Tab 5 Operational Impacts-V3.1

S
EN
SI
EM
Tab 5: Wind Integration Operational Impacts
2012 Siemens Industry Inc. All rights reserved
Wind Integration Operational Impacts
Load frequency Control

Governor action and droop control
Wind impacts on frequency regulation
Major Challenges
EM
Load Following Impacts or Economic Dispatch

Definition of economic dispatch
Characteristics of hydro units
Characteristics of wind units
Dispatch of Wind units
Load following
Impact of wind units on assignment of load following units
SI
Unit Commitment Impacts
Siemens Power Academy TD-NA Power System Studies for Wind Integration
2012 Siemens Industry Inc., Siemens Power Technologies International (Siemens PTI)
EN
In this section we will explore:

Frequency Control Impacts
5-2
Introduction
SI
now involve different behaviors (than conventional generation)

more variability and uncertainties introduced by wind and other
renewable generation technologies (e.g. solar)
The impact of the variability and uncertainties will increase as
the penetration increases and can lead to substantial integration
costs if not treated properly.
Fortunately there are ways of dealing with this effects.
Voltage control Real Time

frequency control (regulation) Real Time
Load following
Economic dispatch, and
Unit commitment
System Reliability Resource and Capacity Planning
EM
EN
The growth of wind power have complicated the way optimized

power system operation is carried out
The main activities of power system operations:
5-3
EN
Time Line for Operational Control Activities
Impact
Wind reduced
ELCC (Effective
Load Carrying
EM
Capability)
Impact
Wind Variability
& uncertainty
SI
Impact
Wind
uncertainty
ELCC
Wind
Source: NERC
IVGTFVariability
Report
Impact
& controllability
5-4
Dispatch of both
energy and capacity
(reserves) services
Ensure sufficient
generation is there
when needed
Initial: Governor
Action seconds
Then: Provided by
generators on AGC
Several minutes to a
few hours
Normally Day Ahead

Hours Ahead provide
adjustments.
Week, Month, Year
Ahead ensure
availability.
Greatest source of
costs. Wind
forecasting crucial to
manage this and the
risk associated with
the uncertainty in the
day-ahead time frame
With wind:
Greater regulation, load-following, and quick-start capability

required from the remaining generators.
Function of balancing area size, the size and geographical
dispersion of Wind Plants, the capabilities of the WTG & the
flexibility of other generators and load.
SI
Scheduling and
Unit
commitment
Short time frames to

maintain system
balance
Seconds - Minutes
EM
Maintain voltage
profiles & Prevent
Voltage collapse
Load following
and Economic
Dispatch
Real time
Frequency
Regulation
EN
Voltage
Regulation
Time Line for Operational Control Activities

(continued)
5-5
SI
EM
EN
When a generator output is lost the frequency immediately

begins to fall.
The remaining generator governors, to a varying extent, see
the lower frequency and increase the amount of power
generated via governor action
Some loads are naturally frequency dependent. Simple AC
motors slow down and consume less power. For some types of
loads this power reduction is much more than a direct
proportion.
A new equilibrium point is reached, in a few seconds, and the
frequency decline is arrested. The system is off-nominal
frequency
When a block of load is suddenly lost, frequency immediately
begins to rise, governors decrease the generator output,
frequency dependent loads consume more power, and a new
equilibrium is reached.
Frequency Events in Power Systems
5-6
Frequency Deviation in the U.S.

For the Northeast interconnected system
EN
Frequency generally remains between 59.85 Hz and 60.15 Hz

During major events the deviation is still small
EM
Loss of the largest single unit in the interconnection (1300 MW)

produces a frequency decline of about 0.04 Hz; No Problem.
Huge Inertia
For the Eastern Interconnection:

Response of about -3300 MW/0.1 Hz, i.e. the loss of 1000 MW of
generation will cause a frequency deviation of -0.0303 Hz.
Usually, rate of frequency change is low: <1% per minute.
Huge Inertia
SI
WECC Frequency Response: -1500 MW/0.1 Hz; still very large

ERCOT Frequency Response: -600 MW/0.1 Hz; smallest of the
interconnected systems.
During the blackout of 2003 frequency only deviated within +/- 0.3 Hz.
5-7
act
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Frequency Deviation in the U.S.

An Example
280
500
210
450
140
400
70
SI
550
EM
EN
The figure below shows the impact in ERCOT system when WTG (QSE) almost
instantaneously ramp up and down causing frequency deviations and Rapid
Response Reserve (RRS) to be deployed
Eventually, a 10% ramp rate was agreed upon by ERCOT and the wind
community taking into consideration the economical impact a smaller ramp
rate could have on the WTGs (more on this later)
5-8
Frequency Control
EN
When there is disturbance the system responds in

two time frames:
System Inertial Response
Load Response
Prime Mover Governing Response
EM
Primary frequency response (10 sec)

Secondary frequency response (30 sec)
Supplementary Control
SI
Speed changer - local level (Load reference set-point);

Instruction to operators from the control center.
Automatic Generation Control (AGC) - system level
Primary Control
5-9
Load can contribute

significantly to arrest the
initial drop in frequency
working together with the
system inertia.
SI
EM
EN
Inertia comes from the

large mass in the
rotors and turbines of
conventional
generators.
Initial Line of Defense

Inertial Response / Load Response
5-10
SI
EM
EN
Next Line of Defense

Response of Machines Governors
5-11
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But
Frequency Response is Affected by WTG
SI
EM
Increased rate of change of system frequency for the same

disturbance (drop large generator unit)
Need to increase the up-regulation / down-regulation
spinning reserve in the system
More acute for relatively small isolated systems: increased
risk of under-frequency load shedding and cascading
outages
Gets worse for greater levels of penetration
WTG could ramp up and down very rapidly making

the situation worse.
EN
WTG have less inertia and traditionally did not

participate in frequency control: e.g. rotor speed
constant philosophy for the DFIG
This produced:
5-12
Modern Larger WTG
EN
have greater inertia
Solution
However
Modern WTG Generation Addressed This
Deliberately use the control to extract stored inertial energy

by decelerating the machine rotor
EM
Provide incremental energy contribution during the first

several seconds of grid events
Do not go too far down with the rotor speed to avoid stalling a
wind turbine
SI
Can provide Governor like response by spilling wind if this

is the most economic way of providing regulation
Have ramp controls.
The inertia stored in the rotating mass tends to increase slightly

more than linear with the rated power of the turbine
5-13
Solution

Siemens Netconverter
EN
The output of the WTG is controlled so it is frequency sensitive.

The energy is extracted from both slowing the turbine and the
wind that is spilled.
This gives time for the system to recover.
SI
EM
Turbines at reduced power
Reduction in turbine output power
Increase in turbine output power
5-14
ERCOT LOAD SHED LEVELS
EN
Three steps are considered in ERCOT

Frequency Threshold
Load Relief
59.3 Hz
5% of the ERCOT System Load

(Total 5%)
An additional 10% of the ERCOT System Load

(Total 25%)
EM
58.5 Hz
An additional 10% of the ERCOT System Load

(Total 15%)
58.9 Hz
SI
A Typical response shown
Recorded, Initial, Adjusted

60.3
recorded
initial
adjusted
60.2
60.1
60
59.9
Hz
59.8
59.7
59.6
59.5
59.4
59.3
59.2
0
10
15
20
25
Seconds
5-15
Solution

GE WindINERTIA 1
SI
EM
EN
WindInertia increases electric power during the initial stages of

a significant downward frequency event by issuing a command
from the special frequency control
Usually it is enough to provide response within several seconds
until governors of larger conventional machines start their work
WTG electric power drops to allow recovery of rotational speed
Source: N. Miller et al., GE Energy. CanWEA, Vancouver, BC, October 20, 2008
5-16
Solution

Ramp Control
EM
P, MW
Ramp Rate Control
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Curtailment released;
ramp to max power @
10 MW/min
10
15
20
t, min
Available Output
SI
Output
Curtailment to 100 MW
@ 15 MW/min
EN
ISOs are imposing limits on the ramping of WTG (e.g. 10%/min

for ERCOT)
Modern WTG have the capability to respond.
Below to examples one from Siemens and another from GE
Source: N. Miller et al., GE Energy. CanWEA, Vancouver, BC, October 20, 2008
5-17
Final Line of Defense

AGC
SI
EM
Units on AGC can change output

quickly to track minute by
minute load variations and any
variations in generation.
Units in AGC are usually the
marginal units in the network
(e.g. GTs. CCPs, etc) or storage
hydro.
WTG are never the marginal unit
and would not be on AGC.
EN
Governor control is proportional and will leave an error in

the frequency.
As shown before the final line of defense after a major
perturbation is the Automatic Generation Control (AGC).
5-18
EM
EN
Load following takes place in the same time frame as economic

dispatch discussed next, usually defined in the intra-hour time
frame.
Load following is defined as the response to changes in system
load and as we will see to changes in wind output.
The composition of units assigned to load following depend on
both of utility company operational practices, economic
dispatch regime and on the physical capabilities of generators
(such as ramp rates) that follow load.
SI
Larger control areas typically have several units that provide a

fraction of total output and that can be called upon to either
increase or decrease output.
When this load following capability is spread among several units,
the ramp rate becomes less of a constraint than if only a small
number of units adjust to changing load conditions.
It is generally nor economic to use WTG to provide load
following.
WTG is modeled as a reduction in load in operational studies.
Background of Other Operational Concepts

Load Following
5-19
EM
EN
Given a set of generating units, synchronized and under

dispatch control, and given the total net Load demand to be
supplied by the units;
Determine the output of each unit so that the total
production cost is minimized and the sum of the outputs
equals the total net demand. Also
SI
no unit can violate its minimum or maximum dispatch limit.

The flows in the system cannot violate transmission limits and
create potentially unsecure conditions (security constrained
solution)
Problem Definition

Economic Dispatch (ED)
5-20

Generator Models for Economic Dispatch
Thermal Units
Heat Rate (H) Is the amount of heat added, usually in Btu per hour, to produce a unit amount of work kWh. Heat
rate thus has units of Btu/kWh.
Hydro Units
EM
Production function of flow, head and efficiency

Value of water is a function of expected (stochastic) future
production cost savings versus producing today
Value is zero if the plant is spilling water or is a run-of-river
Value is very high if levels are low and it is likely that in the future very
highly priced thermal (or load rationing) would have to be incurred.
Wind Units
SI
Function of the Cp and cube of the wind speed.

Detailed hour by hour mesoscale wind models used to define
production
Modeled usually as a negative load
EN
Input-Output characteristics of a thermal generation unit is defined in terms

of gross input: Heat rate (H) in (MBtu/hr) versus net generator MW output
(P).
5-21

Economic Dispatch Solution
EM
All units are either at its

maximum/minimum output or are
marginal units (within unconstrained
areas)
SI
Tool: Security Constrained Economic

Dispatch (SCED)
EN
The goal is to dispatch all the available synchronized units to

meet the load demand at minimum cost.
For a a system with N thermal units, this is achieved under the
condition that at optimal dispatch all units have equal
incremental (marginal cost), where F(Pi) is the Fuel input
power output characteristic of each unit.
5-22
Why Unit Commitment?

Unit Commitment (UC)
EN
Cyclic nature of power system loads.

Load changes and the operation of an electric power system.
Committing enough units and having them on line is one of
economics and security (reserves)
Tool: Security Constrained Unit Commitment (SCUC)
Many constraints can be placed on the unit commitment

problem such as;
5-23
Generating unit constraints and status

Reserve constraints
Minimum up-time and down-time
Crew constraints
Ramp rate limits
Transmission Constraints
Generation-Load balance constraint
SI
EM

Functions of the ISO
The ISOs functions include the administration of the UC
and ED according to various timeframes
EN
Day-ahead security-constrained unit commitment once a

day
EM
Real-time security-constrained economic dispatch every 5

minutes with a 10-minute reaction time
Automatic generation control every 6 seconds
Supplementary, computer-assisted manual intervention as
needed
Other functions of the ISOs are
SI
Operating the high-voltage transmission system and

Administer, monitor, and settle the electricity markets
Real-time (short-term) security-constrained unit

commitment every 15-minutes with a 30-minute reaction
time
5-24

Spinning Reserve Constraints
EM
Spinning reserve must be carried so that the loss of one or more

units does not cause too far a drop in system frequency. If one unit
is lost, there must be ample reserve on the other units to make up
for the loss in a specified time period.
Spinning reserve must be allocated to obey certain rules,

usually set by regional reliability councils (in the united States)
that specify, how the reserve is to be allocated to various units.
Typical rules specify
SI
that reserve must be a given percentage of forecasted peak

demand, or
that reserve must be capable of making up the loss of the most
heavily loaded unit in a given period of time.
EN
Spinning reserve is the term used to describe the total amount

of generation available from all units synchronized (i.e.,
spinning) on the system, minus the present load and losses
being supplied.
5-25

Spinning Reserve Constraints (continued)
quick-start diesel or
gas-turbine units
hydro-units
pumped-storage hydro-units
EM
that can be brought on-line, synchronized, and brought up to full

capacity quickly.
As such, these units can be counted in the overall reserve assessment,
as long as their time to come up to full capacity is taken into account;
Rapid Response Reserves (RRS)
Finally, Reserves must be spread around the power system;
SI
to avoid transmission system limitations (often called bottling of reserves)

and
to allow various parts of the system to run as islands, should they become
electrically disconnected.
These include:
EN
Beyond spinning reserve, the unit commitment problem may involve

various classes of scheduled reserves or off-line reserves.
5-26

Resource Adequacy
EM
One key component to represent the value of a unit is its ELCC or

Expected Load Carrying Capability.
For conventional generation it is approximately equal to Maximum
Demonstrated Capacity (MW) * (1-FOR)
For WTG we will see later.
SI
Yearly the ISO must ensure that there is enough capacity in the
network including firm imports less firm exports.
Now we will see how WTG affects all of this!
EN
This refers to the procurement of enough installed generation in

the system to be able to attend the forecasted peak load,
schedule the required maintenances and account for forced
unavailability while maintaining a desired level of reliability;
usually measured in LOLP in % or LOLE in days per ten years
5-27
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The Nature of WTG

Variability & Uncertainty
Solution
SI
EM
Wind mesoscale models demonstrate that it is not credible that in a

large area all wind speed will experiment the same variation.
The larger the geographical dispersion of Wind Plants the smaller the
variability of the generation
EN
Variability are changes in the WTG output due to weather

patterns and are unavoidable, but can be mitigated.
Geographic Dispersion reduces Variability
Source: DOE 2008 Report
5-28
The Nature of WTG

Variability
The size of the Wind Generation reduces the variability
Solution
EN
More WTG imply that it is less likely that they all see simultaneously
the same change in wind speed resulting in soothing effects
More WTG generation is likely to also imply greater geographical
diversity.
SI
EM
Sudden changes in wind speed are less likely and thing localized.
Also, shorter time frames are subject to less variability.
Source: DOE 2008 Report
5-29
The Nature of WTG

Variability (continued)
EN
Based on the observations above we conclude that making

the balancing areas larger reduce variability and as we will
see also the uncertainty.
Solution
Virtual arrangements though reserve sharing, ACE sharing and

dynamic scheduling of wind plants from smaller to larger areas.
Cost is reduced as
the Balancing Areas
increases (larger
areas.
Increase in
Geographical
diversity
SI
EM
Wind resources were evaluated in the Columbia Basin, in Eastern Montana, as a 50%/50% mix of Columbia Basin and Eastern
Montana wind, and as a multi-state diversified mix with many smaller sites combined.
Source: Avista Wind Integration Study
5-30
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The Nature of WTG

Uncertainty
EN
Uncertainty are errors in the estimation of production due to

error in the wind speed forecast
The errors in wind speed are magnified in the power output due
to the cube dependency.
10% error in wind speed results in 33% error in power.
SI
EM
Level of
Penetration
Costs can be substantial, particularly for over commitments of capacity.
5-31
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The Nature of WTG

Uncertainty (continued)
SI
EM
This has an impact on

markets, the sooner the
day ahead closes the
greater the error in the
forecast and the higher the
cost
Same applies for hour
ahead and
This is a case for late
closing of day ahead
markets and intra-hour Solution
markets.
Source: NERC IVGTF Report 041609
EN
The errors in wind speed are magnified as the time horizon

increases. This means that on one extreme day ahead unit
commitment it has the greatest impact and on the other load
following has the least.
5-32
The Nature of WTG

Solution
SI
EM
Better data collection / larger areas / faster computers

Use of multi-model approaches for forecast; statistical models using for
example Artificial Neural Networks, mixture of experts, nearest neighbor
search and support vector machines
Use of mutischeme forecasting based on different assumptions/methods in
numerical weather models
EN
Wind forecasting technology has improved substantially over the

years, lead by countries like Germany that have large levels of
wind integration.
Source: Predicting the Wind, IEEE
5-33
The Nature of WTG

Solution
SI
EM
EN
These methods and efforts have resulted in a continued

reduction in the forecasting error
5-34
The Nature of WTG

Solution
Larger areas result in a reduced forecasting error for the region.
SI
EM
EN
This results in less impact on scheduling and therefore lower integration

costs,
5-35
Modeling Wind as a Load Resource

for System Operations
EN
WTG is normally treated as a negative load resource and the net

load forecast is used to commit and dispatch non-wind
generation:
EM
Load and WTG are independent and the combination of errors is :

2
total load
2wind generation
SI
Example if the load forecast error for a 5,000 MW peak load is 2% = 100 MW
and the WTG error for a total of say 1000 MW, with an output of 500 MW
during the peak is 25% = 125 MW, then the total expected error is 160 MW..
Wind forecast error and variability increases ancillary services for

regulation control
Since wind has no fuel cost per se, it is always called to run, whenever
available in the dispatch; same as load
It is treated as non dispatchable unit by most utilities and electricity markets;
same as loads
Wind generation is variable and has errors in its forecast; same as loads
5-36
Wind adds variability to

the to the ramping
requirements.
SI
EM
The figure to the left

shows the increase in
requirements for Xcel
energy North, with and
without wind
Source: Grid Impacts of Wind Power Variability: Recent

Assessments from a Variety of Utilities in the United
States
B. Parson et. al.
Ramp up
requirements
increased by
wind
Ramp down
requirements
increased by
wind
EN
Wind generation can

have significant Impact
on load following.
Wind Impacts on Load Following
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5-37
Unit Commitment of Wind Generation
act
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EN
The use of wind generation, due to the variable nature of wind,

can lead to operational uncertainty:
How much generation will be necessary to serve the net load (load
WTG)?
EM
What load following reserves and ramping capabilities are

required?
SI
To allow regulation, i.e. the minute by minute changes in

system load
Some utilities when committing or dispatching wind
generation, use a generation output that is discounted by a
certain percentage of the forecast value to hedge against
uncertainties in wind forecasting.
Remember that errors in the forecast have maximum impact the
longer the time are maximum in the day ahead unit
commitment.
How much spinning reserve will be necessary to maintain reliability

levels?
5-38
Solution
Effect of the Nature of Other Generation
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Impact
Very inflexible slow to change
Run-of-river hydro
Limited flexibility without wasting water
Large Coal Fired
Slow to start and ramp, better at base

load
Combined Cycle
Plants
Faster to start, fast to ramp; high

efficiency at close to nominal
Conventional CT
Fast to start and ramp; costly
Advanced CCP
Fast to start and ramp; very efficient at

many load levels FlexPlant 10
SI
EM
Nuclear Power
Plants
Pump storage
Faster to start, fast to ramp; need low

cost energy
Storage Hydro
Fast to start and ramp; can virtual

store
worst
better
Best
Technology
EN
The impact of the variability and uncertainty of wind generation is minimized

when the rest of the generation is flexible and the LOAD!
5-39
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Summary of Impacts and Solutions
Impact
Mitigation
- WTG Controls
- WTG Controls
- Flexible Generation
- Flexible Generation - Geographical Diversity
- Large Balancing Areas
- Geographical Diversity
- Geographical Diversity
- Flexible Markets
- Flexible Markets
- Improved forecasting
High
Improving
SI
Effectiveness
Unit Commitment
Day Ahead
High
Low
Medium
Significant errors in
Smaller errors in forecast Some errors in forecast
forecast
Subject to Variability
Important Variability
Important Variability
EM
Very Low
Smallest errors in
forecast
Limited Variability
Activity
Load following
Unit Commitment
Economic Dispatch
short term
High
Need to improve
Regulation
EN
The table below summarizes the main operation impacts and their
mitigations/solutions
Not all systems are the same with respect of the quality of the WTG,
the flexibility of the generation and the level of penetration but this is a
good indication
INCREASING COSTS
5-40
Summary of Impacts and Solutions

(continued)
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Wind
Regulation Load
Unit Gas Supply Tot
Capacity
Cost
Following CommitCost
Oper.
Penetration ($/MWh)
Cost
ment
($/MWh)
Cost
(%)
($/MWh)
Cost
Impact
($/MWh)
($/MWh)
3.5
0
0.41
1.44
na
1.85
15
0.23
na
4.37
na
4.60
20
10
15
14.8
SI
May 03 Xcel-UWIG
Sep 04 XcelMNDOC
2005
PacifiCorp
April 06 Xcel-PSCo
April 06 Xcel-PSCo
Jul 07
APS
0
0.20
0.20
0.37
INCREASING COSTS
1.6
na
na
2.65
3.0
2.26
3.32
1.06
na
1.26
1.45
na
4.60
3.72
4.97
4.08
Study
EM
Date
EN
The table below summarizes the results of various integration studies

to date.
It is largely in agreement with the observations made
5-41
SI
EM
EN
A larger number of Studies
5-42
Using Economic Dispatch Simulation to Evaluate

the Cost Impact of Wind Generation
EN
The costs impacts of sub hourly load following that include

dispatched wind generation can be evaluated by running a
Security Constrained Economic Dispatch (SCUD) simulation
software .
EM
Run the SCUD and calculate the dispatch for other units and reserves.
For comparison purposes a case with uniform capacity and energy equal to
that produced by the wind resources can be assessed.
This cost incurred due to using wind during this period, is

largely due to factors such as;
Sudden loss or increase of wind power
SI
Slow changes in wind power output (i.e. ramp rates)
Units at their minimum.
With wind profiles / mesoscale models / forecasts calculate wind production

by plant in 15 minutes increments and its expected error (introduced as
probability)
5-43
Using Unit Commitment Simulation to Evaluate the

Economic Impact of Wind Generation (continued)
With wind profiles / mesoscale models / forecasts calculate

wind production by plant in hourly increments. Expected
case can be used or historical series. Account for errors in
the forecast.
EM
Run the SCUC and calculate the commitment for other units
and reserves. Calculate the cost.
SI
This cost can be compared with a benchmark case that has a

unit commitment with no wind capacity scheduled, but
instead an uniform block of generation that produces the
same energy of the wind is included.
A case where wind and corresponding load is removed from
the runs.
EN
The economic impact of wind generation in the unit

commitment can be done as follows;
5-44
EN
Carrying of additional reserves, both spinning and

non spinning to meet intra hour load following.
Additional energy costs incurred for intra hour load
following due to greater variability
Possible additional costs of frequency regulation
resources or regulation reserves
EM
Found by evaluating the impact of wind fluctuations on the

standard measures such as area control error etc.
Increased reserves for safe operation.
Important for older WTG less so with new designs
SI
Additional cost for Unit commitment costs due to

forecast inaccuracies in Wind generation outputs
The cost of rescheduling generation to account for short fall
of wind output
Summary of Operational Impacts of Wind Integration
5-45
A Case Study of a WPG in High Penetration Denmark

(19.3%)
EM
EN
Plant spilling wind

so it has spinning
reserve available
SI
Fast Reduction
to counteract
frequency
increase
Manual orders
to reduce
output
A typical day on the Horns Rev Offshore wind plant in Denmark
Source: European Balancing Act, IEEE
5-46
The Capacity Value of Wind
SI
EM
EN
While wind is largely an energy resource it does have some

capacity value; i.e. Effective Load Carrying Capability (ELCC)
There are several methods for determining this value for WTG
Source: M. Milligan and K. Porter, Determining the capacity value of wind: A survey of methods and implementation,
5-47
The Capacity Value of Wind (continued)
Source: Wind Plant Integration- Cost Status & Issues IEEE
SI
EM
EN
As can be observed in the figure below in average about 25%

ELCC is assigned to WTC across different companies.
5-48
SI
EM
EN
However, this value may change season to season as Avista

found:
5-49
SI
EM
EN
At the end of the day the ELCC of wind is the additional load
that one can serve when wind is added without degrading the
target reliability level

Source NREL The Capacity Value of Wind
5-50

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Tab 5: Wind Integration Operational Impacts

2012 Siemens Industry Inc. All rights reserved

Wind Integration Operational Impacts

Load frequency Control

Load Following Impacts or Economic Dispatch

Unit Commitment Impacts

In this section we will explore:

now involve different behaviors (than conventional generation)

Voltage control Real Time

The growth of wind power have complicated the way optimized

Time Line for Operational Control Activities

Normally Day Ahead

Greater regulation, load-following, and quick-start capability

Short time frames to

Time Line for Operational Control Activities

When a generator output is lost the frequency immediately

Frequency Events in Power Systems

Frequency Deviation in the U.S.

Frequency generally remains between 59.85 Hz and 60.15 Hz

Loss of the largest single unit in the interconnection (1300 MW)

For the Eastern Interconnection:

WECC Frequency Response: -1500 MW/0.1 Hz; still very large

Frequency Deviation in the U.S.

When there is disturbance the system responds in

Primary frequency response (10 sec)

Speed changer - local level (Load reference set-point);

Load can contribute

Inertia comes from the

Initial Line of Defense

Next Line of Defense

Increased rate of change of system frequency for the same

WTG could ramp up and down very rapidly making

WTG have less inertia and traditionally did not

Modern Larger WTG

have greater inertia

Deliberately use the control to extract stored inertial energy

Provide incremental energy contribution during the first

Can provide Governor like response by spilling wind if this

The inertia stored in the rotating mass tends to increase slightly

Modern WTG Generation Addressed This

The output of the WTG is controlled so it is frequency sensitive.

Turbines at reduced power

Reduction in turbine output power

Increase in turbine output power

ERCOT LOAD SHED LEVELS

Three steps are considered in ERCOT

5% of the ERCOT System Load

An additional 10% of the ERCOT System Load

An additional 10% of the ERCOT System Load

A Typical response shown

Recorded, Initial, Adjusted

Modern WTG Generation Addressed This

WindInertia increases electric power during the initial stages of

Modern WTG Generation Addressed This

Ramp Rate Control

ISOs are imposing limits on the ramping of WTG (e.g. 10%/min

Final Line of Defense

Units on AGC can change output

Governor control is proportional and will leave an error in

Load following takes place in the same time frame as economic

Larger control areas typically have several units that provide a

Background of Other Operational Concepts

Given a set of generating units, synchronized and under