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the three wrist orientation motions. The tool plate (left side of the ball in Figure 1-20) rotates to provide a roll
motion. The line or separation through the sphere shaped object indicates that it is assembled from two
hemispheres that can rota te with respect to one another. The entire sphere can rotate at the end of the arm
where the top hemisphere (labeled A) connects to the arm shaft. The lower half of the sphere (labeled B) can
rotate with respect to the upper half of the sphere to change the orientation of the tool plate. Note in Figure 120 that a 180 rotation of the lower hemisphere (B) would move the tool plate from position 1 to position 2.
As a result, pitch and yaw motions can be achieved by a combination of rotations by the upper hemisphere
(A) at the arm and the motion of the lower hemisphere (B) with respect to the upper hemisphere. All three
orientation motions are achieved with a small wrist geometry.
Degree of Freedom. Every joint or movable axis on the arm is a degree of freedom. Amachine with six
movable joints, such as the one in Figure 1-10, is a robot with 6 degrees of freedom or axes. Orientation of
the tool by the wrist involves a maximum of 3 degrees of freedom, and up to 4 degrees of freedom are used
far positioning within the work envelope. A range of 4 to 7 degrees of freedom is typical far industrial robots.
Coordinate Systems. Ali points programmed in the work cell are identified by a base coordinate system that
consists of three translation coordinates-X, Y, and Zand three rotational coordinates-A, B, and C. The number
of work-cell coordinates required to define a programmed point is determined by the number of degrees of
freedom present on the robot. Figure 1-21 shows the coordinate systemfrequently used by robots with 6
degrees of freedom.
Accuracy. Accuracy is best explained by an example from target shooting with a rifle. The targets in Figure
1-22 indicate the results when two different rifles are fired at the center of the targets. The rifle producing the
results in Figure 1-22a is
z (X, Y, Z, A, B, C)
------ - Y
X
Work area coordinate system
not accurate because ali shots missed the center; however, the rifle is repeatable because all shots hit the target
in the same area. The second rifle was both accurate and repeatable, because it placed all shots (Figure 1-22b)
in a close group in the center of the target.
In robotics, accuracy is the degree to which a robot arm can move to a specific translation or position
point in the work cell when the point coordinates are: (1) entered from an off-line programming station, (2)
calculated inside the program, (3) received from a vision system, or (4) generated in a work-cell simulator.
For example, a vision system could specify that the robot tooling should move to a point described as X =
50.00 inches, Y = 45.30 inches, Z = 10.01 inches (tooling position), A = 0.00 degrees, B = 90.00 degrees, and
C = 100.00 degrees (tooling orientation).
This move implies that the tool center point moves from the robot's O, Q, O point to a point 50.00 inches
along the X axis, 45.30 inches along the Y axis, and 10.01 inches along the Z axis. The wrist then changes by
the degrees specified. The accuracy specification describes how close the tool center point will be to the point
described by the vision system. In general, robot accuracy is the difference w ~
Figure 1-22 Rifle Targets: (a) Repeatable and (b) Accurate and Repeatable.
lntroduction to Industrial Robots 37
/
between actual location of the robot tool and the location specified by the translation point entered by one of
the four methods specified earlier. Robot accuracy is usually an order of ten worse than the arm' s
repeatability.
Industry standards are in place to assist robot manufacturers in determining the accuracy of robot systems.
The ISO standard uses a test cube with an inclined test plane containing five programmed points (Figure 123). The test results for three ABB robots are shown in Figure 1-24.
Observing the robots in the chapter figures indica tes that robots have a base on which the arm is built. The
geometry requires that each axis or degree of freedom be built on the previous axis, with axis 1 attached to the
base, axis 2 attached to axis 1, and so on, until the tool plate is attached to the end of the last axis. The degree
of inaccuracy is a result of the buildup of the mechanical tolerances on the arm elements as they are
assembled. For example, the Adeptne robot in Figure 1-16 has an accuracy of 0.003 in., which implies that
the arm elements are manufactured and assembled with less than 0.003 in. variation from the base to the
toolplate on every robot produced.
Repeatability. Repeatability is the degree to which a robot system can return to a specific programmed
position point in the work cell. Frequently, a robot is taught the required gripper location by moving the arm
to the location with the teach pendant and then pushing the program point button. The repeatability
specification indicates how well the robot arm can return to the taught point on each subsequent cycle of the
program execution. The best repeatability on assembly robots is 0.0005 inches. A robot's repeatability is not
affected by the tolerance buildup that affects accuracy because the tool-plate reference point is aligned with a
desired work envelope point either visually during programming or with mechanical devices. Any
manufacturing or assembly variation in the arm linkages is eliminated by the visual aligriment of the tooling
with the desired work envelope location. The errors associated with repeatability are produced by robot axes
that do not have tight joint movements or when looseness or sloppiness is introduced in the mechanical
linkages dueto wear.
Tool Center Point. The point aj action for the tool mounted to the robot tool plate is called the offset or
too/ center point (TCP), see Figure 1-25. With an offset of O, O, O for L, A, and B, respectively, the TCP is
located at point TCPl in Figure 1-25. With L = 10.00 inches, A = 5.00 inches, and B = 4.00 inches, the TCP is
located at TCP2. When a tool is mounted to the tool plate, the distance from TCPl to the
Figure 1-25 Tool Center Point.
(Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron Corp)
Tool plate
action point on the tool is included in the robot program. Far example, the welding torch in Figure 1-26 has a
TCP of L = 14.00 inches, A = -4.00 inches, and B = 0.00 inches. In the welding example, the robot will
control the motion at the welding electrode as the arm moves through the programmed points. In sorne robot
systems the offset is part of the programming language. In the Seiko DARL language, far example, the define
offset commandis DEF TL < 1 - 9 > Xlt Y1, X2, Y2, Z1. Up to nine define offset tool statements can be used to
specify the X, Y, and Z coordinates far the TCP.
Precise identification of the tool center point (TCP) or offset is critical to systemaccuracy and repeatability . If
the robot tooling collides with part of the work cell during production, the offset of the TCP can be changed.
Calibration of the new offset causes lost production time. Res robot systems overcome this problem with a
special function called TCP measurement, which automatically determines the hand length, tool length, and
tool angle of unknown tools. In the case of tool collision, a simple move to a reference point from faur
different dire~tions establishes the new TCP (Figure 1-27).
Velocity. The rate at which the robot can move each axis and the TCP under program control is a measure of
the machine' s velocity. Velocity is expressed in linear or angular English and metric units. Arm velocity
between programmed points is much higher than the average velocity over a number of programmed points
because of the deceleration and acceleration of the TCP as it passes through a programmed point. Direct-drive
robots like the Adeptne have excellent too! velocity; note the velocity specification in Figure 1-16.
Example 1-5
The velocity (VNL) far a robot is rated at 20 feet per second no load with a 25 percent reduction at maximum
payload. The robot moves through 200 inches with close to maximum payload and 125 inches with no part in
the gripper. There are 23 programmed points and 6 seconds of programmed delays. Test data indicates that
each programmed point takes an average of 0.1 seconds and the velocity (VcL) with the gripper empty is 18
feet per second. Find the fastest possible time for one cycle.
Payload. The rated payload is the weight that the robot is designed to manipula te under the manufacturer's
specified performance conditions of speed and acceleration-deceleration over the entire work envelope. The
center of gravity of the payload must be within offsets or locations specified by the manufacturer. The
maximum payload is the maximum weight that the robot can manipula te ata specified speed, accelerationdeceleration, center of gravity location (offset or location), and repeatability under continuous operation overa
specified work envelope. The payload or load capacity of a robot (Figure 1-16) often determines if the
machine is suitable for a specific task. The payload is the total combined weight of the gripper or end-of-arm
tooling and the part to be moved (payload = tooling weight + part weight).
Example 1-6
A robot must move a 14-pound load in a material handling application. If the maximum payload (PM) for the
robot is 25 pounds, what is maximum allowed weight for the gripper (Wc) if a 25 percent safety factor is
required?
Additional terms associated with robot hardware and software are introduced as needed throughout the text.
If the arm is not moving it is assumed that the program has been halted.
If the arm is repeating one pattern of motion, then it is assumed that the same pattern will continue.
Robot programs often have subroutines that allow the robot motion to be changed by an external signal. Far
example, a robot may have a program that moves castings from a die cast machine to a trim press. What may
not be apparent is that a sensor determines if the casting is good befare the move to the trim press is executed.
If the casting is bad, a subroutine is used to move the part to a scrap bin. Most parts are good, so the repeated
motion to the trim press could be incorrectly assumed until that one bad part out of a hundred is generated.
If the arm is moving slowly, it is assumed that slow movement will continue. Programmers have a wide
range of speeds that they can use in a robot program. The slow speed far one move is no guarantee that the
same speed will be used far the next move.
If you program the arm to move, you assume it will move the way you wanted. Robot programs are
developed using two steps: (1) the points or the desired locations in the work cell are taught and given names
to identify the locations, (2) the program commands are organized into the program structure to move the
robot to the programmed points at the correct speed. It is not uncommon to get taught points interchanged or
incorrectly identified. When you think the robot is going to one location, it actually moves toan entirely
different one.
Robot accidents can occur during three different activities: regular operation, programming, and
maintenance. A study, Figure 1-28, conducted by the Japanese indicates the frequency of accidents in eight
different situations that cover these three areas. Sorne of the causes involve failure or incorrect action of the
robot system or sorne peripheral machine or device. System failure cannot be completely eliminated;
however, a good preventive maintenance program can eliminate sorne accidents attributed to machine or
component failure. A better-educated work force would reduce the injury rate in many of the groups where
incorrect
action or operation was due to the operator or maintenance personnel not following correct procedures. There
are few reasons for an operator to be in the work envelope of a robot.
Production systems and procedures can be developed that keep the operator out of harm's way. Most
maintenance procedures do not require the maintenance personnel to be in the work envelope during testing,
so with good maintenance procedures and education the maintenance-related accidents can be greatly
reduced.
The only activity that requires a person to be clase to the robot arm and tooling is programming taught points.
During the programming process it is often n ecessary for the programmer to be visually clase to the tooling
to assure that aligrtment with the part or fixture is present befare the point is programmed. During this time
the programmer is moving the tooling with motion buttons on the teach pendan t. When manually taught
points is the programming technique required for the robot cell, the programmer must be clase to the robot
with the drive system active. To minimize the risk of injury the following guidelines should be followed.
Always have an operator or other programmer present with a hand on the emergency stop when working
clase to the robot tooling.
Never stand in a pinch point when performing any programming activity.
Always u se a low-arm-move speed when programming requires clase proximity to the tooling.
Never change electrical cables or input/output signa! wires with the controller power on.
Never stand in the work envelope when you send the tooling to a taught point to verify location accuracy.
Signa! the move to the programmed point from outside the work envelope and check the point accuracy after
all motion has stopped.
Never stand in the work envelope when testing a new or edited robot program.
If possible, keep one hand on the robot arm as you move the robot with the teach pendant. If a failure in the
system causes a sudden motion of the robot in your direction, your hand and arm will cause you to be pushed
away minimizing direct contact with the moving robot arm.
While accidents can never be completely eliminated, the following four guidelines will reduce them
significantly.
Use effective perimeter warning devices, barriers, and interlocks around work cells and robot-type devices
Provide general training for ali shop floor employees concerning the dangers inherent in robot systems.
Provide machine-specific safety training for operators who work in robot work cells.
Establish a comprehensive preventive maintenance program for the robot and work cell implemented by
maintenance personnel trained in the hardware and software used in the cell. In addition to safety guidelines
for the robot, a good industrial safety program must also consider the hazards associated with injury from
electrical shock and the dangers from broken or leaky high pressure air and hydraulic lines. lnjury from a
robot can often be avoided by remembering these guidelines and the three Rs of robotic safety. Robots
Require Respect.
R15 Standards
The following standards are addressed by the Rl5 subcommittees:
RlS.01 ELECTRICAL INTERFACE. ANSI/RIA RlS.01: American National Standard far Industrial
Robots and Robot Systems- Common Identification Methods far Signal and Pozuer Carrying
Conductors.
1-12 SUMMARY
R15.02 HUMAN INTERFACE. ANSI/RIA R15.02: American National Standard far Industrial Robots
and Robot Systems-Human Engineering Design Criteria far Robot Control Pendants.
R15.03 MECHANICAL INTERFACE. Two standards: (1) ANSVRIA R15.03/l: Circular Mechanical
Flange Inte1jace; (2) ANSI/RIA R15.03/2: Shaft
Mechanical Inte1jace.
R15.04 COMMUNICATION/INFORMATION. Companion standard to the ISO 9506 standard on
Manufacturing Message Specification.
R15.05 PERFORMANCE. ANSI/RIA R15.05: American National Standard far Industrial Robots and
Robot Systems-Evaluation of Point-to-Point and Static Performance Characteristics. Additional
standards on dynamic characteristics and reliability are also available.
R15.06 SAFETY. ANSVRIA Rl5.06: American National Standard far Industrial
Robots and Robot Systems-Safety Requirements.
R15.07 SIMULATION/OFFLINE PROGRAMMING. ANSI/RIA RlS.07:
American National Standard far Industrial Robots and Robot Systems-Simulation/ Offline
Programming-Terms and Notations far Characterizing Industrial Robots.
A15 Standards
The following standards are addressed by the A15 subcommittees:
A15.01 SYSTEM COMMUNICATION. Communication standards and
protocols for exchange of information between machine vision systems
and other devices.
A15.05 PERFORMANCE. ANSVAIA A15.05/1-1989: Automated Vision
terminology and definitions used throughout the text are consistent with the RIA and AIA standards listed
above.
Automation has changed the workplace, and computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) will bring even
greater change. A study of the history of robotics indicates that the technology is maturing and has a role in
the CIM factory of the new
esfera indica que es ensamblado a partir de dos hemisferios que puede Rota de
TE con respecto a la otra. Toda la esfera puede girar en el extremo del brazo,
donde el hemisferio superior (con la etiqueta A) se conecta al eje del brazo. La
mitad inferior de la esfera (con la etiqueta B) puede girar con respecto a la
mitad superior de la esfera para cambiar la orientacin de la placa de
herramienta. Nota en la Figura 1-20 que una rotacin de 180 del hemisferio
inferior (B) se movera la placa de herramienta de la posicin 1 a la posicin 2.
Como resultado, los movimientos de cabeceo y guiada puede ser alcanzado
por una combinacin de rotaciones por el hemisferio superior (a) en el brazo y
el movimiento del hemisferio inferior (B) con respecto al hemisferio superior.
Todos los tres movimientos de orientacin se consiguen con una geometra de
la mueca pequea.
Posicin en el sobre
trabajo se describe por tres coordinar valores (X, Y, Z) y tres ngulos de la
mueca (A, B, C) z (X, Y, Z, A, B, C)- Y X
rea de trabajo del sistema de coordenadas
no es exacta porque tiros ali perdieron el centro; sin embargo, el rifle es
repetible, porque todos los tiros en el blanco en la misma zona. El segundo rifle
era a la vez preciso y repetible, ya que coloca todos los tiros (Figura 1-22b) en
un grupo de cerca en el centro de la diana.
En la robtica, la precisin es el grado en que un brazo de robot puede
moverse a un punto especfico de traduccin o posicin en la clula de trabajo
cuando las coordenadas de los puntos son los siguientes: (1) entr desde una
estacin de programacin fuera de lnea, (2) calculado dentro del programa ,
(3) recibido de un sistema de visin, o (4) generado en un simulador de clula
de trabajo. Por ejemplo, un sistema de visin podra especificar que el utillaje
robot debe moverse a un punto descrito como X = 50,00 pulgadas, Y = 45,30
pulgadas, Z = 10,01 pulgadas (posicin de herramientas), a = 0,00 grados, B =
90,00 grados, y C = 100,00 grados (orientacin de herramientas).
La observacin de los robots en las figuras de los captulos tes ndica que los
robots tienen una base sobre la que se construy el brazo. La geometra
requiere que cada eje o grado de libertad se construirn en el eje anterior, con
el eje 1 unido a la base, el eje 2 unido al eje 1, y as sucesivamente, hasta que
la placa de herramienta se une al final de la ltima eje. El grado de inexactitud
es el resultado de la acumulacin de las tolerancias mecnicas en los
elementos de brazo, ya que se ensamblan. Por ejemplo, el robot Adeptne en
la figura 1-16 tiene una precisin de 0,003 in., Lo que implica que los
elementos de brazo estn fabricados y montados con menos de 0,003 in.
Variacin desde la base hasta la toolplate en cada robot producido.
Repetibilidad. La repetibilidad es el grado en que un sistema de robot puede
volver a un punto posicin programada especfica en la clula de trabajo. Con
frecuencia, un robot se ensea la ubicacin de agarre requerida por mover el
brazo a la ubicacin con la unidad de programacin y luego presionando el
botn de punto de programa. La especificacin repetibilidad indica lo bien que
el brazo de robot puede volver al punto enseado en cada ciclo posterior de la
ejecucin del programa. La mejor repetibilidad en robots de montaje es de
0,0005 pulgadas. Repetibilidad de un robot no se ve afectada por la
acumulacin de tolerancia que afecta a la precisin debido a que el punto de
referencia de la herramienta en forma de placa est alineado con un punto de
envolvente de trabajo deseado ya sea visualmente durante la programacin o
con dispositivos mecnicos. Cualquier fabricacin o montaje variacin en los
vnculos de los brazos es eliminado por el aligriment visual de la herramienta
con la ubicacin espacio de trabajo deseado. Los errores asociados con la
repetibilidad son producidos por los ejes del robot que no tienen movimientos
Velocity. La velocidad a la que el robot puede mover cada eje y el TCP bajo
control de programa es una medida de la velocidad de la mquina 's. La
velocidad se expresa en unidades inglesas y mtricas lineales o angulares. La
velocidad del brazo entre los puntos programados es mucho mayor que la
velocidad promedio sobre un nmero de puntos programados debido a la
desaceleracin y la aceleracin del TCP a medida que pasa a travs de un
punto programado. Robots de transmisin directa como la Adeptne tambin
ejemplo 1-5
La velocidad (VNL) ahora un robot tiene una potencia de 20 pies por segundo
sin carga con una reduccin del 25 por ciento a la mxima carga til. El robot
se mueve a travs de 200 pulgadas, con cerca de la carga til mxima y 125
centmetros con ningn papel en
la pinza. Hay 23 puntos programados y 6 segundos de retraso programadas.
Los datos de prueba indica que cada punto programado toma un promedio de
0,1 segundos y la velocidad (VCL) con la pinza vaca es de 18 metros por
segundo. Encuentra el menor tiempo posible para un ciclo.
Carga til. La carga til nominal es el peso que el robot est diseado para
Manipula te bajo determinadas condiciones de funcionamiento del fabricante
de velocidad y aceleracin-desaceleracin en todo el campo de trabajo. El
centro de gravedad de la carga til debe estar dentro de las compensaciones o
los lugares especificados por el fabricante. La carga til mxima es el peso
mximo que el robot puede manipula te ata velocidad especificada, la
aceleracin-deceleracin, del centro de gravedad (offset o ubicacin), y la
repetibilidad en funcionamiento continuo overa espacio de trabajo
ejemplo 1-6
Un robot debe mover una carga de 14 libras en una aplicacin de manejo de
materiales. Si la carga til mxima (PM) para el robot es de 25 libras, lo que
est peso mximo permitido para la pinza (Wc) si se requiere un factor de
seguridad 25 por ciento?
A15 Estndares
Las siguientes normas son abordados por los subcomits A15:
SISTEMA DE COMUNICACIN A15.01. Normas de comunicacin y
protocolos para el intercambio de informacin entre sistemas de visin artificial
y otros dispositivos.
RENDIMIENTO A15.05. ANSVAIA A15.05 / 1-1989: Visin automatizada
Sistemas-Pe1jormance Test-Medicin de la posicin relativa de Target
Caractersticas en el espacio bidimensional.
TERMINOLOGA A15.07. Las normas terminolgicas para facilitar la
comunicacin de visin artificial incluyendo una persona a otra, la
comunicacin de datos e interfaces de usuario.
Interfaces de sensor A15.08. Estos son una serie de estndares de interfaz de
cmara de visin artificial.
A15.09 marcado y etiquetado. Marcado y etiquetado normas para los
sistemas de visin artificial. Las definiciones utilizadas en todo el texto la
terminologa y son consistentes con la RIA y normas de AFP que aparece arriba.
La automatizacin ha cambiado el lugar de trabajo, y la fabricacin integrada
por ordenador (CIM) traer cambios an mayores. Un estudio de la historia de
la robtica indica que la tecnologa est madurando y tiene un papel en la
fbrica de CIM de la nueva