Diversity of

Life &
Plants
Chapters 35-36 & 39

Taxonomy:

System of naming organisms.

Uses the following classifications:
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
KPCOFGS
Family
Genus
Species
canis familiaris = domesticated dog
canis lupus = wolf
There are five kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae, and Animalia.
In a six kingdom classification, Monera is broken up into
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria.
Phylogeny = organizing taxa based on evolutionary
relationships the study of phylogeny = systematics.

Plants:

Plants have cells, tissues and organs just as animals do.

Plant CELLS have chloroplasts, a large central vacuole, no
lysosomes, and a cell wall made out of cellulose
(carbohydrate storage molecule) bacterial cell walls are
made out of the carbohydrate peptidoglycan, whereas
fungal cell walls contain the carbohydrate chitin.
Plant ORGANS = roots, stems and leaves.
There are three distinct groups of plant tissues:
1. Ground tissue = the bulk of the tissue in a plant
usually without specialized function, other than
photosynthesis. There are three basic kinds that differ
based on the number of cells walls:
a. Parenchyma
b. Collenchyma
c. Sclerenchyma
2. Dermal tissue = the plants epidermis (skin).
Specialized functions include guard cells open/close
stomata, root hair cells absorb water by increasing

3. Vascular tissue = the plants circulatory system

responsible for transporting sugars down (leaves
roots) and water up (roots leaves). There are two
types of vascular tissues:
a. XYLEM: conducts H2O, some minerals, and
provides support. Have a primary and a secondary
cell wall for additional strength. Contain pits
places where the secondary cell wall is missing
allowing for transport of materials. Xylem cells are
DEAD at maturity essentially just cell walls
and the material being transported (no
organelles). Two types of xylem:
i. Tracheids = long and tapered, H2O passes
through pits, less efficient.
ii. Vessel members/elements = shorter and
wider, less taper (if any), H2O passes through
perforations holes between cells. More
efficient and more evolutionarily advanced

Tracheids vs.
Vessel
Members/Eleme
nts of xylem
tissue

b. PHLOEM: conducts sugars (glucose). Made up of

cells called sieve-tube members/elements that
form fluid-conducting columns called sieve tubes.
Cells ARE LIVING but LACK NUCLEI AND
RIBOSOMES each member has a companion
cell = a living parenchyma cell (with a nucleus)
that lies adjacent to a sieve-tube member giving
support. Companion cells and sieve-tube
members connect via plasmodesmata. Pores in
the cell walls at the end of each sieve-tube
member form a sieve
plate = allows for
contact and
transportation between
members (looks like a colander).

Cross
sections
of the 3
tissues in
roots,
stems,
and
leaves

Germination and
Development:
Once a seed reaches
maturity, it remains dormant until

specific environmental cues trigger germination water,

temperature, light, seed coat damage, fire, etc.)
Once germination is triggered, it begins with the absorption
of H2O.

Growing radicle produces roots.

 Apical meristems are the tissues in plants actively

undergoing mitosis = meristematic tissue the
sections of the plant where growth occurs. Located
at the tips of the roots (growth downward into the
soil) and the tip of the stem (growth upward toward
the sun). Responsible for the PRIMARY GROWTH of
a plant (height/vertical growth). There are three
types of apical meristems:
1. Ground meristem = growth of ground tissue.
2. Protoderm = growth of the dermal
tissue/epidermis.
3. Procambium = growth of primary xylem and
phloem.
Lateral meristems are the tissuse in plants actively
undergoing mitosis, but responsible for the
SECONDARY GROWTH of a plant (increased
width/girth of a woody plant conifers). There
are two types of lateral meristems:

Apical
meristems
in roots

Secondary
growth in woody
plants

Functional xylem = sapwood

Non-functional/much older xylem
pushed inward = dryer, harder
heartwood.
Alternation of growth/dormancy is
responsible for annual rings 2o

Dicot
Root

Monocot
Root

Primary Structure Roots:

1. EPIDERMIS = outside
surface of the root forms
root hairs with increase
surface area for absorption
of water.
2. CORTEX = bulk of root,
stores starch, contains air
spaces to aerate for
respiration.
3. ENDODERMIS = tightly
packed ring of cells at the
innermost portion of cortex.
Adjoining cells walls contain
suberin fatty substance
that creates a water-tight
barrier known as Casparian
Strips (regulates
movement of water through
endodermal cells, not
between prevents
movement back into
cortex).
4. VASCULAR
CYLINDER/STELE = tissue

Dicot Stem
Primary Structure
Stems:
1. EPIDERMIS =
covered with cutin
waxy substance that
forms the cuticle
preventing
desiccation.
2. CORTEX = various
ground tissues,
contains chloroplasts.
3. VASCULAR
CYLINDER =
contains xylem,
phloem, and pith. In
dicots, xylem and
phloem are grouped
in bundles around a
central pith. In
monocots, xylem and
phloem bundles are
scattered throughout
the ground tissue.

Monocot

Structure of a Leaf:
1. CUTICLE = protective layer consisting of cutin waxy
material. Reduces water loss/dessication through
transpiration evaporation of water from the leaves of
plants.
2. PALISADE MESOPHYLL = tightly packed parenchyma
(ground tissue) cells founds as one or more layers along the
upper surface of the leaf, however can also occur along
lower surface in plants adapted to dry habitats. Cells are
equipped with numerous chloroplasts specialized for
photosynthesis, which occurs primarily in this portion of the
leaf.
3. SPONGY MESOPHYLL = loosely arranged parenchyma
cells located below palisade mesophyll. Contains numerous
intercellular air spaces that store CO2 and O2.
4. GUARD CELLS = specialized epidermal cells adjacent to
stomata openings in the epidermis that allow for gas
exchange that control their opening and closing.
5. BUNDLE SHEATH CELLS = cells that surround vascular

Cross Section of a Leaf

Transport of
Water in
Plants:
THE
COHESIONTENSION
THEORY
Remember: Water
potential is the likelihood
of something to LOSE
water.

 Water enters plants via root hairs by way of osmosis.

Water then moves to the center of the root via two
pathways:
1. Water moves through the cell walls from cell-to-cell
without ever entering the cells themselves =
APOPLASTIC (non-living portion of the cells).
2. Water moves from the cytoplasm of one cell to the
cytoplasm of the next cell via plasmodesmata =
SYMPLASTIC (living portion of the cells).

 When water reaches the endodermis, it can only travel the

symplastic pathway due to the Casparian Strips/suberin.
Up until this point, the plant has the option of using either
pathway as it travels through the cortex.
Once through the endodermis, water and minerals travel to
the xylem via the apoplastic pathway.
Three mechanisms are involved in the movement of water
and minerals in a plant:
1. OSMOSIS = water moving from the soil through the
roots to the xylem. A concentration gradient is
maintained by have a HIGH [minerals] INSIDE the plant,
drawing water in. Movement of water into the root
forces water UP the xylem = root pressure (can be
seen as guttation sap or dew on the ends of leaves
of grasses and small herbs in the morning). little to
no effect on the movement of water in large plants like
trees.
2. CAPILLARY ACTION = rise of liquids in narrow tubes
due to adhesion between the water and the cells of
the xylem/tube. Effects of capillary action are also

Osmosis in Plants

Capillary Action/Adhesion

3. COHESION-TENSION THEORY = major

contributor to the movement of water UP
xylem. Results due to:
a. Transpiration: water evaporating from
the leaves causing negative
pressure/tension.
b. Cohesion: water molecules are attracted
to themselves forming a polymer-like
column of water from the roots to the
leaves. The water behaves like a single
molecule.
c. Bulk Flow: when a water molecule is lost
from a leaf during transpiration, it pulls
the entire column of water molecules up
behind it. Transpiration is fueled by
sunlight which in turn fuels the

Transpiration
and Bulk Flow

Cohesion (&
Adhesion)

(Osmosis)

Transport of Sugar in Plants:

Known as TRANSLOCATION = the movement of
carbohydrates through phloem from a source (leaves) to a
sink (site of utilization).

THE
PRESSURE-FLOW HYPOTHESIS

Steps of the Pressure-Flow Hypothesis:

1. Sugars enter sieve-tube members: soluble
carbohydrates (fructose and sucrose) move from the site of
production (palisade mesophyll) to the phloem by active
transport. [Solutes] is higher at the source than at
the sink.
2. Water enters the sieve-tube members: due to the
HIGH [solutes] in the sieve-tube members, [water] is LOW
which allows osmosis to bring water INTO the sieve-tube
members .
3. Pressure moves water and sugars from the source to
the sink through the sieve-tube members: when the
water entered the phloem, the pressure INCREASED
because the cell walls of the sieve-tube members do not
expand. As a result, water and sugar move by bulk flow
through the sieve plates of the sieve-tubes.
4. Pressure builds at the sink, but is immediately
reduced as sugars are removed and used by nearby
cells: as water and sugars move by bulk flow to the sink,
the pressure INCREASES. However, sugars are removed

Pressure-Flow Hypothesis

Control of Stomata:

The opening/closing of stomata influences gas exchange,

transpiration, the movement of sap, and photosynthesis.
When stomata are CLOSED, CO2 CANNOT enter, water
CANNOT leave, and photosynthesis CANNOT occur.
When stomata are OPEN, CO2 enters (photosynthesis can
occur) and water CAN leave via transpiration leaving the
plant at risk for dessication.
NEED A BALANCE between these two situations
OPTIMIZE PHOTOSYNTHESIS WHILE MINIMIZING
TRANSPIRATION.
Each stomata is surrounded by two guard cells, the cell
walls of which are thicker on the side bordering the
stomata.
When water enters a guard cell, the cell expands, but the
side bordering the stomata CANNOT bulge because of the
thicker cell wall. This means that the pressure is pushed
OUTWARD, away from the stomata, along the side of the
guard cell with the thinner cell wall results in two beanshaped cells with an opening (stomata) in between them =

Cell
bulg
es

Cell
bulge
s

K+ diffuses into the guard

cells allowing water to
then enter via osmosis.

Cell
collaps
es

Cell
collapses

K+ diffuses out of the guard cells

allowing water to then leave
via osmosis.

Plant Hormones:

Hormones are produced in one part of an organism and

influence the physiology of cells located elsewhere.
SMALL molecules that can PASS THROUGH CELL WALLS.
They affect division, growth including elongation, and
differentiation of cells.
Only small quantities are required to alter cell physiology.
Specific effects depend on what hormone it is, [hormone],
the cells targeted, and the presence/absence of any other
hormones.
There are 5 classes of plant hormones:
1. AUXIN (IAA/AUX) = promotes plant growth by
facilitating elongation of developing cells. Loosens
cellulose fibers which increases the plasticity of the cell
wall in response to turgor pressure, the cell walls can
expand causing growth. Produced at the tips of the roots
and shoots and also influences plants response to light
phototropism and gravity gravitropism.
2. GIBBERELLINS (GA1, GA2, GA3, etc.) = also
promote cell growth. Synthesized in young leaves,

GA is also involved in fruit development and seed

germination and can inhibit aging in leaves.
3. CYTOKININS (CK) = primarily stimulate cytokinesis
(cell division), but also influence the direction of organ
development (organogenesis), stimulate growth of lateral
buds which reduces apical dominance, and delay aging of
leaves. The effects of cytokinins can depend on the
presence/absence of AUXINS. They are produced in the
roots and transported.
4. ETHYLENE = gas the promotes the ripening of fruit.
During the later stages of fruit development, it fills the
intercellular air spaces within the fruit and promotes
ripening. Can also stimulate flower growth. In
conjungtion with AUXIN, however, it inhibits the
elongation of roots, stems, and leaves, even influencing
leaf abscission aging and dropping of leaves.
5. ABSCISIC ACID (ABA) = growth inhibitor that also
promotes bud and seed dormancy.

Additional plant hormone that promotes

differentiation:

Plant Responses to Stimuli:

Plants are anchored by roots so they cannot move in

response to environmental stimuli.
Instead, plants change their growth patterns tropism =
growth pattern in response to an environmental stimulus.
There are three plant tropisms:
1. PHOTOTROPISM = response to light, achieved by
AUXIN.
a. Auxin produced in apical meristem moves to the
zone of elongation via active transport where it
stimulates elongation.
b. When all sides of the apical meristem are equally
illuminated, the stem grows straight.
c. If the stem is UNEQUALLY illuminated, auxin
moves and is concentrated on the SHADY side.
d. HIGH [auxin] on the shady side causes that side to
grow more than the sunny side results in the
stem bending towards the light source.

Phototropism

2. GRAVITROPISM= the response of roots and

shoots to gravity. Both AUXIN and GA are
involved but actions depend on concentration and
target cells (roots or shoots).
a. If the stem is horizontal, AUXIN moves down
the stem and increases its concentration on
the lower side growth of the lower side
increases causing the stem to grow UPWARDS.
b. If a root is horizontal, AUXIN produced at the
root tip moves up the root and increases its
concentration on the LOWER side. However,
AUXIN INHIBITS growth in roots, so the
UPPER side grows more directing the stem
back DOWNWARDS.
3. THIGMOTROPISM= response to touch
mechanical stimuli. When vines and other
climbing plants contact an object they respond by
wrapping around it. The sensitive plant

Photoperiodism:

Plants response to changes in the relative length of

daylight and night = photoperiod.
Plants have a circadian rhythm = a clock that measures
the length of daylight and night. It continues to keep time
even if external clues are absent.
Dawn and dusk reset the clock.
Photochrome = a modified light-absorbing protein. There
are two types :
1. Pr (P660) absorbs red light of 660nm wavelength.
2. Pfr (P730) absorbs far-red light of 730 nm
wavelength.
Each type of photochrome is PHOTOREVERSIBLE = when
the protein is exposed to the right light, it is converted to
the other photochrome, Pr to Pfr and visa versa.
The mechanism is believed to work in the following way:
. Pr and Pfr are in equilibrium in the plant during
the daylight: since there is red light in sunlight, P r is
exposed and converted to Pfr, but some Pfr is also

 Pr accumulates at night: there is no sunlight to

convert Pr into Pfr, so it builds up in the plant. Also, Pfr
continues to be exposed to far-red light converting it
back into more Pr.
At daybreak, light rapidly converts accumulated
Pr into Pfr: as the sun comes out Pr is quickly exposed
to red light and converted into Pfr.
Night length is responsible for resetting circadian
rhythm clock: Pfr resets the plants clock and because
levels increase
Dayits Nigh
Dayb at daybreak, this is what the plants
to.
(redclocktis setreak

light (som (red

)
e
light
far)
red
light
only)
Pr
Pr
Pfr
and accu spik

 If a plant is exposed to a flash of red light during the

night, Pr is converted to Pfr and a shorter night period is
measured, resetting the plants clock.
If a flash of far-red light is detected right after the red light,
the effects are reversed.
If alternating flashes occur, only the LAST flash affects
the perception of night length.
Flowering plants initiate flowering in response to changes in
the photoperiod and are divided into three groups:
1. Long-day (short-night) = flower in spring and early
summer when daylight is the longest.
2. Short-day (long-night) = flower in late summer and
early fall when daylight is significantly decreasing.
3. Day-neutral = do not flower in response to daylight
changes, but rather some other cue: temperature or
water.
When flowering is initiated it is believed that the flowering
hormone FLORIGEN is produced.

How a flash of light during the night disrupts the

circadian rhythms of short-day and long-day
plants, their Pfr levels, and when flower: