hrudaya and then
does dehavyapana.67
17
Table No. 3. Showing Sthanas of Ojas

Sthana
Hrudaya
Dasha
dhamanis
Sarva
shareera
Shonita
C.S
S.S.
A.S
A.H
K.S
+
+
B.S
Sh.S
B.P
Chakrapani
Gangadhara
Hemadri
Mamsa
Meda
Asthi
Majja
Shukla/shukra
Sweda
Pitta
Kapha
Mutra
Purisha
Rasa
18
Ojopramana
Acharya Charaka explains pramana of shlaishmika ojas as ardhanjali.There
is one pathabheda which says that this is pramana of Ojas. Acharya Chakrapani
comments as this is pramana of ojas which is other than ashtabindu ojas. This ojas is
having similar gunas as that of vishuddha shleshma and hence called as shlaishmika
ojas. It is circulated through ojovahi dhamanis. Acharya Gangadhara comments as
this is pramana of shleshmavishesha ojas. Ashta bindwatmaka ojas does not undergo
vruddhi, hrasa as its nasha leads to nasha of purusha. Bindu means karsha, so
ardhanjali means ashta karsha.68 Ashtanga Sangraha quotes two pramanas of ojas as
ashta bindwatmaka of para ojas which is hrudayastha and prasruta which is
rasatmaka. Acharya Indu comments on this as ojas do anugraha to shareera when in
prakruta pramana. Vruddhi or kshaya of ojas does dushana of shareera69 .
Ashtanga Hrudaya explains pramana of ojas as swaprasruta. Acharya
Arundatta comments on this as here swa word indicates that it is of pramana of
anjali of specific person for him. Thus here prasruta does not mean two palas
70
Acharya Kashyapa explains pramana of ojas is equal to pramana of kapha which is

shat/six anjali. 71 .
Acharya Chakrapani quotes a tantrantara vachana which explains that
hrudayashryee ojas is ashta bindwatmaka. He further opines that para ojas is ashta
bindu pramana and apara or shalishmika ojas is ardhanjali. Acharya Arunadatta
quotes pramana of ojas as six bindus.72 Acharya Gangadhara opines that ashta bindu
and ardhanjali are one and same and it equals to ashta karsha.73 Acharya
Bhavamishra quotes pramana of ojas as ashtabindu.74
Table No. 4. Showing different opinions in Ayurvedic classics about
pramana of ojas
Name of author
Charaka Samhita
Ashtanga Sangraha
Ashtanga Hrudaya
Kashyapa Samhita
Chakrapani
Hemadri
Bhavaprakasha
Tantrantara
Vachana
(Chakrapani tika )
Gangadhara
Para ojas
Ashta bindu
Apara Ojas
Ojas
Shlaishmika
Ojas
Ardhanjali
Prasruta
Swa prasruta
Six anjali
Ashta bindu
Shat bindu
Ashta bindu
Ashta Bindu
Ardhanjali
Swa prasruta
Two palas
19
Poshana of ojas
Primordial creation of origin of ojas in shareera is explained in utpatti & here
poshana i.e., nutrition will be explained.
Acharya Charaka has explained that aahara does poshana of ojas. Prasada
part of aahara rasa does poshana of ojas 75 Acharya Chakrapani comments as ojas is
sara of seven dhatus and its poshana is understood by seven dhatu poshana but still it
is mentioned separately because of its shreshtha prana dharakavta.76 Acharya
Charaka further quotes that previous dhatus are aahara for next dhatus, (dhatvohi
dhatvaahara). Thus (purva) prior dhatu is aahara for next (para) dhatu. All the
dhatus are of two types saara and kitta. This dhatwantara pariposhana is explained
by Acharya Chakrapani which is summarized below: 77
Table No.5. Showing Aharapariposhana karma according to Acharya Charaka
Dravya
Saarabhaga
Kittabhaga
Aahara
Aahara rasa
Purisha and mutra
Rasa
Rakta
Kapha
Rakta
Mamsa
Pitta
Mamsa
Meda
Khamalas
Meda
Asthi
Sweda
Asthi
Majja
Kesha and nakha
Majja
Shukra
Twak & akshi sneha
Shukra
Garbha prasada
Acharya Chakrapani further states another school of thought which opines as

garbhaprasadaja means ojas and condemns it.78 Acharya Chakrapani while
commenting on upadhatu varnana condemns the opinion of ojas as upadhatu, dhatu
or mala and says that there is no necessity to count it differently from seven dhatus as
it is saara of all dhatus. For this reason separate agni for ojas is also not explained.
While supporting dhatutva of shukra he explains that it does poshana of ojas.79
Acharya Sushruta explains dhatu pariposhana by help of ksheeradadhi nyaya.
This is explained as rasa gets converted in rakta and so on to become shukra.
20
Acharya Dalhana comments on it has all dhatus are of three bhagas; anubhaga,
sthulabhaga and malabhaga.
Anubhaga does poshana of para/next dhatu.
Sthulabhaga is that dhatu itself and malabhaga does poshana of respective

dhatumalas. This can be tabulated in short as
Table No.6. Showing the Aharapariposhana Krama according to A. Sushruta
Dhatu
Anubhaga
Sthulabhaga
Malabhaga
1.
Aahara
Rasadhatu
Aahara rasa
Purisha mutra
2.
Rasa
Rakta
Rasadhatu
Kapha
3.
Rakta
Mamsa
Raktadhatu
Pitta
4.
Mamsa
Meda
Mamsadhatu
Indriya malas
5.
Meda
Asthi
Meda
Sweda
6.
Asthi
Majja
Asthi
Kesha, loma
7.
Majja
Shukra
Majja
Akshi, twak sneha
8.
Shukra
Ojoposhana
Shukra
Acharya Chakrapani both opine that shukra is saara rupa so no mala forms
after shukradhatwagni vyapara 81.
Ashtanga Sangraha quotes ojas as mala of shukra dhatu which means its
poshana is done from shukra.82 Ashtanga Sangraha in another context explains as
ojas is saara of shukra, there is no mala of shukra as it is very pure. Anyamatas of
absence of shukra paka and garbha as saara of shukra are quoted 83 .
Ashtanga Hrudaya also quotes poshana of ojas is done by shukra84 . Acharya
Sharanghara also quote that poshana of ojas is done by shukra85 . Acharya
Bhavamishra explains ojoposhana by sookshma bhaga shukra dhatu.86
Acharya Charaka explains utpatti of ojas in shareera by one simile as honey

bees collect makaranda from different fruits and flowers and nurture or convert it to
honey similarly ojas is nurtured or converted from shareera gunas .Acharya
Chakrapani comments as gunas means saarabhagas of shareera dhatus.87
21
Table No.7. Showing different views on poshana of ojas
according to various Ayurvedic classics
No
Name of author
1
Charaka Samhita
Poshaka padartha
Ahara
2
3
4
Shukra
Shukra
Shukra
Mode of poshana
Ahara rasa ; santata poshana
nyaya
As mala of shukra
As mala of shukra
As Garbha Prasadaja
Shukra
As Ashtama dhatu
Ahara
As per ksheera dadhi nyaya
5
6
Ashtanga Sangraha
Ashtanga Hrudaya
Anyamata
(Chakrapani tika)
Anyamata
(Chakrapani tika)
Sushruta Samhita
Importance of Ojas
Acharya Charaka quotes as if nasha of ojas takes place then nasha of purusha
occurs. Acharya Chakrapani comments as if a small avavyaya/fraction of ojas also
gets destroyed it will lead to death. He further relates this to para ojas which is
situated in hrudaya88 .
Ojas is included under dasha pranayatanas.89 Ojas does
preenana of shareera and without ojas life can not exist. It is shareera rasa sneha
and pranas are pratishtita in ojas90. It is called as uttama pranayatana. If its abhava
occurs in shareera avayavas then decaying of these avayavas takes place.91
Ashtanga Sangraha quotes ojas as param jeevitaspada i.e., supreme seat /

abode of jeevita. Acharya Indu comments on this as when compared to other abodes
such as shira / head, ojas is more important abode of jeevita.92 Ashtanga Hrudaya
explains as unless and until ojas is in samya avastha shareera also remains in samya
avastha93 . Acharya Bhela explains that until sthanas of ojas are prakruta pranee
experiences sukha and vice versa.94 Acharya Kashyapa explains as if ojovruddhi takes
place then shareera vruddhi takes place and shareera kshaya takes place if kshaya of
ojas takes palce.95
Ojovruddhi
No direct reference of ojovruddhi and its effect on body is available in
Charaka Samhita. In some other contexts ojo vruddhi is referred/quoted one among
them is; Ashwinau treated rajayakshma of Soma raja by increasing ojas by virtue of
which he attained shuddhata of manas and returned to his normal swaroopa. 96
22
No references of ojovruddhi were found in Sushruta Samhita in this course of
study. Ashtanga Sangraha explains symptoms at ojovruddhi as tushti and pusht i of
deha and exaltation of bala.
Acharya Indu comments on this as ojovruddhi by
administration of jeevantyadi aushadhas. Tushti means contentment of manas and

excessive nourishment of bala.97
Ashtanga Hrudaya also quotes symptoms of ojovruddhi same as that of

Ashtanga sangraha. Acharya Arundatta comments on this as pushti means
vruddhi/increase, tushti means feeling of happiness, bala means samarthya, samyak
i.e. proper increase of these entities takes place by ojovruddhi. Acharya Hemadri
comments as tushti means santosha, pushti means sthoulyam, balodaya means shakti
utkarsha, ojovruddhi is not vikarakari/creating diseases as that of vatadi vruddhi. If
this increased ojas undergo visramasa or vyapat then it is cause for diseases as that of
vatadi vruddhi.98
Acharya Bhavamishra also explain same symptoms as that of Ashtanga

Sangraha.99
Other than these many references are available scattered in Ayurvedic

Samhitas some of them are compiled here.
Bahuoja / having more ojas is quoted as lakshana of kapha prakruti
100
. In
sixth month of garbhavastha increase in varna and ojasof garbha takes place.101
Ojosaara is one among nine saaras explained by Acharya Kashyapa but
unfortunately its description is not available.102 After meticulous search of Ayurvedic
texts, no references regarding treatment of ojovruddhi were found.
Ojokshaya
Acharya Charaka has explained ojokshaya in the context of eighteen kshaya.
It is worth mentioning that after explaining kshayas of doshas, dhatus and malas
separate description of ojokshaya is available.103 Symptoms of ojokshaya are
scaredness (bibheti), durbalata, repeated worries (abheekshnam dhyayati), afflicted
status of complexion and mind (duschaya and durmana), agitated organs (vyathita
23
indriyas), dryness (rukshata) and emaciation (kshamata). Acharya Chakrapani
comments on word durmana as bala heenata of manas. He also quotes a tantratara
vachana of Jatukarna which explains that kshaya manifests because of nasha of
swagunakriya of doshadi dravyas. Acharya Gangadhara opines as agitation is seen
in all organs and not only in sense organs.104
Acharya Sushruta has explained three modes of vitiation of ojas/bala as

thrayobala doshas. They are visramasa, vyapat and kshaya.
Visramasa-: Symptoms of visramasa are sandhi vishlesha, gatra sadana,

dosha chyavana, kriya sannirodha and shrama, Acharya Dalhana comments on this
as sandhi vishlesha means vishatana in sandhis i.e. laxity in joints ,dosha chyavana
can be interpreted as bhramsha i.e., deviation of vatadi doshas from normalcy or
bhramsha of ojas by vatadi doshas. Kriya sannirodha means ishat karmahani i.e.,
slight impairment from normal functions of shareera, manas and vanee. Word cha
here indicates impairment in normal physiological functions of bala.105 Acharya
Chakrapani comments on word dosha chyavana as bhramsha of mala, mutra and or
vatadi doshas. Word cha indicates hanee in swagunakriya of ojas.106
Vyapat: Symptoms of vyapat are stabdhata and guruta in gatras (insensitivity

and heaviness in body organs), vatashopha, varnabheda, glani, tandra and nidra.
Acharya Dalhana comments on this as stabdha gatrata means loss of movements of
joints such as inability in knee joint flexion etc, varnabheda means vikruta /
pathological discolorations of body (other than gauradi varnas). Glani means
apraharsha i.e., no exultation for work. Tandra means non-perceptibility of sense
organs towards their vishayas107 . Acharya Chakrapani comments as hanee of
prakruta guna karmas of Ojas is also seen in vyapat.108
Kshaya: Symptoms of kshaya are murccha, mamsa kshaya, moha, pralapa,

ajnyana and marana. Acharya Dalhana comments on world murccha as indriyas
could not function for getting vidjnyana. Moha means vaichittya i.e., state of delusion.
Pralapa means irrelevant talking109 . Acharya Chakrapani comments as murccha
means sarvatha cheshta nasha i.e. complete loss of consciousness.110
24
Ashtanga Sangraha quotes same symptoms as that of Charaka Samhita.
Ashtanga Hrudaya quotes same symptoms as that of Charaka Samhita. Acharya
Hemadri while commenting on this opines as durbala means heena bala, vyathita
indriya means vyatha in hrudaya and other sthanas, duschaya means maleen kanti,
durmana means nisnehata, kshama means krushanga i.e. emaciated boy. 111
In many other contexts scattered references of ojokshaya and its other forms
are available, few of them are mentioned here.
1.
Ojasravana In pitta vriddha vatakapha kshaya avastha of tridosha yugapat

vruddhikshaya bheda (Ch.Su.17/63)
2.
Ojo nasha Importance of ojas (Ch. Su. 17/64)
3.
Ojo nasha Importance of ojas (Ch. Su. 30/11)
4.
Kashaya rasata of ojas Madhumeha Samprapthi (Ch.Ni.4/4)
5.
Ojopratihatva Arishta lakshana (Ch.In.12/57)
6.
Ojo nasha Arishta lakshana (Ch.In.12/54)
7.
Ojokshaya Gramyaahara sevanajanya parinama (Ch. Chi. 1/2/3)
8.
Ojoparikshaya Rajayakshma lakshana (Ch. Chi. 8/4)
9.
Ojohanee Rajayakshma lakshana (Ch. Chi. 8/4)
10.
Ojoguna kshaya Pandu samprapti (Ch. Chi. 18/5)
11.
Ojohanana Mruthtika bhakshana janya pandu samprapti (Chi.Chi.16/29)
12.
Ojasankshobha Effect of madya on shareera (Ch. Chi. 24/25)
13.
Ojobalavarna nasha Udanavritta prana vata lakshana (Ch.Chi.28/208)
14.
Ojobhramsha Pittavritta udana vata lakshana (Ch. Chi. 28/224)
15.
Ojo asthiratva Ashtama masa garbhini avastha varnana (Ch.Sha.8/24)
16.
Ojokshapana Amla rasa atisevanajanya parinama (A.S. Su 18/17)
17.
Ojovisramasa Vriddha pitta karma (A.S.Su. 19/5)
18.
Ojokshaya Atilanghita purusha lakshana (A.S Su 24/16)
19.
Ojopraksharana Sneha vyapat (Ch.Su.13/71)
20.
Ksheena Ojas Vataja kasa lakshana (Su.U.52/8)
21.
Ojovishlesha Vikasee dravya vyakhya (Sh.S.P.K.4/20)
22.
Hrutaujasa Sannipata jwara bheda (Su.U.39/42)

This also provides an insight to a list of pathological/physiological conditions
in which there is vitiation in status of ojas.

25
Table No.8. Showing different lakshanas of ojokshaya as per various Authors

Symptom
Ch.Sam. Su.Sam As.San. As.Hru.
Scared ness (bibheti),
Durbalata
Repeated worries (abheekshnam dhyayati),
Afflicted status of complexion and mind +
(duschaya and durmana),

Agitated organs (vyathita indriyas),
Dryness (rukshata)
Emaciation (kshamata).
Murccha
Moha,
Pralapa,
Ajnyana
Mamsa kshaya
Marana
Etiological factors / Nidana of Ojokshaya:

Acharya Charaka has explained samanya kshaya karanas as vyayama/exercise
anashana (abstinence from food intake), pramitashana (over indulgence in food item
of only one taste among six tastes), excessive exposure to vata (wind), atapa
(warmth), bhaya (fear), shoka (sorrow), rukshagunayukta peya pana, prajagarana
(excessive wakefulness), atipravritti of kapha, shonita and shukra; kala and
bhutopaghata. Acharya Chakrapani comments on this as pramitashana means over
indulgence in eating food of one rasa i.e. eka rasabhyasa, atipravritti means excessive
excretion, kala means vardhakya and aadanakala. Bhutopaghata means pishacchadi
upaghata. Acharya Gangadhara comments as kapha ativartana is to be understood
as because of atiyoga of vamana, shonita atipravritti by raktamokshana i.e. siravedha
etc., shukra atipravritti by over indulgence in sexual activities. He further adds as all
hetus are not all kshayas but a relative understanding is to be done.112
26
Acharya Sushruta has explained nidanas of ojokshaya as abhighata, kshaya,
kopa, shoka, dhyana, shrama, kshudha. By these nidanas vata with vitiated pitta does
visramasa of ojas from its position/ sthanas.
Acharya Dalhana classifies these
nidanas and comments as abhighatadi nidanas are responsible for visramsa of ojas
i.e. displacement from original sthanas / position. If vitiated dosha dhatus combine
with ojas (doshadushya samsarga) then properties of ojas change and it leads to
ojovyapat . Ojokshaya is quantitative loss of ojas which is because of shoka etc.
nidanas; vata and pitta separate or displace ojas from dhatus. The word dhatu can be
interpreted as hrudaya.113 Acharya Chakrapani comments as all dhatuvaha srotas are
also ojovaha and word dhatu can be taken for hrudaya in this context.114 Acharya
Haranachandra comments as here dasha ojovaha dhamanis quoted by Acharya
Charaka are to be understood as dhatuvaha srotas. He further condemns doubts
raised on whether visramsa and vyapat as part of kshaya or not and ascertains that
these are a type of kshaya only. 115
Ashtanga Hrudaya and Ashtanga Sangraha quote nidanas of ojokshaya as

kopa, dhyana, shoka, shramadi. 116, 117 Acharya Hemadri comments on word aadi and
adds bhrama, trasa, katurasa and ruksha guna yukta bhojana.
Madya by virtue of its dasha gunas which are opposite to dasha gunas of ojas
causes ojokshaya. Acharya Charaka has explained it in detail which is presented in
tabular form below. 118 Visha is having opposite gunas of ojas and thus by virtue of
these gunas visha vitiate ojas and causes death. This mechanism is achieved by
primary vitiation of rakta followed by all doshas, dhatus and finally hrudaya is
vitiated which leads to death. Acharya Arundatta has explained how dasha gunas of
visha vitiate ojas which is presented in a tabular form below. 119
27
Table No.9. Showing Comparison between properties of Ojas, Madya, Visha
Properties of Madya
Properties of Ojas
Properties of Visha
Laghu
Guru
Laghu
Ushna
Sheeta
Ushna
Teekshna
Mrudu
Teekshna
Vikasee
Kshlakshna
Vikasee
Sookshma
Sandra/bahala
Sookshma
Amlarasa
Madhura Rasa
Avyakta rasa
Vyavayee
Sthira
Vyavayee
Aashukari
Prasanna/prasada
Aashukari
Vishada
Picchila
Vishada
Ruksha
Snigdha
Ruksha
Avidhiyukta gramya dharma sevana leads to ojokshaya.120 Amlarasa

atupayoga leads to ojokshaya.121 Kshara is also kshyakara/apathya for ojas.
Atilanghana causes ojokshaya122 Vikasee dravyas do vishlesha of ojas from dhatus.123
Gramyaahara and other nidanas explained by Acharya Charaka vitiate ojas
by disturbing dhatu pariposhana. Improper and impaired dhatuvyapara leads to
ojokshaya. List of these nidanas is given bellow
1.
Gramyaahara.
2.
Amla, lavana and katu rasa bhojana.
3.
Kshara, shushka mamsa and shaka bhojana.
4.
Tila, palala and pishtanna sevana.
5.
Repeated vishamashana and adhyashana
6.
Virudha and nava shooka and shami dhanya sevana.
7.
Viruddha bhojana asatmya bhojana,
8.
Ruksha, kshara, abhishyandi bhojana.
9.
Klinna, guru, pooti, paryusheeta bhojana.
10.
Daily indulgence / consumption of madya stree and diwaswapna.
11.
Overstress to body by irregular and excessive exercise (Atimatra and vishama

vyayama)
12.
Excess exposure to bhaya, krodha, shoka, lobha, moha ayasa.

These lead to impaired and improper dhatu vyapara leading to ojokshaya. 124
28
Chikitsa of Ojokshaya
Acharya Charaka has advised to avoid manasika dukha hetus in particular for
protecting ojas hrudaya, tadashrita bhavas and ojovaha dhamanis. For protection of
these bhavas one should indulge / consume hrudya/beneficial for hrudaya,
oujasya/beneficial for ojas and srotopraasadanakara dravyas. Prashama and jnyana
are also to be practiced. Acharya Chakrapani comments as hrudaya, ojovaha
dhamanis and ojas are to be protected. Prashama means shanti and jnyana means
tatvajnyana. Acharya Gangadhara comments on this as these all upayas are for ojas
rakshana. He also opines that this prashama sevana is explained in next shloka of
utkrushtatama list.125
Acharya Sushruta explains as kriya vishesha and aviruddha dravyas are to be

used for apyayana of ojas in conditions of visramsa and vyapat. Other conditions and
patients who have lost consciousness are asadhya so are to be avoided. Acharya
Dalhana comments as kriya vishesha means rasayana and vajikaranadi chikitsa.
Aviruddha means not opposite to agni and other shareera bhavas. Here bala means
shakti upachalakshana bala.
conditions mean kshaya.
Apyayana means vardhana i.e. increasing.
Other
It is varjya as it is associated with moha.126 Acharya
Chakrapani comments as kriya vishesha means ojovardhaka and ojovishodhaka

treatment .127
Ashtanga Sangraha explains treatment of ojokshaya as jeevaneeya aushadhas,

ksheera, mamsaradi are medicines to be used. Acharya Indu comments on this as
ksheera and mamsa rasa sadhana is to be done by jeevaneeya aushadhas. Word aadi
states that other drugs of these qualities can also be used.128
Ashtanga Hrudaya quotes same line of treatment as that of Ashtanga

Sangraha. Acharya Hemadri comments on it as jeevaneeya means jeevanti etc., rasa
means mamsa rasa. Sharkara etc., dravyas are to be understood from word aadi.
Acharya Arundatta comments as jeevaneeya means jeevaneeya gana of ten drugs
comprising of jeevanti, kakolee, kshreerakakolee, meda, mahameda, mudgaparnee,
mashaparnee, rushabhaka, jeevaka and madhuka quoted in (A.H. Su. 15/8). Other
29
madhura rasa dravyas and ksheera can be used. Word aadi indicate kakandola,
atmagupta ghruta etc., drugs.129
Vidhivat Rasayana sevana leads to regularize dhatu pariposhana krama,

which brings back normalcy of dhatus and thus purify them.
By samya and
utkrushtatama dhatus ojovruddhi takes place.130
Acharya Kashyapa states that if samyak sneha upayoga is done it leads to

ojovruddhi.131 He further adds as madhura, snigdha, sheeta and laghu aahara
increases ojas and hence to be given to balakas.132 He also quotes that samanata of
vatadi doshas leads to ojovruddhi.133
Other than this many aahara dravyas, aushadhas and viharas are explained in
Ayurvedic Samhitas which bring about augmentation of ojas in different contexts.
Here an attempt is made to group these scattered references under three headings of
1.
Anna
2.
Aushadha.
3.
Vihara
Anna:
Aahara is moola karana for poshana of ojas.
Madhura rasa increases ojas.
Mamsa increases / does pushti of ojas.
Ksheera is having its ten gunas equal as that of ojas and hence increases ojas.
Goksheera does ojovruddhi.
Goghruta is indicated for use in those who want augmentation of ojas.
Ghruta increases ojas.
Ghruta satmyata increases ojas in shareera.
Shulya mamsa increase ojas and indicated in ojoheena patients.
Mamsarasa increases ojas.
Aushadha:
Rasnadi niruha basti is indicted for ojokheena.

30
Mamsa basti is also indicted.
Bala ghruta increases ojas.
Kamadeva ghruta increases ojas.
Nagabaladi ghruta increases ojas (A.H.U. 3/24)
Balataila increases ojas (A.S.Sh. 4/42)
Langhana increases ojas (As chi 113).
Shatapushpa is indicated for ojovruddhi (K.S.K. 186 page).
Shatavari increases ojas (K.S.K. 186 page).
Madhuka pushpadi modaka is indicated in ksheena ojas (As chi 5/31)
Anupaajadyasthi taila is quoted as amrita for ksheena ojas patients (A.S Chi
284/47)
Mruga shakruta is having property of ojokshaya harana (A.S.Su 69/06)
Aindra rasayana is quoted as having param ojaskara property (Ch.Chi 1/3/28)

Punarnavadyarishta increases ojas in short duration of time (Ch.Chi.12/38)
Vihara:
Snana is called as best / supreme entity to increase ojas (Ch.Su. 5/94).
Ratnadharana increases ojas (Ch.Su 5/97).
Anulepana increases ojas (Su.Chi 24/63).
Padatradharana increases ojas (Su.Chi 24/72).
Chatradharna increases ojas (Su.Chi 24/75).
Aasana made up of bala vyayana increases ojas (Su.Chi 24/82).
Dandadharana, vastradharana increases ojas (B.S.P.K.5/102).
Kreeda and vihara are indicated in order to avoid ojokshaya offer madya pana
(A.H.Chi9/46)
31
CONCEPTS CLOSELY RELATED TO OJAS

In Ayurvedic literature one word is used in different meanings and one has to
understand the meaning of such words by careful study of context, abhipraya of
tantrakarta and help of tantrayuktis134 .
Regarding word ojas, it has been used in different meanings in different

contexts. Unfortunately this is creating ambiguity in the mind of scholars of Ayurveda
and misleading or increasing confusion in proper and clear understanding of concept
of ojas. Further more many dehadhatus of shareera having similar properties of ojas
are termed as ojas in different contexts; this has worsened the scenario little more.
Thus it is needed that a careful study of such dehadhatus of shareera for

understanding their relation with ojas on basis of comparison of guna karmas of these
dehadhatus and ojas. This will also help in understanding guna karmas of ojas in a
better manner.
This chapter is intended to take review of some important concepts which are
closely related to ojas. As main aim of this exercise is to understand relation of these
terms with ojas only relevant information of these dehadhatus with relation to ojas is
included here.
Acharya Dalhana quotes as

1.
Ushma
2.
Jeevashonita
3.
Rasa dhatu are also called as ojas to tantrantaras135
Acharya Hemadri quotes as:

1.
Dhatu teja
2.
Rasa
3.
Jeevashonita
4.
Prakruta shleshma are the terms for which word ojas is used by vaidyas136 .
32
Acharya Charaka has used word ojas for prakruta kapha and bala. Acharya
Sushruta has used word for bala. Acharya Sushruta also used this word for atmashakti
of drugs. Let us consider these contexts one by one.
Kapha and Ojas

Kapha is one among tridoshas. Kena jalena phalati iti kapha is derivation of
word of kapha which means its nourishment is done by jala. Shleshma is paryaya
used for kapha. Shlish aalingane one which has capacity to bind is called shleshma.
Gunas of prakruta kapha are guru, sheeta, mrudu, snigdha, madhura, sthira, picchila.
It is having shweta varna and madhura rasa. Sneha, bandha, sthiratva, gaurava,
vrishata, bala, kshama, dhruti and alobha are prakruta karmas of kapha. Soma by
virtue of kapha does/performs its various functions in body and hence kapha is called
Soumya.137
Sthanas of kapha are ura, kantha, shira, kloma, parvasandhis, amashaya, rasa
dhatu, medodhatu, ghrana, jivha. Ura is main sthana among these all sthanas.138
Kledaka kapha, one among five bhedas of kapha is having sthana in hrudaya and
does avalambana of hrudaya.139 Avalambana is commented as swakarmani
samarthya by commentriators.140
Acharya Charaka has called prakruta kapha as bala and it is also called as
ojas. Acharya Chakrapani comments on this as shleshma is hetu for shlaishmika ojas.
He also quotes as prakruta kapha is reason for bala and hence called as bala. One
more interpretation of word ojas is sarabhaga. Acharya Gangadhara opines as this
prakruta gati yukta kapha is reason for bala and hence called as ojas and bala.141
Acharya Kashyapa quotes pramana of prakruta kapha and ojas are same i.e.
six / shat anjali 142 . Ojoposhana is explained as karma of kapha dosha143 .
Agni /Ushma and Ojas

Acharya Charaka has quoted ushma as paryaya for agni while explaining bhutagni.144
In one another context Acharya Charaka quotes that ushma which is present in agni is
sama in samyavastha of doshas. Acharya Chakrapani comments on this as ushma is
paryaya of agni and it is different from agni outside body.145 Ashtanga Hrudaya
quotes ushma as paryaya for agni in context of aama.146
33
Ushma is one among karyas of pitta. Acharya Charaka explains as agni by
virtue of pitta perform different functions in shareera.147 Agni is explained as hetu for
ojas and teja148. Acharya Dalhana comments that in tantrantara, ushma is also called
as ojas149. Acharya Bhavamishra explains that ojas is of two types aagneya and
soumya150 . Ojas is defined as para teja of rasadi dhatus by Acharya Vagbhata and
Acharya Sushruta151. Ushma is one among aahara parinamkara bhavas which does
pachana of aahara152 .
Agni is mula of bala and hence all efforts are to be done for protection of
agni153 . If agni is lost then death is result; if it is in prakruta avastha then prolonged
healthy life span is result, if it is vikruta then it leads to disease154 . Samagni leads to
drudha gatrata and ojovruddhi 155. Agni is mula for bala and bala is mula for jeevana,
so in nutshell principle of chikitsa is agni pari rakshana156 .
Rasa Dhatu and Ojas

Rasa is one among seven dhatus in shareera. Word rasa indicates gati. One
which is always on move is called as rasa. It is parama sookshma tejobhuta saara of
aahara. Its sthana is located in hrudaya. It does tarpana, vardhana, dharana and
yapana of whole human body by circulating through dhamanis. It enters in dhamanis
through hrudaya. It is soumya and drava in nature and does snehana of shareera157 .
Tushti, pushti and rakta pushti are karmas of rasa dhatu as quoted by Ashtanga
Sangraha. Tushti is interpreted as manapreetee and preenana means ashwasana of
hrudaya158 . Purusha is called as rasaja hence special precautions are to be taken to
protect rasa while consuming anna, pana and performing achara159 . Symptoms of
rasakshaya are rukshata, kshama, shosha, glani and shabda asahishnuta160 . Acharya
Sharangadhara quotes ojokshaya as one among karanas of glani.161
Ashtanga Sangraha explains rasatmaka ojas as second type of ojas162 .
Ashtanga Hrudaya explains ten mahamoola siras which are attached to hrudaya do
vahana of rasatmaka ojas all over body. Here word rasatmaka is commented as it is
sara part of aahara and fluid in nature (drawaswabhava) 163 .
34
Acharya Charaka in Nidanasthana in prameha dushya varnana context quotes
a word rasachauja which is interpreted by Acharya Chakrapani as ojorupi rasa.
Acharya Gangadhara opines as these two are different entities and are to be
interpreted as rasa and ojas164 . Acharya Chakrapani commenting on the same word
rasauja in dushya sangraha in prameha chikitsa context accepts rasa and ojas as two
separate entitites165 . Acharya Dalhana comment as in tantrantara rasa is called also
called as ojas166 . Acharya Hemadri quotes tantrantara vachana from Kharanadi
which says that rasa is called as ojas167 . Acharya Chakrapani quotes anyamata as
hrudayastha rasa is called as ojas168 . Rasa vruddhi and rasa dushti (pradosha) are
manifested by various symptoms and diseases in human body. Rasa vruddhi
symptoms are agnisadana, praseka, aalasya, gaurava, shaitya, shlaithya of angas,
shwasa, kasa and atinidra169 . Anna ashraddha, aruchi, aasya vairasya, klaibya,
jwara, are among few vikaras which are manifested due to rasa dushti171 . Acharya
Charaka has used word ojas while explaining importance of purisha raksha in
rajayakshma chikitsa context. Acharya Chakrapani opines that here word Ojas is used
for rasa dhatu171 .
Rakta Dhatu and Ojas

Rakta dhatu is second dhatu among sapta dhatus. Rasa dhatu undergo
ranjana, coloration to become rakta.
Jeeva shonita is explained by Acharya Dalhana as shonita which has achieved

vishuddhata by samyoga with shareera, indriya, satva and atma172. Acharya
Chakrapani comments on word jeeva shonita as jeevana hetu dhatu rupa shonita
which means that rakta dhatu which is hetu / reason for life173 . Rakta is one among
dasha pranayatas. Vishuddha rakta is responsible for bala, varna, sukha and
ayusha174 . If a person is having prasanna varna, indriyas and indriyarthas; avyahata
agni, tushti, pushti, bala and sukha then he is considered as having vishuddha
rakta175. Rakta is moola of deha and dharana of deha is done by rakta only so special
precautions are to be taken for protection of it. Rakta is as equal to jeeva. Word moola
is commented here reason for utpatti, sthiti and pralaya of deha176 . Pramana of rakta
is eight anjali177 . Normal functions of rakta are mamsa pushti; jeevana and
varnaprasadana on symptoms of rakta kshaya are affliction towards amla and sheeta
35
food, shira shaithilya and rukshata178 . Rakta vruddhi is manifested by visarpa,
pleeha, vidradhi, kushtha etc diseases179 . Rakta dushti or pradosha also gives rise to
many diseases few among them are raktapitta, asrugdara, kamala, shwitra and
others180 .
Acharya Dalhana quotes that in tantrantara rakta is called as Ojas. Acharya

Hemadri also quotes that word ojas is used for rakta while commenting on word
jeevana which is karma of rakta. Acharya Arundatta comments as jeevana means
ojavruddhikara181 .
Shukra and Ojas

Shukra is last, seventh dhatu in shareera. Word shukra is derived form
Shuch dhatu by rak pratyaya which means, very clear. Gunas of shukra are it
having madhura rasa, shukla varna and madhugandha. Other gunas include guru,
snigdha, bahala, bahu, picchila182 . It is soumya in nature183 . Sthana of shukra is sarva
shareera184 . Karmas of shukra are dhairya, chyavana, preeti, deha bala, harsha and
beeja prayojana185 . It is one among dasha pranayatas. Pramana of shukra is
ardhanjali186 . Shukra is called as parama dhama of aahara and it should be protected.
If kshaya of it takes place then many diseases many occur or it many lead to death187 .
Acharya Dalhana and Acharya Bhavamishra quote that shukra does

ojoposhana. Acharya Chakrapani opines that shukra do ojojanana188 . He also quote
a tantrantara mata that shukra gets converted into ojas and condemn it. Acharya
Sharangadhara quotes ojas as upadhatu of shukra189 . Ashtanga Sangraha and
Ashtanga Hrudaya quote ojas as mala of shukra190, 191 .
Acharya Chakrapani quotes anyamata as ojas is shukravishesha192 . Ashtanga
Sangraha quotes ojas as shukra saara and quotes that there is no mala of shukra193 .
Bala and Ojas

Acharya Sushruta explains that ojas is called as bala according to swa shastra
siddhanta. Acharya Dalhana has quoted that though here ojas and balas are said to
be one and same it is because of the similar therapeutic measures used for both ojas
36
and bala. In paramartha their difference is clear as ojas has rupa, rasa and veerya etc
but bala is not having these and it is inferred by power/strength to lift load etc194 .
Acharya Charaka has quoted prakruta kapha as bala as well as ojas 195 . Balaposhana
is explained as karma of ojas by various Acharyas.
Table No. 10. Showing different concepts quoted as ojas

according to various Ayurvedic texts.
Dalhana
Commentary
Hemadri
commentary
+
Rasa Dhatu
Jeeva shonita
Name of concept
Prakruta kapha
Bala
Charaka
Samhita
+
Sushruta
Samhita
Dhatu teja
Agni / Ushma
+
+
37
REVIEW OF MODERN LITERATURE

After complete review of concept of ojas and related concepts in Ayurveda; an
effort is necessary to find a parallel concept in modern medicine. In this era of
globalization these
efforts of conveying Ayurvedic treasure of knowledge to
western world are having a grater role in achieving aim of Ayurveda Swasthasya
swastha rakshana and aaturasya vikaara prashamana (i.e. maintaining health of
healthy and curing diseases of diseased).
For this purpose meticulous review and critical analysis of modern medicine
textbooks, research papers, case studies and journals was done. Discussions with
experts in field of Ayurveda and different specialties in modern medicine were
exhaustively carried out. Different co relations done by stewards of Ayurveda and
modern medicine both in recent eras were also taken into consideration. A probable
list of entities from modern medicine which have similarities with ojas was prepared.
Basis of this was references available in Ayurvedic literature about all three;
physiological, pathological and treatment aspects of ojas with more emphasis on
physiological aspect. After surveying these references, a list of few important
concepts which are usually co related is prepared and given below.
1.
Prostaglandins
2.
Immunity
3.
Hormones
4.
Glucose
5.
Vitamins
6.
Properdin
7.
Conduction system of heart
8.
Neuro transmitters in brain
9.
Testosterones
10
Nucleo - proteins etc.

Among these various concepts prostaglandins and immunity are discussed
here briefly. One more point to be noted is, this review is not intended to describe
modern concepts comprehensively. Rather it will be more focused on aspects of these
concepts having similarities and differences with that of ojas.
38
PROSTAGLANDINS
Prostaglandins (PG) were first discovered and isolated from human semen in
the 1930s by Ulf von Euler of Sweden. Thinking they had come from the prostate
gland, he named them prostaglandins. It has since been determined that they exist and
are synthesized in virtually every cell of the body. 196
A prostaglandin is any member of a group of compounds derived from fatty

acids containing 20 carbon atoms, including a 5-carbon ring. The prostaglandins
together with the thromboxanes form the prostanoid class of fatty acid derivatives.
The prostanoid class is a subclass of eicosanoids. These substances are called
eicosanoids, reflecting their origin from the 20-carbon (eicosa-) polyunsaturated fatty
acid arachidonic acid (arachidonate) and the 20-carbon derivatives of linoleic and
linolenic acids. Arachidonic acid can be prepared by human cells from linolenic acid.
Arachidonic acid is present in membranes and accounts for 5-15 % of fatty acids in
phospholipids. 197
Synthesis of Prostaglandins
Phospholipids present in cell membranes when stimulated by various stimuli
such as angiotensin II, bradykinin, epinephrine, and thrombin etc; undergo oxidation
by consumption of two oxygen molecules to form arachidonic acid by action of
phospholipase A2 .
Arachidonic acid is converted into endoperoxide PGG2. This
process is catalyzed by PGHS (prostaglandin H synthase) which possesses two

enzymatic activities cyclooxygenase and peroxidase. Product of cyclooxygenase
pathway is converted in to prostaglandins D, E and F. 198
Prostaglandins catabolism
Because of their very short half life period (two to four minutes) most of them
are efficiently and rapidly inactivated. About 95% of infused PGE2 (but not PGI2) is
inactivated during one passage through the pulmonary circulation.
39
Action of prostaglandins
Prostaglandins are a group of hormone- like substances; like hormones they
play a role in a wide variety of physiological processes. Prostagla ndins act in a
manner similar to that of hormones, by stimulating target cells into action. However,
they differ from hormones in that they act locally, near their site of synthesis, and they
are metabolized very rapidly. Another unusual feature is that the same prostaglandins
act differently in different tissues.199
Prostaglandins show only paracrine (on cells near the secreting cell) and
autocrine (on secreting cell) actions because of very low half life period. However
prostaglandins have
their effect on entire human body as they are produced in
almost all cells of human body. Another role of prostaglandins is to act as chemical
messengers.
Mechanism of action of prostaglandins
Many of the responses can be understood in light of the distribution of
prostaglandin receptors and their coupling to second messenger systems that modulate
cellular activity.
Prostaglandin Receptors:
PGs act locally near their sites of formation. The
diversity of their effects is explained to a large extent by their interaction with a

diverse family of distinct receptors. All eicosanoid receptors are G proteincoupled
receptors that interact with Gs, Gi, or Gq to modulate the activities of adenylyl
cyclase and phospholipase.
Prostanoid
and
Platelet-Activating
Factor
Receptors:
Newly
prostanoids are released by carrier-assisted diffusion to act locally on
the
generated
cell
of
origin or on neighboring cells. Two classes of receptors exist to transduce signals for
the eicosanoids: the well- characterized G proteincoupled receptor class and the
nuclear peroxisome proliferator activator receptors (PPAR) class, which are orphan
nuclear receptors acting directly as transcription factors after binding to the
appropriate eicosanoid. Thus, in addition to their extracellular functions, eicosanoids
act as intracellular ligands that bind to PPAR-a & PPAR-g to regulate lipid and
glucose metabolism, adipocyte differentiation, and inflammatory responses. 200
40
Table No.11 Showing various ligants and receptors of prostaglandins
with their actions 201
Types of prostaglandins
The prostaglandins are divided into groups PGE and PGF, on the basis of the
configuration of the cyclopentane ring. The number of double bonds in the side chains
is indicated by subscript numbers. A variety of prostaglandins are identified. Active
forms of prostaglandins are PGD2, PGE2, and PGF2.
Diet and prostaglandins

Average daily intake of arachidonic acid is estimated to be approximately 100200 mg/day that accounts for the total daily production of various PGs.
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are present mainly in
marine fish. Cows milk contains very small amounts of linolenic acid GLA0, and
arachidonic acid.
41
Essential fatty acids (EFAs) and the ir long-chain metabolites and other
products such as prostaglandins E1 (PGE1), prostacyclin (PGI2), PGI3, lipoxins
(LXs), resolvins, protectins including neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1) prevent platelet
aggregation,
lower blood pressure, have anti-arrhythmic action, reduce low density
lipids LDL-C, ameliorate the adverse actions of homocysteine, show antiinflammatory actions, activate telomerase, and have cytoprotective properties. It has
been known to reduce the incidence of cardiovascular diseases including stroke. In
addition, various EFAs and their long-chain metabolites not only enhance nitric oxide
generation but also react with nitric oxide to yield
their
respective
derivatives that produce vascular relaxation, inhibit neutrophil
nitroalkene
degranulation
and
superoxide formation, inhibit platelet activation, and possess PPAR ligand activity
and release nitric oxide, thus prevent platelet aggregation, thrombus formation,
atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, appropriate combination of
3 and 6 fatty acids may even show additional benefits in the form of protection
from depression, schizophrenia, Alzheimers disease, and
enhances cognitive
function; and serve as endogenous antiinflammatory molecules; and could be

administered from childhood for life long. 202
Essential fatty acid (EFA) deficiency is known to alter the immune response in
several experimental systems. Researches show that when for studying the effects of
EFAs on immunity Lewis rats were fed diets either adequate or deficient in EFAs for
70-80 days. EFA-adequate rats responded to an i.v. injection of 5 X IO8 sheep
erythrocytes with a sharp, short- lived rise in splenic levels of PGE and PGF within 2
minutes after injection. EFA deficiency resulted in a diminution of this PG response.
PG production in liver homogenates was also depressed in EFA-deficient liver.The
alterations in immune response resulting from changes in PG synthetic capacity may
be important in the etiology of certain syndromes such as the lupus erythematosus in
NZB/W mice.203
42
Flow Chart No.3. Showing relation between diet and synthesis of PG
and its effects on human body.204
43
Physiological Functions of Prostaglandins
In Reproduction
Prostaglandins aid process of fertilization in following ways.
By reacting with female cervical mucus to make it more receptive to sperm

movement.
By possibly causing backward, reverse peristaltic contractions in uterus and

fallopian tubes to move the ejaculated sperm toward the ovaries (a few sperm
reach the upper ends of the fallopian tubes within 5 minutes where as normal
speed of sperm in female genital tract is 3mm /min).
Of all body fluids, human seminal plasma possesses the highest concentration
of PG. The total PG content of the average human male ejaculate is 1 mg, and
comprises PGE and PGF together with their 19-hydroxylated derivatives. The
most dominant active prostagland in, PGE, has a mean semen concentration of
73.2 g/ml, and notably high inter-individual variation (range 2272 g/ml)
PG were first described in 1947 with lower concentrations of PGE being found
in couples with unexplained infertility.
PGs are known to enhance sperm transport and increase the fertilization rate in
rabbits. Novel animal studies involving the use of intrauterine PGE infusion
have resulted in the maintenance of corpora luteal function and stimulation of
progesterone production, ensuring uterine receptivity for pregnancy
Human in-vitro research has shown that PGE induces a relaxation response on
the non-pregnant human uterine and fallopian tube smooth muscle, whereas
PGF has been shown in vitro to create a contractile response. The in- vivo
effects from both PG are stimulatory on the myometrium Moreover; it has also
been shown that PGE is more potent than PGF on myometrial response and
that both PG inhibit tubal motility, thus
suggesting that the relaxation of the
tubal isthmus is a prerequisite for sperm penetration into the Fallopian tube.
Strikingly PGE, but not PGF, has been shown to improve significantly the
ability of human spermatozoa to penetrate zona-free hamster oocytes
Human in- vivo research has shown the potential benefit of vaginally placed
PG in the assistance of reproductive success.
In a research study where Prostaglandin (PG) F2 alpha and PGE were

measured in 163 semen samples from 145 men attending male infertility
44
clinic. The concentrations of seminal PGF2 alpha and PGE concentrations
were 2.78 +/- 0.24 micrograms/ml and 46.0 +/- 4.5 micrograms/ml,
respectively. Result s suggest that seminal PGs are important to the human
male fertility potential in that their levels are significantly interdependent with
specific parameters of male fertility. 205
Another study examined whether the prostagland in E1 analogue misoprostol

(400 g), when placed vaginally at the time of intrauterine insemination (IUI)
improves pregnancy rates or not? It is concluded that the use of vaginal
misoprostol may improve the chance for pregnancy in women having IUI in a
wide variety f cycle types. 206
Renal physiology
Prostaglandins increase GFR (glomerular filtration rate),
Prostaglandins increase blood flow in the renal cortex and decrease blood flow
in the renal medulla.
Maintenance of Vascular Function: Renal prostaglandins are thought to be

important mediators of vascular function, sodium and water homeostasis, and
renin release. Thus, prostaglandins may reduce sodium reabsorption by a
hemodynamic mechanism and /or through a direct action on tubular sodium
chloride transport. Renal prostaglandins may be of importance in
pathophysiological states associated with enhanced activity of the renin
angiotensin system.
In vitro and in vivo studies indicate that renal
prostaglandins protect the preglomerular vessels form excessive angiotensin

II-induced vasoconstriction.
Prostaglandins (e.g., PGI2) may play a key role in mediating the renin-release
response to loop diuretics.
Prostaglandins control of renin release mediating through macula densa

pathway as they are released when NaCl transport decreases and thus increase
renin release. 207
Blood and vascular System
Prostaglandins accelerate capacity of red blood cells to pass through minute

blood vessels.
45
PGE2 one member of this class causes dilatation of blood vessels.
Monocytes secrete prostaglandins of the E series.
Platelet inhibitory effects of prostaglandins are most important. The

synergistic effect of both prostacyclin and nitric oxide enhances the
antiplatelet activity.
The changes in blood pressure associated with exercise could be due a

humoral mechanism which includes the reduction of the activity of the renin
angiotensinaldosterone system and of the sympathetic nervous system
activity and an increase in prostaglandins with vasodilator effect
Gastrointestinal tract
Prostaglandins protect gastric mucosa from gastric juices and HCL and
prevent auto digestion of mucosa
Mucus and HCO3 - secreted by mucosal cells also play an important role in
protecting the
duodenum from damage when acid-rich gastric juice is
secreted into it. Prostaglandins stimulate mucus secretion. HCO3 - secretion is

also stimulated by prostaglandins along with local reflexes.
Induction of Menstruation
In process of onset of menstruation endometrium becomes thinner, which adds
to the coiling of the spiral arteries. Foci of necrosis appear in the endometrium,
additional spasm and then necrosis of the walls of the spiral arteries, leading to spotty
hemorrhages that become confluent and produce the menstrual flow. The vasospasm
is probably produced by locally released prostaglandins, there are large quantities of
prostaglandins in the secretory endometrium and in menstrual blood, and infusions of
PGF 2a produce endometrial necrosis and bleeding. One theory of the onset of
menstruation holds that in necrotic endometrial cells, lysosomal membranes break
down, with the release of enzymes that foster the formation of prostaglandins from
cellular phospholipids.
Control of the menstrual cycle

PGF 2a appears to be a physiologic luteolysin responsible for regression of the
corpus luteum (luteolysis). Regression of the corpus luteum starting 3-4 days before
46
menses is the key to the menstrual cycle. It appears that at least in some species
luteolysis is produced by the combined action of PGF2a and ET-1. In some domestic
animals, oxytocin secreted by the corpus luteum appears to exert a local luteolytic
effect, possibly by causing the release of prostaglandins.
Onset of labor
One factor responsible for the onset of labor is the increase in circulating
estrogens. This makes the uterus more excitable, increases the number of gap
junctions between myometrial cells, and causes production of more prostaglandins
which in turn cause uterine contractions. Oxytocin increases uterine contractions in
two ways:
It acts directly on uterine smooth muscle cells to make them contract and
It stimulates the formation of prostaglandins in the decidua. The

prostaglandins enhance the oxytocin- induced contractions.
Nervous system
Release of prostaglandin D2 in the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus

causes increased slow-wave sleep and REM sleep whereas release of PGE2
causes wakefulness.
Arachidonic acid metabolites have been implicated as diffusible modulators in

the CNS, particularly for LTP and other forms of plasticity.
Heart
Prostaglandins are one of important chemical factors responsible for variations

in coronary flow by virtue of their property of vasodilation.
Relatively high concentrations of prostaglandin E2a because of its vasodilator

action maintains patent state of ductus arterious in utero.
Respiratory system
Prostaglandins are important constituent of surfactant which is necessary for

starting the process of respiration at time of birth.
PGE2 is a potent broncho dilator
47
Lung tissue is particularly active in the synthesis, metabolism, and release of a

number of prostaglandins, some of which may play a role in the regulation of
pulmonary vascular resistance. Prostaglandins I2 (PGI2) and E (PGE2) are
active pulmonary vasodilators, whereas PGF2 alpha and PGA2 are pulmonary
vasoconstrictors.
Release of prostacyclin by endothelial cells causes relaxation of the underlying

vascular smooth muscle and prevents platelet aggregation within the
bloodstream.
Maintainers of ocular pressure

Resistance to blood flow depends on the state and caliber of the ocular arteries
and is influenced by hypertensive arterial changes and efficiency of the auto
regulation of the blood flow. Auto regulation maintains a constant ocular blood flow
to tissues during changes in perfusion pressure. Endothelial-derived molecules (i.e.,
endothelins, thromboxane A2, prostaglandins, and nitric oxide) play a role in auto
regulation by modulating vascular tone.
Although PGF2a induces constriction of the iris sphincter muscle, its overall
effect in the eye is to decrease intraocular pressure by increasing the aqueous humor
outflow of the eye via the uveoscleral and trabecular meshwo rk pathway
Physiology Of pregnancy
One of reasons for hypertension in pregnancy is increase in estrogen,

deoxycorticosterone, and vasodilating prostaglandins produced by the
uteroplacental unit.
The etiology of pre eclampsia: The etiology of pre eclampsia remains

unknown. Because of their widespread and varied effects in the human body,
prostaglandins specifically PGI2, thromboxane A2, PGE, and PGF2
have
come under much investigation as possible etiologic factors. The vasodilating,

platelet-disaggregating prostaglandins (PGI2 and PGE) are increased during
normal pregnancy and may account for many of the observed hemodynamic
changes, which begin as early as the first trimester. In contrast, a relative
increase
in
the
vasoconstricting,
platelet-aggregating
prostaglandins
48
(thromboxane A2 and PGF2 is seen in pre eclampsia. The disruption in the
delicate balance between these two opposing pairs of prostaglandins may play
an important role in the causation of pre eclampsia.208
Blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance in pregnancy: Systemic

arterial pressure begins to fall during the first trimester, reaches a nadir in mid
pregnancy, and returns toward pregestational levels before term. Because
diastolic blood pressure decreases substantially more than systolic pressure,
the pulse pressure widens. Reduction in blood pressure is caused by a decline
in systemic vascular resistance due to reduced vascular tone, probably
mediated by
gestational hormonal activity, increased levels of circulating
prostaglandins, and atrial natriuretic peptides, as well as endothelial nitric

oxide,
Immunity
Prostaglandins cause vasodilatation, mediate extravasation and pain sensation,

potentiate inflammatory mediators, and influence cellular and humoral
immunity.
Phagocytes orient toward the chemo attractant source in the extra vascular
space after getting stimulated from chemo attractants and opsonins.
Prostaglandins increase sperm motile activity (chemokinesis), and migrate
them directionally (chemotaxis) into tissues. The process of migration into
tissues is called diapedesis and involves the crawling of neutrophils between
post capillary endothelial cells that open junctions between adjacent cells to
permit leukocyte passage. Diapedesis involves platelet/endothelial cell
adhesion molecule (PECAM) 1 (CD31), which is expressed on both the
emigrating leukocyte and the endothelial cells. The endothelial responses by
vasodilators which include prostaglandin E and I. Cytokines regulate some of
these processes [e.g., TNF-induction of VEGF, interferon (IFN) inhibition of
prostaglandin E].
PGE2 also may play a role in T- lymphocyte development by regulating

apoptosis of immature thymocytes.
49
PGD2, a major product of mast cells, is a potent che mo-attractant for

eosinophils and induces chemotaxis and migration of Th2 lymphocytes (T
helper cells)
Prostaglandins are potent lipid molecules that affect key aspects of immunity.
The
original
view
of
prostaglandins
was
that
they
were
simply
immunoinhibitory. Recent researches review focus on findings concerning

prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and the PGD2metabolite 5-deoxy-Delta (12, 14)PGJ2, and their divergent roles in immune regulation.
Role of prostaglandins in process of apotosis is being stressed and researches

are on going for therapeutic usage in activating immune response against
tumor cells.209
Physiology of gastric secretion

Gastric defenses against acid: The stomach protects itself from acid damage by a
number of mechanisms that require adequate mucosal blood flow, perhaps because of
the high metabolic activity and oxygen requirements of the gastric mucosa. One key
defense is the secretion of a
mucus layer that protects gastric epithelial cells. Gastric
mucus is soluble when secreted but quickly forms an insoluble gel that coats the
mucosal surface of the stomach, slows ion diffusion, and prevents mucosal damage by
macromolecules such as pepsin.
Mucus production is stimulated by prostaglandins E2 and I2, which also

directly inhibit gastric acid secretion by parietal cells. PGE2 and PGI2 are the major
prostaglandins synthesized by the gastric mucosa. They bind to the EP3 receptor on
parietal cells and stimulate the Gi pathway, hereby decreasing intracellular cyclic
AMP and gastric acid secretion.
PGE2
also
can
prevent
gastric
injury
by
cytoprotective effects that include stimulation of mucin and bicarbonate secretion and
increased mucosal blood flow. 210
Bone remodeling
Bone remodeling is regulated by several circulating hormones, including
prostaglandins and members of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) super family. These
factors primarily in bone modulate the rate at which new remodeling sites are
50
activated, a process that results initially reabsorption by osteoclasts, followed by a
period of repair during which new bone tissue is synthesized by osteoblasts.
Pathological Aspects of Prostaglandins

1.
Prostaglandins are mediators of inflammation which in normal limits is

essential complement of immunity.
2.
Accumulation of prostaglandins is one of major causes of dysmenorrhea
3.
Change in balance of two important types of prostaglandins is one of the

possible factors which cause pre eclapsia.
4.
The fever produced by cytokines is probably due to local release of

prostaglandins in the hypothalamus. Intra hypothalamic injection of
prostaglandins produces fever.
5.
Systemic Mastocytosis: Systemic mastocytosis is a condition in which there

are excessive mast cells in the bone marrow, reticuloendothelial system, GI
system, bones, and skin. In patients with systemic mastocytosis, prostaglandin
D2, released from mast cells in large amounts, has been found to be the major
mediator of severe episodes of vasodilation and hypotension; this PGD2 effect
is resistant to antihistamines
Pharmacological Properties of Prostaglandins

1) Cardiovascular system
In most vascular beds, PGE2 elicits vasodilation and a drop in blood pressure,
although vasoconstrictor effects have been reported, depending on which
PGE2 receptor is activated. Infusion of PGD2 results in flushing, nasal
stuffiness, and hypotension; subsequent formation of F-ring metabolites may
result in hypertension. Responses to PGF2a vary with vascular bed; it is a
potent constrictor of both pulmonary arteries and veins but does not alter
blood pressure. PGI2 relaxes vascular smooth muscle, causing prominent
hypotension and reflex tachycardia on intravenous administration. It is about
five times more potent than
PGE2in producing this effect.
Researchers report that with prostaglandin E1, a potent vasodilator with

proven efficacy in severe heart failure when coupled with catecholamines It
can be concluded that chronic infusions with prostaglandin E1 at reduced
51
dosages is a feasible and safe therapeutic adjunct to bridge end-stage heart
failure patients and may yield desirable effects in a subset of patients in the
absence of inotropic support by dobutamine. 211
2) Inhibition of Platelet Aggregation

Low concentrations of PGE2 enhance and higher concentrations inhibit
platelet aggregation. Both PGI2 and PGD2 inhibit the aggregation of platelets in vitro.
3) Inflammation and immunity

Prostaglandins play a major role in the inflammatory and immune responses,
as reflected by the clinical usefulness of the NSAIDs. Prostanoids can exert both
kinds of activity pro-inflammatory and antiinflammatory. Prostaglandins generally
inhibit lymphocyte function and proliferation, suppressing the immune response.
PGE2 depresses the humoral antibody response by inhibiting the differentiation of Blymphocytes into antibody-secreting plasma cells. PGE2 acts on T- lymphocytes to
inhibit mitogen-stimulated proliferation and lymphokine release by sensitized cells
4) Fever
Regulation of body temperature requires a delicate balance between the

production and loss of heat; the hypothalamus regulates the set point at which
body temperature is maintained. This set point is elevated in fever (from
infection, tissue damage, inflammation, graft rejection, or malignancy), as a
result of formation of cytokines such as IL-1b, IL-6, interferons, and TNF-.
The cytokines increase synthesis of PGE2 in circumventricular organs in and
adjacent to the preoptic hypothalamic area; PGE2, in turn, increases cyclic
AMP and triggers the hypothalamus to elevate body temperature by promoting
an increase in heat generation and a decrease in heat loss.
Aspirin and NSAIDs suppress this response by inhibiting PGE2 synthesis but
do not influence body temperature when it is elevated by factors such as
exercise or in response to ambient temperature.
52
5) Kidney and urine formation
PGs influence renal salt and water excretion by alterations in renal blood flow
and by direct effects on renal tubules. PGE2 and PGI2 infused directly into the renal
arteries of dogs increase renal blood flow and provoke diuresis, natriuresis, and
kaliuresis, with little change in glomerular filtration rate. PGEs inhibit water
reabsorption induced by vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone). PGE2 also inhibits
chloride reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle in the rabbit.
PGI2, PGE2, and PGD2 stimulate renin secretion from the renal cortex, apparently
through a direct effect on the granular juxtaglomerular cells. One of major
mechanisms involved in the hypertension of renal disease is decreased production of
renal vasodilators (i.e., prostaglandins, kallikrein, and kinin).
6) Auto Regulation of Intraocular Pressure
A variety of F prostaglandin-receptor agonists have proven effective in the
treatment of open-angle glaucoma, a condition associated with the loss of COX-2
expression in the pigmented epithelium of the ciliary body.
7) Central nervous system
While various effects have been reported following injection of several PGs
into discrete brain areas, the best established biologically active mediators are PGE2
and PGD2. The induction of fever by a range of endogenous and exogenous pyrogens
appears to be mediated by PGE2. Exogenous PGF2a and PGI2 induce fever but do
not contribute to the
pyretic response. PGD2 do not induce fever. PGD2 also
appears to act on arachnoid
trabecular cells in the basal forebrain to mediate an
increase in extracellular adenosine that, in turn, facilitates induction of sleep. PGs

contribute to pain both peripherally and centrally. PLA2 and COX-2 synthesis are
increased at sites of local inflammatio n that are, in turn, associated with increased
central PGE2 biosynthesis. PGE2 and PGI2 sensitize the peripheral nerve endings to
painful stimuli by lowering the threshold of nociceptors. Centrally, PGE2 can increase
excitability in pain transmission neuronal pathways in the spinal cord. The release of
these eicosanoids during the inflammatory process thus serves as an amplification
system for the pain mechanism COX-2 has been implicated in several neurological
diseases, and clinical trials of selective inhibitors of COX-2 are ongoing in the
chemoprevention of Alzheimers disease, Parkinsons disease, and epilepsy.
53
8) Endocrine system
A number of endocrine tissues respond to PGs. In a number of species, the
systemic
administration
of
PGE2
increases
circulating
concentrations
of
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
growth
hormone,
prolactin,
and
gonadotropins. Other effects include stimulation of steroid production by the adrenals,

stimulation of insulin release, and thyrotropin like effects on the thyroid.
The critical role of PGF2a in parturition relies on its ability to induce an

oxytocin-dependent decline in progesterone levels. PGE2 works as part of a positivefeedback loop to induce oocyte maturation required for fertilization during and after
ovulation.
9) Bone remodeling PGs are strong modulators of bone metabolism. PGE2 stimulates bone
formation and reabsorption through osteoblastic and osteoclastic activities affecting
bone strength and composition.
Therapeutic Aspects of Prostaglandins

Induction of labor and Therapeutic Abortion: There has been intense interest in
the effects of the PGs on the female reproductive system. When given early in
pregnancy, their action as abortifacients may be variable and often incomplete and
accompanied by adve rse effects. PGs appear, however, to be of value in missed
abortion and molar gestation, and they have been used widely for the induction of
midtrimester abortion. Systemic or intravaginal administration of the PGE1 analog
misoprostol in combination with mifepristone or methotrexate is highly effective in
the termination of early pregnancy. PGE2 or PGF2a are used to facilitate labor by
promoting ripening and dilation of the cervix.
Researchers show that there is some evidence that different parts of the uterus
respond differently to prostaglandins. The upper part at times shows spasm while the
lower part is inactive or relaxes. These and other variable responses suggest that there
is no easy explanation of the physiological and pathological actions of the
prostaglandins. Prostaglandins do reach the blood stream after sexual intercourse and
54
are probably absorbed directly from the vagina. They are probably destroyed during
circulation of the blood. It is not known whether they reach the amniotic fluid after
intercourse. 212
Gastric Cytoprotection
Prostaglandins are inhibited by NSAID s which results in reduced protection
to gastric mucosa from auto digestion from gastric juices increasing susceptibility to
peptic ulcers. The capacity of several PG analogs to suppress gastric ulceration is a
property of therapeutic importance.
Impotence
PGE1 (alprostadil) may be used in the treatment of impotence. Intracavernous
injection of PGE1 causes complete or partial erection in impotent patients who do not
have disorders of the vascular system or cavernous body damage. The erection lasts
for 13 hours and is sufficient for sexual intercourse. PGE1 is more effective than
papaverine. The agent is available as a sterile powder that is reconstituted with water
for injections (CAVERJECT), although it has been superseded largely by the use of
PDE5 inhibitors, such as sildenafil, tadalafil, and vardenafil.
Maintenance of Patent Ductus Arteriosus

One of the important historical milestones in development of pediatric
cardiology (in late 1970s) is the introduction of prostaglandinsE1 for the treatment of
ductus-dependent pulmonary or systemic circulation. It provided a means of securing
adequate oxygenation or systemic perfusion in a number of neonates. As a result,
pediatric cardiologists and pediatric cardiovascular surgeons are not obliged to
perform emergency diagnostic cardiac catheterizations or palliative or reparative
operations in very ill, severely hypoxemic, and acidotic infants
The ductus arteriosus in neonates is highly sensitive to vasodilation by PGE1.

Maintenance of a patent ductus may be important hemodynamically in some neonates
with congenital heart disease. PGE1 (alprostadil, PROSTIN VR PEDIATRIC) is
highly effective for palliative, but not definitive, therapy to maintain temporary
patency until surgery can be performed.
55
In patients with congenital heart disease whose survival is duct dependent, the
availability is compulsory and the application of prostaglandins as a palliative
medicament. The prostaglandins have made a revolution in saving children's lives in
neonatal cardiology. Few diseases where prostaglandins are used are listed bellow.
a)
Maintenance of a patient in cardiac shock
b)
In critical coarctation of the aorta
c)
In obstructed total anomalous pulmonary venous drainage
d)
Treatment hypoplastic left heart syndrome with a ventricular septal defect.
e)
Pediatric heart transplantation
f)
Tricuspid atresia, stenosis, and regurgitation
g)
Pulmonary stenosis
h)
Pulmonary atresia and ventricular Septal Defect
i)
Aortic arch anomalies
j)
Congenitally corrected transposition of the Great Arteries
k)
Aortic Stenosis
l)
Tetralogy of Fallot.
m)
Pulmonary Hypertension
n)
Claudication and peripheral vascular disease
Puerperium
After delivery of the fetus or after therapeutic abortion, a firm, contracted
uterus greatly reduces the incidence and extent of hemorrhage. The prostaglandin
analog misoprostol may be used in normotensive patients for this purpose.
Use as an Autonomic Agent in the Glaucoma

PGF2a analogs appear to lower IOP by facilitating aqueous outflow through
the accessory uveoscleral outflow pathway. The mechanism by which this occurs is
unclear.
Gastroduodenal Mucosal Defense

Epithelial cell regeneration is regulated by prostaglandins and growth factors
such as EGF and TGF. In tandem with epithelial cell renewal, formation of new
vessels (angiogenesis) within the injured microvascular bed occurs. Both TGF and
56
vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are important in regulating angiogenesis in
the gastric mucosa. Prostaglandins play a central role in gastric epithelial
defense/repair. The gastric mucosa contains abundant levels of prostaglandins that
regulate the release of mucosal bicarbonate and mucus, inhibit parietal cell secretion,
and are important in maintaining mucosal blood flow and epithelial cell restitution.
57
IMMUNITY
Resistance of the body against the pathogenic agents is known as immunity.
The term immunity refers to a state of insusceptibility to disease, more specifically to
infectious disease. The molecules, cells and tissues that participate in inducing
immunity collectively constitute the immune system and its reaction to the entry of
any "foreign substance" (infectious or otherwise, harmful or harmless) is called
immune response.
Figure No.1. Showing schematic representation of different layers of
Immunity in human body.214
The human immune system has evolved over millions of years from both
invertebrate and vertebrate organisms to develop sophisticated defense mechanisms to
protect the host from microbes and their virulence factors. The normal immune
system has three key properties: a highly diverse repertoire of antigen receptors that
enables recognition of a nearly infinite range of pathogens; immune memory, to
mount rapid recall immune responses; and immunologic tolerance, to avoid immune
58
damage to normal self- tissues. From invertebrates, humans have inherited the innate
immune system, an ancient defense system that uses germ lineencoded proteins to
recognize pathogens. Cells of the innate immune system, such as macrophages,
dendritic cells, and natural killer (NK) lymphocytes, recognize pathogen-associated
molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are highly conserved among many microbes and use
a diverse set of pattern recognition receptor molecules (PRRs). Important components
of the recognition of microbes by the innate immune system include (1) recognition
by germ lineencoded host molecules, (2) recognition of key microbe virulence
factors but not recognition of self- molecules, and (3) non recognition of benign
foreign molecules or microbes. Upon contact with pathogens, macrophages and NK
cells may kill pathogens directly or, in concert with dendritic cells, may activate a
series of events that both slow the infection and recruit the more recently evolved arm
of the human immune system, the adaptive immune system. 215
Adaptive immunity is found only in vertebrates and is based on the generation

of antigen receptors on T and B lymphocytes by gene rearrangements, such that
individual T or B cells express unique antigen receptors on their surface capable of
specifically recognizing diverse antigens of the myriad infectious agents in the
environment. Coupled with finely tuned specific recognition mechanisms that
maintain tolerance (non reactivity) to self-antigens, T and B lymphocytes bring both
specificity and immune memory to vertebrate host defenses. Here the cellular
components, key molecules and mechanisms that make up the innate and adaptive
immune systems will be reviewed. How adaptive immunity is recruited to the defense
of the host by innate immune responses will be also discussed.
There are two fundamentally different types of responses to invading

microbes. These are innate immunity and acquired immunity.
59
Figure No.2. Schematic presentation of Immune mechanism. 216
The Innate Immune System

In general, the innate immune system consists of three major components
1.
Phagocytic cells, which eliminate microorganisms by ingesting and degrading

them;
2.
Soluble plasma proteins and glycoproteins that bind microorganisms and

target them for phagocytosis (i.e., opsonization) or for attack by the
complement system, leading to microbial death by cytolysis; and
3.
Natural killer (NK) cells, a subset of primitive T cells pivotal for cell- mediated
destruction of tumor cells and virally infected cell.
4.
Complement system component s.
60
Table No.12. Showing major components of the innate immune system. 217
Name of the Group
Name of the Components
Pattern recognition receptors C type lectins, leucine-rich proteins, scavenger
(PRR)
receptors, pentraxins, lipid transferases, integrins
Antimicrobial peptides
Alpha and beta deensins , cathelin, protegrin,
granulsyin, histatin, secretory leukoprotease
inhibitor, and probiotics
Cells
Macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer
cells(NK), NK-T cells, neutrophils, eosinophils,
mast cells, basophils, and epithelial cells
Complement components
Classic and alternative complement pathway, and
proteins that bind complement compone nts
Cytokines
Autocrine, paracrine, endocrine cytokines that
mediate host defense and inflammation, as well
as recruit, direct, and regulate adaptive immune
responses
Macrophages
Monocytes enter the blood from the bone marrow and circulate for about 72
hours. They then enter the tissues and become tissue macrophages. Their life span in
the tissues is unknown, but bone marrow transplantation data in humans suggest that
they persist for about 3 months. It appears that they do not reenter the circulation.
Some of them end up as the multinucleated giant cells seen in chronic inflammatory
diseases such as tuberculosis. The tissue macrophages include the Kupffer cells of the
liver, pulmonary alveolar macrophages, and microglia in the brain, all of which come
from the circulation. Macrophages become activated by lymphokines from T
lymphocytes. Activated macrophages migrate in response to chemotactic stimuli and
engulf and kill bacteria by processes generally similar to those occurring in
neutrophils. They play a key role in immunity .They also secrete up to 100 different
substances, including factors that affect lymphocytes and other cells, prostaglandins
of the E series, and clot-promoting factors .
Dendritic Cells
Human dendritic cells (DCs) are heterogenous and contain two subsets,
myeloid DCs and plasmacytoid DCs. The maturation of DCs is regulated through
cell-to-cell contact and soluble factors, and DCs attract immune effectors through
secretion of chemokines. When dendritic cells come in contact with bacterial
products, viral proteins, or host proteins released as danger signals from distressed
61
host cells ,infectious agent molecules bind to various TLRs and activate dendritic
cells to release cytokines and chemokines that drive cells of the innate immune
system to become activated to respond to the invading organism, and recruit T and B
cells of the adaptive immune system to respond thus, dendritic cells are important
bridges between early (innate) and later (adaptive) immunity.
Large Granular Lymphocytes/ Natural killer cells
Large granular lymphocytes (LGLs) or NK cells account for approximately 5
10% of peripheral blood lymphocytes. NKs cells are non adherent, non phagocytic
cells with large azurophilic cytoplasmic granules. NKs cells express surface receptors
for the Fc portion of IgG (CD16) and for NCAM-I (CD56), and many NK cells
express some T lineage markers, particularly CD8, and proliferate in response to IL-2.
NK cells arise in both bone marrow and thymic micro environments.
Functionally, NK cells share features with both monocytes-macrophages and

neutrophils in that they mediate both antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity
(ADCC) and NK cell activity.
Granulocytes (Neutrophils, Eosinophils, and Basophils)

Granulocytes are derived from stem cells in bone marrow. Each type of
granulocyte (neutrophil, eosinophil, or basophil) is derived from a different subclass
of progenitor cell, which is stimulated to proliferate by colony-stimulating factors.
During terminal maturation of granulocytes, class-specific nuclear morphology and
cytoplasmic granules appear that allow for histological identification of granulocyte
type.
Neutrophils
Neutrophills express Fc receptors for IgG (CD16) and receptors for activated
complement components (C3b or CD35). Upon interaction of neutrophils with
opsonized bacteria or immune complexes, azurophilic granules (containing
myeloperoxidase, lysozyme, elastase, and other enzymes) and specific granules
(containing lactoferrin, lysozyme, collagenase, and other enzymes) are released, and
microbicidal superoxide radicals (O 2 ) are generated at the neutrophil surface. The
62
generation of superoxide leads to inflammation by direct injury to tissue and by
alteration of macromolecules such as collagen and DNA.
Eosinophils
Eosinophils express Fc receptors for IgG (CD32) and are potent cytotoxic
effector cells for various parasitic organisms. In Nippostrongylus brasiliensis
helminth infection, eosinophils are key cytotoxic effector cells in removal of these
parasites. Key to regulation of eosinophil cytotoxicity to N. brasiliensis worms are
antigen-specific T helper cells that produce IL-4, thus providing an example of
regulation of innate immune responses by adaptive immunity antigen-specific T cells.
Basophils
Basophils and tissue mast cells are potent reservoirs of cytokines such as IL-4
and can respond to bacteria and viruses with anti pathogen cytokine production
through multiple TLRs expressed on their surface. Mast cells and basophils can also
mediate immunity through the binding of anti pathogen antibodies. This is a
particularly important host defense mechanism against parasitic diseases. Basophils
express high-affinity surface receptors for IgE (FcRI) and, upon cross- linking of
basophil-bound IgE by antigen, can release histamine, eosinophil chemotactic factor
of anaphylaxis, and neutral protease; all mediators of allergic immediate
(anaphylaxis) hypersensitivity responses.
Mast cells
Mast cells are heavily granulated wandering cells that are found in areas rich
in connective tissue, and they are abundant beneath epithelial surfaces. Their granules
contain heparin, histamine, and many proteases. The heparin appears to play a role in
granule formation. They have IgE receptors on their cell membranes, and, like
basophils, they degranulate when IgE-coated antigens bind to their surface. They are
involved in inflammatory responses initiated by immunoglobulins IgE and IgG. The
inflammation combats invading parasites. In addition to this involvement in acquired
immunity, the y release TNF-a in response to bacterial products by an antibodyindependent mechanism, thus participating in the nonspecific natural immunity that
63
combats infections. Marked mast cells degranulation produces clinical manifestations
of allergy up to and including anaphylaxis
The Complement System
The complement system, an important soluble component of the innate
immune system, is a series of plasma enzymes, regulatory proteins, and proteins that
are activated in a cascading fashion, resulting in cell lysis. There are three pathways
of the complement system:
1.
Classic activation pathway activated by antigen/antibody immune complexes,
2.
MBL (a serum collectin) activation pathway activated by microbes with

terminal mannose groups,
3.
Alternative activation pathway activated by microbes or tumor cells.

The series of enzymes of the complement system are serine proteases.
Activation of the classic complement pathway via immune complex binding to C1q
links the innate and adaptive immune systems via specific antibody in the immune
complex. The alternative complement activation pathway is antibodyindependent and
is activated by binding of C3 directly to pathogens and "altered self" such as tumor
cells. In the renal glomerular inflammatory disease IgA nephropathy, IgA activates
the alternative complement pathway and causes glomerular damage and decreased
renal function. Activation of the classic complement pathway via C1, C4, and C2 and
activation of the alternative pathway via factor D, C3, and factor B both lead to
cleavage and activation of C3. C3 activation fragments, when bound to target surfaces
such as bacteria and other foreign antigens, are critical for opsonization (coating by
antibody and complement) in preparation for phagocytosis. The MBL pathway
substitutes MBL-associated serine proteases (MASPs) 1 and 2 for C1q, C1r, and C1s
to activate C4. The MBL activation pathway is activated by mannose on the surface
of bacteria and viruses.
The three pathways of complement activation converge on the final common

terminal pathway. C3 cleavage by each pathway results in activation of C5, C6, C7,
C8, and C9, resulting in the membrane attack complex that physically inserts into the
membranes of target cells or bacteria and lyses them.
64
Figure No.3. Showing Schematic representation of complement system 218
Thus, complement activation is a critical component of innate immunity for

responding to microbial infection. In general the cleavage products of complement
components facilitate microbe or damaged cell clearance (C1q, C4, C3), promote
activation and enhancement of inflammation (anaphylatoxins, C3a, C5a), and promote
microbe or opsonized cell lysis (membrane attack complex).
Properdin or factor P
Properdin is a globulin protein found in the blood serum of higher animals. In
the complement system, an innate-immunity series of proenzymes dissolved in the
circulation, it is also called "Factor P". It participates in some specific immune
responses. It plays a part in tissue inflammation as well as the engulfing of pathogens
by phagocytes. In addition it is known to help to neutralize some viruses. As a
component of the alternative pathway for complement activation (otherwise known as
the "properdin pathway"), it complexes with another protein, C3b, to stabilize the
alternative C3 convertase (C3bBb) that then cleaves more C3. The alternative
pathway is not dependent on antibodies. This branch of the complement system is
65
activated by IgA immune complexes and bacterial endotoxins, polysaccharides, and
cell walls, and results in producing anaphylatoxins, opsonins, chemotactic factors, and
the membrane attack complex, all of which help fight pathogens. Recent studies show
its important role in apotosis , cancer pathology, renal graft rejection etc but these
concepts are still in experimental stage . Properdin participates in two distinct
complement activation pathways: one that occurs by the standard model and one that
proceeds by the properdin-directed model.219
Cytokines
Cytokines are hormone- like molecules that act, generally in a paracrine
fashion, to regulate immune responses. They are secreted not only by lymphocytes
and macrophages but by endothelial cells, neurons, glial cells, and other types of cells.
Most of the Cytokines are initially named for their actions, eg, B cell-differentiating
factor, B cell- stimulating factor 2. Once the amino acid sequence of a factor in
humans is known, its name is changed to interleukin. Thus, for example, the name of
B cell-differentiating factor was changed to interleukin-4.
Some of them have
systemic as well as local paracrine effects. For example, IL-1, IL-6, and tumor
necrosis factor a cause fever, and IL-1 increases slow-wave sleep and reduces
appetite.
Another super family of cytokines is the chemokine family. Chemokines are

substances that attract neutrophils and other white blood cells to areas of
inflammation or immune response. Over 40 have now been identified, and it is clear
that they also play a role in the regulation of cell growth and angiogenesis. The
chemokine receptors are serpentine receptors that act via heterotrimeric G proteins to
cause, among other things, extension of pseudopodia with migration of the cell toward
the source of the chemokine.
66
Table No. 13. Showing Cytokines of clinical importance and their description
220
Cytokine
Cellular Sources
Major Activities
Interleukin-1 Macrophages
Activation of T cells
and macrophages;
promotion of
inflammation
Clinical Relevance
Implicated in the
pathogenesis of septic
shock, rheumatoid
arthritis, and
atherosclerosis
Interleukin-2 Type 1 (TH1)
Activation of
Used to induce
helper T cells
lymphocyes, natural
lymphokine-activated
killer cells, and
killer cells; used in the
macrophages
treatment of metastatic
renal-cell carcinoma,
melanoma, and various
other tumors
Activation of
As a result of its ability
helper T cells, mast lymphocytes,
to stimulate IgE
cells, basophils, and monocytes, and IgE
production, plays a part
eosinophils
class switching
in mast-cell
sensitization and thus in
allergy and in defense
against nematode
infections
Differentiation of
Monoclonal antibody
helper T cells, mast eosinophils
against interleukin-5
cells, and
used to inhibit the
eosinophils
antigen- induced latephase eosinophilia in
animal models of
allergy
Activation of
Overproduced in
helper T cells and
lymphocytes;
Castleman's disease;
macrophages
differentiation of B
acts as an autocrine
cells; stimulation of the growth factor in
production of acutemyeloma and in
phase proteins
mesangial proliferative
glomerulonephritis
Interleukin-8 T cells and
Chemotaxis of
Levels are increased in
macrophages
neutrophils, basophils, diseases accompanied
and T cells
by neutrophilia, making
it a potentially useful
marker of disease
activity
Interleukin-11 Bone marrow
Stimulation of the
Used to reduce
stromal cells
production of acutechemotherapy- induced
phase proteins
thrombocytopenia in
patients with cancer
67
Cytokine
Cellular Sources
Major Activities
Interleukin-12 Macrophages and B Stimulation of the
cells
production of interferon
? by type 1 (TH1)
helper T cells and by
natural killer cells;
induction of type 1
(TH1) helper T cells
Tumor
Macrophages,
Promotion of
necrosis
natural killer cells, inflammation
factor a
T cells, B cells, and
mast cells
Lymphotoxin
(tumor
necrosis
factor
Transforming
growth factor
Granulocytemacrophage
colonystimulating
factor
Interferon-a
Interferon-
Interferon-?
Clinical Relevance
May be useful as an
adjuvant for vaccines
Treatment with
antibodies against tumor
necrosis factor a
beneficial in rheumatoid
arthritis
Type 1 (TH1)
Promotion of
Implicated in the
helper T cells and B inflammation
pathoge nesis of multiple
cells
sclerosis and insulindependent diabetes
mellitus
T cells,
Immunosuppression
May be useful
macrophages, B
therapeutic agent in
cells, and mast cells
multiple sclerosis and
myasthenia gravis
T cells,
Promotion of the
Used to reduce
macrophages,
growth of granulocytes neutropenia after
natural killer cells, and monocytes
chemotherapy for
and B cells
tumors and in
ganciclovir-treated
patients with AIDS;
used to stimulate cell
production after bone
marrow transplantation
Virally infected
Induction of resistance Used to treat AIDScells
of cells to viral infection related Kaposi's
sarcoma, melanoma,
chronic hepatitis B
infection, and chronic
hepatitis C infection
Virally infected
Induction of resistance Used to reduce the
cells
of cells to viral infection frequency and severity
of relapses in multiple
sclerosis
Type 1 (TH1)
Activation of
Used to enhance the
helper T cells and
macrophages; inhibition killing of phagocytosed
natural killer cells of type 2 (TH2) helper bacteria in chronic
T cells
granulomatous disease
68
Overview of Adaptive Immunity
In contrast to innate immunity, adaptive immunity is flexible, specific, and has
immunological memory, that is, it can respond more rapidly and vigorously on a
second exposure to an antigen. Immunologic memory provides a more powerful
response to a repeated exposure to the same foreign substance or antigen. Adaptive
immunity is more complex because it provides the ability to respond very specifically.
The primary blood cell elements of the adaptive immune system are T lymphocytes
and B lymphocytes.
For many years, innate and adaptive immune responses were studied as
separate systems because of their different mechanisms of action. However, it is now
understood that synergy between the two systems is required to provide adequate
immune reactivity against invading pathogens. Innate immune responses, through
their barrier and relatively broad types of actions, represent the first line of defense
against pathogens. The adaptive response becomes evident a few days later because it
requires time for sufficient antigen-specific receptors to be generated through clonal
expansion/proliferation. There are multiple interactions occurring between the two
systems, which results in the co amplification of each respective response and leads to
the ultimate destruction and elimination of the invading pathogen. Adaptive response
can be further classified as cell mediated and humoral. These two components work in
tandem to achieve complete protection against stimuli.221
T lymphocytes
T cells arise from the stem cells in the bone marrow and then migrate to the
thymus (hence the designation "T" cells) for their maturation and differentiation. T
cells perform several key functions, including
Providing helper signal to B cells for antibody production,
Regulating the quality and quantity of the immune response,
Generating effector cells that can either kill infected/neoplastic cells directly
or through increasing the phagocytic function of cells including macrophages.
Most of these functions are carried out by the cells themselves or through
secreted molecules, namely, lymphokines. For performing these diverse functions T

cells have several subsets. These subsets inc lude,
69
T helper (TH) cells,
Cytotoxic or cytolytic T lymphocytes (CTLs), and
Delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) T cells (TDTH).
The TH subset, besides carrying CD3, also carries the CD4 molecule
(CD3+CD4+ cells). Most of the TDTH cells are also CD4+ (CD3+CD4+ cells). The
CTLs carry CD8 molecule (CD3+CD8+ cells).When stimulated under different
experimental conditions, CD4+ TH cells produce different sets of cytokines.
When naive CD4+ TH cells (cells that have never been in contact with
antigen) are stimulated, they mainly produce a T-cell growth factor called interleukin2 (IL-2). On further antigenic stimulation they differentiate into so-called THO cells
that produce a large variety of cytokines. If the stimulation is continued, they further
differentiate into either of two functional subsets called TH1 and TH2 cells. Thus,
TH1 cells mainly secrete IL-2 and interferon-g (IFN-g). They are the main effector
cells in cell- mediated immune response against intracellular infective agents. They
also help B cells in producing IgM and IgG antibodies that are effective in activating
the complement cascade facilitating engulfment by phagocytic cells.
On the other hand, TH2 cells produce interleukin-4 (IL-4) which is known to
induce IgE production; IL-5 which is an eosinophil-activating factor; and IL-10 and
IL-13 which together with IL-4 modulate cell- mediated immune response (suppressor
action). This subset, therefore, is involved in immunity against helminthic infections
and allergic reactions. T cells also show a number of accessory molecules on their
surface. Most of them are members of the Ig or integrin superfamily. These molecules
play important roles in the physiological functions of T cells like i) binding of T cell
to ligands on other cells, thus increasing the strength of their adhesion; ii) facilitate
interaction of T cells with other cells, like antigen-presenting cell, or vascular
endothelial cells, proteins, proteoglycans, etc.222
B lymphocytes
The second major class of lymphocytes is called B cells because in birds they
were first shown to mature and differentiate in a gut-related organ called bursa of
70
Fabricius. In mammals, there is no anatomical equivalent of the bursa. Rather, the
early stages of maturation and differentiation of this cla ss of lymphocytes occurs in
the bone marrow itself. Lymphocytes possessing cytoplasmic or cell-surface
immunoglobulin molecules (sIg) are called B cells. Other surface molecules on the B
cells include MHC class II molecules, CD19 to CD22 molecules, Fc receptors,
complement receptors, and receptors for lymphokines involved in growth of B cells.
B cells are the precursors of the antibody-producing plasma cells.223
B cell triggering requires two signals. The first signal is the binding of the
specific antigen with the immunoglobulin molecule on the B cells surface that acts as
the specific antigen receptor for B cells (sIg). In addition, however, B cells require a
second helper signal from the specific T cell. Antigens that cannot trigger B cells
without T helper signal are called T-dependent antigens. However, certain antigens
have the capacity to trigger B cells without T cell help (T- independent antigens). Most
T-dependent antigens are proteins; T- independent antigens are mostly polymeric
carbohydrates with a repeating unit structure. Also, some of other T-independent
antigens have the capacity to non-specifically stimulate B cells, the so-called nonspecific B cell mitogens. B cells differentiate and mature into plasma cells under the T
helper influence. Plasma cell, unlike B cell, is an end-stage cell with a short lifespan that is devoted entirely to antibody synthesis. It loses its sIg and all the other Bcell surface structures and develops abundant cytoplasm with rough endoplasmic
reticulum necessary for the synthesis of large amounts of antibody molecules that are
secreted into the circulation.
Humoral secretions of Adaptive Immune system

Immunoglobulins
The human immunoglobulins are a family of proteins that confer humoral
immunity and perform vital roles in promoting cellular immunity. Five distinct classes
or isotypes of immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE) have been identified in
human serum on the basis of their structural, biological, and antigenic differences.
IgG and IgA have been further subdivided into subclasses IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and
IgG4 also subclasses IgA1 and IgA2 on the basis of unique antigenic determinants.
Multiple allotypic determinants in the constant region domains of human IgG and IgA
71
molecules as well as kappa (?) light chains indicate inherited genetic markers. Finally,
there are several immunoglobulin-associated polypeptides such as secretory
component (SC) and J chain that have no structural homology with the
immunoglobulins, but serve important functions in immunoglobulin polymerization
and transport across membranes into a variety of secretions (e.g., saliva, sweat, nasal
secretions, breast milk, and colostrum). This diversity of the immunoglobulin
components of the humoral immune system provides a complex network of protective
and surveillance functions.224
General Structural Properties of Immunoglobulins

Immunoglobulins are functionally defined as glycoproteins that possess the
ability to bind to substances (antigens) those have elicited their formation. As a group,
the immunoglobulins are composed of 8296% polypeptides and 418%
carbohydrate, and they account for approximately 20% of all proteins in plasma. The
basic component of each is a symmetric unit containing four polypeptide chains. The
two long cha ins are called heavy chains, whereas the two short chains are called light
chains. There are two types of light chains, ? and ?, and eight types of heavy chains.
The chains are joined by disulfide bridges that permit mobility, and there are
intrachain disulfide bridges as well. In addition, the heavy chains are flexible in a
region called the hinge. Each heavy chain has a variable (V) segment in which the
amino acid sequence is highly variable, a diversity (D) segment in which the amino
acid segment is also highly variable, a joining (J) segment in which it is moderately
variable, and a constant (C) segment in which the sequence is constant. Each light
chain has a V, a J, and a C segment. The V segments form part of the antigen-binding
sites (Fab portion of the molecule. The Fc portion of the molecule is the effector
portion, which mediates the reactions initiated by antibodies.
Two of the classes of immunoglobulins contain additional polypeptide

components. In IgMs, five of the basic immunoglobulins units join around a
polypeptide called the J chain to form a pentamer. In IgAs, the secretory
immunoglobulins, the immunoglobulins units form dimers and trimers around a J
chain and a polypeptide that comes from epithelial cells, the secretory component
(SC).
72
Figure No. 4. Showing components of immunoglobulin 225
Immunoglobulin G
In healthy adults, the four polypeptide chain IgG monomer (150,000 MW)
constitutes approximately 75% of the total serum immunoglobulins. It is the main
immunoglobulin molecule in the body, accounting for approximately 70% of the total
serum immunoglobulins in normal serum. It is freely distributed and exchanges
between the intravascular and extravascular spaces, percolates freely the tissue spaces
and returns to the circulation through the thoracic duct. It is the only immunoglobulin
molecule capable of crossing the placenta. This provides protection for the fetus and
newborn. However, it usually does not enter living cells and does not cross the bloodbrain barrier except in inflammation in the subarachnoid space where local synthesis
of IgG has been demonstrated. IgG plays a central role in immunity against pyogenic
and other bacterial infections. It is the main neutralizing antibody and also plays a
central role in the opsonic process of enhanced phagocytosis. The IgG class of
antibodies can be involved in causing immunologically mediated diseases through
type II or type III hypersensitivity mechanisms.
Human IgG has been subdivided into four subclasses on the basis of unique
antigenic determinants. Relative subclass percentages of the total IgG in serum are
IgG1, 6070%; IgG2, 1420%; IgG3, 48%; and IgG4, 26%.IgG1, IgG2, and IgG4
possess an MW of approximately 150,000, whereas IgG3 is heavier. IgG3s highly
rigid hinge region promotes accessibility of proteolytic enzymes to sensitive Fc
73
cleavage sites, which results in an increased fractional catabolic rate and a shorter
biological half life (78 days) than has been observed for IgG1, IgG2, and IgG4 (21
24 days). In terms of complement activation, IgG1 and IgG3 are the most effective,
whereas IgG4 due to its compact structure does not readily activate the classical
pathway of complement. IgG4 is responsible for immune inflammation. Moreover,
IgG4 antibodies have the ability to interfere with immune inflammation caused by the
interaction of complement- fixing IgG subclasses with antigen. Researchers in the
field of allergy have speculated that IgG4 antibodies also scavenge antigen that
prevents mast cell-bound IgE antibody from being cross- linked by antigen, and thus
blocking IgE- mediated hypersensitivity reactions in atopic individuals who have
undergone immunotherapy. Other important structural and biological differences
among the human IgG subclasses relate to their Fc receptor binding, and the different
binding sites on the constant region domains for rheumatoid factors, complement
components, and bacterial proteins (protein A and protein G).226
Immunoglobulin M
IgM is a pentameric immunoglobulin of approximately 900,000 MW that is
composed of a J chain and five IgM monomers. Pentameric IgM constitutes
approximately 10% of serum immunoglobulins in healthy individuals. Along with
IgD, monomeric IgM is also a major immunoglobulin that is expressed on the surface
of B cells where it serves as an antigen receptor. IgM antibodies are clinically
important because they predominate as an antigen receptor in early immune responses
to most antigens. It is predominantly found in the intravascular compartment. It has
10 identical antigen-combining sites that account for some of its special properties.
Firstly, it is several- fold more efficient in activating complement cascade than IgG
antibodies. This property makes IgM especially effective in carrying out lysis of
foreign cells. Secondly, due to its size, it is highly efficient in linking particulate
matters together (e.g. agglutination that facilitates phagocytosis). IgM antibodies are
highly efficient in activating the classical complement pathway. 227
Immunoglobulin A
It is the predominant immunoglobulin in colostrum, saliva, tears, bronchial
secretions, nasal mucosa, prostatic fluid, vaginal secretions, and mucous secretions of
74
the
small
intestine.
It
constitutes
approximately
20%of
the
total
serum
immunoglobulins. In terms of complement activation, IgA poorly activates the

classical pathway. This process has been hypothesized as a host mechanism for
attenuating inflammatory responses induced by IgG antibodies at the mucosal surface.
In contrast, IgA reportedly activates the alternative pathway of complement to provide
some direct protective functions. IgA, once bound to a bacterial or parasitic surface
antigen, may bind CD89 (IgA receptor) on inflammatory cells (monocytes,
macrophages, neutrophils, and eosinophils), leading to their destruction by means of
antibody dependent cell- mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC). Moreover, its binding to viral
or microbial surface antigens may restrict the mobility of microorganisms and prevent
their binding to mucosal epithelium. Finally, secretory IgA can play an important first
line of defense in antigen clearance by binding to antigens that leak across an
epithelium and transporting them back across to prevent their entry. 228
It is found in three molecular forms. In the blood it is present in monomeric 7S

form. Immunologically, its main role is in providing immunity at the mucosal surface
in the form of dimeric 10S secretory antibody. This form of IgA is synthesized and
secreted by plasma cells in the laminae propriae underlying most mucosal surfaces in
the body (gut, respiratory tract, genito-urinary tract) and transported across the
epithelial surfaces into the various body fluids, e.g. saliva, tears, colostrum, intestinal
juice, bile, respiratory secretions and genital secretions. The third form of IgA is 11S
secretory IgA that has incorporated a peptide called secretory piece, during its passage
through the epithelial cells. The secretory piece makes the molecule relatively
resistant to proteolytic digestion by enzymes in the gut. Secretory IgA is central to
immunity against enteric pathogens including enteric bacteria and viruses.
To summarize, IgAs unique structure resists proteolysis and it functions to

block uptake of antigen, bacterial or viral attachment, limit inflammation induced by
classical pathway complement activation, and promote microbial destruction through
ADCC by binding to leukocyte receptors.
75
Immunoglobulin D (IgD)
IgD is a four-chain monomer of approximately 180,000 MW with a long hinge
region that increases its susceptibility for proteolytic cleavage. Although IgD is
normally present in serum in trace amounts (0.2% of total serum immunoglobulin), it
predominantly serves as a membrane-bound antigen receptor on the surface of
immature human B lymphocytes. Despite suggestions that IgD may be involved in Bcell differentiation, its principal function is as yet unknown. Its main function seems
to be in regulating the maturation of B cells.229
Immunoglobulin E
IgE (190,000 MW) is a unique immunoglobulin that circulates in serum as a
four-chain monomer. Although IgE constitutes only 0.004% of the total serum
immunoglobulins, it possesses a clinically significant biological function by binding
through its Fc region to the alpha chain on high-affinity receptors (FceR1) on mast
cells and basophils.On subsequent exposure to relevant protein allergens from trees,
grasses, weeds, pet dander, molds, foods, or insect venoms, IgE antibodies on mast
cells become cross-linked. This process triggers the production and release of
vasoactive mediators (e.g., histamine, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes) that can
induce mild to severe immediate type I hypersensitivity reactions in sensitized atopic
individuals. IgE is believed to play an important role in immunity against helminthic
infections. To tal serum IgE is commonly expressed in international units per milliliter
(IU/mL) or converted to mass units using 1 IU = 2.44 ng of protein. Recently,
International System of Units have proposed units in which1 SI = 1 g/L; however,
these units have not been widely adopted in clinical immunology laboratories that
perform allergy testing.230
76
Table No.14 Showing Properties of human immunoglobulins (Ig) 231
Ig Class
IgG
IgM
IgA
IgD
IgE
Serum
concentration
(mg/ml)
Molecular
weight
8-16
0.5-2
1.5-4
Trace 0.5
Trace
15,000
900,000
185,000
200,000
Physiological
role
Main
antibody
against
infection
immunity
against
microbes
in tissues
and extra
vascular
Spaces
Role B cell
maturation
step
Immunity
againt
helminthic
infection
60,000
(dimmers
and
polymers
Main
Mucosal
intravascular immunity
antibody,
important
role in
immunity in
circulation
Tissues of the immune system

Lymphoid tissue of the body can be classified as follows:
Stem-cell containing organs: the bone marrow in adults, the foetal liver
Primary (central) lymphoid organs: thymus
Secondary (peripheral) lymphoid organs: lymph nodes; spleen; gut, mucosaassociated and skin-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT, MALT and SALT);
and other lymphoid collections.
Bone marrow
In foetal life the liver is the main source of stem cells. In adult life bone
marrow is the only source of stem cells. White blood cells produced in the bone
marrow, except lymphocytes, are functionally mature and ready to participate in the
defense function. Lymphocytes require a specialized microenvironment and cytokines
for their maturation and differentiation. These requirements are provided by the
thymus, besides providing stem cells, the bone marrow also acts as a primary
lymphoid organ for the maturation and differentiation of B cells in mammals.232
77
Primary (central) lymphoid organs
Thymus
The thymus develops from third part of the fourth pharyngeal pouch. The
relative size and activity of the thymus in relation to body size peaks in the neonatal
period. With the onset of puberty and rise in sex hormone levels the thymus starts to
atrophy. Adrenal steroids also cause its atrophy (as seen during stress). However, the
thymic cortex remains a life- long source of T lymphocytes. The thymic cortex
contains mostly immature, proliferating, short-lived lymphoid cells that leave the
cortex without entering the medulla. On the other hand, the medulla contains mature
elements that are long- lived. The thymus also has a network of epithelial cells. The
epithelial cells elaborate thymic hormones that regulate the process of differentiation
of thymocytes into immunocompetent lymphocytes. While residing in the thymus
lymphocytes also acquire surface membrane markers necessary for the functioning of
mature T cells. During this process they acquire the capacity to differentiate between
self and non-self that is the key to immunological tolerance.233
Secondary (peripheral) lymphoid organs

Lymphocytes that differentiate and mature into immunocompetent T and B
cells migrate out from their primary lymphoid organs into the blood circulation, and
enter the secondary lymphoid organs (lymph nodes; spleen, gut, mucosa, skinassociated lymph tissue). In secondary lymphoid organs there is an orderly
arrangement of T and B lymphocytes in separate areas, called thymus-dependent and
thymus- independent areas, respectively.234
Lymph node
The lymph node consists of a cortex and a medulla. The cortex is further
divided into outer cortex and the deeper areas called paracortex. The outer cortex is
mainly populated by B cells. The paracortex only contains loosely packed T cells. The
medullary area consists of strands of connective tissue surrounded by T and B cells
called medullary cords separated by large medullary sinuses containing mostly plasma
cells and ordinary phagocytic macrophages. Foreign antigens detained in lymph nodes
are phagocytosed, processed and presented predominantly to immunocompetent T
cells, leading to a predominantly cell- mediated immune response.
78
Spleen
The lymphoid tissue in the spleen is mostly localized in the white pulp region
a sheath of lymphoid tissue surrounding the splenic arterioles. It has been termed
periarteriolar lymphatic sheath (PALS). The basic arrangement of specialized T and B
areas found in lymph nodes is also retained in the lymphoid tissue in the spleen. Thus,
PALS consists of loosely packed T cells (comparable to the paracortex of lymph
nodes) interspersed with irregularly scattered lymph follicles that mostly consist of B
cells and the antigen-presenting interdigitating cells. The region in the spleen that is
called red pulp, along with the splenic sinuses, is comparable to the medulla of lymph
nodes. These splenic areas are mostly populated with phagocytic macrophages and
plasma cells. However, unlike lymph nodes that functions as filters in the path of
lymphatics, the spleen acts as a filter in the path of blood circulation. It detains
foreign antigens (mostly microbial cells that may have gained access in the
circulation) and generates a predominantly humoral immune response against them. 235
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
The mucosal lining of the gut, respiratory and genitourinary tracts provide the
main portals of entry to disease-producing micro-organisms. To protect the body
against such infections nature has provided diffuse or semi-organized mucosaassociated lymphoid tissue (MALT). This may either be present in the form of a
single discrete follicle in the lamina propria or in the form of organized site-specific
multifollicular aggregates extend ing in the submucosa, e.g., Peyers patches, appendix
and tonsils.
Peyers patches, found in the lower intestine, contain both T and B cells with a
higher proportion of the latter that are precursors of IgA-synthesizing plasma cells.
The ingested antigens are transported to the lymphoid tissue in the lamina propria,
processed and presented to CD4+ TH cells which provide help to B cells to mature
into IgA-secreting plasma cells. These plasma cells re-enter the circulation and
populate the lamina propria throughout the intestinal mucosa. Similar lymphoid
collections are also seen under the mucosal lining of the tonsils, respiratory and
genito-urinary tracts and under the conjunctival lining of the eyes.236
Thus a modest review of modern concepts with special reference to their
relation with ojas has been carried out.
79
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
As it was literary study following were the materials used
Charaka Samhita and its commentaries
Ayurveda Deepika
Jalpakalpataru Teeka
Charakopaskar teeka
Sushruta Samhita and its commentaries
Nibandh Sangraha Teeka
Bhanumati Teeka
Sushrutartha Sandipani Teeka
Ashtanga Sangraha with Shashilekha Teeka
Ashtanga Hrudaya with its commentaries
Sarvanga Sundari Teeka
Ayurveda Rasayana Teeka
Padartha Chandrika Teeka
Sharangadhara Samhita with its commentaries
Deepika Teeka
Gudhartha Deepika
Bhavaprakash Samhita
Madhava Nidana
Kashyapa Samhita
Rasa Vaisheshika Sutras
Bhela Samhita and many other Samhitas, along with their translations in Hindi,
English were studied. Recent period textbooks and other publications were also
studied in the course of study.
80
Many books from modern medicine of following subjects
Physiology
Pathology
Pharmacology
Medicine
Cardiology
Immunology
Along with other reviews, archive issues of journals were used to review
concepts in modern medicine.
Sources of Materials
The literary sources for the present work are obtained from
Library, Government Ayurveda Medical College, Mysore
Library, Mysore Medical College & Research Institute, Mysore.
Library, J.S.S. Medical College, Mysore.
Internet.
Methods
Meticulous review of available Ayurvedic Samhitas and textbooks was done

in order to compile literature related to concept of ojas.
Re arrangement of various opinions, different schools of thoughts was done in

order to understand them in a better manner.
Review of modern textbooks, journals and internet articles was done to find
parallel entities.
Previous works, published opinions of different scholars were studied in this

regard to get a comprehensive idea.
Discussions with large number of scholars and experts in the field of Ayurveda
were carried out.
Based on this ground work a list of various concepts from modern medicine
having similarity with concept of ojas was prepared.
81
Exhaustive discussions were carried out with experts of various specialties in

modern medicine for understanding their views on presence of such concepts
in modern medicine.
Expert opinions were also taken in consideration and reviews of modern

medicine were cross checked for any mistakes or additions if any from these
experts.
Many journals including high impact international journals were referred for
getting recent advances in these fields from internet and other sources.
Interactions with large number of scholars, experts in the field of Ayurveda

and renowned experts in different specialties in modern medicine were
conducted as a part of study.
Discussion on various different schools of thoughts and an attempt to

understand this concept in a better way was carried out.
Tantrayuktis, different vadas and nyayas were applied in different occasions in

order to achieve better understanding.
82
DISCUSSION
Discussion on Title:
Title of the study was selected as Fundamental Study on Concept of Ojas.
From the perspective of Ayurveda Siddhanta ojas is a unique concept in Ayurveda. It
is given importance above doshadhatumalas, which are functional basis of human
body. It is one among those factors on which existence of life depends. Among all
functional entities ojas is unique in its sense that its increase above the normal limit is
also beneficial for human life. Doshadhatumalas when in equilibrium are beneficial
for human life. Increase as well as decrease both qualitatively and quantitatively in
doshadhatumalas is cause for disease. In this context ojas differs from these and
stands high / above of these as its increase above equilibrium is also helpful to body.
Though being quoted as saptadhatusaara it has been quoted as separate entity.

Some schools of thoughts consider ojas as upadhatu, some as dhatumala and some as
ashtama/eighth dhatu. Few references quote rasadhatu, raktadhatu, prakruta kapha,
ushma etc. as ojas. About types of ojas current accepted version mainly depends on
opinion of Acharya Chakrapanidatta and direct references of ojas types are scanty in
Ayurvedic literature. Sthana of ojas is hrudaya as well as complete human body.
Quantification of ojas is also available factors affecting status of ojas are also quoted
and range from different daily regimens to iatrogenic effects of panchakarma
procedures.
Treatment procedures, drugs are quoted for augmentation of ojas.
Involvement of ojas in certain diseases is also widely quoted. In spite of this much
vast literature available on ojas, in this era of evidence based medicine comprehensive
description of concept of ojas is yet not achieved.
Bala is usually quoted as Ayurvedic equivalent of immunity, ojas being reason

/ karana for bala is in turn responsible for maintenance of bala. In case of decreased
bala treatment also focuses on augmentation of ojas which in turn increases bala.
Modern concept of immunity has grown from mere infectious diseases to

autoimmune disorders, tumor immunology, and rejection of transplanted organs
taking under its preview. Recent trends in field of immunology are focusing on role
83
of immune system in all most all tissues / systems of human body. At the same time
new multidimensional roles of substances conventionally quoted as members of
immune system are being discovered with help of recent advances in this field.
In this changing scenario it is high time to study concept of ojas in its totality.
For this purpose available Ayurvedic literature on concept of ojas, study of specific
diseases involving ojas in their pathophysiology, study of effect of treatment
procedures used in these diseases on ojas and utility of ojas augmentation in treatment
of these diseases are few aspects which are needed to be studied. This will not only
help to understand concept of ojas but may also improve chances of better treatment
options for managing these diseases. Role of ojas in maintaining healthy status as
well as positive health is also one of the important aspects in prophylaxis of diseases.
Thus comprehensive study of concept of ojas is needed and much more at this
time when immunological disorders are one of biggest problems in front of medical
fraternity.
As a student of Ayurveda, aaptopadesha is one important pramana for us to

study any concept. A complete review of all different school of thoughts/versions of
Ayurvedic scholars on ojas is first and foremost work to be done in this regard. This
review will not only help in understanding different views but also important to
understand different aspects of ojas in turn enriching utility of concept of ojas.
For understanding diseases and the intricate pathology, relation between karya
and karanarupi disease and to prevent diseases also understanding of ojas plays a
vital role. This may prove beneficial to understand possible mode of action of drugs /
formulations used for augmentation of ojas.
An attempt to find out modern co-relation if any; is also necessary to explain

this concept to students, researchers and easy understanding to modern world. Thus
for these necessities a thorough literature survey of Ayurvedic literature regarding
ojas is selected as topic for this study. As it forms foundation /basis of all works on
ojas its title was designed as Fundamental Study on Concept of Ojas.
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Discussion on Paryayapadas of Ojas
Bala word is used by Acharya Sushruta for ojas as synonym, at various other
places we find words ojas and bala used in same line / pada of shloka by which it can
be understood that these are two different entities. Few contexts of such usage as an
example are quoted bellow.
a)
Ahara is moola for ojas, bala, varna and
b)
Avyapanna i.e. proper rutus/seasons are reason for increase in bala and ojas.
Thus above description clears that ojas and bala are separate entities, still a
question remains why ojas is called as bala. One important point to be noted here
ojas is quoted as bala but bala is not called as ojas. Reason for this is Ayurveda
accepts satkaryavada siddhanta of Sankhya philosophy. According to satkaryavada,
karya (product) is not a separate/different entity from karana (cause) but it is a
rupantara / transformation of karana. Thus there is no difference between karana
and karya.237 In another words there is nothing separate entity which can be called
karya. To further emphasize this; karya is quoted as karana. In the case of ojas and
bala, ojas is karana and bala is karya, to show that bala is not different from ojas;
ojas is called as bala. Other terms such as rasa, rakta, prakruta kapha and ushma are
also quoted as ojas but clearly are different entities from ojas. Those uses are limited
to specific contexts and cannot be generalized. Dharee and mahat are two words used
for ojas by Acharya Charaka. These are paryayas used for hrudaya and are used to
indicate function of para ojas which is hrudayashrayee. So thus word ojas does not
have any generalized paryaya padas used in Ayurvedic literature.
Regarding different words related to ojas, only Sa karanta napumsaka lingi

word is used in Ayurveda. Meaning of which as per lexicons and grammar is bala.
But as bala is a technical term having its own meaning in Ayurvedic science, its better
to take sapta dhatu saara as meaning of word ojas which can be translated as essence
of body.
Acharya Sushruta has used word Ojas in meaning of prabhava/aatmashakti

(innate strength) of drugs.238
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Ojo Swaroopa
Few questions are to discussed before approaching to definition and other
descriptions. These are;
Is Ojas dravyarupa or shaktirupa?
It is panchabhautika or not?
Is it vyakta or avyakta?
Is is separate from doshadhatumalas or is a part of them?
One more question is ojas a dravya? If the answer is yes then it is vyakta or
avyakta? In Ayurveda certain dravyas are quoted as avyakta example vata. We can
understand / infer vata only by its karmas and its pratyaksha is not possible. In case
of such dravyas any descriptions regarding varna / color, pramana / quantity, and
gandha /smell are not available in Ayurvedic classics.
Regarding vata we dont find mention of varna, gandha or pramana where as

for other two doshas pitta and kapha; varna, gandha or pramana etc. are explained.
In case of ojas its color sarpi varna; smell as lajagandha and taste as madhu rasa are
explained. Quantity of ojas is also described. Karmas of ojas are also described. Thus
as ojas has gunas and karmas it must be a dravya. Further description of
pratyakshagamya gunas with quantification signifies towards its vyakta nature. Thus
ojas is vyakta dravya.
In description of eighteen kshayas Acharya Charaka has quoted kshayas of

doshas, dhatus and malas and after these kshayas, ojokshaya is quoted separately
which clearly signifies that ojas is separate entity from these doshadhatumalas.
Various description regarding ojas as upadhatu and mala of shukra are also
available but these are limited to certain contexts.
Thus ojas is separate entity from dosha-dhatumalas, upadhatus and bala.

It has close relations with manas and hrudaya. It is also very closely related to
dhatu saaras.
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Thus ojas is panchadhautika, vyakta dravya which is separate dravya in
shareera different from dosha, dhatumalas and upadhatus and bala etc.
Discussion on Definition
Acharya Charaka while defining ojas covers sthana and varna of ojas giving
more emphasis on its colour. Acharya Sushruta quotes definition of ojas giving more
emphasis on its relation to sapta dhatus. Other definitions of different Acharyas are
various versions revolving around these two central themes. By further extending
purview of Acharya Charakas version that ojas is carried by ojovaha dhamanis
through human body by, it is very clear that this description is about ura pradeshastha
hrudaya only. Word hrudaya may have different meanings according to contexts but
in this context of sthana of ojas hrudaya is heart, which is situated in thoracic cavity.
Few supports of this are;
Vahana of ojas from dasha ojovaha dhamanis all over shareera starting from
hrudaya
Intimate / close relation between hrudaya and ojas
Vitiation of ojas by madya and visha in hrudaya.

Thus from above versions it can be inferred that ojas is a dravya soumya in
nature having gurvadi dasha gunas situated in hrudaya and formed from saptadhatu
saara having functions of deha dharana.
Being reason for bala it is quoted as bala also but this is to show similarities
between them. Basic difference between these two entities is ojas is dravya rupa but
bala is karma rupa.
Gunas of Ojas
Twenty gurvadi gunas explained in Ayurvedic classics are called as shareera
gunas. They form basis of application of samanya vishesha siddhanta in shareera.
Among twenty gunas ten gunas such as guru, sheeta, snigdha, mrudu, picchila,
manda, sthira, shlakshna, sandra are anabolic in nature and opposite ten gunas such
as laghu, ushna, ruksha, kathina, khara, sara etc, are catabolic in nature. Acharya
Charaka quotes all ten guru etc anabolic gunas as gunas of ojas. This is symbolic
representation, which is meant to explain anabolic nature of ojas.
Other Acharyas
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also give emphasis on soumya nature of ojas. Madhura rasa, bahala and prasanna
gunas further support this claim.
In another way guru guna can be interpreted as having heavy molecular

weight. Sheeta guna can be understood as veerya of ojas, snigdha guna of ojas can be
interpreted as it is having more fat / lipid content. Mrudu, shlakshna gunas explain
about its soft touch and smooth texture, which also signify towards major lipid
context of ojas. Rasa/taste of ojas is quoted as madhura in one context and in another
context it is quoted as having madhu rasa. Rasa of madhu/honey is madhura rasa and
kashaya anurasa. Thus there is no difference in two opinions. Sthira is quoted as
guna of ojas by Acharya Charaka at the same time Acharya Sushruta quotes sara
guna. All Acharyas accept that ojas is supplied to all body by dhamanis from
hrudaya. Here sthira guna is explained as nature of ojas i.e. structurally or chemical
stability nature and sara for its movement or circulation through human body.
Another way of interpretation can be sara word explains motion/movement of ojas
through human body, during movement ojas helps to achieve stability or sthairya in
all deha dhatus.
Bahala indicate sandra i.e., dense or viscous means having more viscosity.
Bahala is quoted as shukra guna in another context where, Acharya Gangadhara has
commented it as sandra, the same can be implied in this context by angatavekshana
tantrayukti.
Acharya Chakrapani comments on vivikta guna as which does not
undergo staleness.
This in another way can be interpreted as ojas is produced,
utilized and metabolized continuously. This cycle goes on and there is no storage of
ojas. In other words ojas is biologically active for very small period of time. Soumya
swaroopa/nature of ojas can be interpreted as it is mainly made up of soma i.e. having
predominance of someeya tatvas. Madhura rasa is also quoted as having created
from soumya guna atireka. Pruthvi and jala are predominant mahabhutas in creation
of madhura rasa, so applying this in context of ojas it can be said that ojas is having
predominance of jala and prithvi mahabhutas; which is quoted or explained by its
soumya swaroopa. Acharya Haranachandra comments on guna sthira as one which
keeps human being stable / sthira in sukha and dukha i.e. maintains homeostasis in
human body. This can be interpreted as ojas maintains, sustains highest quality of
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health and protects the human body from both the types of external stimuli sukha /
good or dukha / bad. In Ayurvedic classics, word sukha is used for arogya and dukha
for roga, so ojas is one which stabilizes sukha i.e., aarogya and sustains pranas of
pranee in dukha or vyadhi. Another support for this is if ojas becomes asthira then
there may be loss of life, as in asthama masa of garbha avastha. Color of ojas is
predominantly white but having yellow and red as shades or accessory colors. White
color here represents its contribution from shukra and reddish yellow represent
contribution from artava.
A chart of gunas of ojas, their brief description is tabula ted bellow.

Information from different classics is compiled and quoted in a tabular form.
Table No.15 Showing the Mahabhuta Predominance and Karmas of Ojogunas

Gunas of Ojas
Mahabhuta predominance
Karma
Snigdha
Prithvi + Jala
Kledana
Sheeta
Jala
Stambhana
Guru
Prithvi + Jala
Brumhana
Mrudu
Jala + Aakasha
Shlathana
Picchila
Jala
Lepana
Manda
Prithvi + Jala
Shamana
Sthira
Prithvi
Dharana
Shlakshna
Jala
Ropana
Sandra
Jala
Prasadana
Thus in short gunas of ojas can be explained as predominantly lipid containing

substances having high molecular weight with higher density and viscosity. It is the
potential of human body to sustain from external stimuli and is anabolic in nature.
Physical properties such as color are symbolic representation of contribution from
shukra and shonita in utpatti of ojas.
Karmas of Ojas
Sthira and upachita mamsata is one of the important karma of ojas. This can
be interpreted as qualitative supremacy of mamsa, which is reflected from word
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upachita. Sthira can be interpreted as physiologically stable having capacity to
overcome stress and or other strains. Acharya Chakrapani has rightly quoted that
description of mamsa sthirata and upachitata is a symbolic representation and it
should be applied for all other dhatus also, by pradesha tantrayukti. Thus ojas does
karma of bringing upachitata i.e., prosperity / increase in all dhatus. Ojas makes these
dhatus strong/stable; to overcome from effects of other factors deviating them from
normalcy.
Sarvacheshtasu apratighata is also an important karma of ojas. Word sarva is
interpreted as kaya, vacha and manas meaning vyaparas of all the thereof them. Thus
ojas helps all these three components for carrying their functions / actions. This can
be understood in two ways; one ojas directly participating in all these actions or
secondly it indirectly stimulate / regulate / control / govern these actions. Second
mode seems to be more logical and also supported by karma of shareera dharana.
Swaraprasada and varnaprasada are functions of ojas, Acharya Kashypa has quoted
that swara reflects status of saara of a person
239.
In another way it can be said that
saara is responsible for good or pure swara. Ojas being saptadhatu saara brings
about clearness / prasada of swara. Varnaprasada means clearness in varna i.e. color
of body. Vishuddha rakta is one among causes of varna
240
. Ojas being saptadhatu
saara also includes rakta saara and hence does karma of varna prasadana. Another
way of interpretation is twacha does prakashana of varna. Twacha is upadhatu of
mamsa. Bringing sthiratva and upachitata in mamsa is karma of ojas; prakruta
avastha of mamsa helps twacha to maintain its normal functions thus plays a role in
varna prasadana. Similarly, ojas also help in proper functioning of upadhatus also.
Ojas helps bahya and abhyantara karanas to perform their functions.
Different versions of interpretation of these are;
a)
Bhaya
karanas
means
karmendriyas,
abhyantara
karanas
means
jnyanendriyas.
b)
Bhaya karanas means karmendriyas and jnyanendriyas and abhyantara

karanas means manas, buddhi etc.
c)
Bhaya karanas means karmendriyas and abhyantara karanas means

jnyanendriyas and manas
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Among the three; third version seems to be more appropriate as all
karmendriyas and jnyanendriyas cannot function without manas. Manas is
anuvidhayee of ojas. Increase in ojas increases capacity of manas to perform its
normal functions241 . Thus ojas is responsible for pratipatti of manas in swakarya.
Jnyanendriyas and karmendriyas are dependent on manas for their kriya and manas is
dependent on ojas thus it can be said that jnyanendriyas and karmendriyas are
dependent on ojas for their functions.
Shareera dharana is also one of the karmas of ojas. In this same sense
Acharya Charaka has used words dharee and mahat for ojas. Dharee means which
does dharana of shareera and prevents it from decaying. Acharya Chakrapani in
context of word dharee in ayu paryaya opines as, one which protects body from
putrefaction is called as dharee242 . It can be applied in this context. Acharya
Chakrapani is also of opinion that ojas is called as dharee because it maintains jeeva
dharaka samyoga. Definition of ayu is samyoga of shareera satva, atma and indriyas.
Acharya Hemadri has quoted one more important function of ojas as it helps in decent
of jeeva in garbha. Thus it can be said that ojas has a role in initiating and
maintaining samyoga of atma, manas with deha and indriya in order to initiate and
maintain ayu. For explaining this very important function word dharee is used in
karma of ojas.
Deha preenana is one among functions of ojas. Ojas is supplied all over body
by dhamanis and this does preenana of whole body. Acharya Charaka quotes that ten
ojovaha dhamanis do vidhamana of ojas through their various branches. Thus
preenana of ojas is achieved with the help of its spreading or flowing through
complete body starting from hrudaya then coming to ten ojovaha dhamanis and then
all over body through various branches of these dhamanis. Ashtanga Hrudaya
provides nearly same explanation but the only difference is this moving type of ojas is
quoted as rasatmaka. Rasatmaka word has two meanings one it is originated from
aahararasa and another as it is fluid in nature. Thus ojas which is formed from
aahararasa and having fluid nature is supplied to body. It is spread / distributed all
over body from hrudaya through dasha ojovaha dhamanis and their branches. Vyana
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vayu helps / performs movement of ojas through human body as that of rasa
vikshepana.
Ojas is one among dasha pranayatanas. Pranayatanas are ashraya for prana.
Ashtanga Sangraha quotes ojas as supreme / superior most jeevitaspada. Aspada
means place, position/ abode. When compared to other abodes such as shira; ojas is
supreme / superior abode of jeeva. This in turn emphasizes that ojas while moving
from hrudaya to sarva shareera for tarpana of shareera also goes to shira pradesha
and do tarpana of it. Shira is ashraya for pranas and indriyas243 . Shira tarpana /
preenana is done by ojas and hence ojas is supreme ashraya of prana.
Dehasthiti nibandhana is also among important karmas of ojas. Nibandhana
word means act of fastening or binding together. This in other words can be called as
coordinating among various functions. This can be explained as ojas does
coordination and / or fasten various functions essential for deha sthiti. Deha to
maintain its sthiti needs a wide range of functions / karmas. Human body is a very
complex system where millions of millions actions / functions are going on, there
must be coordination among these actions. In fact these actions are interdependent
and collectively maintain deha sthiti. Ojas is sara of sapta dhatus and present all over
body. Thus it coordinates all different actions of different deha dhatus and does
nibandhana of deha sthiti i.e regulation of body mechanisms. In another words ojas
performs functions as a tissue binder. Ashtanga Hrudaya explains one more function
of ojas as nishpandana of vividha deha samshrita bhavas. Acharya Bhavamishra
quotes these bhavas as utsaha, pratibha, dhairya, lavanya and sukumarata. Ojas not
only regulate body mechanisms at somatic level but also at the level of psyche.
Among these bhavas pratibha and dhairya are manasika bhavas, which are created
from ojas. Lavanya, sukumarata are related to complexion of body and those are also
originated from ojas.
Shareera balapushti is one among karmas of ojas specifically quoted by a
Acharya Sharangadhara and Acharya Bhavamishra. Shareera bala can be interpreted
as bala of shareera. Shareerika bala and manasika bala are two different entities.
This is also clear from ojo kshaya lakshanas explained by Acharya Charaka. These
lakshanas include durbala and durmana separately. Acharya Chakrapani comments
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on word durmana as manobala viheena. Acharya Sushrutas version of quoting ojas
as bala includes both shareerika and manasika bala. Thus it is not different or new
function but separately mentioned in later period Acharyas. Ojas is not only ashraya
of manas but also controls manas. Word anuvidhayeena means one which is
following or going behind by force.
Types of Ojas
Ashtanga Sangraha is only text among brihat trayee which provides reference
for two types of ojas directly. Acharya Charaka has quoted word para from which
Acharya Chakrapani explains two types of ojas as para and apara. Acharya Charaka
explains shlaishmika ojas and explains its pramana. Two types of ojas quoted by
Ashtanga Sangraha are para and rasatmaka. Word rasatmaka shows two things one
rasa / fluid nature and another utpatti from aahararasa. Another way of interpretation
of rasatmaka is having similarity with rasa dhatu. Rasa dhatu is soumya in nature and
ojas is also soumya in nature. So it can be interpreted as having predominant
properties and karmas soumya in nature.
Acharya Charaka quotes shlaishmika ojas in the context of pramana of ojas
which is commented by Acharya Chakrapani as poshana of apara ojas is done by
shleshma. Another interpretation of this word shlaishmika can be is having similar
gunas and karmas as that of shleshma. This view can be supported from another
context where Acharya Charka quotes prakruta kapha as ojas. Thus shlaishmika ojas
is having predominant gunas and karma similar as that of shleshma. Shleshma is
soumya in nature or in another words soma does / performs its functions by virtue of
kapha in shareera. Thus rasatmaka of Ashtanga Sangraha and Shlaishmika of
Acharya Charaka are meaning one and the same.
Acharya Chakrapanis opinion of para and apara is accepted and gives
answer to many questions regarding oja kshaya lakshanas and their effects on human
body. Apara ojas as per Acharya Charakapani is nothing but shlaishmika ojas quoted
by Acharya Charaka. Thus para and apara are only two types of ojas. Apara is also
quoted as shlaishmika or rasatmaka.
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By meticulous observation of gunas and karmas of ojas no separate gunas or
karmas are quoted for two different types of ojas. Both of the types have same gunas
similarly in the context of karmas we dont find a division between these karmas
among two types of ojas. This suggests that though ojas is having two different types
there is not much difference in gunas of these two types. Regarding karmas of ojas
both these types collectively take part in all these functions. The only evident
difference between these two types is change in pramana and sthana. Thus it seems
more logical that two types of ojas are not two different dravyas having structural
variations but a single dravya having two different sthanas and pramanas with basic
similarity of guna and karmas. Owing to difference of sthanas and pramanas ojas is
quoted as having two types.
Acharya Bhavamishra while quoting classics classifies ojas as of two rupas/

forms aagneya and soumya. If gunas and karmas of ojas are observed, its mahabhuta
predominance is seen, it signifies towards soumya nature. Acharya Bhavamishras
opinion is not about types but methods of description. This can be interpreted as agni,
jeevashoneeta, teja are also quoted as ojas. He while summarizing the different
schools of thoughts in his purvavarti/ prior period has observed this and quoted in
above fashion. In consecutive shloka he quotes ten soumya gunas of ojas. Thus
Acharya Bhavamishras opinion is regarding various trends of descriptions of ojas in
Ayurveda classics and not about types of ojas. Agni, rakta, ushma and dhatu teja
being called as ojas in different context is already reviewed and will be discussed in
due course. Thus ojas is a soumya dravya having two types, para and apara. Apara
also called as rasatmaka or shlaishmika.
Deha preenana is also one among functions of ojas. Ojas is supplied all over
body by dhamanis and does preenana of whole body. Acharya Charaka quotes that
ten ojovaha dhamanis do vidhamana of ojas through their various branches.
Sthanas of Ojas
Acharya Charaka quotes the sthana of ojas as hrudaya; word used by
Acharya Charka is tishthati which means it stands, resides in hrudaya. Sthana of
apara ojas is hrudaya and dasha ojovaha dhamanis.
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Acharya Chakrapani comments, sthana of apara ojas is dasha ojovaha
dhamanis. Acharya Sushruta has an opinion that whole shareera can maintain its
proper state, if and if only they are vyapta by ojas thus signifying sarva shareera as
sthana of ojas. Other Acharyas also quote that either hrudaya or sarva shareera as
sthana of ojas. Hrudaya in this context is ura pradesha sthita dwyangula visteerna
avayava only. This is evident from discussion in Chakrapani teeka where it is
described how hrudaya is having two anguals vistara is ashraya of shadangas.
Acharya Charaka has quoted hrudaya as sthana in two versions, one is that,
hrudaya helps some other avayavas for their normal functions and hence these
avayavas are called as pratishtita in hrudaya. In another condition hrudaya called as
sthana, which means it is not functional /regulatory site but is structurally or directly
seated in hrudaya. Shadangas are example for first and ojas is example for second
version. Thus ojas is structurally present in hrudaya and hence hrudaya is sthana of
para ojas. This is regarding para ojas.
Apara ojas is being liquid in nature and is distributed all over shareera
through dhamanis; hence sarvashareera is called as sthana of ojas. Thus hrudaya
when quoted as sthana of ojas has two meanings
1.
It is sthana of para ojas
2.
It helps in movement of apara ojas in all body and hence to show importance
of hrudaya in movement of ojas through shareera hrudaya is called as sthana.
Sarva shareera is sthana of apara ojas as it is supplied all over body by virtue
of dasha dhamanis. For this same reason dasha ojovaha dhamanis are called as
sthana of ojas.
Acharya Bhela quotes twelve sthanas of ojas/tejas, which are pitta and kapha,
rasadi sapta dhatus and three malas, i.e. purisha, mutra and sweda.
This can be interpreted, as doshadhatumalas are physiological basis of
shareera. Vata among these entities is not having vyakta rupa. Ojas helps dehadhatus
to maintain their karya. In swastha avastha these doshadhatumalas are called as
dhatus as they have functions in deha dharana. Thus in swastha avastha ojas helps
these dosha, dhatu and malas to perform their functions.
95
In another way ojas karmas are seen through these doshadhatumalas as these
doshadhatumalas reflect karmas of ojas and hence are called as sthanas. Pakwashaya
and adho shareera are called as vata sthanas because vata karmas are seen more in
these areas. Applying the same these all doshadhatumalas are called as sthanas of
ojas. Exclusion of vata from these can be understood as vata being avyakta cannot be
ashraya for another vyakta draya i.e. ojas. Further extending this thought these
sthanas can also play a role in pareeksha of ojas also.
Utpatti of Ojas
Acharya Charka quotes that ojas is first padartha to be created in shareera. At
the time of utpatti/creation it will have sarpi varna, laja gandha and madhu rasa. This
shloka is not accepted by Acharya Chakrapani. He does not comment on this shloka
but just gives a passing remark that this shloka is not widely accepted as a part of
Charaka Samhita. Talking view of other opinions, Acharya Hemadri very clearly
indicate that the same ojas which is mala of shukra enters in garbha and becomes
reddish yellow by contact with (anuviddhatva) with artava and acquires place in
garbha hrudaya.
Acharya Chakrapani in another context comments that ojas is present in saara
of shukra and shonita before garbha janana. Acharya Gangadhara opines that only
shukra contains ojas. One more point to be noted is Acharya Dalhana quotes another
patha which accepts beeja rupi sara of female body which is quoted as stree
vishesha vasa equal to ojas which is soma rupi sara of male body. This stree
vishesha saara is reason for mardava, sukumarata, alparomata, utsaha, drushti,
sthiti, pakti, kanti, and deepti etc. It also undergoes threevidha kshaya as that of ojas.
Ojas is quoted as upadhatu/mala of shukra. This shows its close relation with
shukra and aartava samyoga. Ojas is formed as kitta and garbha is formed as saara
as quoted by Acharya Hemadri. Thus by reviewing these all opinions, it can be
inferred that ojas which is a part of shukra/semen which is deposited in female genital
tract after sexual intercourse. This ojas is termed as mala after garbhotpatti. If ojas is
not present at time of shukra shonita samyoga then jeeva cannot descend in shukra.
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Thus ojas which is present in nara shukra helps descend of jeevatma. It is
obstructed by aartava and it becomes first bhava in garbha. In short ojas is carried
from male body along with shukra into female body which becomes a part of garbha.
This is nothing but transformation of ojas which is quoted by Acharya Charaka as
utpatti.
Pramana of Ojas
As previously discussed all different descriptions of types of ojas are just
change in terms used but principally are pointing towards only two types, Para and
Apara.
Pramana of para ojas: There are two references one ashtabindu and another
shadbinbu, shadbinbu pramana is quoted by Acharya Arunadatta. Ashtabindu
pramana is quoted in Ashtanga Sangraha, Acharya Chakrapani, tantrantara vachana
in Chakrapani teeka and Acharya Hemadri. One point to be noted is if avayava nasha
means little part of this para ojas also gets destroyed then death is the result. This
explains that shadbinbu and ashta bindu cant exist at the same time. One another
possibility is, there may be difference in definitions of bindu by two Acharyas. It is
well known that in ancient India various different mana paddhatis (system of
measurement) were co-existing. One famous example quoted in Ayurvedic textbooks
is Kalinga mana and Magadha mana. According to Kalinga mana one yava is equal
to twelve sarshapa and according to Magadha it is equal to eight sarshapas.244 Thus
reason for difference in pramana of para ojas may be
a)
Change in definition of bindu
b)
Usage of different mana paddhatis.

One more important thing is Acharya Hemadri quote the same pramana of
ojas in very first moment of garbhavastha. In another context it is said that this para
ojas does not undergo vruddhi or kshaya if at all it does undergo kshaya then death is
result.
Thus pramana of para ojas is constant throughout the life. Here one more
important point to be noted is bindu, the measuring unit of ojas also changes
according to growing age and ratio in increase of ojas and size of bindu is maintained.
97
This is a hypothesis for finding a logical solution on basis of literature available.
Further observational and experimental studies are needed to find the truth.
Pramana of apara ojas: Regarding pramana of apara ojas, swa ardhanjali and swa
prasruta are two references available. Beauty of this quantification lies in word swa,
which means when measured by ones own hands. Regarding differences between
ardhanjali and prasruta, two prasrutas make one anjali
245
. Ardhanjali also means
half of anjali so though these two are different words they mean the same measure.
Acharya Kashyapa quotes six-anjali pramana of ojas, which is equal to that of
prakruta kapha. It may be some another dravya, having similar properties that he
wants to quote as ojas. Another possibility is Acharya Charaka quotes pramana of
kapha as six anjali and uses word ojas for it. This might have reflected in quoting
same pramana of ojas. Acharya Gangadhara quotes pramana of ojas as two palas or
eight karshas. According to mana paribhasha one prasruta is made up of two palas
or eight karsha. Thus in prakruta shareera of young well grown healthy individual
average pramana of ojas is two palas. Though it is very clear that person-to-person
variations are there but still Acharya Gangadhara has done an effort towards
generalization, which is also necessary for easy understanding of Shastra vachana.
His opinion that bindu means karsha and eight bindus mean eight karshas hence
ardhanjali and ashta bindu is one and same; needs more elaboration. In
conventionally accepted paryayas of karsha, bindu was not found as paryaya in
Ayurvedic Samhitas or lexicons.
Thus concluding; para ojas has pramana of ashta bindu as widely accepted
version by more number of Acharyas. Shat bindu pramana of Acharya Arunadatta
may be because of difference in measur ing methods or different definitions of bindu.
Apara ojas has pramana of ardhanjali or prasruta in a person when measured by
ones own hands.
Poshana of Ojas
Ahara does poshana of ojas. Different modes of action through which it
occurs are;
1.
Aahara rasa directly does ojoposhana as quoted by Acharya Charaka.

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2.
Poshana of ojas which is saptadhatusaara from saara parts of each dhatu
3.
Poshana /utpatti of ojas by ahara rasa through parinama paksha nyaya by

steps of rasa rakta, mamsa and so on.
Ojovardhaka drugs/aaharas by their prabhava does follow first path and

augment ojas in a shorter span of time. Acharya Charaka has quoted one simile
which says that ojas sambhriyana is done by gunas in
shareera, word gunas
interpreted as saara by Acharya Chakrapani gives clue that dhatu saaras also have
important role in poshana of ojas. Verb sambhriyate is originated from dhatu
sam+bhruy-bharane which mean fulfilling others and also getting fulfilled. In fact it
indicates a union or action which benefits the contributors, receiver as well as donor
to fulfill their necessities. One more point to be noted in this simile is there are
different varieties of phalas and pushpas from which madhu is created. Though these
phalas and pushpas may have different gunas varnas and rasas they collectively yield
one product which is honey. In the similar manner though different dhatu saras have
different gunas but they synergistically contribute in formation of ojas. At the same
time these dhatu saaras also get nurtured /benefited from ojas, thus dhatusaras and
ojas are very closely associated with each other. One more question remains to be
answered is how does poshana of ojas takes place by parinama paksha / kshiradadhi
nyaya. If seen from another aspect parinama paksha is related to utpatti as milk is
converted into curds similarly the saara bhaga of shukra is ojas in other words shukra
is converted into ojas. This is related to utpatti of apara ojas it can be further
supported by views of Acharya Chakrapani quoting ojo janana as karma of shukra
dhatu.
Regarding poshana of para ojas it is also done by ahara rasa, next question is
apara ojas created from shukra dhatu has been quoted as upadhatu as well as mala.
Ashtanga Sangraha, Acharya Chakrapani, Acharya Dalhana, quote that there

is no mala formation after shukra dhatvagni vyapara, still other references from
Ashtanga Hrudaya and Ashtanga Sangraha quote ojas as shukra mala. Acharya
Sharangadhara quotes ojas as upadhatu of shukra, Acharya Hemadri has supported
that ojas is termed as mala in the context of garbha utpatti. Here garbha with saara
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and ojas is kitta. The same can be understood in above said context, in another way
regarding sarvadaihika shukra there is no mala formation but in the context of nara
shareera vishesha shukra at the time of garbha utpatti ojas is mala formed. Word
mala indicate here that ojas is inferior or less important in comparison with garbha
which is termed as saara.
Acharya Sharangadhara quote ojas as upadhatu of shukra, by reviewing

complete list of upadhatus quoted by Acharya Sharangadhara, it is evident that raja
and sthanya are also quoted as upadhatus. It is also said that these upadhatus are
formed in specific periods also.246 Applying this in the context of ojas, it can be
interpreted that ojas in a specific condition is called as upadhatu of shukra. Nara
shareera vishesha shukra when deposited with ojas in female genital tract is helped
by ojas in the process of jeeva utpatti. Upadhatus are those which compliment/help
their respective dhatus in normal functioning, for example twacha being upadhatu of
mamsa compliments lepana function of mamsa. Similarly ojas helps shukra in its
karma of garbha utpatti and hence in this limited context is called as upadhatu of
shukra. Ashtanga Sangraha quotes ojas as mala of shukra in one context, which is
related to garbha utpatti, and condemns mala formation from shukra in another
context which is related to sarvadaihika shukra thus there is no virodha among these
two opinions.
Summarizing all above discussion it can be said that both para and apara ojas
get their poshana from ahara rasa. Apara ojas is created from sarvadaihika shukra in
human body, references quoting ojas as mala of shukra are related in the context of
garbha utpatti and those related to mala with a purpose to show its inferior position
when compared to garbha. References regarding ojas as upadhatu are related to nara
shareera vishesha shukra and are restricted in the context of garbha utpatti, before
utpatti of garbha.
Importance o Ojas
Importance of Ojas in Swasthyarakshana: Ojas is saptadhatusaara and its samyata
is very essential to maintain samya in shareera. It is one among factors which
regulates/coordinates different functions in human body and thus facilitate samya
avastha to be maintained. Ojas helps to deha dhatus in performing their own
100
functions. Thus if ojas is in samyavastha it helps to overcome some vitiating factors
which may vitiate these deha dhatus from normalcy. As quoted earlier ojas has very
close association with dhatu saaras and in turn helps dhatu saaras to function at
optimum levels. Increased dhatu saara functions are basis of next level of swasthya.
This level is called as positive health which can be achieved by augmentation of ojas.
In Vyadhitasya Vyadhiparimoksha: Acharya Charaka has explained one way to

light vitiated doshas as augmentation of bala247 . Thus increased bala itself is enough
to pacify / conquer doshas. This approach is of more importance when there are
limitations in controlling doshas by vigorous treatment modalities because of effects
of vyadhi karshana on shareera. Thus ojas has an important role to play in both
1.
Swasthasya swasthya rakshana
2.
Aaturasya vikaara prashamana
Ojokshaya
One important aspect is to understand appearing differences in description of
ojo kshaya in views of Acharya Charaka and Acharya Sushruta.
Acharya Charaka has quoted ojo kshaya lakshanas and also quoted condition
called ojo nasha. Acharya Sushruta quotes three methods of vitiation of ojas as
visramsa, vyapat and kshaya. Acharya Dalhana has tried to differentiate nidanas of
ojo kshaya in three different groups.
Along with the lakshanas quoted, swagunakarma hanee is seen in vyapat and
visramsa as quoted by Acharya Dalhana and Acharya Chakrapani. Ojokshaya
lakshanas quoted by Acharya Charaka are nothing but swagunakarma kshaya of ojas.
Thus visramasa and vyapat have symptoms of Acharya Charakas kshaya along with
some other symptoms. Other symptoms are because of involvement vatadi doshas in
causing visramsa and vyapat.
In ojo kshaya according Acharya Sushruta it is quantitative loss which is
explained as ojo nasha by Acharya Charaka. Thus, visramsa and vyapat are different
stages of Acharya Charakas ojo kshaya where as ojo kshaya by Acharya Sushruta
resemble ojo nasha of Acharya Charaka.
101
Through Acharya Charaka has not quoted visramsa and vyapat directly under
heading of Ojokshaya. In the descriptions at various other contexts words/actions
which are nearer or similar to ojo visramsa and vyapat are found few of them are:
1.
Ojosravana Vruddha pitta vatakapha kshaya avastha of tridosha yugapat

vruddhi-kshaya bheda causes sravana of ojas.
2.
Ojobhramsha Pitta vritta udana vayu lakshansa include Ojobhramsha.
3.
Ojopraksharana It is one among sneha vyapat.
Thus Acharya Charaka also explained similar modes of vitiation as that of

visramsa or vyapat in different contexts and not collectively included in one heading
as that of Acharya Sushruta. This shows that these three modes are accepted by both
acharyas and it is just difference is style of quoting as per their own methods and
requirements of bodies of texts.
Among the symptoms some are shareerika, some are manasika and some are
both shareera manasa. Shareerika symptoms are afflicted status of complexion,
emaciation, dryness in body, agitated organs, and mamsa kshaya. Manasika
symptoms are scaredness, repeated worries, afflicted status of mind. Shareera manasa
lakshanas are moha, pralapa, ajnyana, murccha and marana.
These are three important classes in which ojas have essential functions for
maintenance of swasthya.
1.
Shareerika functions
2.
Manasika functions
3.
Shareeramanasika i.e coordination of shareera and manas.
Etiological Factors of Ojokshaya

Etiological factors cause kshaya of ojas which can be understood on the basis
of samanya vishesha siddhanta. These nidanas increase gunas that are opposite to
gunas that of ojas and thus create kshaya of ojas.
Prajagara increases rukshata in shareera342 . Anashana, excessive exposure to
vata atipravrutti of kapha, shukra and shonita, vardhakya and aadankala among
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nidanas cause vata vruddhi in shareera which increases ruksha, chala, khar, etc
gunas which are vishesha to ojas and lead to ojo kshaya. This is also supported from
references quoting ojokshaya in vardhakya which is vata pradhana avastha of life.
Pramitashana hampers dhatu pariposhana and thus reduces saaras of dhatus and
leads to ojo kshaya. Excessive exposure to aatapa, bhaya and shoka also vitiate ojas
by vitiating pitta and vata respectively. Kopa leads to ojo kshaya by causing pitta
vruddhi.
Shrama, bhrama, trasa, katurasa sevana also increase vata in shareera and
cause ojo kshaya. Visha and madya also vitiate ojas by guna vishesha. Atilanghana
increases vata and causes ojo kshaya. Amla rasa atyupayoga increases pitta and
vitiate ojas.
Another mechanism by which there is vitiation of ojas is impaired dhatu

pariposhana krama. Ojas being saptadhatusara depends upon dhatus and their saara
bhagas. Any decrease or vitiation in these is also reflected in ojas. Gramyahara
causes ojo kshaya in this manner.
Chikitsa of Ojokshaya
Principles of chikitsa of ojo kshaya can be explained as
1.
Avoiding etiological factors
2.
Avoiding manasika dukha hetus which cause vitiation in hrudaya and ojas.
3.
Indulgence with ojovardhaka and hrudya bhavas.
4.
Practicing prashama and jnyana for increasing manobala.
5.
Intake of ojovardhaka ahara and vihara.
6.
Rasayana and vajikarana prayoga.

Dravyas such as jeevantyadi ten drugs, milk, ghee, mamsa, mamsarasa,
atmagupta and kalpas like Aindra rasayana increase ojas by guna samanya. Other
dravyas which have samana gunas with ojas can also be used for ojo vruddhi.
A comparative chart of gunas of ojas, their actions on doshas and dravyas that
increase these gunas are summarized bellow in a tabular form.
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Table No.16 Showing the Summary of Gunas of Ojas
No.
1
Name of
Guna
Guru
Heaviness
A. Karma
Other
Karmas
Tarpana,
Balya,
Upalepa,
Trupti
Murccha,
trishna nasha,
Snigdha
Snehana,
Mardava,
Balavarnakara
Yatrakara,
Chirakari,
Alpakaryakara
Vata
malapravartana
M. B.
Doshika
Examples
Dominance action
Prithvi +
Kapha? Masha,
Jala
Vata?
Vidarikanda
Mushali,
Godhuma,
Jala
Kapha? Chandan, Lotus,
Vata?
Coconut
Pitta?
Jala
Vata?
Taila, Ghruta,
Kapha? Majja, Etc.,
Prithvi
+
Jala
Vayu
Kapha?
Pitta?
Amrita, Kutaja
ghana,
Vata?
Dahanashana,
sravarodhaka
Jeevana,
Balya,
Sandhanakara
dhatu vruddhi
Jala +
Aakash
Jala
Kapha?
Swanapatri,
eranda taila,
garlic
Taila, Vasa
Kapha?
Isabagol,
Godugdha
Kshlashna
Ropane
Smoothness
Sthoola
Samvarane Balya
Srotorodha
Jala
Kapha?
Prithvi
Kapha?
Vata?
Dugdhapashan,
Navaneeta
Mamsa, Cream
of milk, Dadhi
Sandra
Solidity
Jala
Kapha?
Bala, Navaneeta
Brumhana
Sheeta
Cold
Stambhana
Snigdha
Kledana
Manda
Dullness
Shamana
10
Sara
Mobility
Prerane
11
Mrudu
Softness
Picchila
Slimness
Shlathane
13
15
18
19
Lepana
Prasadane
Sthulata ,
Not only aushadhas and aharas but certain viharas also increase ojas and their
action is mainly by prabhava. Another way in which these viharas help in increasing
ojas is they protect human body from exposure to nidanans of ojokshaya.
Eg. Vastra dharana from vatasevana, chatradharana from aatapasevena.
Role of snana can be explained as manaprasadana, shouchajanana etc. gunas
of snana help in ojo vruddhi.
Role of rasayana in ojo vruddhi can be explained as rasayanas are mode of
obtaining prashasta dhatus. Samyak dhatu pariposhana increases dhatu saarata and
by virtue of which ojo vruddhi takes place. Some rasayana kalpas increase ojas in a
shorter duration of time by prabhava, which is another way of ojo vruddhi. Same can
be considered for vajeekarana dravyas. Gramyaharadi nidanas lead to increase in
shithilata of dhatus which in turn does srotosanga and thus leads to improper dhatu
104
pariposhana. Rasayanas purify srotas and regulate dhatu pariposhana krama.
Srotoprasadaka drugs are indicated in ojokshaya.
Regarding role of manasa bhavas in ojo vyapara it is very clear that vitiation
in manasa bhavas vitiates ojas as in hetus of ojo kshaya. Close relation between
manas and ojas is also evident in lakshanas of ojo kshaya. This may be because both
these dravyas have ashraya in hrudaya and thus because of this close affiliation
vitiation in one of them is reflected in another. Applying this in chikitsa, prashama
and jnyana regulate vitiation of manas and in turn helps ojas to maintain or regain its
normalcy.
Concepts closely related to Ojas

After discussion on concept of ojas now concepts having similarity with ojas
are being discussed here.
Kapha and ojas:
It is very clear that kapha and ojas are to different dravyas. Various reasons
for which kapha is quoted as ojas are:
Vishuddha shleshma has similar gunas and karmas as that of ojas
Ojas poshana is done by prakruta kapha
Ojas is reason for bala; it is one among karmas of kapha also hence kapha
being karana for bala is called as ojas.
Agni/ ushma and ojas

Agni is called as ojas possible reasons for this may be:
Agni is moola for bala, ojas and bala are considered abhedarupa because of
karyakarana sambandha in them.
Role of agni is essential in aahara pachana and dhatvagni vyaparas which are
basic necessities for formation of ojas.
Vitiation / mandata of agni causes disease / roga which afflicts ojas.
Samagni does ojo vruddhi.
105
Rasa dhatu and ojas
Rasa dhatu is called as ojas the possible reasons may be:
Tushti and preenana are among karmas of rasa dhatu which are also karmas
of ojas.
Rasa dhatu while undergoing dhatu parinamana gets converted into ojas.
Rasa dhatu is saara of aahara and its sthana is hrudaya same as that of ojas.
Rasa dhatu is also very important for healthy life and has many gunas same as
that of ojas.
Rakta dhatu and ojas

Rakta dhatu is quoted as ojas. Probably reasons may be:
Rakta dhatu is moola of jeeveeta as that of ojas
Rakta dhatu does dharana of ojas
Rakta dhatu is among dasha pranayatanas and pranas are seated in it.
Shukra and ojas

Various possible reasons for which shukra is quoted as ojas are:
Shukra does ojoposhana. Thus shukra becomes karana and ojas becomes
karya. To show abheda in karya karana, shukra is called as ojas.
In tantrantara, ojas is called as special type of shukra which denotes intense

similarities in them.
Very close relationship and association in between ojas and shukra.
Bala and ojas

In many place we find use of these two terms in same sentence / pada of
shloka which clearly indicate they are separate entities.
Few examples of this are in Sushruta Samhita are:
Ahara is mula for bala and ojas.
If rutus are avyapanna then it leads in betterment of prana, ayu, bala, veerya
and ojas.
Shulyamamsa increases shukra, bala, medha, agni, mamsa and ojas (Su.Sa.Su.
46/353).
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Anulepana increases preeti, ojas and bala (Su.Sa.Chi. 24/63).
Rasnadi
niruha
basti
increases
bala,
shukra,
mamsa
and
ojas
(Su.Sa.Chi.38/71-75).
Other Acharyas have also used these two terms in same manner at many
places. Shareerika bala or physical strength which is seen by strenuous work and
active movements of body is bala.
At the same time there is one more type of bala/power in shareera which
works as vyadhi utpadavirodhi and vyadhipratyaneeka bala. This bala is very
essential and inferred by capacity of maintaining state of health also after exposure to
nidanas along with higher/stable mental faculties which sustain higher levels of
stress/ external variables, this bala can be called as ojas. Thus at certain places we
find words bala and ojas used for each other. Depending upon context it is better to
understand as the word bala means physical strength when related to physical work,
as in context of:
1.
Balam vyayama shaktya
2.
Bala pariksha in panchakarma
3.
Durbala in ojokshaya lakshanas.
Thus bala means physical strength which is quoted and described by Acharya
Charaka in the context of saara pariksha prakarana.
The same word bala when used in meanings of disease preventive aspect,
vyadhi kshamatva etc then it means ojas. For example:
1.
Bala is capable for bringing doshas to normalcy.
2.
As in ojas definition in Sushruta Samhita.
Thus the word bala is used in Ayurvedic literature fo r both

1.
Physical strength and
2.
Disease preventive strength.
As per the context meaning is to be understood.
107
Table No. 17. Showing Differences in ojas and bala
Bala
It is adravya rupa
Ojas
It is dravya rupa
Bala does not have rupa, rasa, veerya, Ojas is having these physical properties
etc
There is no vishesha sthana of bala
Vishesha sthana of ojas is hrudaya
Bala is of three types sahaja, kalaja and Ojas is of two types para and apara
yuktikruta
Thus in nutshell among various reasons for quoting these above said concepts
important once are:
1.
karya karana sambandha of these concepts with ojas
2.
Similarity in karmas of these concepts with that of ojas
3.
Ojas is supreme, most important dravya in shareera, so by adhikarana

siddhanta to emphasize importance of these various concepts they are quoted
as ojas.
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Discussion on Modern Concepts

After having discussed the concept of ojas and its various dimensions now it is
time to find similarities and differences with modern concepts, which were reviewed
earlier.
Prostaglandins :
Prostaglandins are derivatives of polyunsaturated fatty acids having heavy
molecular weight. As they are fats it signifies towards snigdha guna as well as
somatmaka nature of ojas. Heavy molecular weight of prostaglandins is having
similarity with guru guna of ojas.
Prostaglandins are present/produced in every cell of the body which is similar

to the sthana of ojas i.e. sarva shareera. As the same dravya ojas, when working
synergistically with other dehadhatus performs different functions similarly
prostaglandins have different functions in different body tissues. Diversity in
functions is dependent on receptor to which it binds. These various receptors can be
considered as a part of dehadhatus, avayavas of human body which bind with
prostaglandins to elicit a wide range of different actions / functions.
Though prostaglandins are present in nearly every cell of body, their

maximum concentration among body fluids is in semen. In the case of ojas also it
holds well even though it is described as sapta dhatu saara its close association of
shukra is very well evident from descriptions in Ayurvedic classics. Seminal
prostaglandins are produced in seminal vesicles, which are part of reproductive
system. Thus largest production site of prostaglandins in the body is male
reproductive system. Reproductive system can be roughly compared with shukravaha
srotas. Ojas poshana is done from sapta dhatu saara but to highlight predominance
or importance of shukra among various sites of production it is quoted that shukra is
ojojanaka. Similar understanding can be adopted in production of prostaglandins and
it can be said that among various sites of production of prostaglandins seminal
vesicles are most important and hence can be quoted as site of production. Functions
of prostaglandins in erection of penis, increasing viability of semen, in making female
109
genital tract more receptive for sperms, helping sperm for capacitisation and finally in
penetration of ovum prove its vital role in process of fertilization. This can be
compared to karma of ojas, which is explained as it helps jeeva to descend in other
words helps in formation of shukra shonita samyoga. Deficiency of prostaglandins in
infertile men further strengthens these claims.
Role of prostaglandins in implantation of ovum, maintenance of pregnancy

and pivotal role in physiology of pregnancy shows that they are not only essential in
fertilization but also in maintenance and development of fetus. This can be compared
to role of ojas as garbha saara and its importance in garbha vruddhi. Change in
relative proportion of prostaglandins being doubted as cause of pre-eclampsia, which
is most common (more incidents are prevalent) in eighth month of pregnancy can be
compared to ojo asthiratva in ashtama / eighth month of garbha avastha. However it
still needs more studies to conclude, as role of prostaglandins in pre-eclampsia is not
completely known. Role of prostaglandins as therapeutic agents for abortion further
supports these claims. Role of prostaglandins in maintaining patency of foramen ovale
in foetal life can be compared to function of garbha hrudaya sthita ojas.
Role of prostaglandins as a controller of coronary blood flow, its inhibitory

actions on platelets aggregation and thus in turn clot formation can be compared to
karmas of ojas, which does dharana of hrudaya. In a scenario when complete
understanding of cardiac physiology is not achieved and role of prostaglandins in it
being extensively studied, it cannot be said that prostaglandins are most important
regulator of cardiac physiology but at the same time it cannot be overruled.
According current researches it is very clear and accepted that they are one of
important regulators of cardiac physiology. As far as pharmacology and therapeutics
of neonatal cardiology are concerned prostaglandins are very important life saving
drugs. As it plays an important role in medicine it may have similar role in physiology
too.
Renal prostaglandins and their different functions at various levels in kidneys
is a topic in limelight in almost all renal pathologies. It has been proved that
prostaglandins protect kidneys from damage in many renal diseases. This can be
compared to avasthambhana / supporting of deha avayavas by ojas.
110
Prostaglandins function as both extra cellular and intracellular ligands and thus
help in glucose metabolism. Energy source for human body is mainly glucose
oxidation thus prostaglandins help human body to get energy. This can be compared
to tushti and pushti karmas of ojas.
Role of prostaglandins in vasodilatation necessary for penile erection, their

role in induction of menstruation and control of ovulation shows that they are vital for
normal functions of reproductive system in human body. These can be compared to
karma of ojas vividha deha samshrita bhava nishpandana.
Prostaglandins protect gastric mucosa from possible harm by gastric secretions

which can be compared with deha sthirikarana function of ojas.
Role of prostaglandins in immunity can be compared to bala pushti or

balajanana karya of ojas.
Role of prostaglandins in innate immunity can be compared to activation of

vyadhi utpatti pratibandhaka bala which is karya of ojas. Prostaglandins are
mediators of inflammation, and process of inflammation acts as stimulus for
triggering immune response. This can be compared to activation of vyadhi
pratyaneeka bala, which is nothing but karya of ojas.
Prostaglandins stimulate
endocrine actions. Few of them are:

1.
Increase in circulating concentration of GH growth hormone.

This can be compared with function of ojas as deha vruddhi hetu quoted by
Acharya Kashyapa.
2.
Increase in action of adrenals.

It can be compared to dhairya, utsaha and pratibha nishpandana, which is
karma of ojas as quoted by Acharya Bhavamishra.
3.
Prostaglandins increase/stimulate insulin secretion.

They also act as chemical messengers in various reactions and this can be
compared with dehasthiti nibandhana karma of ojas.
Thus to summarize prostaglandins and ojas similarities it can be tabulated as
follows.
111
Table No.18 Showing Similarities in physico-chemical properties of
Name of Property
Ojas
Prostaglandins
Snigdha
Guru
Sheeta
Soumya Nature
Sandra
Shlakshna
Vivikta (Shorter biological
active life)
Table No.19 Showing Similarities in Functions of Ojas and Prostaglandins

Name of Function
Part of narashukra (semen)
Functions in garbha utpatti
Role in garbha poshana and
dharana
Role in cardiac physiology
Asthiratva, as cause of preterm
labor
Dehasthiti nibandhana
Deshasamshrita
bhavas
nishapandana
Protect human body from external
harmful stimulus
Deha dharana
Deha preenana
Ojas
+
+
+
Prostaglandins
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Table No.20 Showing Other Similarities in Ojas and Prostaglandins

Title
Ojas
Prostaglandins
Close relation with shukra
Utpatti from ahara
Thus these are few of similarities between prostaglandins and ojas. One more
point to be noted is there are certain differences also; one among them is certain
varieties of prostaglandins are mediators of inflammation which may be cause of
allergic diseases and some other conditions. This scenario has created an impression
112
in medical fraternity, as there are two types of prostagland ins one which is good and
another which is bad. In fact there is no such classification of prostaglandins. All
prostaglandins are essential only provided they are in appropriate amount in body.
Disease creating prostaglandins are also essential when in normal limits. This can be
compared to ojo vruddhi which is associated with vatadi vruddhi which can also
create diseases. One more point to be noted is increase does not always mean vruddhi.
It is some times result of reaction of body to pathologies interfering with normal
conditions. Increased quantity of immunoglobulins in AIDS , increased temperature in
inflammation are few of the examples where quantitative increase is seen but it is in
fact response of body to external stimulus . Thus these quantitative increases from
modern science can not be always compared to vruddhi of Ayurveda. Another
important difference is apara ojas is supplied thourgh ojovaha dhamanis all over the
body, current knowledge of prostaglandins does not explain any such phenamenon.
Regarding deficiency and increase not much literature is available. Ongoing

researches have shown impaired immune response in prostaglandin deficiency which
is similar when compared to bala kshaya by ojokshaya. Various researches are going
on which are supposed to bring out a more comprehensive picture of role of
prostaglandins in human body.
Method of approach to understand anatomy, physiology, process of disease

formation and treatment are entirely different in modern medicine and Ayurveda.
Owing to these differences its very difficult to find descriptions of same type of
dravya in both these literatures. No perfect matching can be done but still an attempt
is done here. It can be said that in above said contexts there is high degree of
similarity in ojas and prostaglandins and prostaglandins is nearer equivalent of ojas.
Immunological basis of Human Body

Various scholars of Ayurveda have compared immunity with bala. Immunity
is a process/karma. As per Ayurveda, karma has to be associated with dravya.
Karma is not independent but it is always having ashraya in dravya. Thus the action
or function of immunity must and should have structural basis in human body. Here
the structural basis will be a dravya and function will be karma/karya. In the similar
113
manner bala / immunity is karya, where as structural basis of immunity can be
compared to ojas.
Different structural basics of immunity are:

1.
T Lymphocyes
2.
B Lymphocytes
3.
Natural Killer Cells
4.
Macrophages
5.
Dendrite Cells
6.
Neutrophills
7.
Eosinophils
8.
Mast Cells
9.
Basophils
10.
Epithelial cells
11.
Thymus
12.
Lymph nodes
13.
Spleen
14.
Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue. (MALT)
15.
Bone marrow
These are among the body components which have a role to play in immunity.
As previously quoted ojas is formed from saaras of different dehadhatus. These cells
can be compared to deha dhatus, which synergistically give rise to function of
protection of human body i.e deha dharana in the form of ojas. Concept of dhatu
saaras is those parts of dhatus having more pureness. Naturally these are having more
strength or purity of gunas as well karmas of corresponding dhatus. One example of
this is rakta dhatu does function of jeevana in deha among various fractions of rakta
dhatu those which are having more important role in this function can be called as
rakta dhatu saara. Modern co- relation of rakta dhatu is it self a point of discussion
but it is out of purview of this study, so accepting established co relation it can be
compared to blood of modern science. Among various components of blood
hemoglobin has important role in carrying oxygen which can be compared to jeevana
function of rakta and thus hemoglobin can be called as rakta dhatu saara .Similarly
114
various organs, tissues which help in process of immunity can be compared to deha
dhatus. Relation between these various body components and their co relations in
Ayurvedic view are taken as basis to ascertain these components in relation to sapta
dhatus. Current widely accepted versions of co-relations are consolidated and taken
from various Shareerakriya text-books including Shareerakriya Vijnyana (Dr.
R.R.Desai), Abhinava Shareerakriya Vijnyana (Dr. P.V. Sharma), Ayurvedeeya
Shareerakriya Vijnyana (Dr. K.P. Vyas) and many others are taken as basis of this
comparison.
Table No. 21. Table showing Comparison of Structural basis of
Immune structures
Bone Marrow
Organs from modern

medicine
Bone Marrow
Approximate Ayurvedic
Equivalent
Majja, sarakta meda
Thymus
Thymus
Kantha (Kapha sthana)
Lymphocytes
Lymph
Rasa dhatu
Tissue Macrophages
All Tissues of Body
All dhatus
Dendrite cells
Spleen and Lymph nodes
Raktadhatu, Twak/Mamsa,
Name of Structure
Rasa dhatu
Natural Killer Cells
Lymphocytes
Rasa dhatu
Granulocytes
Blood
Raktadhatu
Basophils
Blood
Rakta dhatu
Mast cells
Cells of connective tissue,

whole body
Asthis/Snayu,
Sarvashareera
These can be compared to different deha dhatus of shareera from which

saaras come together and this saara collectively is called as sarva dhatu saara i.e.
ojas.
Fluid nature of ojas, its quantification in bindus and anjalis, circulatory nature
signifies that ojas should be a semisolid or liquid substance in nature. The humoral
secretions / components of immunity which are secreted by above quoted structural
basis can be compared to ojas.
Important two humoral secretions are:
1.
Immunoglobulins
2.
Cytokines.
115
Immunoglobulins
These are having high molecular weight, ranging from 15,000 to 900,000.
This can be compared to guru guna of ojas. These are glycoproteins in structure,
which signifies towards madhura rasa of ojas. Immunoglobulins attach to the antigen,
which can be compared to (Shlish aalingane shleshma) shlaishmika bhava.
Quantification of immunoglobulins in human body can be done from serum
content of human body. Serum content of human body can be roughly taken equa l to
that of plasma. Total plasma volume in a person is 5 % of body weight. Applying this
to a normal 70 kg healthy man normal plasma volume becomes 3500 ml. Thus
quantity of immunoglobulins collectively becomes 11 to 23 mg/ml of serum. (Chart
mentioned in review). Calculating it for total plasma volume it becomes (11 x 3,500)
to (23 x 3,500) mg/ml. Thus normal range/quantity of immunoglobulins collectively
of all types becomes 38,500mg to 80,500mg. Converting it from mg to grams it
ranges from 38.5gms to 80gms which can be compared to prakruta pramana of apara
ojas which is ardhanjali (80ml) 248 .
Immunoglobulins are glycoproteins of heavy molecular weight, with

circulatory nature through human body as a part of plasma proteins, functioning in
immunity are having similarity with apara ojas. Total quantity of immunoglobulins
also ranges from 38-80 gms with upper limit nearer to apara ojas quantification 80
gm in a normal grown adult as an average.
Thus immunoglobulins can be compared to apara ojas in limited aspect of
balajanana or as a reason for bala. Other functions of ojas cannot be attributed to
immunoglobulins with current knowledge of immunoglobulins.
Cytokines
Cytokines are hormone like substances. They are secreted not only by
lymphocytes and macrophages but also by neurons, glial cells and many other types
of cells. The similar aspects of cytokines and ojas are fluidity in nature, capacity of
broad range of functions, actions on various tissues and whole body as sthana when
compared to that of ojas.
116
Role of cytokines in immunity is being studied extensively in modern
immunology and has brought out its usages and functions in other systems also. Here
aspects related to immune system are only discussed.
Role of cytokines in opsonization, stimulation of immune cell production,
differentiation
of
types
of
immune
cells,
increasing
phagocytic
activity,
communication between innate and acquired immunity can be compared or taken as

liquid factor responsible for initiation, maturation, fastening as well as strengthening
of immune response i.e bala and hence can be taken as cause for it. This in turn
reflects similarity with functions of ojas. Structurally cytokines are having low
molecular weights but they are strong regulators of anabolic processes in immune cell
production.
Thus among humoral components of immunity cytokines can be compared to

apara ojas which is karana for bala / immunity. In this scenario also there are many
functions of ojas other than bala poshana which remain unanswered.
In total rather than comparing one or two components of immunity, total

humoral part of immune system including both innate as well as acquired can be
understood as dhatu saaras and their collective effect is immune response (bala).
These humoral parts collectively can be compared to ojas (sarvadhatusaara). These
humoral parts work cohesively with various cells of immune system to achieve
protection from antigen. Thus ojas along with dhatu saaras provides basis of immune
mechanism which is reason for functio ning of immune response i.e. bala.
117
CONCLUSION
1.
Ojas as the word / name itself indicates is of utmost vital importance at the
time of srushti, sthiti and laya of the body.
2.
There is no point in life right from womb to tomb where ojas is not playing a
significant role.
3.
Ojas is essential for physical and mental well being of an individual.
4.
What this ojas is has been debated upon for by erudite scholars right from
Acharya Chakrapani to Acharya Ranajeet Rai Desai and others; but none of
these descriptio ns fit into the exact and comprehensive discussion of ojas, in
this work a honest effort has been made to explore the exhaustive literary
survey of ojas from our revered classics and later period compilations.
5.
Among the several etymological derivations newer and newer explanations are
latent in the meaning of ojas.
6.
Among the various equivalents for ojas prostaglandins and immunological

basis are coming nearer the comprehensive description of ojas.
7.
Further literary, experimental, clinical researches are essential to know the

truth in an extensive manner.
118
Recommendations for Future Studies

1.
Literary studies on various concepts related to ojas such as bala, dhatu saara
can be carried out, this will help not only in better understanding of relatio n
between ojas and these entities but also reveal role of these factors in
controlling or increasing ojas.
2.
Experimental studies for laboratory analysis of various aahara and aushadhas

quoted in classics for increasing ojas in order to find out their active
ingredients which may help in better understanding of bio chemistry of ojas.
3.
Diseases which are having ojokshaya quoted in sampraptis are to be studied in

depth in order to find out role of ojas in samprapti of these diseases and will
help to do samprapti bhanga in a better manner.
4.
Clinical studies to evaluate effect of ojovardhaka treatments quoted in classics

are to be carried out.
5.
Various different clinical studies for evaluation of role of ojas in rasayana,

positive health, disease prevention, better treatment options, prevention from
complications and prevention of relapse of diseases are to be carried out.
119
SUMMARY
Ojas word is krudanta pratipadika of dhatu ubje-balel. Lexions quote bala,
deepti, avashtamba etc., as meaning of ojas. According to Ayurvedic classics it can
be understand as essence of sapta dhatus of shareera.
Ojas is a panchabhautika vyakta dravya, snigdha and soumya in nature.
Guru, sheeta etc. ten gunas point towards its anabolic nature and colour towards
contribution from both mantruja and pitruja sides. Ojas is a separate entity from
dosha, dhatu, malas, upadhatus and bala. It can be defined as soumya dravya having
sthana in hrudaya sarva shareera which is saara of rasadi sapta dhatus.
Ojas is of two types para of apara. Para resides in hurudaya and has normal
average quantity equal to eight drops. It does not undergo vrudhi or kshaya but nasha
of this can happen, which leads to death. Apara ojas is situated in sarva shareera; its
normal quantity is swaardhanjali. This can undergoe vruddhi and kshaya; jeevaneeya
gana, ksheera are important drugs and rasayana, vajeekarana are important treatment
measures in treatment of ojokshaya. Hrudya and manaskara dravyas along with
prashama and jnana are also have a major role.
Ojas has very large range of karmas few important among them are, it helps in
initiation and maintainance of samyoga of shareera, indriya satva and atma; coordination between various functions of different dehadhatus, control and coordination of shareerika and manasika functions.
Other functions include
dehadharana, balaposhana.
Utpatti of ojas takes place at the time of garbha utpatti from shukra and
aarthava samyoga. Its poshana is done by aahara rasa. Ojas is needed for utpatti,
poshana and vruddhi of garbha. It is having pivotal role in all the three stages of life.
Prakruta kapha, agni / ushma, jeevashonita, rasadhatu, bala are few of the
concepts which are also some times quoted as ojas, but are different from ojas.
Prostoglandins and structural basis of immune response are concepts from
modern medicine which come nearer to comprehensive description of ojas.
120
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Concept of Ojas in Ayurveda

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FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON CONCEPT

Dr. JIRANKALGIKAR YOGESH MUKUND B.A.M.S.,

DOCTOR OF MEDICINE (AYURVEDA)

Under The Guidance of

DR. N. ANJANEYA MURTHY M.D. (AYU), Sahitya Shastry

DR. K VENKAT SHIVUDU M.D. (Ayu)

DEPARTMENT OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES IN AYURVEDA SIDDHANTA

RAJIV GANDHI UNIVERSITY OF HEALTH SCIENCES, KARNATAKA

Signature of the Candidate

Dr. Jirankalgikar Yogesh Mukund

RAJIV GANDHI UNIVERSITY OF HEALTH SCIENCES, KARNATAKA

Dr.JIRANKALGIKAR YOGESH MUKUND in partial fulfilment of the

Signature of the Guide

Dr. N.Anjaneya Murthy

RAJIV GANDHI UNIVERSITY OF HEALTH SCIENCES, KARNATAKA

Dr.JIRANKALGIKAR YOGESH MUKUND in partial fulfilment of the

Signature of the Co-Guide

DR. K VENKAT SHIVUDU M.D.

RAJIV GANDHI UNIVERSITY OF HEALTH SCIENCES, KARNATAKA

ENDORSEMENT BY THE HOD, PRINCIPAL /

This is to certify that the dissertation FUNDAMENTAL STUDY ON

Dr.JIRANKALGIKAR YOGESH MUKUND under the guidance of Professor

Seal & Signature of the HOD

Seal & Signature of the Principal

Dr. N. Anjaneya Murthy

Dr. Ashok D. Satpute

RAJIV GANDHI UNIVERSITY OF HEALTH SCIENCES, KARNATAKA

I hereby declare that the Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences,

Signature of the Candidate

Dr. Jirankalgikar Yogesh Mukund

Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Karnataka

Dedicated with due regards

I express my gratitude to Dr.S.M.Purshottama, Assistant Professor, Dept. of

Finally it is benediction of God Venketeshwara that I have reached to this

(Dr. Jirankalgikar Yogesh Mukund)

Taking these needs into

consideration objectives was formed.

Interpretation and Conclusion

Review of Ayurvedic Literature

Review of Modern Literature

Materials and Methods

Recommendation for Further Study

Name of the Table

Showing Gunas of Ojas

Showing Karmas of Ojas

Showing Sthanas of Ojas

Showing different opinions in Ayurvedic classics about

Showing Aaharapariposhana karma according to Acharya

Showing the Aharapariposhana Krama according to Acharya

Showing different views on poshana of ojas according to

Showing different lakshanas of ojokshaya as per various

Showing Comparison between properties of Ojas, Madya and

Showing different concepts quoted as ojas according to various

Showing various ligants and receptors of prostaglandins

Showing major components of the innate immune system

Showing Cytokines of clinical importance and their

Showing Properties of human immunoglobulins (Ig)

Showing the Mahabhuta Predominance and Karmas of

Showing the Summary of Gunas of Ojas

Showing Differences in ojas and bala

Showing Similarities in physico-chemical properties of

Showing Similarities in Functions of Ojas and Prostaglandins

Showing Other Similarities in Ojas and Prostaglandins