(Alex Chao, Maury Tigner) Handbook of Accelerator PDF

Handbook of ACCELERATOR PHYSICS ENGINEERING Ected by Alexander Wu Chao Stonford Linear Accelerator Center Maury Tigner Camel Unitersty Ve World Scientific Singapore «New Jersey *London* Hong KongPublished by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. P.O Box 128, Farrer Road, Singapore 912805. USA office: Suite 1B; 1060 Main Street, River Edge, NJ 07661 UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H SHE: Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Handbook of accelerator physics and engineering / [edited by} Alexander Wu Chao, Maury Tigner. Pp. cm. Includes index. ISBN 9810235003 ISBN 9180238584 (pbk) 1, Particle accelerators -- Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Nuclear physics Handbooks, manuals, ete, I. Chao, Alex. If. Tigner, M. IML Title: Accelerator physics and engineering, QC787.P3H36 | 1998 539.73-de21 9.13549 cP British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Copyright © 1999 by World Scientific Put ing Co, Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved. This Book, or parts thereof; may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher, For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher. Printed in Singapore.Preface This Handbook is a product of the world community of accelerator physicists and engineers. It is not a textbook but rather a collection of information useful to professionals in design, construction, and operation of accelerators. The Handbook has been prepared by more than 200 experienced experts from across the spectrum of accelerator related institutions and to them great thanks are due. In addition to content, a high priority has been given to portability of the book. This has led to a sacrifice of some aesthetics in order to make the text as compact as possible. For that, our apologies go to users and authors alike, Singularly important are the references to be found at the end of each sub-section. Here the user will find locations of tutorial material as well as reliable detail for further reading. The references for thie most part are not intended to be exhaustive or to indicate priority of discovery or invention, but rather to provide a reliable lead into the literature. In addition, a detailed index gives access to occurrences of important subjects and concepts to be found herein. The fees and royalties that would normally be paid to authors and editors are being used instead to provide scholarships to the two world Accelerator Schools now in operation, the CERN Accelerator School and the US Particle Accelerator School. As hard'as the authors and editors tried to be careful, itis not possible to be completely error free. An updated errata list has therefore been established; it can be found at the Handbook website http://www. wspe.com.sg/books/physics/3818.html, The editors would appreciate receiving any suggestions of corrections. To suggest corrections, please send e-mails to achao@slac.stanford.edu. Editors Alexander Wu Chao, Stanford, California ‘Maury Tigner, Ithaca, New York September, 1998Acknowledgements ‘The editors hereby acknowledge with deepest appreciation and thanks the support of the Directors of SLAC at Stanford University and of the Laboratory of Nuclear Studies at Cornell University without which this work would have simply been impossible, We also wish to give special thanks to Scott Berg, Indiana University, and Tom Hays, Cornell, for essential help with the technical complexities of typesetting software and to Jim Wahl, SLAC and Don Miller, Cornell for their indispensable help with the illustrations, For continual guidance and help with the intricacies of computer hardware and software, great thanks are due to Tom Knight, SLAC. viTable of Contents Preface 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 HOWTO USE THIS BOOK . 12 13 FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS 1.4 UNITS AND CONVERSIONS 14.1 Units AW. Chao... 1.42 Conversions M. Tigner 15 FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAE A.W. Chao Special Functions........ Curvilinear Coordinate Systems Electromagnetism a5 Kinematical Relations Vector Analysis . 15.6 Relativity . S 1.6 GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES . Betatron M. Tigner . Colliders J. Rees. . . Cyclotron H. Blosser... ... Electrostatic Accelerator J. Ferry Free Electron Lasers C, Pellegrin Induction Linacs R. Bangerter...... « Linear Accelerators for Electron G.A. Loew Livingston Chart J, Rees... 0.0. es 1.6.12.1 Radiation therapy 16.122 Radioisotopes . . . . Microtron PH. Debenham . pty Colliders R. Palmer . 5 Pulsed High Voltage Devices J. Nation Radio Frequency Quadrupole J. Staples . Spallation Sources H. Lengeler 1.6.20 Wakefield Accelerators J. Simpson . . . 1.7 COMPUTER CODE LIBRARY . Antiproton Sources J. Peoples JP Marriner. High Voltage Electrodynamic Accelerators M, Cleland . Medical Applications of Accelerators J. Alonso . Synchrotrons and Storage Rings E.J.N. Wilson. ‘Two-Beam Accelerators A. Sessler, G. Westenskow Industrial Applications of Electrostatic Accelerators G. Norton, J.L. Duggan . me eIDAAHHR ARE2 BEAM DYNAMICS 21 22 23 24 2s PHASE SPACE 2.1 Linear Betatron Motion D.A. Edwards, M, Syphers . 2.1.2 Longitudinal Motion D.A. Edwards,M. Syphers . . 2.1.3 Linear Coupled Systems D.A. Edwards, M. Syphers 2.1.4 Orbital Bigen-analysis for Electron Storage Rings JA. Ellison, H. Mais, G. Ripken . on OPTICS ANDLATTICES ........ 22.1 Single Element Optics K. Brown 2.2.2 Cylinder Model of Multipoles M. Bassetti, C. 2.2.3. Lattices for Collider Storage Rings E. Keil 224 Lattices for Low-Emittance Light Sources A. Jackson... 2.25 Mobius Accelerators R.Talman......+. 4+ 2.2.6 Alpha Magnet H. Wiedemann . . NONLINEAR DYNAMICS . . . 23.1 Hamiltonian K. Symon . . 23.1 General case... . « 23.1.2 Transverse motion . . . 2.3.1.3 Longitudinal motion . . 2.3.1.4 Synchrobetatron coupling . . . 23.2. Tune Dependence on Momentum and Betatron Amplitudes D.A. Edwards, M. Syphers oo. ove vue eens 23.3 Nonlinear Resonances D.A. Edwards, M. Syphers . 2.3.4 Synchro-Betatron Resonances A. Piwinski 23.5 Taylor Maps J. Invin, A. Dragt .....« 23.6 LieMaps A.Dragt........ 23.7 Differential Algebraic Techniques M. Bere 2.3:8 Numerical Integration Methods H. Yoshida 23.8.1 Methods of realization 23.82 Sympletc mebod vs noneymplesie method - 23.9 Dynamic Aperture J, Irwin, 7. Yan... « 23.10 Decoherence M.A. Furman .. . 23.11 Momentum Compaction and Phase Slip Factor K.Y. Ng 23.12 Nonlinear Dynamics Experiments S.Fepgs 5 23.13 Echo ‘G.V. Stupakov 23.14 ‘Transverse Beam Shaping J Irvin... . 23.15 Hénon Map and Standard Map ¥.7. Yan .. ELECTRON GUNS AND PRE-INJECTORS H.G. Kirk R. Miller D. Yeremiian 2.4.1 Brightness Web decasaee 2.42. DC High Voltage Guns-and Bunching Systems — 2.42.1 Gumcharacteristics . . 2.4.2.2 Longitudinal dynamics 2423 Radial dynamics . ... . 243 RFGuns . = 244 Compensation of Space-Charge Effects | | COLLECTIVEEFFECTS .... 0.2.22... 2.5.1 ‘Collective Effects in High ney ‘Btectron Linacs'K. Thompson K K Toya : 25.1.1 Single bunch effects . 2.5.1.2 Muiltibunch Effects. . . 2.52 Beam Loading D. Boussard . 25.2.1 Single-bunch passage i 25.2.2 Cavity equivalent circuit viii26 27 28 253 254 255 2.5.6 257 258 2.59 2.5.10 25.11 BEAM-BEAMEFFECTS ......... 26.1 2.62 2.63 2.6.4 POLARIZATION . 0. 2-00 eee 271 212 213 214 a 21.6 27.7 218 219 BEAMCOOLING .........5-+5 2.8.1 28.2 283 2.84 28.5 ‘Transmission of small’ modulations (AM and. Pup thongh « envy with beamioading 6.6.66 e ee eee Periodic beam loading at multiples of fy . . ac Rf power needed for transient beamm-loading correction. |. Traveling-wave cavities ..... . 7 Space Charge Effects in Circular Accelerators B. Zowter . . . 2.5.3.1 Direct space charge effects. . o 2.53.2 Betatron frequency shifts . Viasov and Fokker-Planck Equations. B, Zotter . . Potential Well Effect B.Zotter............ Single-Bunch Instabilities in Circular Accelerators. B, Zotter . Sacherer Formulae B. Zotter oe Landau Damping A.W. Chao, B. Zotier . . . Touschek Effect and Intrabeam Scattering A. Piwinski . . Jon Trapping, Beam-Ion Instabilities, and Dust K Zimmermann. . 2.5.10.1 Jon Trapping . 25.102 Dust particles. . 5 2.5.10,.3 Single-pass ion effects in ‘storage rings and linacs - Electron-Cloud Effect M.A, Furman bbodc Beam-Beam Effects in Storage Rings K.Hirata . 2.6.1.1 Infinitely short bunches... . ... 2.6.1.2 Long bunches 2.6.1.3 Dispersion at IP, cross Beam-Beam Effects in Linear Cc 2 . 2.6.2.1 Disruption with negligible. beamstrahlung 2.6.2.2 ‘Beamstrahlung with negligible disruption . 2.62.3 QED and QCD backgrounds ....... Parasitic Beam-beam Effects and Separation Schemes J.M. Jowett. 2.6.3.1 Separation schemes ........ veveee 2.6.3.2. Long-range beam-beameffects . . Beam-Beam Compensation Schemes S. Poses ‘Thomas-BMT Equation 7 Roser . Spinor Algebra T: Roser . . Spin Rotators and Siberian Snakes T: Roser - Ring with Spin Rotators and Siberian Snakes 7: Roser Depolarizing Resonances and Spin Flippers 7: Roser... . . Polarized Proton Beams and Siberian Snakes A.D. Krisch Radiative Polarization in Electron Storage Rings D.P. Barber, G. Rpten« ‘Computer Algorithms and Spin Matching D.P. Barber, G. Ripken: . Lie Algebra for Spin Motion K. Yokoya . . . Stochastic Cooling J. Marriner. 2.8.1.1 Cooling rates. . . 2.8.1.2 Hardware Electron Cooling F Krienen . . . Laser Cooling in Storage Rings JS: Hangst . Ionization Cooling D. Neuffer . Crystalline Beams J. Wei. . 109 110 110 11 112 112 113 1s 15 7 120. 122 125 127 128 129 130 31 134 134 134 138 138 140 140 141 142 144 144 145 147 148 148 149 149 150 150 151 153 156 165 165 165 165 167 169 172 176 1783. ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS 31 32 33 SYNCHROTRON RADIATION . 3.1.1 Radiation of a Point Charge H. Wiedemann Coherent Radiation H. Wiedemann... . Bending Magnet Radiation H. Wiedemann . . we Synchrotron Radiation in Storage Rings H. Wiedemann... 3.12 3.13 314 315 3.1.6 IMPEDANCES AND WAKE FUNCTIONS . . . . Definitions and Properties of Impedances and fake Fanctions r ‘Suzuki wae Impedance Calculation, Frequency Domain R.L. Gluckstern, S.S. Kurennoy . Impedance Calculation, Time Domain 7. Weiland .......... Special Impedances for Lossy Smooth Pipes A. Piwinski..... . . Explicit Expressions of Impedances and Wake Functions KY. Ng. . Effective impedance T: Suzuki . eee Parasitic Loss P Wilson, B. Zotier Trapped Modes 5.5. Kurenngy . . PARTICLE-MATTER INTERACTION . Basic Formulae M. Tigner, A.W. Chao . Beam and Luminosity Lifetime . 3.24 3.22 3.23 324 325 3.2.6 3.2.7 3.28 33.1 33.2 333 3.34 3.35 3.3.6 3.3.7 33.8 3141 3.142 3.143 3144 3145 3.1.46 Undulator and Wiggler Radiation H. Wiedemann . Other Radiation Sources R. Carr, H. Wiedemann . . 3.1.6.1 3.1.6.2 3.1.63 3.1.64 3.1.65 3.1.6.6 3.1.6.7 3.1.68 3.1.6.9 3.1.6.10 3.16.11 3321 3322 Bhabha Scattering (te~ ++ ete) J. Compton Scattering (e*y + e*y) LE. Spencer . Limit of Focusing of Electron Beam due to Synchrotron Radiation K. Oide . Radiation integrals . Radiation damping . . Quantum excitation .... 4. Eulteium beam emiuanes Be Damping wigglers . ‘Quantum lifetimes . ‘Transition radiation . . Free electron laser . . . Cherenkov radiation . . “Shor” magne and ee radation : Bremsstrahlung .. . . Coherent bremsstrahlung Channeling radiation Compton backscatering radiation Diffraction radiation . a Parametric radiation . . ‘Smith-Purcell radiation Protons N.V; Mokhoy, VI. Balbekov Electrons M.S. Zisman "Spencer |. ‘Thermal Outgassing and Beam Induced Desorption AG. Mathewson, O. Grdbner . . Ae Ionization Processes F Zimmermann . . . Beam Induced Detector Backgrounds and Irradiation in e*e~ Colliders S.D. Henderson... 0... 0-0 0s es ao Ga 3.3.8.1 3.3.82 3.3.83 3.3.84 Sources of detector backgrounds Detector and IR radiation tolerance and budget - Detector background shielding .......... Detector background and radiation estimation . . x 181 181 181 182 183 185 185 186 186 187 187 188 188 190 190 191 191 191 192 192 192 193 193 193 194 194 194 195 199 203 203 208 209 212 212 212 214 214 217 218 223 24 227 228 228 231 231 2324 OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 4.1 LUMINOSITY M.A. Furman, M.S. Zisman 42 43 44 4s 46 47 43 3.3.9 Particle Interactions NY. Mokhov, S.l. Striganov 3.3.10 Beam Collimation P. Bryant . 3.3.11 Atomic and Nuclear BRIGHTNESS K.-J. Kim 42.1 Particle Beam . 4.22. Radiation Beam . and Beam-Induced Backgrounds and Radiation Properties of Materials OPERATION OF HIGH ENERGY ELECTRON LINACS 0. Raubenheimer OPERATION OF FINAL FOCUS SYSTEMS IN LINEAR COLLIDERS TO. Raubenheimer, F Zimmermann... ov eee eevee cece OPERATION OF CIRCULAR ACCELERATORS, 45.1 Enor Sources and Effects D. Rice... . . 5 45.2. Orbit and Lattice Function Measurements D. Rice. 453 Orbit Correction S. Krinsky . 453.1 Global orbit correction | 453.2 Localorbit bump . . . 454° Measurement and Diagnosis of Coupling and Solenoid Compesaion D. Rubin 454.1 Sources of transverse coupling . cr 4542 Solenoids 45.43 Coupling matrix analysis . 4544 Measurement of coupling - 4.5.4.5 Measurement . 45.4.6 Solenoid compensation 455 Modeling and Control of Storage Rings Using Orbit Measurements J. Saranc 45.6 Emittance Dilution Effects M. Syphers . . 50 45.6.1 Injection mismatch 45.6.2 Diffusion processes . . TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL CORRELATIONS IN BPM MEASUREMENTS J. Irwin TRANSITION CROSSING RF GYMNASTICS IN A SYNCHROTRON R. Garo 4.8.1 Adiabaticity 4.8.2 Single Bunch Manipulations . . . 48.3 Multi-bunch Manipulations 4.8.4 Debunched Beam Manipulations . J. Wei 49. ENERGY MEASUREMENT WITH ELECTRON BEAMS J. 4.10 SLOW EXTRACTION PJ. Bryant 5 MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS MECHANICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL MATERIALS. 51 5.2 53 54 58 5.6 $7 M. Kuchnir MECHANICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE SUPERCON- DUCTORS RM. Scanlan FABRICATION OF NIOBIUM RF STRUCTURES T. Hays, H. Padamsee, D. Proch . THERMODYNAMIC & HYDRODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF COOLANTS & CRYOGENS M, McAshan . . . CREEP AND STRESS RELAXATION IN ACCELERATOR COMPONENTS EMarkley......... ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FORCES M. Tigner . DEFLECTIONS AND BUCKLING M. Tigner . . xi 251 305 308 310 3158 PRACTICAL HEAT TRANSFER AND FLUID FLOW M. MeAhan.M Tyner . . 5.9 REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS C.Rode,R.Ganni...........+- 59.1 Reffigerators ... 06. cee e eee 59.2 Storage and Utilities... 5.93 Transfer Lines 5.10 VACUUM SYSTEMS . 5.10.1 Requirements for Vacuum Systems ‘N.B. Mistry, ¥. Li 66 5.10.2. Units, Conversions and Some Useful Formulae N.B. Mistry, Yi. . 5.10.3 Conductance and Pressure Profiles N.B. Mistry, ¥Li..... 5.104 Pumping Methods N.B. Mistry, ¥ Li. . . . 5.10.5 Instrumentation N.B. Mistry, ¥ Li A 5.10.6 Vacuum Chamber Design and Fabrication N.B. Mistry, ¥ Li 5.10.7 Special Components in the Vacuum System NB. Mistry, ¥. Li 5.10.8 Ceramic Vacuum Chamber Design H. L. Phillips . . 5.11 ALIGNMENT R. Ruland . ‘5.12 MAGNET SUPPORTS AND ALIGNMENT G. Bowden . - 5:13 GROUND VIBRATION €. Montag 1 Rosbach « 5.13.1 Basics... ... . 5.13.2 Measurements 5.13.3 Instruments. . . 5.13.4 Linacs . . 5.13.5 Circular Accelerators - : 5.14 VIBRATION CONTROL IN ACCELERATORS D. Mangra, R. Merl, S. Kim, S. Sharma, J. Galayda 5.15 PROCESS CONTROL R. Carcagno...... ++ ELECTRICAL CONSIDERATIONS 6.1 PROPERTIES OF DIELECTRICS M. Tigner.. 0-0-0 eee eee cece 6.2. PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTORS, NORMAL AND SUPERCONDUCTING RM, Scanlan . — 63 PROPERTIES OF FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS M.Tigner « 6.4 PERMANENT MAGNET MATERIALS RD. Schlueter . . 65 PROPERTIES OF LOSSY MATERIALS M. Tigner ... . 6.6 COMMON TRANSMISSION LINES AND CAVITIES M, Tigner . 6.7 RF PULSE COMPRESSION ZD. Farkas 68 RF WINDOWS AND CAVITY COUPLING RW. Si 6.9 MULTIPACTING D. Proch ............ 6.10 POWER CONVERTERS (SUPPLIES) H.W. Isch . 6.11 POLYPHASE POWER CIRCUITS M. Tigner. . . = 6.12 RF BREAKDOWN, FIELD EMISSION AND DARK CURRENT G.A. Loew, J.W. Wang ae 6.13 HIGH VOLTAGE TECHNIQUE B. Goddard . 6.14 COATING RECIPES . 6.14.1 Recipes for Coating Windows RM. Sundelin, HL. Phillips. = 6.14.2. Recipes for Coating Ceramic and Metal Vacuum Chambers S.D. Henderson. 6.15 SUPERCONDUCTING WIRE AND CABLE RM. Scanlan... ......... 6.16 CAVITY MEASUREMENTS R. Rimmer, M. Tigner . 6.16.1 Field Maps by Perturbation Methods . . . . 6.16.2 Q and 6 Determination from Input Coupler 6.17 MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS 6.17.1 Accelerator Magnets A.K. Jain, P. Wanderer |. | 6.17.2 Insertion Device Measurement S. Marks, RD. Schlueter . felin, H.L. Phillips... 313 318 318 al6.18 HIGH POWER SWITCHES M. Gundersen, G.Roth .... 00.4 ee eee eee 415 7 SUBSYSTEMS 419 7.1 PARTICLE SOURCES 419 7.1 Electron Guns and Preinjectors A.D. Yeremian, RH. Miller 419 7.12 Polarized Particle Sources... . 7 422 7.12.1 Photoemission sources for polarized electrons ©. Prescott, J. Clendenin ..........4.% 422 7.122 Protons and heavy fons, TB. Clee W.Haeberli . 424 313 Amiga Proton Dugas. . 425 7.1.4 Ho Ion Sources K.N. Leung . 428 7.15 Positron Sources 430 71S ‘Tungsten targets S, Ecklund | : 430 7152 Conversion of undulator radiation K. Flottmann . 433 7.1.6 Charge State Strippers M.A. McMahan .......... 435 7.1.7 _ Lorentz Stripping of H~ Ions M. Furman . 438 7.2. CONFINEMENT AND FOCUSING . 439 7.21 Resistive Magnets FE. Mills. 439 722 Consequences of Saturation of High Permeability Material K Halbach .... 444 723 Special Topics in Magnetics K. Halbach ...- 2... .0eeeeeeee 723.1 Orthogonal and direct analog models . . . 7 7232. Properties of 3-D vacuum fields integrated along astraightline |. | 446 4233 Pole wiih acceaery to obtain deals field quay in a2-D magnet. 447 72.3.4 Eddy currents c 5 7235 Magnetic forces . . . 7123.6 Power dissipation in the dipole coils of a sorage vg with iron poles 449 7.2.4 Cos# Superconducting Magnets P Schmiiser . 450 725 Superferric Magnets A. Zeller . 7 456 72.6 Pulsed Magnets GH. Schroder... . . 460 727 Permanent Magnet Elements K. Halbach . 466 72.8 Electrostatic Separators J.J. Welch... . . 4B 7.29 Electrostatic Lenses A, Faltens 415 7.2.10 RF Separators H. Lengeler . 477 72.11 Plasma Lens P. Chen. . + 480 72.12 Lithium Lens G. Dugan . 483, 12.13 Orbit Feedback Control 5. Krinsky, 0. Singh . 486 72.14 Feedback Systems for Coupled Bunch Instabilities .7: Rogers 490 7215 Crystal Beam Bending R.A. Carrigan, Jn . 495 7.2.16 Injection and Ejection G. Rees. . : 497 7.2.17 Septum Devices R. Keizer... . 498 73 ACCELERATION ........ 501 73.1 RF System Design for Stability D. Boussard | 501 732. Kilystron Power Amplifiers... ... . 504 7321 Klystrons G, Caryorakis | 504 73.2.2 Amplifier systems H.D. Schwarz, = Migner 5 + 507 7.33 Tetrode Amplifiers LM. Brennan... . S 510 7.3.4 Drift Tube Linacs JM. Potter . . 513 735 Normal Conducting vp = cLinac Structures G.A. Loew - 516 73.6 Ferrite Loaded Cavities J.M. Brennan . 7 520 73.7 Fixed Frequency Cavities . a6 522 73.1.1 Multicell cavities W. Schnell. 522 73.72 Single cell cavities RA. Rimmer 525 xiii14 18 16 WW 7.3.8 Superconducting Cavities for vp D. Proch - 739. Superconducting Cavities for yy 0,=0if2 <0 = Ngefo, average bunch current peak bunch current horizontal (2), vertical (y), synchrotron (s) partition numbers current density = 2n/2, wave number thermal conductivity luminosity wavelength Poisson’s ratio betatron phase advance per period/turn total number of particles in beam ‘number of particles per bunch ina bunched beam number of bunches in beam horizontal betatron (x), vertical betatron (y), synchrotron (s) tune spin tune = 2nf, angular frequency = 2n fo, angular revolution freq. = Vz,y,swo, betatron (x, y), synchrotron (3) angular frequency solid angle particle momentum design particle momentum power quality factor of oscillator charge on a particle epee a Oe Oxy Cay ors sgn(z) t Tr T tA T Uo t uo » Vat Wim» Wam (or WA,Wd) dey Zima» Zam (or Zh,Z4) = C/(2n), average radius bending radius volume density resistivity longitudinal coordinate along an accelerator interaction cross-section = 1/p,, conductivity horiz. (@), vert. (y), ong. (z) rms beam size horiz. (2), vert. (y’) mms angular spread energy (E), relative energy (6) rms spread sign function, = life >0,=-lif <0 time temperature Kinetic energy trace of matrix A revolution period synchrotron radiation loss per revolution beamstrahlung parameter velocity gxoup velocity phase velocity rf voltage longitudinal, transverse wake function of mode m (W if m = 0, W. ifm = 1) horiz. displacement = dz/ds, horiz, angular deviation of a particle radiation length = (dvz,y/d6), horizontal (x), vertical (y) chromaticity vert. displacement = dy/ds, vert, angular deviation of a particle Gistribution density in phase space, normalized to unity horiz. (2), vert. (y) betatron phase long. displacement of a particle relative to synchronous particle (@ > O ahead, z < 0 behind) Tongitudinal, transverse impedance of mode m (Qj if m = 0, Z, ifm =1)13 FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS [1] Ch.1: INTRODUCTION ‘Quantity ‘Symbol Value pl ® 3.14 1592653589 793238 exponential constant e 2.718281828459045235 Euler’s constant x 0.577215649 ‘speed of light c 2.99792458 ES m s~" (exact) permeability of vacuum Ho 4n E-7 Henry m7! (exact) permittivity of vacuum = 1/02) 8854187817 E-12 Farad m=? electronic charge e 1,6021773 E-19 C = 4,8032068 E-10 esu Planck constant r 6.626075 E-34T 8 reduced Planck constant h=h/(2n) 1.054572 E-34 J s = 6582122 E-16 eV s Boltzmann constant kp 1,380658 E-23 K-! Avogadro number Na 6.022137 E23 mole~! gravitational constant G 6.67259 E-11 Newton m?kg~? std, gray, accel. g 9.80665 m s~? eleciron mass Me 91093897 E-31 kg proton mass My 1.6726231 E-27 kg rest mass energy of electron mec? 0,51099906 MeV proton myc? 938.2723 MeV neutron nc? 939.5656 MeV deuteron mac? 1875.6134 MeV muon myc 105.65839 MeV Z-patticle mac 91.187 GeV W-particle mye? 80.4 GeV anomalous gyromagnetic ratio | G = (9 — 2)/2 electron 0.00115965219 muon 0.001165923 proton 1.79284739 deuteron -0.1429878 fine structure constant a= €/(Azeohc) 1/137.035989 impedance of free space Vuoleo = woe | 376.7303 2 classical radius of electron Te = €2/(4meomec*) | 2.8179409 E-15 m proton Tp = &/(4meompc?) | 1.534698 E-18 m electron Compton wavelength | re = h/(rmec) 2.4263106 E-12 m de Ae/(2n) 0,3861593 E-12 m Bohr radius Areoh?/(mee?) | 5.29177249 E-11 m ‘Thomson cross section ad 6.65246 E-29 m? Bohr magneton eh/(2mec) 5.7883826 E-5 eV/Tesla nuclear magneton eh((2mge) | 3:1524517 E-8 eV/Testa Stefan-Boltzmann constant | osp = %k§/(A°c?) | 5.67051 E-8 W m~? K-* gas constant R= Nako 8.3145 JK"! mole“ References [1] RM, Barnett et al, Particle Data Book, PR DS4 (1996) 1Sec.1.4: UNITS AND CONVERSIONS 14 UNITS AND CONVERSIONS 1.4.1 Units A.W. Chao, SLAC We use the SI (Systme International, MKSA) units throughout this Handbook unless otherwise noted, Table below gives the conversion of vati- ‘ous physical quantities from Gaussian to SI unit systems [1]. jantity Gaussian__ST speed of light c Tes charge 4 vise charge density e i current T Tae current density = vee scalar potential = ® ireg® vector potential A aA voltage v iregV. electric field B ico) ; 5 fax 53 displacement DB aD magnetic induction B aR magnetic field a iio conductivity oe es dielectric constant « cleo permeability A £ resistance R 4neoR inductance L 4neoL capacitance Cc & Table below gives some numerical conversions between Gaussian and SI units. ‘Quantity Gaussian 3 Conductivity 8,9876E9 s~? =] mho/m Resistance 1,1127E-12 sem = =1 ohm Capacitance 8.9876E11 cm ‘sl farad Inductance 1127-12 = henry If P is power and V is voltage, then AB = 10 logio(Pi/F2), or 20 logio(Vi/Va) References [1] J.D, Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 2nd ed., Wiley (1972) 142 Conversions M. Tigner, Cornell U. key: Quantity, symbol, name in SI, Abbr, [dim.] Quantity to be converted, conversion factor Quantity in SI = Quantity to be converted x conversion factor, El = 10, E2 = 100, etc. Length, £, meter, m, (L] inch, in. 2.54E-2 foot, ft. 03048 angstrim, A 1.0E-10 fermi, fm 1.0E-15 light year, ly 0.946816 Area, A, sq. meter, m?, (L?] sq. inch, in? 6AS16E-4 sq. foot, ft 9,2903E-2 acre 4.04683 hectare, ha 1E4 sq, mile, mi? 2,5888E6 barn, bn 1E-28 Volume, V, cu. meter, m®, (L*] cu. inch, in® 1.639E-5 gallon, gal. (liquid) —3.785E-3 cu. ft, ft? 2.832E-2 Mass, M, kilogram, kg, [MI slug 14.59 Density, p, kg/m’, [M/L*] slugicu ft 515.4 pound/cu in, Ib/in’ 2.7684 Time, t, second, s, [T] year, yr. 3.156E7 Speed, v, meter/sec, m/s, {L/T] footlsec, fs 03048 mile/hour, mi/ar 0.4470 Force, F, Newton, N, [ML/T?] dyne 1.0E-5 pound, Ib 4448 Pressure, P, Pascal, Pa, N/m?, [M/T?L] atmosphere, atm 1.013E5 bar 1.0B5 dyne/em? o1 pound/in®, psi 6.89553, in, H20 @ 4°C 2.491E2 Tor, mmHg @0°C —_1,3332E2 Energy, W, Joule, J, [ML?/T?] BTU 1055 erg 1.0E-7 foot-pound, ft Ib 1.356 horsepower hour 2.68556 calorie, cal 4.186 kilowatt hour, kWhr 3.6E6 electron volt, eV 1.602E-19 liter atmosphere 101.31Power, P, watt, W, [ML?/T?] erg/s 1.0E-5 BTUMr 0.2930 foot pound/sec, filb/s 1.356 horsepower 748.7 calorie/sec, cal/s 4.186 ‘Thermal conductivity, «, W/m K,[ML/T?] ‘Wattem K. 1.0E2 BTUM@/A2PFR = 1.73 cal/em's 418.6 Specific heat, cv,p, Skg K, [2/17] cal/gm °C 4.18663 BTU/b °F 4.186E3 Viscosity, h, kg/m's, (M/LT] ppoises, g/em-s 01 slug/fts 4,79E1 Charge, g, Coulomb, C, ini) abcoulomb statcoulomb 3368-10 Current, I, Ampere, A, mone ‘abampere’ statampere 336-10 Potential, V, volt, V, [M'/?L°/2/1?] abvolt 1.0E-8 statvolt 2.99792 Elec, Field, E, volt/m, V/m, (M¥/?LY/2/1?} abvolt/em 1.0E-6 statvolticm 2.997984 Mag. Field, H, A-turn/m, (M¥/2/L1/27] Oested 19.58 Displacement, D, Coul/m?, [M¥/2/L9/2} abcoulomb/cm* 7.95883 statcoulomb/cm? 2.654E-7 Mag. flux, &, Weber, volt-s, (M!/?L*/2/T] ‘Tesla m? 1 maxwell, abvolt-s 1.0E-8 statweber, statvolt-s 2.9979 Flux density, B, Tesla,T, [M!¥/2/L¥/?T] Gauss 10-4 esu 2.997956 Conductivity, s, mho/m* [T/L?} ‘mho/cm 1.0E2 Resistivity, p,, ohm meter, 2-m, [L7/T] microhm cm 1.0E-8 Resistance, R, ohm, ©, [L/T] abohm 1.09 statohm 8.987E11 Capacitance, C, farad, f, [T?/L] abfarad 1.059 statfarad 1112-11 Ch.1: INTRODUCTION Inductance, L, henry, hy, [L] abhenry 1.0E-9 stathenry 8.987411 Activity, bequerel, Bq, (1/T] Curie, Ci 3.7610 Dose, gray, Gy, [L7/T2] rad Exposure, sce Chap. 8 ‘Temperature, T, Kelvin, K T(°CI=TIK] - 273.16 TPF ]= 9/S(T[°C)) + 32 1.0E-2 * “siemens”, S, replaces mho in some literature. 1.5 FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAE A.W. Chao, SLAC 1.5.1 Special Functions Enor function erf(z), erfe(a) = 1— erf(z): erf(2) = os f *ate-®, erf(oo) =1 Bessel functions J,(z), 1,(z), No(z), Ky(a): Sh + 14h 4 (1-4), =0 net Daa (ze? Inia) = de [9™ do ew ine Hie sing In(2) =" Jn(éz) In(—) = Jn(x) = (—1)"In(@) Tn(—2) = (-1)"E-n(@) = (-1)"In(@) Sn (at) FY Tn (x) # sy(w/2)" for [2] K 1 Ny(q) = 2 edemrnaJonle) Ky(@) = ganvall-v(@) — L@)) =a, Nb=—M h=h, Kb=-Ki Fore >1, Sula) = fE cose - fv - 3) Nia) = VE sinz - $v - $) La) © Ziee, Ky(a) Te e* For roots of Jn and J}, see Sec.6.6. Gamma function T'(s T(@ > 0) = fg? dte~tt?-1 Tant+l=nl, P@t1) =a (e) TP - 2) = Se T(1/2) = Vm, 0 (1/4) = 3.626Sec.1.5: FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAE 15.2 Curvilinear Coordinate Systems General Orthogonal System (u1, U2, ts) or Ti [System ui [v2 Tus ha [hs Cartesian [x {y fz {11/1 Cylindricd Jr f@ |z |i fr |i Spherical |r |@ |g ]1 |r | rsing Frenet-Serret | 2 fy |s [1 [1 [1+% d= hyduyty + hzdugtig + hadustig ds? = h3du} + h3du3 + h3dug dV = hyhghsdujdugdus Vo = beat bet bets V- A= poh [ser (hahs ds) + 38 (hahaa) +R (thas) Vx A= phex {rt [285(hss) ~ 385 (h2As)] +hatta [58-(t Ar) — 38;(h34s)] +hsts [p8-(hada) — o25(hAi)] } v= abel (aa) +e (22) + om (HP SS)] artesian: ds? = da? + dy? + dz? dV = dedydz Vy = a+ Bo + ee v fn 4 Sia 5 Oe x Aaa (9s - Be) +9 (Ge - +2 (Se - 4) Vip = Fea Te Bs 2 ) a Spherical: ds? = dr? + r2d6? +r? sin? odg? dV =r singdrdods Vom Bet BO rata Bd V-A= Hilde) + salaa (sin Ae) . Vx A= haf [S(sindAy) - Se] +9 [rca Me — Be(ry)] +44 [B(rd0) - He] Vp = LB (298) + mao (sin 03) + srakro Be References (1) J. Murphy, Synchrotron Light Source Data Book, BNL 42333 (version 3.0) (1993) 153 Electromagnetism Continuity %+V-J=0 static Coulomb force # = ;2% Lorentz force F = q(8+¢x B) energy density u=4(D-£+H-B) momentum density g= 42x A F Cylindrical: Poynting vector S= Bx H ds? = dr? + r2d6? + dz? dV = rdrdodz e= BF 41904 Bee V- A= 12 (rAr) + 158¢ + Se teady-state boundary conditions between two media: (Ba - By) (B: - Bi) (a - By) x (Ga — fh) x A= —Sourtoce where Peurfece is the surface charge density; Jourface is the surface current on the boundary; Vx Ame (2% — Bt) +0 (Se — Be) +22 [B(rds) — 4] Vip = 2S (rh) + be + Se ft is the unit vector normal to the boundary and points into medium 2,Ch.1: INTRODUCTION 1.54 Kinematical Relations [1] Relations between 6, cp, rest mass energy Eo, kinetic energy T,, B, and: B cp T E 7 B= 8 (Bolen)? +1? | 1-04 B) | i ey | vim =@/E =@/E =| Bo/VBP=1 Ey (ek +7)? | fe — HG | BoVFHT =56 =7(e)" | =20 ed ep? — 1)? Tha-1) | VEO] B/y = BA- 6)? T= | (obp- eo | (B+ er - Bo T E-Ey | Eo(y-1) =o (3) y= | a-e)-% p/EoB 14+T/Eo E/E 7 =0-(eyr? First derivatives: 4B (cp) dy = dE/Eo = dT/Eo dp = dp (1 + (€p/Bo)?|-*7d(ep)/Bo | --2(9? - 1)-V?dy = 1 *d(ep)/Eo =f ly dy dep) =| Bo - #)-*a8 (ep) BoP -1)-¥?dy = Boyds = Fo dy dy = dB/Eq | BQ.— B?)-*/aB | [1 + (Bo/ep)}-7d(cp)/ Bo ay = aT/Ey = = Aids = fa(ep)/Eo ‘Logarithmic first derivatives: 4/8 p/p ar/T dB/E =dy/7 48/8 = 46/6 dlp | y+ tart | (= 1) May = dp/p — dy/y = (By) da/1 dp/p = Pap/B dp/p by/(y+3)\aT/T Bday ar/T = | rv+1)46/8 | +71*)do/p ar/T ar -1)"Mdaly ab/E=| (6y)*d8/6 Bdp/p Q-y)ar/T ay/y dy/1= | =? - 1048/6 | = dp/p - 48/8 References [1] C. Bovet et al, CERN/MPS-SV/Int. DL/70/4 (1970)Sec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES 155° Vector Analysis a (6x 8 =8-(@x a) =2- (ax 8) ax @xQ=(@-b-(a-He (@xb)- (ex d) =(@-40-d) - (4-H G-2) ¥xVh=0 V-(Vxa)=0 V(by) = eV + PVe Vx (Vxd)=V(V- a) - Ve Vd) =a- Vp + ova Vx (Ya) = Ve xd+yV xa V@-8):= (@- Wb + (6- VE 40x (Wx BY +b x (V xa) V-(@x 8) =8-(V xa) -a-(V xd) Vx (@x d= av -8) -KV-a) +6-V)a-(@-V)E ax 6x40 x (@xa)+2éx (ax 8) =0 Energy—momentum : PL = (Ps — 2B), E'=(E - cBPs) Pl=P, BL = By = (By + $B2) EL = (Es +08By), BL =1(Be~ $B) 15.6 Relativity Let F be the stationary laboratory: frame with space time coordinates (2, t). Let F’ with (2',t") be a frame-moving with velocity 7 = 8 with respect to F, Lorentz transformations: Coordinates : # = 848 (Ays-2-ct) ‘Energy—momentum : B =P +98 (yb: B-tB) El =(E-B-P) EM fields : a ra . B= B+ Bx B)- 2G BB Ba 9(B- 13x 8)- 26- BR When V = Va, the above becomes Coordinates : a = (a -Vt), varvt-#) 16 GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES 1.6.1 Antiproton Sources J. Peoples, J.P. Marriner, FNAL Antiproton.(P) sources are complete accelerator complexes utilizing many accelerator technolo gies (1, 2, 3]. A schematic of the FNAL p source is shown in Fig.1. A primary proton beam is used to. produce B’s on a target, ‘The production process is inefficient, and the secondary f beam is several orders of magnitude less dense than the primary proton beam. The design strategy consists of (a) ‘maximizing the initial p phase space density by appropriate preparation of the. proton beam, and (b) stochastically cooling (Sec.2.8.1) the collected B's. The proton beam acquires a short bunch ength by a bunch rotation process (Sec.4.8.2). The rf voltage is lowered so that the beam fills the bucket and then raised to its maximum value. The bunch rotates 90° and achieves a momentary short length, ‘The proton beam is focused transversely onto a target. The target length is significant compared to the beam focal length so it is important to have most of the beam interact in as short a target as possible; The depth of focus problem favors the use of high-Z targets, but excessive energy deposition from pair production limits their usefulness. See Tab.1 for typical parameters, ‘The production cross-section has been param- terized as [4] E &o 8 es Ta dP [0.065(1 — 2-)* exp(—3p2)] x [1+ 24s"? exp (82,)] [eexp (br?) exp (-exx)] a with Gaps the absorption cross-section, py the xDebuncher: Lage aportre synchrotron, oye perlod:2 Steonds ‘Accumulation rng High quay storage ting, ‘yet poviod 12-24 hours Protron sours: Rapid cycling high energy, high intesty proton synchrotron cyto period: 2 seconds Figure 1: Schematic of the FNAL source and collider ‘complex [Courtesy G, Dugan}. transverse momentum [GeV/c], «the radial scaling variable (= E/Emax. p energy in CM divided ‘by its maximum kinematically allowed value), s “the square of the CM energy [GeV?}. The param- terization consists of three multiplicative factors: Gis cross section for a hydrogen target at infinite, energy, (ii) is deviations from scaling (including the s-dependence), and (iii) is the nuclear dependence. Values for a,b,c for various nuclei are given in [2]. For copper, a = 1.50, b = 1.43, c= 1.56, The large angular divergence of the p beam is largely eliminated by a high-gradient lithium lens (ec.7.2.12). The large momentum spread is reduced as the beam is debunched through a second bunch rotation. The beam is then pre-cooled with stochastic cooling. The parameters of the collected beam are given in Tab.2. See also Sec.7.1.3. ‘Table 1: Proton beam parameters used at CERN and FNAL. Parameter FNAL CERN (MR)_@S) ‘Momentum (GeV/c) 120 26 Protons/pulse (10!) 1.8 1s Cycle time (8) 24 48 # Bunches aS rfbucket length(ns) 19 105 rfbunch length (ns) 15 30 Beam radius o at target (mm) 0215 One difficult step is to accumulate fs from the 10‘ pulses, The stacking process is acoom- plished with stochastic cooling. The flux.of p's Ch.1: INTRODUCTION ‘Table 2: Beam parameters of the collected p beam, 6reis for 95% beam, unnormalized. ‘Parameter FNAL CERN ebunch.) (AC) Momentum (GeVie) 8.9 357 Ap/p (%) before rot. 4 6 after rot. 02 15 after cool. O1 0.18 6ne (mm-mrad) before cool. 20% 200% after cool. ‘3m Sa Stochastic cooling bandwidth (GHz) 2-4 13.2 ‘Table 3: Beam properties in the accumulation rings. Parameter FNAL CERN Accum.) (AA) ‘Stack rate (10? hr~ 35 5 Bipulse (10°) 3 1 Yield (Bip) (10-®) 12 5 Final Ap/p(%) 0.2 02 Final emitt, 6rre (mm-mrad) In 6-90 Bandwidths (GHz) Stack tail 12 Core cooling 24,48 Total ps (10!) 1 Ring Circum. (m) 477 that can be accumulated is [5] EaToW?|n| y= @ where W = fmax — frnin is the system band- ‘width, p = beam momentum, 7 = slip factor, A=In(Smnax/fmin)» and 3; = yp with V(E) the voltage gain per tur. In [5], V is exponentially decreasing with E, the particle density as a function of energy (E) «x e®/£4, Some parameters of the stacking process are given in Tab.3. ‘Antiproton beams are extracted from the source storage ring using conventional technique. For the CERN and FNAL sources the techniques used is rf unstacking followed by single-turn extraction. It is planned to upgrade the p source at FNAL. to accumulate 10!? p’s/hr by increases in acceptance and cooling. The main obstacle is the inefficient process of producing p's at the target.‘Sec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES References [1] MD. Church, J, Marriner, Amn. Rey. Nucl. Part, Sci. 43 (1993) 253 [2] B. Autin et al, CERN/PS/AA 78-3 (1978); BJ. Wilson et al, CERN 83-10 (1983) (3] Fermilab Design Repor, Tevatron I Project (1984) (4] C. Hojvat, A. van Ginneken, NIM 206 (1983) 67 {5} S. van der Mees, CERN/PS/AA 78-22 (1978) 1.6.2. Betatron [1] M, Tigner, Cornell U. The Betatron is a cyclic electron accelerator with a circular orbit of approximately constant radius which provides acceleration through Magnetic In- duction, Iron core machines of energies up to 300 MeV have been constructed. The guide field in the classical Betatron is weak focusing, A section perpendicular to the equilibrium orbit plane is shown in Fig.1 [2]. volume of the iron. The iron of the 300 MeV Ili- nois Betatron weighed > 300 tons. There is another constraint on the maximum energy which can be obtained using the betatron principle. As the beam energy rises synchrotron radiation loss rises and competes with the energy gain due to magnetic induction. This effect spoils the linearity of Eq.(1) and requires special means for adding the extra energy needed. In practice, the synchrotron radiation begins to become i portant at ~100 MeV and limits beam energies that can be obtained with iron and copper magnet, technology to ~300 MeV. cron om MM Lapineied Pele Piece (i LUE Figure 1: Betatron schematic. ‘The beam travels in a doughnut shaped, evac uated, dielectric (e.g. glass) chamber with a thin conducting film on the inside to prevent charging, The accelerating electric field is produced by the changing magnetic flux within the equilibrium orbit. By combining Newton’s law and Faraday’s law of induction together with the Lorentz force law we can write Vacuum Chameor rr a inp Ot p= Bep wD and find that A® = 2B @ the famous 2 to 1 condition that the flux change within the orbit must be twice that which one would obtain if the field were uniform throughout the region inside the orbit and equal to the field at the orbit. Since the field in an iron core magnet is limited by saturation, increase in maximum energy ‘means increase in radius of the core and thus the 10 6 Fld Magnets Figure 2: Separated function betatron, While betatrons using the combined function, one magnetic circuit, design of Fig.1 have been successfully operated at low energies, considerable efficiency in size and operation can be achieved by separating the functions as shown in Fig2 [2]. The scale refers to an 80 MeV machine, ‘The magnetic elements are punched 0.355 mm Jaminations of silicon transformer stee!, wound with litz wire to minimize eddy current. Even so the highest energy betatrons achieve only about 5% duty factor due to the large hysteresis and eddy current losses coupled with the difficulty of cooling the massive iron cores. Injection is accomplished by insertion of an electron gun into the sealed, doughnut vacuum chamber, just outside or just inside the equilibrium orbit, and puls- ing it negatively at tens to more than 100 kVfor a few microseconds at injection time. Fig.3 [2] shows some typical power cycles of various betatrons. Injection is complicated and involves space charge collective effects in a central way [3]. Injection efficiency can be greatly enhanced by adding pulsed coils to draw the equilibrium orbit temporarily away from the gun just after injection and slowly restoring it as the initial betatron. oscillations damp. Ejection or targeting is done in the same way by pulsewise distortion of the orbit ‘enough to drive the beam into a weak field region and out of the doughnut through a thin window or into a tungsten bremsstrahlung target within the doughnut with subsequent extraction of the x-rays through a thin window. L-— Pulse interval —el SENT | Figure 3: Typical power cycles. ‘While some of the betatrons, particularly the 300 MeV machine were used for nuclear physics research, the majority were used for medical therapy or diagnostic x-raying of industrial equip- ‘ment. The 300 MeV machine was capable of producing 14,600 R/min. at 1 m in Pb while the machines used for therapy produce typically about 100 R/min. at 1m. These machines have been largely supplanted by linacs which are more powerful, more flexible, lighter and more easily controlled, Air core betatrons have been built using copper litz wire and some iron field shaping shoes. However with the powering equipment available at that time the duty cycle had to be i Ch.1; INTRODUCTION {kept very low and their intensity was not sufficient for therapy use. With the rapid development of high temperature superconductors and solid state power electronics of great flexibility it may be- ‘come feasible in the future to build light, high intensity, relatively high energy betatrons using this new technology. References [1] MS, Livingston, J.P, Blewett, Particle Accelera- tors, McGraw-Hill (1962) [2] By permission, McGraw-Hill Book Co. 3] L. Gonella, Supplement to Nuovo Cimento 3 (1966) 303 163 Colliders J. Rees, SLAC The purpose of colliders is to produce high- energy collisions (interactions) between particles of approximately oppositely directed beams. The CM energy Eem for a collision of two particles (crossing angle 6, energies Fy,2) is Eom [2enEa + (m3 + mac qa) + ay BR mich [ER — me cosa’? my Ea nw ee where my,z are rest masses. In most existing colliders, my = mz, E, = E2(= E), @ = 0, Ecm = 2E and the CM is stationary in the laboratory, Recently ete storage ring colliders have deen built with Ey # Ep deliberately so that the CM moves rapidly in the laboratory and final states of collisions will move a measurable distance before decaying, thus allowing some important experiments. In these asymmetric storage rings Eom * 2VEiEp, neglecting my,2 and taking @ = 0. The productivity of a collider is measured by its luminosity (Sec.4.1, with achieved luminosity examples). Single-beam or two-beam instabilities (Sec.2.5) may limit the performance of a collider, but if these are removed to higher and higher levels, eventually the beam-beam effect (Sec.2.6) becomes the limit. ‘Schematic drawings of several collider types are shown in Fig.1. Colliders fall into two cate- ‘gories: storage rings and linear colliders. In storage rings, the particles of each beam recirculate‘Sec.1,6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES: ‘Table 1: Coltiding Beam Machines. [a] DR: Double storage ring. SR: Single storage ring. LC: Linear collider. {[b] Princeton-Stanford Colliding Beam Experiment. (c] 200 GeV per charge-unit. (d] Planned. Location ‘Name (type) ‘Max. Hem (GeV) | Start Stanford/SLAC, USA ‘CBX (e“e“ DR) 10 1963 Spear (¢*e~SR). 5.0 1972 PEP (ete~SR) [5] 30 1980 SLC (¢te“L©) [6] 100: 1989 PEP-II (ee“DR) [7] 10.6. iggglal Frascati Italy ‘AGA (e*e“ SR) 05 1962 Adone (e*e“SR) 3.0 1969 DA@NE (c*e~SR) 1.0. 199714 Novosibirsk, Siberia VEP-1 (¢“e~DR) 0.26 1963 ‘VEPP-2/2M (e+e~SR). 14 1974 ‘VEPP-4 (ete-SR) 4 1979 Cambridge, USA CEA Bypass (e+e SR) 6 1971 Orsay, France ACO (ete“SR) 1.0 1966 DCI (e*e*DR) 3.6 1976 DESY, Germany Doris (eteDR) 60 } 1974. Petra (e*e-SR) 38 1978 Hera (e*p DR) [8] 160 192 CERN, Europe ISR (pp DR) [2] 63 1971 SpBS (pp SR) [9] 630 1981 LEP (e*e~SR) [10] 190 1989} LHC (pp DR) [11] 14,000: 2004!41 Brookhaven, USA —_| RHIC (heavy ions DR) [12] 200/u ll iggglel RHIC (pp DR) 500 Cornell, USA. CESR (e*e~SR) 12 1979 KEK, Japan Tristan (¢*e~SR) [14] 60 1986 KEK B (e*e~DR) [13] 10.6 iggglal Beijing, China BEPC (e*e~SR) [15] 3 1989: Fermilab, USA ‘Tevatron (pp SR) [16] 1000 1987 COD SS Co Figure 1: Schematics of collider types. and meet each other repeatedly. They may be stored in separate rings (Fig.1a,b), in which orbits of the two beams are made to intersect, or if the beams consist of antiparticles, ina single ring. In Kinear colliders, the beams are accelerated in 12 linacs and transported to a collision point. Beams are discarded after the single collision. Fig.1c shows the simplest case using two linacs. In the ‘more complex scheme used in the SLAC Linear Collider (SLC) , both e* and e~ are simultaneously accelerated in the same linac, separated after acceleration and. guided along different arcs to collision, as shown in Fig.1d. Linear colliders were developed for colliding high-energy e* and e~ without suffering the large synchrotron radiation in storage rings. The design principles and’ the supporting technologies for colliders are those of synchrotrons and storage rings (Sec. 1.6.18) and linear accelerators (Sec.1.6.10). Technical’ component systems of a linear collider are sketched in Fig.2.Final Final Ormpo Unac _ Focss — Fasae Une OD +i PaaS Clin ica point = «sole solo Figure 2: Component systems of a linear collider. Pp and op Colidors Lopton Coniders 10! Figure 3: Colliders over the years. Colliding-beam storage. rings were first described in 1956 [1]. The earliest examples were the Princeton-Stanford 500-MeV, two-ring, e~e~ machine at Stanford, the 140-MeV, two-ring, ev e~ VEP- at Novosibirsk, and the 250-MeV AdA at Frascati. AdA was the first ete single- ring machine. The first hadron collider was the Intersecting Storage Rings (ISR) at CERN, a pair of intersecting proton storage rings commissioned in 1971 (2). ‘The idea of the linear collider came in 1965 3]. ‘The first realization of a linear collider was the SLC [4]. The CM energy of colliders has been increasing over the years, as shown in Fig.3 and ‘Tab.1. For comparison, the beam energy (in laboratory) of non-colliders over the years using various accelerator technologies may be seen in. the Livingston Chart, Sec.1.6.11. References [1] Kerst et al, PR 102 (1956) 590; G.K. O'Neill, PR 102 (1956) 1418. [2] K. Johnsen, Proc, 8th Int. Conf. on High Energy ‘Ace; (1971)p:79; CERN ARVInt. SG/64-9 Design Study of ISR (1964). [BT M. Tigner, Nuovo Cimento 37 (1965) 1228 (4] B, Richter; Proc. 11th Int. Conf. on High Energy. ‘Ace. (1980) p.168 [5] PEP Conceptual Design’ Report, LBL-4288, SLAC=189 (1976) B Ch.1: INTRODUCTION [6] SLC Design Handbook, SLAC Report (1984) [7] PEP-IL, An Asymmetric B-Factory, LBL-PUB- 5379, SLAC-418 (1993) [8] HERA Facility at DESY, DESY HERA 81/10 (1981) [9] CERN 84-15, CERN Acc. School (1984) [10) CERN-LEP/84-01, LEP Design Report (1984) [11] ‘The Large Hadron Collider - Conceptual Design, (CERN/ACI95-05 (LHC) (1993) [12) Conceptual Design of the Relativistic Heavy Ton Collider, BNL 52195 (1989) [13] Accelerator Design of the KEK B-Factory, KEK 90-24 (1991) [14] Abridged Description of ‘Tristan Electron- Positron Colliding-Beam Machine, KEK Report (1981) [15] Summary of the Preliminary Design of Beijing 2.2/2.8 GeV Electron Positron Collider, IHEP Re- port (1982), [16] Fermilab report, Tevatron I Project (1984) 1.6.4 Cyclotron H. Blosser, Michigan St. U. Earliest [1] and most numerous of circular accelerators, cyclotrons are characterized by magnetic field and accelerating rf frequency which are constant in time (c.w.). (Synchro-cyclotrons are ex- ception to the c.w. rule, See later.) Cyclotrons are often referred to by the diam- ter of the magnet pole (e.g. 27 inch, 184",2 meter, U-400). More recently “K”, (~ proton kinetic energy in MeV) has become a designation (e.g. K500; K1200) particularly for multi-particle cyclotrons where the energy for an ion of charge Qe and mass. Amo (where mo is 1/12 of mass of !7C, moc? = 931.48 MeV) is given non-relativistically by KQ?/A. The maximum bending power (Bp) is related to K by K = (eBp)*/(2mo). ‘Many cyclotrons are referred to by a local name or acronym (e.g. ORIC, VICKSI, SARA, AGOR). Typical beam parameters achieved by cyclotrons: normalized emittances ey, * 2.to 0.2 mm-mrad, enz *5to 1 mm-mrad, and energy spread AE/E typically 10- with best value 2 x 10-4, Cyclotrons have evolved in many, sometimes overlapping, subclassifications. (Characteristics of cyclotrons are best documented in proceedings of a series of triannual conferences (2].) Classical cyclotron (now rare) Fig.1 showsthe original cyclotron concept [1]. A static and uniform magnetic field B is applied perpendicular to D-shaped hollow electrodes (“dees”). The dees are driven by-an rf voltage: whose frequencySec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES Dee Dee External lon Source ‘Beam ae we Figure 1: A classical cyclotron, If magnetic field points into page, spiral line is trajectory of positive ion, matches the constant cyclotron frequency qB ie nm a of non-relativistic ions. Tons from a central ion source are repetitively accelerated in and out of the dees on a spiral path to maximum energy. In practice, the magnetic field must decrease with r to assure stability in axial direction, and accelerating voltage must be high for particles to reach the design energy before they get out of the accelerating phase of the rf cycle (due to relativistic mass increase and to magnetic field decreasing with r). These effects limit highest velocity. The record for classical cyclotron is 6 = 0.22 (86", Oak Ridge). Isochronous cyclotron Thomas [3] pointed out that magnets with alternate strong and weak azimuthal regions (“‘sectors” or “hills and valleys”) provided an additional axial focusing which could offset the defocusing from a radially increasing magnetic field [3]. The average magnetic field can therefore match the mass increase of the accelerated particle with positive axial focusing provided by the azimuthal variation, Two electron cyclotrons with sinusoidal azimuthal variation of the magnetic field were built (Berkeley, 1940's, B = 0.5). In the 1950's, more trapezoidal az~ imuthal dependence provided by pole tips with a ‘constant gap in the hill region and a larger constant gap in the valleys came into use. Also, at that time, “strong-focusing” by spiralling the hills was introduced and designations “sector- focused cyclotron”, “spiral-ridged cyclotron”, “azimuthally-varying-field cyclotron” are now used largely inter-changeably with isochronous cyclotron. (Thomas cyclotron is normally reserved for azimuthally sinusoidal fields.) More than 100 isochronous cyclotrons have been built 4 (60-500 MeV for nuclear physics and 10-100 MeV for commercial production of radionuclei- des). Separated sector cyclotron This is a subclass of isochronous cyclotrons in which the valley regions are iron free. The concept was proposed in the late 1950’s by Oak Ridge for a 900 MeV isochronous cyclotron, and first used at PSI in the 590 MeV meson-factory (operation 1974), A simpler, “adial-sector” (Le. non-spiral) formulation of this concept was adopted for the Indiana U. 200 MeV proton cyclotron (operation 1975). The radial, separated sector design is also used in large heavy-ion cyclotrons (Ganil, Riken, Lanzhou). H™ cyclotron Cyclotrons to accelerate H~ ions were introduced in 1962 at U. Colorado [4]. At maximum energy a thin foil strips the electrons from the H™ ion, reversing their bending radius ‘and thus sending the beam quickly out of the cyclotron. Moving the foil to a different radius easily changes the output energy of such a cyclotron over a broad range, and difficult extraction components (electrostatic deflectors, magnetic channels) are avoided. The H~ technique is used in most radionucleide production cyclotrons, where high beam currents make extraction especially difficult. To avoid electric dissociation (Lorentz stripping, Sec.7.1.7) of H~ at high velocities, the 500 MeV meson-factory cyclotron at Triumf requires weak magnetic fields so that this cyclotron. is the world’s largest (17 m dia, overall). Superconducting cyclotron This class cludes cyclotrons with major superconducting components, either the main coil of the magnet, or the rf system (¢.g. TRITRON at Munich). ‘These cyclotrons are typically x10 lighter than room-temperature cyclotrons due to the unusual cyclotron scaling law that total flux o 1/B. Weight and size reduction leads to ~ x05 construction cost and ~ 0.9 operating costs. Examples: (1) 22 ton superconducting cancer therapy cyclotron in Detroit produces 50 MeV deuterons, (2) K1200 nuclear physics cyclotron at East Lansing produces beams >10 GeV for heavier ions making it the highest energy c.w. accelerator of any type. Synchro-cyclotron This largely outmoded form of the classical cyclotron used an rf frequency which varied with time to track the orbital frequency. The energy limit of the classical cyclotron is relieved, but the c.w. characteristic is lost and beam current typically decreases byx1000, Auxiliary slow extraction systems were often used to stretch the duty cycle. Synchro- cyclotrons provided the energy-frontier beams of the 1950's but have now been superceded by the synchrotron for high-energy physics and by the isochronous cyclotron for nuclear physics. The highest beam velocity achieved by a cyclotron was in the 1 GeV synchro-cyclotron at Gatchina, Orbit characteristics Magnetic Field B(r, 8) = Bo(r) +> Bilr) coslio + G(r)] @) Near r = 0, By(r) = (r/G)* where G is magnet gap. Bo = Bo(r = 0) = 2x forno/¢ [Eq.(1)]. Choice of sector Number NV = 3,4,6,8,... depends on maximum E/A (energy/nucleon). NN = 2 is radially unstable. Odd numbers other than 3 are too complicated. N = 3 is most frequent choice below 200 MeV/A because of fast, rise of By near r = 0. Flutter is defined as Fy Sah oni? 8) where fi(r) = Bi(r)/Bo(r). Sometimes f is called flutter, F called mean square flutter, With flutter, orbit scallops, (6) = (r) + 91 c0s(i9 + «| @ a where 9: © fi/(? — 1). Field spiral ¢y(r) is the angular location of maximum value of the main flutter component, Spiral angle a is angle between radius vector and tangent line to spiral curve, tana = rd¢/dr. ‘The acceleration system consists of dees (2 gap drift tube) or cavities (1 gap drift tube), now usually located in valleys of magnet (in all valleys or, if NV is even, in alternate valleys). Dees usually operate at 50-200 kV (peak voltage dee to ground). Cavities operate up to 700 KV per gap. The acceleration system often runs on harmonic of beam orbital frequency fr = hfo. Multiple dees are sometimes phased by selection of a natural mode of the resonator structure (0-mode ot - mode at Chalk River) and sometimes by servoed phase shifters (as in 3 dee h = 1 systems at MSU, ‘Texas A&M, Catania, & AGOR ). Without flutter, (B)voe = Before) 6) 15 Ch.1: INTRODUCTION 2-1/2 an [ - (*2f2) ] ¢ =f-13%=7 © As scalloping increases, radial tune v, rises faster than -y, hitting resonances. The NV/2 stopband limits maximum 7 (e.g. Ymax ¥ 1.2 => 200 MeV/A for V = 3). Axial focusing tune vy, & [-k + F(1 + 2tan®a)]/2, Normally one picks a(r) to increase with 7 to give vz = 0.2 to avoid resonances. If sectors are radial (c = 0), v, decreases with and resonances limit usable energy band. Due to large energy gain per turn and rel tively rapid change of » values with energy, cyclotrons frequently pass through essential betatron resonances at v = N/3,N/4, etc, and imperfection resonances at 1/1, 2/2. Imperfection resonances are often intentionally used to steer the beam in the central region and near extraction, Space Charge Limits Axial limit Assume fully overlapping turns “current sheet” approximation), Tim = (2 fo) AVE minDjV where ¢ is the permittivity of free space, A is the full beam height, V2.min is the axial tune at the radius of weakest focusing, Dy is the fraction of the machine circumference occupied by the beam, and V the peak accelerating voltage per turn, Im * 10 mA is typical. Longitudial limit In an isochronous device the orbit period is independent of the energy so longitudinal length of bunch is unchanged but space charge force increases energy spread of particles in a given turn and is principal limit for single-turn-extraction (see below). The linear component of space charge force can be compensated by moving beam slightly to side of voltage wave. Numerical calculations are required to estimate residual nonlinear component, A scaling Jaw shows that turn separation oc V3, so V is ical. “Flat-topping” voltage by adding higher harmonic gaps is sometimes also used. Beam extraction H™ cyclotrons use stripping foil. Positive ion cyclotrons use an electrostatic deflector with thin (~ 0.1-0.3 mm) septum followed by magnetic channel(s). Precessional extraction introduces coherent radial oscillation (amplitude a) prior to extraction to add a precessional component (2raly, —‘Sec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES 1)) to acceleration radius-gain-per-turn [dr/dn = r/(L + 1))(QV/E)(vr)-? ‘where qV is the energy-gain-per-turn]. Precession usually induces at the edge region av, = 1 transition using afield bump (i.e. magnetic azimuthal first harmonic) of ~ 10-* relative to main field. Radius gain of 3-5 mm is typical (limited by axial instability at the nearby v, = 2v, coupling resonance). Single-turn extraction uses high accelerating voltage V and narrow rf phase interval at voltage peak to give turn spacing larger than turn width so that the deflector septum can be placed at'a low density point between last two turns (extraction efficiency of 99.94% at 590 MeV at PSI). This requires highly stabilized magnet and rf (ampitude and frequency). Flat-topping the rf waveform by adding a third harmonic is used at PSI to broaden the useable phase interval. Extraction current is limited by longitudinal space charge spreading of the turn structure. Very high V is required at high currents (~ 3 MV/urn at PSI for a 1.5 mA beam). ‘ Multi-turn extraction is the default situation when single-turn requirements are not met. Pat- ticles on either side of the minimum-turn-number phase make an additional turn and so on to the edge of occupied phase interval, Particles at turn number steps line up on the septum and the fraction given by (septum thickness)/(radius-gai per-turn) is lost. Overall multi-turn extraction efficiency ranges from 50% (typical) to 93% (PSI) to 97% (numerical optimization). References [1] Lawrence, Balefsen, Science LXXI (1930) 377 [2] Proc. 14-th Int. Conf. on Cyclotrons and Their Aplications, World Scientific (1995) {3} LH. Thomas, PR 54 (1938) 580 [4] Rickey, Smythe, NIM 18, 19, 66 (1962) 16.5 Electrostatic Accelerator J. Ferry, NEC ‘An electrostatic accelerator is a single potential drop system in which the high voltage potential is generated by the mechanical transfer of charge from ‘ground to the high voltage terminal. Ex- amples: fabric belt charged Vande Graaff accelerators built by High Voltage Engineering Eu- ropa B.V,, the Netherlands, by Nissin-High Volt- ageCo., Ltd,, Japan, and by Vivirad High Voltage, USA, and pellet chain charged Pelletron® built by National Electrostatics Corp (Fig.1). @ o¢ 2 DOD@OO® 1. Peltetron Tank 8. Chain idler Wheel 2. Beam Input Drift Tube 10, Pellet Charging Chain 3. Insulating Plastic Support 11. Charging inductor 4, Accelerating Tube-Cutaway view 12. Chain Drive Whee! 5, Potential Distibution Ring 13, Gas Stripper Assembly 6, Generating Voltmeter 14. High Voltage Terminal 7. Discharging Inductor 15, Dessicant Tray 8. Capacitor Pickup 16, Beam Output Drift Tube Figure 1: 1 MV Tandem Pelletron accelerator. Table 1: Tandem Pelletron® basic specifications. V is terminal voltage, D and L are pressure tank diameter and.Jength, f is maximum charging current, ("Folded tandem with 180° magnetic deflection in terminal.) V(MV) Orient Dm) L(m) I(uA) T Horz, 61 218 50 2 1.07 3.93 300 3 . 122 5.11 300 4 . 183 6.29 300 5 Horiz, 2.13 843 1000 8 Vert, 3.35 15.85 300 10 Vet. 4.27 18.3 300 12 Vert. 4.88 23.77 300 15 Vert. 5.49 26.3 300 20 Ver.* 8.23 23.77 900 25 Vert.* 10.06 29.87 900 Most electrostatic accelerators built today are dual acceleration, tandem types. Negative ions are injected and accelerated by a positive dc voltage on the high voltage terminal. At MeV energies, the ions are directed through pressurized (microns Hg) argon or nitrogen gas or a carbon foil a few pgms/em? thick, which strips two or more electrons away changing them to positive ions. The positive ions are accelerated away from the high voltage terminal to ground gaining additional energy. Tab.1 shows tank size versus terminal voltage for tandem pelletrons. ‘The FWHM of the terminal voltage variation of aPelletron is ~500 V without special ripple reduction circuitry. The FWHM of the final energy~ (charge of the ion) x 500 V. Thus, for a proton beam the FWHM energy spread is 500 eV. For a C+ beam it is 2000 eV. Final emittance depends on ion mass because ‘of multiple scattering in the terminal stripper. For light ions (p's and a’), final emittance is ~ 3x mm-mrad (MeV)'/2, For heavy ions like gold, the final emittance will be limited by the acceptance of the high energy acceleration tube to about 20 amm-mrad (MeV)/?, Acceleration tube All electrostatic accelerators must have a highly evacuated tube for the ions to traverse during acceleration. This tube is made up of dense, low outgassing, insulating rings sealed to metal electrodes. The voltage between the elec trodes is established by resistors or corona points raining current from the high voltage terminal, Glass insulating rings sealed with polyvinylac- tate, together with aluminum, titanium or stainless steel electrodes are successfully used, NEC tube uses high density alumina ceramic insulating rings sealed with aluminum metal to titanium metal electrodes. For most acceleration tubes the electric fields along the tubes are inclined or spi- raled so that low energy secondary ions and electrons produced on the electrodes are deflected into nearby electrodes and cannot gain high energies T1, 2]. Some tubes also use low magnet fields to sweep low energy secondaries and clectrons out of the beam path [3]. To remove ions and elec- tons produced on the electrodes, one can also vary the electric field along the beam path to produce cylindrically symmetric focusing fields that deflect low energy particles into adjacent electrodes (4, 5]. Itis generally found that a comfort- able reliable gradient of about 1-2/3 MV/m can be achieved with a modern acceleration tube. See also Secs.6.13, 7.2.8 Support column Below 5 MV terminal voltage, one can use acrylic plastic plates as the insulating mechanical support column for components inside the pressure tank. Aluminum hoops are positioned along the insulating plates and are connected to the acceleration tube resistor divider [6]. This construction is suitable for columns up to about 25 ft. length. Above 5 MV, columns with alumina ceramic insulators can be used. In this case ceramic cylinders are bonded with aluminum to titanium electrodes to form posts about 18 in. long. The posts can support 1 MV when immersed in pressurized SFe gas. v7 Ch.1: INTRODUCTION Charging system Many fabric belts are still in use, although few new machines do so. Since the fabric belt is an insulator, charge transfers to and from the belt must be accomplished via corona discharge or physical rubbing. Such methods, although effective, are difficult to control precisely, leading to large terminal voltage ripple and can limit useful belt life. Another method uses a chain made up from steel cylindrical pellets linked by stainless steel pins to nylon insulators. A chain carries typically > 150 A of current [7], The chains are charged and discharged by an induction scheme. Each chain is surrounded by a long, closely spaced inductor electrode where the chain leaves or arrives at a wheel. The inductor electrodes are biased up to -60 KV for chain runs to and +60 kV for chain runs from a positive polarity high voltage terminal. As the grounded chain, pressing firmly against a wheel, moves into the inductor electrode charge flows smoothly onto it. Then while the chain is still within the inducing field, contact with ground is broken as the wheel turns. The induced charge is trapped on the chain and carried to the terminal or ground where the chain enters the discharging inductor electrode. Contact with the wheel occurs as the charge on the pellet is bound by the inductor to prevent sparks or corona discharges from the chain, References (1) WD, Allen, Nat, Inst, Res. Nucl, Sci. NIRL/R/21 (1962) [2] RJ. Van de Graaff, PH. Rose, A.B. Wittkower, ‘Nature 195 (1962) 1292 (3) FA. Howe, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. N.S.-14, No3 (1967) 122 [4] ML, Sundquist, R.D. Rathmell, J.E. Raatz, NIM. A287 (1990) 87 [5] J.E. Raatz et al, NIM A244 (1986) 104 [6] J.A. Ferry, NIM A328 (1993) 28 [7] GA. Norton et al, NIM B37/38 (1989) 403 1.6.6 Free Electron Lasers C. Pellegrini, UCLA Free Electron Lasers (FELs) are powerful sources of coherent EM radiation (microwave, UV, x-ray) with high peak power and brightness. An FEL consists of a high brightness electron accelerator, ‘an undulator magnet and, in some cases, optical components. Storage rings, linacs, and electrostatic accelerators have been used as the accelerator components of FEL's. An FEL can be oper-Sec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES. ated as an amplifier of (i) an external laser signal, i) its own undulator spontaneous radiation (Self Amplified Spontaneous Emission, SASE, mode), or Gi) as an oscillator using an optical cavity. The work on eatlier coherent EM radiation sources using free electron beams, like microwaves tubes, undulators [1] and the Ubitron {2}, led to the development of the Ubitron [2] and of the FELs in the 60's, The early theory [3] was followed by the first experiments on an amplifier and an oscillator [4]. The theory was then further developed with studies of the FEL collective instability, diffraction effects, and slippage effects, while many FELs were built, over a wavelength range from the far IR to the UV [5, 6]. Undulator radiation from one electron Assume an undulator magnet with a field By cos(2nz/2y) transverse to its axis z, period Au, and N, undulator periods. Define undulator parameter = Meetorpotential _ eBuy yy mee ~ Bree? The undulator radiation by a relativistic beam is, narrowly centered [5] at the wavelength aw a = ( +3 2) has a line width Aw/w = 1/2Nq, and is emitted in a narrow cone of aperture 1/-7 around the axis. The undulator is an extended linear source, but is approximately equivalent to a source at the undulator center. If we only consider the coher ent photons, i.e. photons within the bandwidth Aw/w = 1/2Na, the effective angular aperture and source radius are 9 = Vaan} a= VMANu/4n. The product a@ = /4z gives the minimum phase space for a diffraction limited photon beam and thus the emittance requirement for the driver accelerator beam, The intensity of the radiation emitted on axis, at the wavelength (2), is (planar undulator) (5] #1 _ yes 2 ay aoa = ty PE aaah (ow) @ where Fi (ax) = Ja(aqfarpy) ~ Jolarrtizr)- The number of coherent photons per electron, within the angle @ = /X/ Ne , and the bandwidth Aw/w = 1/(2Ny), is Nn = 507g ipttion ® 18 a pial vale ay % 1 one obtains Non ~ Pe x 107 If the radiation propagates in vacuum, it will move ahead of the electron generating it by one wavelength per undulator period, This effect is called slippage and defines the minimum radiation pulse duration as obtained also by the line width, FEL collective instability We can increase Np by several orders of magnitude using a collective instability of the electron beam-EM radiation- undulator system. ‘The radiation field acting on the electrons while they traverse the undulator causes the electrons to form microbunches separated by the radiation wavelength. Electrons in the microbunches radiate in phase, coherently, increasing the total radiation field intensity. This process can be described using three collective variables describing the radiation field, the bunching, and the energy spread [7]. The collective variables change exponentially along the undulator axis, like e*, The eigenvalues 1 are determined by a dispersion relation, which in the simplest case is a cubic equation. When the radiation wavelength is near Eq.(2), two of the roots of the dispersion relation are complex, and lead to an exponential growth of the radiation intensity and of the electron beam microbunching with the gain length (simple 1-D theory) lox °” Vane 2 with p the FEL parameter /3 sp (ou) 2" Wu = 2nc/Aw Ip = Frreene/7 the beam plasma frequency, ng the electron density. Typi- cally, p ~ 10-? — 107°, Bq.(5) assumes (@)cB La, only the eigenvalue with negative imaginary part is important, When NuAy < Lo, the small signal regime, all three eigenvalues must be included in the evaluation of the output radiation power. If a ‘monochromatic radiation signal is fed at the FEL input, its intensity change in a single pass of the undulator is given by the small signal gain [5] cs $7 (1-cos—Baina) (a0) Gus = = AE where rT = 4pNy is a measure of the undulator length, and A = 2nNyAw/w, the detuning pa- ‘rameter, is proportional to the difference, Aw, between the wavelength of the input radiation and the spontancous radiation wavelength (2). The function Gsg/7° is shown in Fig.1. Detuning Figure 1: Small signal gain function Greg/ 7° vs A. If we propagate a beam through the undulator with no input radiation signal, but we assume 19 Ch,1: INTRODUCTION that the beam has some initial random bunching, B(O), at the spontaneous radiation wavelength, the output intensity can be evaluated [5] 2 lacn = Be EAN" an which in standard variables is just Eq.(3), Since |B(0)|? is a random quantity, the intensity fluctuates from pulse to pulse, and the same will be true for the SASE mode, The fluctuations have been observed for spontaneous radiation and for SASE [9]. The fluctuation level in SASE is determined by the cooperation length [10] Lg = /4mp, i.e. the slippage in one gain length. For coherent radiation in SASE the standard deviation of the intensity distribution is 1/V/M, where M = (Bunch length)/2nLc. Diffraction, slippage and undulator error effects When conditions (a), (@), (¢) in Eq.(7) are not satisfied, Lg becomes longer than Eq.(5), and effects of diffraction and slippage need to be included [5]. Analytical models and computer codes have been developed for these cases, Errors in the undulator magnetic field can lead to a situation in which the electron trajectory does not overlap the FEL radiation, or to the emission of radiation at different wavelength, thus effectively increasing the radiation linewidth and reducing the gain. An approximate rule is to require that the deviation of electron beam trajectory from the ideal trajectory should be less than a small fraction (~ 1/2-1/4) of the beam radius, while the relative error in the peak magnetic field from period to period < p. Status and development of FELs Many FELs are now in operation in the USA, Europe and Japan, Detailed descriptions of their performance can be found in [6]. FELs have been operated in the wavelength region from microwave to the UY, with pulse length from js to ps. The radiation from FEL oscillators has transform limited linewidth, and is coherent, diffraction limited in the transverse direction. The shortest wavelength, about 200 nm, has been obtained at Duke Univer- sity using an FEL oscillator on a storage ring. The ‘Vanderbilt FEL, mainly dedicated to medical applications, operates in the IR (\ = 12 pm) with ‘an average power of ~10 W. Peak power of ~1 GW has been obtained in the microwave region at Livermore (ELF, A = 8.6 mm) and CESTA. Peak power of tens of MW has been obtained in the IRSec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES in many laboratories. Storage rings, room temperature linacs, SC linacs, and electrostatic accelerators are all being used to drive FELs. At the moment there are two main lines of development for FELs: (i) higher average power in the IR to UV region, and (ii) very short wavelengths. High average power is useful for industrial and medical applications. The interest in x- rays is due to the fact that an x-ray FEL could provide coherent photons at ~ 1A, with almost 10 order of magnitudes higher peak power than the most intense x-ray sources available today, and pulse length < 1 ps [8], opening new possibili- ties for the study of the structure of matter. References U1] H. Motz, J, Appl. Phys, 22 (1951) 527; H. Motz, et al, J. Appl. Phys. 24 (1953) 826; H, Motz, M. ‘Nakamura, Ann. Phys. 7 (1959) 84 [2] RM. Philips, IRE Trans. Electron Devices, 7 (1960) 231 [3] J.MJ. Madey, J. Appl. Phys. 42 (1971) 1906; R.V. Palmer, J. Appl. Phys. 43 (1972) 3014; P, Csonka, PA 8 (1978) 225; K.W. Robinson, NIM A239 (499s) 111 [4] LR. Elias et al, PRL 36 (1976) 717; D.A.G, Dea- con, et al, PRL 38 (197) 892 (5] Laser Handbook, Vol.6 Free Electron Lasers, North Holland (1990) [6] Proc. XVII Int. FEL Conf, (1996), NIM 393 (1997), and previous conferences. (7) R. Bonifacio, C. Pellegrini, L. Narducci, Opt. ‘Commun, 50 (1984) 373 [8] J.B. Murphy, C. Pellegrini, NIM A237 (1985) 159; J, B. Murphy, C. Pellegrini, J. Opt. Soc. ‘Am,, B2 (1985) 259; Ya. S, Derbenev et al, NIM. ‘A193 (1982) 415; C. Pellegrini, NIM A272 (1988) 364: C, Pellegrini, Workshop on Fourth Gener- ation Light Sources, SLAC SSRL Report 92/02, (1992) p.364 [9] MC. Teich et al, PRL 65 (1990) 3393; M. Hogan cet al, PRL 80 (1998) 289 [10] R. Bonifacio et al, PRL 73 (1994) 70 1.6.7 High Voltage Electrodynamic Accelera- tors M, Cleland, Ion Beam App., Belgium Machines of this type are potential drop or direct action accelerators. They impart high kinetic energies to ions and electrons by connecting high voltage generators between a patticle source and a target at ground potential. In contrast to electrostatic accelerators (Sec.1.6.5) such as Van de Graaffs and Pelletrons that transport charges mechanically, the high voltage power supplies in electrodynamic accelerators convert low voltage ac to high voltage de by means of cascaded rectifier circuits [1, 2, 3}. Some of these systems transfer ac power from the mains to multiple rectifier stages through an array of high voltage capacitors while others use an assembly of high voltage transformers. Although the designs of the power supplies are different, their particle sources and acceleration methods are similar, Particle acceleration Charged particles can be accelerated to high energies in high vacuum regions where beam-gas collisions are rare. Parti- cles are extracted from their sources (ions from plasmas, electrons from cathodes), focused into narrow beams and accelerated by electric fields created by the high voltage generators. The con- formation and strength of the fields are determined by the shapes and spacings of a series of electrodes with intermediate potentials. The use of multiple electrodes prevents spark discharges inside the acceleration tube, protects the insulating rings between the electrodes from the effects of scattered particles and permits the use of high accelerating potentials and strong electric fields (4). High voltage generation The many applications for high voltage accelerators require potentials from a few hundred kV to several MV. In this, energy range, especially above 500 kV, conventional single-stage transformer-rectifier systems are inadequate because of insulation problems. A variety of multiple-stage cascaded rectifier systems have been developed. The basic methods for coupling ac power to all of the rectifier stages are illustrated in Fig.1 [2]. In Fig.1a, ac power is inductively coupled in series from one transformer- rectifier stage to the next. The de outputs of each stage are connected in series to produce high voltage power. In Fig.1b, ac power is inductively coupled in parallel from a common primary winding to all of the secondary windings. In Fig.1c, ac power is capacitively coupled in series from one rectifier stage to the next, Transformers are not required in the rectifier stages. In Fig.1d, ac power is capacitively coupled in parallel to all of the rectifier stages. In series coupled systems, the lower stages ‘must transmit ac power to the upper stages and the voltage droop under load is greater in the upper stages, In parallel coupled systems, all stages re-® >» © w it: ey ds Led a. x= : q 1 a = Figure 1: Cascade generators. 1—Power supply; 2— stage; 3—voltage rectifying and multiplying circuits, ceive power directly from the primary source and the voltage droop under load is the same in all stages. This simplifies the design. Parallel coupling reduces the internal impedance of the high voltage generator and increases the amount of current and power that can be provided for particle acceleration. Capacitive Cascade generators Series coupled systems Cockcroft and Wal- ton [5] used a high voltage generator with multiple rectifier stages capacitively coupled to a source of ac power. This type of system is commonly called a Cockcroft-Walton accelerator. Their series coupled voltage multiplying rectifier circuit was proposed eatlier by Greinacher (Greinacher cascade circuit) [6]. During the 1930s and 1940s, the firm N.V. Philips, Nether- Jands, produced many large, air insulated high voltage generators and particle accelerators based on this concept with potentials up to 3 MV [7]. During the 1950s, Emile Haefely & Co Ltd, ‘Switzerland, developed a symmetrical series coupled cascade circuit. Many accelerators using this type of high voltage generator have been produced for a variety of applications such as electron microscopy, ion injection into higher energy rf accelerators, and separation of high energy particle beams. Potentials up to 4 MV have been obtained with compressed gas insulation [8, 9, 10]. During the 1980s, Nissin High Voltage Co Ltd, Japan, simplified the symmetrical cascade circuit by omitting the central column of capacitors when high current beam pulses are not required. Poten- tials up to 5 MV have been obtained with compressed gas insulation. The 5 MeV unit is rated for 30 mA of dc electron beam current or 150 kW of beam power (11, 12]. Parallel coupled systems The parallel cou- a Ch.1: INTRODUCTION pled cascade circuit proposed by Schenkel [13] predated the Greinacher circuit but it was not used for high voltage generators because of the difficulty of making capacitors that could withstand the de output voltage. During the 1950s and 1960s, Radiation Dynamics, Inc. developed the parallel coupled cascade circuit used in Dy- namitron accelerators [14]-(20]. High voltage, high frequency ac power is generated by a resonant system consisting of an iron-free transformer and a pair of semicylindrical electrodes which surround a rectifier assembly. Power is capacitively coupled from these electrodes to semicircu- lar corona rings which are connected to the rec- lifier junctions. The rectifiers are connected in series to produce high voltage de power. Insu- lation between components is provided by compressed sulfur hexafluoride gas. The parallel coupling scheme permits the use of a large number of rectifier stages, each of which produces the same amount of de voltage under load. Dynamitrons with potentials up to 5 MV have been produced with electron beam power ratings up to 150 kW. ‘Two-stage tandem heavy ion accelerators using this type of high voltage generator have been produced by General Ionex Corporation, now Genus, Inc,, for high energy ion implantation in silicon wafers (21). Inductive Cascade generators Series coupled systems During the 1950s and Debs, Hi High Voltage Engineering Corp., now Vivirad High Voltage, developed the Insulating Core Transformer (ICT) circuit. This is a three- phase, multi-stage cascade circuit using magnetic coupling to transfer low voltage, low freqency ac power from the primary windings at the low voltage end to an array of high voltage secondary windings. The magnetic cores of the secondary windings are separated by thin sheets of solid insulating material, Rectifiers and filter capacitors convert ac to de power at each stage. All of the de circuits are connected in series to produce the high voltage potential at the output end of the assembly [22]-[28]. The largest ICT accelerators can produce electron energies up to 3 MeV with beam power ratings up to 100 kW, Parallel coupled systems During the 1970s, the Budker Institute, Novosibirsk, developed several types of single-phase, multi-stage transformer systems. All of the secondary windings are magnetically coupled to a coaxial primary winding which extends the full length of the highSec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES voltage assembly. The Elita is a resonant pulse transformer with a solenoidal high voltage secondary winding. The ELT is a low frequency system for generating high voltage ac power. It has insulated magnetic cores inside the multiple secondary windings. The Russian ICT is a single- phase version of the three-phase insulating core transformer with rectifier circuits in each stage to produce high voltage de power. The ELV is a multi-stage, transformer-rectifier system without magnetic cores. ELV accelerators can produce de potentials up to 2 MV with electron beam power ratings up to 50 kW (2, 29, 30}. During the 1970s and 1980s, the Budker In- stitute, the Efremov Institute for Electrophysical Apparatus in Leningrad, now St. Petersburg, and the Institute for High Temperatures in Moscow developed three-phase, transformer-rectifier high voltage systems. These use continuous iron cores at ground potential with elongated primary windings on each core. The high voltage secondary windings are insulated from the cores and primary windings. Rectifiers connected in three- phase bridge circuits convert ac to de power. The Teus system uses a single bridge rectifier circuit, with three high voltage windings and can produce 300 KV de and 75 KW of electron beam power. The Aurora system uses multiple bridge rectifier circuits with lower voltage per stage and can produce 750 kV de and 100 kW of beam power (2,31, 32, 33}. References (1) W. Scharf, Particle Accelerators & Their Uses, Part 1, Accelerator Design, Part 2, Applications of Accelerators, Harwood Academic (1986) (2) EA. Abramyan, Industrial Electron Accelerators & Applications, Hemisphere (1988) [3] MR. Cleland, Chapter in Radiation Processing of Polymers, Hanser (1992) [4] RJ. Van de Graaff, J.G. Trump, W.W. Buechner, Reports on Progress in Phys., Vol.XI, The Physi- cal Society, UK (1948) p.1 [5] JD. Cockcroft, E.T.S. Walton, Proc. Royal Soc. London, Series A136 (1932) p.619 (6) H. Greinacher, Zeit. fur Physik 4 (1921) 195 (7) A. Bouwers, A. Kuntke, Zeit. fur Technische Physik 18 (1937) 209 [8] W. Heilpern, Helvetica Phys. Acta, Vol.28 (1955) [9] G. Reinhold, J, Seitz, R. Minkner, Zeit. fur Instru- ‘mentenkunde, 67 (1959) 258 [10] G. Reinhold, K. Truempy, J, Bill, IEEE Trans, ‘Nucl, Sci,, NS-12, No.3 (1965) 288 (11) K, Mizusawa et al, Radiation Phys, & Chem., ‘Vol.31, Nos.1-3 (1988) 267 [12] S. Uehara et al, Radiation Phys, & Chem., Vol.42, Nos.1-3 (1993) 515 [13] M, Schenkel, Elektro-technische Zeitschrift 40 (1919) 333 [14] MR, Cleland, Voltage Multiplication Apparatus, USS. Patent No.2,875,394 (1959) [15] MAR. Cleland, P. Farrell, IEEE Trans. Nuc. Sci., NS-12, No.3 (1965) 227 [16] CC, Thompson, MR, Cleland, ‘Trans, Nucl, Sci., NS-16 (1969) 124 (17) PR. Hanley et al, IEEE Trans, Nucl. Sci., NS-16 (1969) 90 [18] MRR, Cleland, C.C. Thompson, H.F. Malone, Ra- diation Phys, & Chem,, Vol.9, Nos.4-6 (1977) 547 [19] C.C. Thompson, MLR. Cleland, NIM B40 (1989) 137) [20] MR, Cleland et al, NIM B79 (1993) 861 [21] KH. Purser et al, SPIE Vol.530, Soc. Photo- Optical Instr. Eng. (1985) p.14 [22] Three High-Power Accelerators for Radiation Processing, Nucleonics, Vol.18, No.8 (1960) 54 [23] RJ. Van de Graaff, High Voltage Electromag- netic Apparatus Having an Insulating Magnetic Core, U.S. Patent No.3,187,208 (1965) [24] RM, Emanuelson, Insulating Core Transform- ers, U.S. Patent No.3,274,526 (1966) [25] RJ. Van de Graaff, High Voltage Electromag- ‘netic Apparatus Having an Insulating Magnetic Cote, US. Patent No.3,289,066 (1966) [26] RJ. Van de Graaff, High Voltage Electro- magnetic Charged-Particle Accelerator Apparatus ‘Having an Insulating Magnetic Core, U.S. Patent No.3,323,069 (1967) [27] P. Kleinheins, Kerntechnik Vol.12 (1969) p.683 [28] R. Emanuelson, R. Fernald,C. Schmidt, Radia- tion Phys. & Chem., Vol.14 (1979) p.343 [29] GX. Budker, V.A. Gaponov, BM. Korabel’nikov, Charged Particle Accelerator, SU Patent No0.589698 (1973), U.S. Patent No.4,016,499, GB Patent No.1454485, 130] V.V. Akulov, M.P. Svin’in, High Voltage Trans- former, SU Patent No.523461 (1969), Bulletin of Inventions, No.28 (1976) [31] BL Albertinsidy, M.P. Svin’in, Cascade Genera- tors, Atomizdat (1980) {32] MP. Svin'in, Voltage Generators of High Volt- age High Power Accelerators”, Radiation Phys. & Chem,, Vol.18, Nos.5-6 (1981) p.1353 {33} VIN. Lisin et al, High Voltage Transformer- Rectifier Device, U.S. Patent No 4,338,657 (1982)1.6.8 Induction Linacs R. Bangerter, LBNL Induction linacs (IL) are employed in applications that require combinations of beam current, beam energy, and pulse length that are not easily achieved using rf accelerators. The first large TL was the Astron Injector at LLNL [1]. Although induction acceleration had been used for some time (e.g. the betatron, Sec.1.6.2), Ref.[1] is usually credited for the invention of IL. Since then, ‘more than ten major LIs have been built (2, 3]. Conventional linacs produce long trains of beam pulses at radio frequencies. The average beam current is usually < 1 A. In contrast, ILs produce beam pulses at much lower repetition rates, but much higher currents (e.g. >10 kA). The Astron Injector originally produced 350 A of electrons (3.7 MeV, pulse length 300 ns, burst repetition rate >1 KHz) to create a magnetic field in the Astron magnetic fusion device. Subsequently, ILs to produce beams for electron ring accelerators (experimental collective accelerators) were built at Berkeley and at Dubna (2, 3]. Flash radiography is another important application of ILs, e.g. FXR [4], DARHT [5], and AIRIX [6]. ILs are also being developed to produce beams for two beam accelerators (relativistic klystrons) (Sec. 1.6.19) [7, 8, 9]. Other applications that have been suggested or implemented include FELs, electron beam welding, food irradiation, pulsed neutron sources, treatment of materials, treatment of chemical and nuclear waste, and tunneling in rock. Most of these applications use electron beams, Heavy ion inertial confinement fusion is a possible application. The IL concept Fig.1 (upper) illustrates the ba~ sic concept of induction acceleration. A pulser (of modulator) provides the power to energize an induction module. The electric acceleration field is confined primarily to the axis of the accelerator by the conducting walls ~ the induction cavity — surrounding the induction core. The core is usually made of some ferromagnetic (or ferrimag- netic) material although it could be simply air or vacuum. One may view the induction module as an electrical transformer, The beam is the secondary of this transformer. An IL consists of one or more (often many) induction modules placed in series. One can also think of an induction cavity as shorted transmission line as shown in Fig.1 (lower). In any case, the accelerating voltage Vis associated with a changing magnetic field by V = Ch.1: INTRODUCTION —d@/dt, where = f B - dA is the magnetic flux in the core, The integral is over the cross- sectional area of the core. If one assumes that is uniform over the area, then V = —AdB/dt, or J Vdt = A AB. This quantity is often referred to simply as the volt-seconds of the core, while AB is referred to as the flux swing. con -— ca B TB | Acceleration m= "|B ” |e" Gap Circuit Beam Figure 1: upper: An IL with two induction modules (Stages). The beam is the secondary of a series of transformers. lower: Alternatively, one can think of an induction module as a shorted transmission line. Another way to achieve induction acceleration is by changing the area occupied by the magnetic field rather than the field itself (line-type induction accelerator, in contrast to the core-type [2). In the line-type machines, an induction cavity is basically a radial or axial transmission line. A ferromagnetic core is not used. The line-type cavities usually have very low impedance, In- deed, a principal function of the core in a core- type module is to provide a high impedance in parallel with the load (beam). In both induction accelerators and rf accelerators, the accelerating electric field is associated with a changing magnetic field. However, rf cavities are often driven at resonance and induction cavities are not. Also, induction cores are often large (~1m dia.). The large size, together with the use of ferromagnetic material, allows the induction accelerators to be used at longer pulse lengths than rf accelerators. For ILs, the pulse length often lies in the range from tens of ns to tens of us.Sec.1. ILs are related to other devices, e.g., the inductive voltage adder. In an inductive voltage adder a solid conductor replaces the beam. Induction technology The main components of an IL are the pulsers, the beam transport system, and, in the case of a core-type machine, the induction cores. ‘Depending on the voltage, pulse length, and other characteristics, the pulsers may be based on simple switched capacitors, pulse forming networks, or pulse forming lines. Switches for the pulsers include thyratrons, spark gaps, magnetic switches, and solid state devices, To maximize AB, a reset pulser normally magnetizes the core in one direction before itis pulsed in the opposite direction by the main pulser. ‘The beam transport system of an IL must be capable of carrying high current. One can estimate the maximum current that a transport channel can carry by setting the beam self force equal to the applied focusing force of the lattice, The actual current will be less than this maximum because of emittance, A detailed calculation is required in each individual case. For continuous solenoidal focusing the maximum current is approximately Is = 4x 10°(Z/A)By(Ba)* Amp. (1) where Z and A are the charge and atomic mass numbers, B is in Tesla, a is beam size in m, For a ‘quadrupole transport system the maximum beam current is approximately Tg =8 x 10°(67)?(nBa) Amp. (2) where 1) is the effective occupancy factor (the fraction of the lattice occupied by quadrupoles). Solenoids are usually the preferred system for light particles (e~, p), but quadrupoles appear preferable for heavy ions, particularly at the high velocity end of the machine, There has been some research on neutralized and collective focusing systems [10}. ‘Magnetic materials used for induction cores include steel tape, nickel-iron tape, ferrite, and a class of amorphous metallic glasses such as Al- lied Chemical’s Metglas®, Core losses are an important consideration, particularly if the beam current is low. For materials other than ferrite, the core must be laminated to minimize eddy- current losses. Lamination is usually achieved by winding the cores from thin tape (thickness S 50 um). For example, the typical losses in iron- based metallic glass are = 800 I/m? at a pulse ILOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES 24 length of At = 11s and a flux swing of 2.5 T. The losses scale approx. as AB?/At. (Because of hysteresis, the losses at 2.5 T do not drop ap- preciably below 100 J/m* even at very long pulse lengths.) Current research Recently much of the research on ILs has been directed toward radiography, inertial fusion, and the two-beam accelerator (relativistic Klystron). In addition, however, there is some basic research on improved ferro- ‘magnetic materials, transport systems, solid-state pulsers, and recirculation, In recirculation the beam passes through the cores more than once, but the beam dynamics of these machines is more similar to a linac than a synchrotron, In one important experiment (11], an un- cooled induction core was run for several days at repetition rate of ~100 Hz. The pulser used capacitive storage and an array of field effect tran- sistors. The measured efficiency into a resistive dummy load approached 50%. With continued development, induction accelerators may become competitive with rf accelerators for high average power applications. References [1] N.C. Christofilos et al, RSI 35 (1964) 886 [2] 1B. Less, PAC 79, p.3870 [3] A. Faltens, D. Keefe, Proc. Linac Conf, LANL Report, LA-9234-C (1981) p.205 (4] B, Kulke, R. Kihara, IEEE Trans, Nucl, Sci., NS- 30, No.4 (1983) 3030 [5] M. J. Burns et al, Proc, XVII Int, Linac Conf, (1996) 875 {6] Ph, Eyharts et al, PAC 95, p.1210 (7] GY. Dotbitoy et al, Proc. Int. Linac Cont., Vol.2 (1994) p.597 18] TL. Houck et al, Proc. XVIII Int. Linac Conf, Vol.1 (1996) p.396 [9] I, Wilson, Proc. XVII Int, Linac Conf, Vol.2 (1996) p.553 [10] S, Humphries, Jr. et al, PAC 81, p.3410 [11] W, Barletta et al, LBL-35960 (1994) 1.6.9 Industrial Applications of Electrostatic Accelerators G. Norton, Nat. Elec. Corp. JL. Duggan, U. North Texas Worldwide there are ~350 Electrostatic Acceler- ators used for materials analysis or high-energy ion implantation for the semiconductor industry. They typically have terminal voltages of < 5Ch.1: INTRODUCTION Table 1: Ton beam characteristics for various applications, PROCEDURE TON BEAM ‘APPLICATION CHARACTERISTICS Rutherford Backscattering | Ito 3 MeV, He Elemental and thin Alm (RBS) <100 nA, ~ 1mm dia. analysis ‘Channeling (RBS) Tto3 MeV, He Structure analysis and light <50 nA, ~1 mm dia. element detection in crystals Low divergence Micro RBS: T to 3 MeV, He Position sensitive elemental ~1 nA, 10-20 ym dia, analysis Elastic Recoil Detection Tto >20 MeV, heavy tons | Depth profiling of Z=1 10 9 (ERD) <1 fA, ~1 mm dia, elements Particle Induced X-Ray T to 4 MeV, protons ‘Trace elemental analysis Emission (PIXE) <1 fA ~ 1mm dia. In-Air PIXE Tto 4 Mev, protons Non-destructive trace <1yA, 1105 mm elemental analysis Micro PIXE Tto 4 MeV, proton Position sensitive trace <0.5nA, ~1 pum dia, elemental analysis ‘Nuclear Reaction Analysis | <3 to >10 MeV Enhanced sensitivity to (NRA) wide variety of heavy ions | selected elements 1 to 10 pA, | to 3 mm dia. Charged Particle Activation | 3 to >50 MeV Enhanced sensitivity t (CPA) p, d,t, “He, A selected elements <1pAto > 10yA 1mmto | cm dia. Production, High Energy Ton | 103 MeV, B, P. Device manufacturing in Implantation dose: 108 to 10*/em? semiconductors ‘uniform deposition Research, High Energy fon | 1 to >10 MeV (50 MeV+) _| Material modification, Implantation all available heavy ion beams | amorphization, device Smmto lcm development, damage studies MV and currents < 100 yA. They can be either ‘single-ended or tandem accelerators. From 1930's through late 1960's, low energy Electrostatic Ac- celerators were used to investigate nuclear structure, The 1980's saw a major shift towards applications in materials analysis [1] and materials modification. Applications fit into two main groups: materials analysis and materials modification, Mate- rials analysis includes routine use of Rutherford Backscattering (RBS) (2, 3] for quality control in semiconductor manufacturing and other areas. Particle Induced X-Ray Emission (PIXE) (4, 5] is used in fields from art history through the envi- ronmental sciences. X-ray imaging using 5 MeV 4c electron beams and Pulsed Fast Neutron Anal- ysis (PENA) [6] for plastic explosive and drug detection provide promise in the area of security. ‘Accelerator based mass spectrometry (AMS) [7] is having a profound effect on a wide variety of fields, which rely on counting extremely rare isotopes in small samples. Accelerators used for materials modification continue to have a significant economic impact in the field of semiconductors [8]. Fabrication of virtually all semiconductor devices now relies on ion implantation with ion beam energies ranging from a few keV to several MeV (9, 10]. Fig.1 shows how these techniques are related to other branches of science [11]. Tab.1 gives typical ion ‘beam characteristics for various applications. References (1) LR. Tesmer, M. Nastasi (eds.), Handbook of Mod- em Ion Beam Materials Analysis, Materials Res. Soc, (1995) [2] WK. Chu et al, Backscattering Spectrometry, Academic Press (1978)See, BRANCH OF TECHNIQUE SCIENCE : GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES o Load A PANAANNNNNS) On laa TAAAAAAAANT] git Figure 1: (a) Traveling-wave structure with matching input iris and matched load at output. (b) Standing- wave structure with total reflection at output end and [Bi iradation Rasearch Figure 1: The growing spectrum of accelerator applications fields (11). (3] L.C. Feldman, J.W. Mayer, Fundamentals of Sur- face & Thin Film Analysis, Elsevier Sci. (1986) [4] S.AE. Johannson, J.L. Campbell, sPIXE: A ‘Novel Technique for Elemental Analysis, Wiley (1988) [5] U.A.S. Tapper, K.G. Malmqvist, Analy. Chem. 63 (4991) 715A, {6] DR. Brown, T. Gozani, NIM B99 (1995) 753 (7) LK. Fifield, NIM A382 (1996) {8} PH. Rose, NIM B6 (1985) 1 [9] L. Peters, Semiconductor International, Vol.16, No.7 (1993) 82 10} 3.0, Botland, R. Koelsch, Semiconductor Inter- national, Vol.16, No.1 (1993) 90 (11) Brochure published by the Nuclear Centre in New Delhi; Brochure, U. Tokyo 1.6.10 Linear Accelerators for Electron GA. Loew, SLAC Electron (positron) linear accelerators (linacs) are axially rectilinear structures which capture a beam from an electron injector (positron source), and accelerate it to a desired energy (1, 2, 3]. These linacs rely on radiofrequency (tf, typically 0.5-30 GHz) energy to produce the accelerating electric field. Above a few MeV, de machines no 26 ‘matching input iris (steady state). High Voltage Modulator _| High Power Klystron AL Be battered QS “in Ti Triode Buncher Accelerator Gun Velocity h on Modulating Ie t Prebuncher cd o Ab=-70° Pn} Figure 2: Schematic of a single-section, single-power- source linac, with typical injector. A¢ is bunch length {in units of rf phase. The gridded triode gun is sometimes replaced by a laser-driven photocathode or an rf ‘gun where the cathode is embedded inside an rf cavity. Progressive bunching is graphically illustrated, Multi- section linacs are simply constructed by adding sections linearly beyond the first one. longer work because cumulative high voltages are difficult to obtain. ‘The rf energy is used to launch a traveling wave (TW) or a standing wave (SW) in an ar- tay of microwave cavities or cells (Fig.1). See Sec.7.3.5. In both cases, the structure is designed so that the phase of the wave is synchronized with the beam, Because of the small rest mass of e*, above a few MeV, the needed rf phase velocity vp * c. Generally, when entering the linac, particles are already considerably bunched, and what little compression remains to be done occurs during the first few MeV of acceleration (see Fig.2). ‘The bunches can then ride at a constant rf phase and corresponding acceleration field. The structures shown in Fig.1 are periodic (or quasi-periodic, see below) in that their cell ge-Ch,1: INTRODUCTION Figure 3: Typical Brillouin diagram for a disk-loaded waveguide, showing fundamental accelerating mode operating at 2n/3 phase shift per cell, and one branch of a higher-order HEM deflecting mode, ‘ometry is invariant with respect to longitudinal translation, The periodic loading is necessary because a smooth waveguide would have vp > ¢. ‘The irises or other periodic obstacles create an infinite family of space-harmonic modes (Fig.3). ‘The fundamental mode (n = 0) generally has the largest amplitude and is used for acceleration, The Brillouin diagram [4], Fig.3, corresponds to a TW structure in which this fundamental mode has vp = cat a phase shift of 27/3 per cell. Fig.3 exhibits a second upper-branch (there are an infinity of such higher-order modes, HOM) which intercepts the vp = c line at a point with negative slope (backward-wave HEM); mode). These modes are commonly called wakefields because they can be excited by the beam bunch. The wakefields then cause particles later in this bunch or subsequent bunches to be deflected transversely, producing emittance growth and eventually beam. break-up and particle loss. This problem can be controlled by appropriate solenoidal focusing (at low energy) and quadrupole focusing (at higher energy), or by cell detuning (see below). Most linac structures are made out of high quality copper which, however, has a finite loss ‘which causes attenuation. For a given amount of pulsed peak power Pp injected into an accelerator section, itis not economical to extend its length £ beyond the point where ~70% of the power has been dissipated. In a TW structure, the remaining power is dumped into a load. The input is ‘matched so that there is no reflection at the source. Ina SW structure, there are also losses and while some power is reflected from the end, itis possible to match the input so that there is no power reflec- 27 tion in steady state. Because a standing wave can bbe decomposed into two oppositely moving trav- cling waves, the only efficient way of operating a ‘SW structure is in a mode with a x-phase shift per cell on axis, which means that both traveling waves are confluent and produce acceleration (in reality, for mode stability reasons, the actual phase-shift per cell in e.g. the SW side-coupled structure invented at Los Alamos [5] is 7/2). Ad- vantages and disadvantages of TW vs, SW structures are discussed in [5]. Alll periodic linac structures are characterized by a figure of merit called the shunt impedance per unit length, r. ‘The steady-state no-load energy acquired by a particle riding on top of the synchronous fundamental wave is Va=KVPor a where the proportionality constant K < 1 for a TW structure depends on the attenuation of the section, and K = 1 for the perfectly matched SW structure, assuming no appreciable field reduction due to beam loading, If the linac consists of NV identical sections, then the total energy is NV. With a peak beam current I, the steady-state ergy (ie., after the appropriate filling times) is reduced by a subtractive term o rIé. ‘TW structures may be designed to be quasiperiodic. Two examples stand out. The first is the constant-gradient structure in which dimensions are tapered so as to decrease the group velocity linearly with length. The fields are thereby caused to be constant as opposed to exponentially decaying as a function of length, as is the case in regular constant-impedance structures. The second one is a variation of the former where the cavitySec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES dimensions are varied so as to keep the accelerating fields approximately constant while giving the HOM frequencies a Gaussian distribution which causes them to decohere rapidly in time after their excitation by the beam. A further variation of this scheme is to equip every cell with four symmetrical side-openings which enable the HOMs with both horizontal and vertical polarizations to leak out into manifolds while leaving the fundamental accelerating mode undisturbed [6}. While the accelerator structure is the heart of the linac, there are other essential components and subsystems. Fig.2 shows a high power rf source which in most machines is a klystron (magnetrons are used in single-section low energy machines) with its associated high voltage modulator. Be- cause of the high peak power required (typically 4-80 MW), these klystrons have low duty cycles (~100 Hz) and pulse lengths ~ a few ys. To increase the peak power, modern linacs sometimes use rf pulse compression systems (see Sec.6.7), which temporarily accumulate the rf energy in a storage device, thereby enhancing the peak power emitted in a pulse at the expense of its width. Fig.2 also shows an injector with its triode gun, prebuncher and buncher. Other important subsystems include rf drive and phasing, focusing, vac- ‘uum, alignment, water cooling, ac power, instrumentation and control [3]. For a given total energy, the length of a linac can be reduced by increasing its accelerating gradient. Typical machines use gradients from a few MVim up to proposed ~100 MV/m. At low gradients, the structure can sometimes suffer from a parasitic resonant phenomenon (multipactor) in which a surface-emitted electron gets accelerated, hits the surface elsewhere (or returns to the same point), and then ejects new secondary electrons which produce an avalanche condition (see also Sec.6.9). At high fields, electron field emission takes place, which can have a variety of dele- tetious effects: parasitic absorption of energy, wakefields, dark-current producing spurious radiation and backgrounds, and eventually rf breakdown which can make the linac inoperative, Field emission is caused by a variety of surface irregu- larities, impurities, dust, and contamination, and ‘can be controlled, up to a point, by proper surface fabrication, treatment and cleaning (see also Sec.6.12). ‘Tab.1 gives the parameters presently typically achieved at the end of the SLC e linac, as well 28 Table 1: Linac parameters for SLC (achieved) (7, NLC (design) [8], and LCLS (design) (9]. (0 after full compression, SLC__NLC_LCLS Energy (GeV) 302x250 15 Gradient(MeVim) 17 57.17 fet (GHz) 2.856 11.424 2.856 klystron #flinac 224, 3270 70 peak power(MW) 65 75 65 pulse length(us) 3.5 15 3.5 e7/ounch (10!) 4 1.0 0.63 ene (mm-mrad) = 45410 Ny (mm-mrad) 5 004 = 10 @; (mm) 10 0.15.03!) os (10-8) 153.0 <1 as the design values for the NLC and the LCLS. Electron and positron linacs are used for ‘many purposes [10]. The largest number of elec tron linacs (many thousands) are radiotherapy machines which can be found in hospitals worldwide (energy ~4-30 MeV, x-rays produced by electrons impinging on targets, or direct electron radiation). Low energy linacs are also used in industry for sterilization of various materials and products, x- ray radiography, etc.. Most of these linacs consist of single sections and power sources. Linacs of higher energy (50 MeV-50 GeV) are used in laboratories for nuclear and particle physics and as injectors into e* storage rings of various types [11]. As this article is being written, the international particle physics community is assessing the possibility of building an ee linear collider in the TeV CM energy range. Different options are being examined by various accelerator laboratories, spanning the entire rf frequency spectrum between 1,3 GHz (superconducting approach) and 30 GHz for the main linacs, The machine might be 20 to 30 km long, and at 30 GHz might consist of up to 20,000 sections [12]. References U1] Linear Accelerators, ed., A. Septier, PM. Lapos- tolle, North-Holland (1970) [2] GA. Loew, R. Talman, AIP Conf, Proc. 105 (1983) pt (3) RB, Neal et al, The Stanford Two-Mile Linear Accelerator, Benjamin (1968) [4] L. Brillouin, Wave Propagation in Periodic Struc- tures, Dover (1953)[5] RH. Miller, Proc. Linear Accelerator Conf., SLAC-303 (1986) p.200 [6] RH. Miller etal, Proc. Linear Ace. Conf. (1996) {7] P, Emma, PAC 95, p.606 [8] Zeroth Order Design for Next Linear Collider, SLAC-474 (1996) [9] VK. Bharadwaj, PAC 97 [10] G.A. Loew, Proc. Proton Linear Acc. Conf. (1976) p.217 (11) J. Clendenin et al, Compendium of Scientific Linacs (1996) [12] G.A. Loew et al, Int, Linear Collider Tech. Rev. ‘Comm. Report, SLAC-R-95-471 (1995) 1.6.11. Livingston Chart J. Rees, SLAC ‘The Livingston Chart, named after its originator, M. Stanley Livingston, shows the historical rise of beam energy with passing years for accelerators based on various technologies (Fig.1) [4]. It may be compared to analogous charts for colliders (Sec. 1.6.3) which are couched in terms of center- of-mass energy. In the case of an accelerator beam bombarding a fixed target, the center-of-mass energy depends on the mass of the target particle. ot rato | fo “ = we 4+ 1 J {someeen tena] sac se 3 Sree! | onan Pep 2 Ber] | i sas] RS 108 Soyeetrone, r wo % % 7 Taio 0 "80 zie “GO eo 90 Beco Soe ‘Your ‘Year Figure 1: Livingston chart, (a) proton accelerators; (b) electron accelerators. References [1] M. Stanley Livingston, John P. Blewett, Particle Accelerators, McGraw-Hill (1962) 1.6.12 Medical Applications of Accelerators J. Alonso, LBNL/ORNL 1.6.12.1 Radiation therapy [1, 2] Ionizing radiation in sufficient doses kills cells. Applied for cancer therapy, this method is now, Ch.1; INTRODUCTION thanks to much basic biological research, highly effective. The difference between tumor control and unacceptable damage to nearby healthy tissue requires dose control on the percent level. Essential in this is the accurate definition of the tumor volume now made possible by CT (Com- puterized x-ray Tomography) and MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) methods. The challenge is to conform delivery precisely to the irregular 3- D shape of the tumor. Several approaches have ‘been developed exploiting the absorption features of various particles as shown in Fig.1. Depth (om) Figure 1: Absorption vs depth for various particles. X-ray therapy [3, 4] This is the most widely used radiation treatment. The x-ray depth-dose relation is exponential. Treating a tumor located 25 cm inside a patient involves significant doses up and down stream of the treatment field. These doses can be mitigated by multi-port treatments in which beams are brought in from several angles and overlap at the tumor, Restricting the beam cross-section to the different projections of the tumor along the different beams is accomplished with sophisticated collimators. The x-ray field is typically 20-30 cm in diameter. Accelerators for x-ray therapy 5-30 MeV S- band electron linacs are the mainstay of radiation therapy today (~5000 worldwide, principal manufacturers: Varian, Siemens, GE, Mit- subishi, Toshiba). X-rays are produced by electrons striking a heavy-metal target. The very broad bremsstrahlung spectrum is “hardened” by using absorbers to filter out contributions from lower energies. S-band linacs are a highly suc- ‘cessful spin-off from the high-energy and nuclear physics programs. Theit compactness, efficiencySec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES and reliability have been key to their acceptance for clinical application. With overall lengths of 1-2 m, and low rigidity of the e~ beams, very efficient packaging of the accelerator and beam transport systems are possible. The development of the isocentric gantry configuration (patient lies stationary while the x-ray beam can be rotated around the tumor) has allowed multiple treatment ports. Powered by either a magnetron or a Klystron, these accelerators operate at repetition rates up to 1 kHz, Proton and ion-beam therapy [5}-[10] Fig.1 reveals the advantage of using heavy-charged particles (instead of e~) for therapy. First recog- nized by Bob Wilson in 1946, the Bragg Peak at the end of the particle’s range, can provide a significant concentration of dose into a tumor, The wider proton curve arises from the higher multiple scattering and range-straggling of protons, the tail of the carbon curve comes from nuclear breakup of the projectile into lighter (longer-ranged) frag- ments. Ionization density for charged particles varies as Z?, so heavier ions in addition to having sharper stopping points are more lethal to malig- nant cells, The well-defined stopping point also makes it easier to conform the radiation dose to an irregularly-shaped tumor by independently varying the energy of the stopping particles. Pencil- ‘beam scanning systems have been designed for this purpose, but the required precision of control and response speed are difficult. Nonethe- less, clinical trials are beginning in 1997 at PSI and GSI. Even with less sophisticated delivery systems, dose distributions of proton and ion beams are considerably better than even the best x-ray systems, and successful clinical programs with these beams have been ongoing for almost 50 years. The primary difficulty in widespread application has been the limited availability and high accelerator cost. Accelerators for proton therapy Proton energy of 250 MeV allows penetration to 30 cm in tissue. Average beam current of a few nanoamps is adequate for treatment times of ~1-2 min for all but the largest therapy fields. Early proton therapy was performed with fixed-energy synchrocy- clotrons (e.g. Harvard, Uppsala); the large therapy fields (“20 cm dia.) at the required uniformity (5%) were produced using sophisticated scattering foil techniques, the range of the beam 30 was varied by energy degraders in front of the patient. ‘These “passive” delivery systems are decoupled from the accelerator, requiring only a fast and reliable beam cutoff system. In these first facilities, treatment port orientations are adjusted by moving the patient. The more advanced delivery systems require ‘energy variability, precise beam-intensity control and above all high stability and rapid response. The control systems for beam-delivery and accelerator must be tightly coupled. A continuous beamis preferred, with a duty factor >25%. Inter- facing an advanced delivery system with a short- pulsed beam presents formidable problems. ‘The first hospital-based proton therapy accel erator is the 250 MeV synchrotron at Loma Linda, California, built by Fermilab. It has a weak- focusing lattice, injected by a 2 MeV RFQ with a single-tun kicker. Operating on a 2-s cycle, the half-integer resonant extraction provides reason- ably flat spills with a 25% duty factor at any desired energy up to 250 MeV. Beam is transported to two fixed-beam rooms and three gantry rooms. ‘Two new hospital-based facilities (Boston and Tokyo) are coming on line in 1998, based on 235 MeV fixed-energy cyclotrons provided by IBA (Belgium) and Sumitomo, Energy variation is provided by a degrader and energy-selection and collimation transport line. Beam current from the cyclotron is increased to maintain roughly uniform beam brightness after energy selection. En- ergy changes can take place in a few seconds. In- tensity control is achieved via the internal proton ion-source. Isocentric delivery is implemented in all these facilities, Because of the high rigidity of the proton beam (up to 2.5 T-m) gantries are large (13 m dia, at Loma Linda), In addition, sufficient fight path must be provided from the last magnet to the patient to allow for beam spreading, dosime- try and field definition, contributing as much as 6 m to the gantry diameter, A novel compact gantry system is in operation at PSI in a proton therapy line attached to the 600 MeV cyclotron. The patient and the massive bending-magnet system counterrotate around a common center, reducing by well over 50% the space required. In addition, the treatment field is obtained by means of an active line-scanning system allowing the patient to be placed much closer to the last magnet. Beam is swept in one transverse plane by a fast magnet, the patient is trans-lated in the other transverse plane to provide the full field of treatment, Interest in proton therapy is increasing rapidly. Many more proton therapy centers are expected to come on line in the next ten years. Accelerators for ion-beam therapy An energy of 400 MeV/amu is needed for a carbon beam to penetrate 30 cm in tissue, corresponding to a magnetic rigidity of 6 T-m, Isocentric delivery presents a formidable challenge, Treatments with helium beams began in the mid 1950's at Berke- ley’s 184” synchrocyclotron, while therapy trials with beams of neon (and other ions) at the Bevalac took place between 1978 and 193, HIMAC, in Chiba, Japan, has operated since 1994 with carbon beams. Based on two 16 m synchrotrons (can produce 30-cm range con beams), it is injected by a 6 MeV/amu RFQ- Alvarez linac and two separate ion-source plat- forms, It has three treatment rooms with horizontal and vertical beam delivery ports. GSI, in Darmstadt is commissioning a therapy facility with carbon ions using a pixel- scanning system. Pulse-to-pulse energy variation from the SIS-18 synchrotron is required (qansport line magnets adjusted for each energy). Computer-controlied scanning magnets paint the beam, dwelling less than 1 ms on each volume e!- cement of the treatment field. Three European initiatives (Heidelberg, TERA in Milan, and Med-AUSTRON in Vienna) are supporting a design study at CERN to develop a synchrotron with advanced pixel-scanning systems, and isocentric delivery of carbon beams. ‘A medical synchrotron for carbon treatments is planned in Hyogo Prefecture, Japan. Currently there are no ion-beam plans in the US. Neutron therapy Fast neutrons (14-70 MeV) have been used for therapy for over 50 years. With depth doses similar to lower-energy x-rays, lo- calization of dose into a well-defined volume is difficult. However, the very high ionization density (owing to low-energy proton knockons from nuclear scattering) produces favorable results in radioresistant tumors, located at shallow depths, particularly salivary-gland tumors, Slow neutrons are receiving attention for “capture therapy” applications such as BNCT. Boron-loaded, tumor-seeking pharmaceuticals are administered to the patient, the tumor area is then flooded with slow neutrons which are se~ lectively absorbed by the boron causing more ra- 31 Ch.1: INTRODUCTION diation damage to the tumor tissue. Critical to success is the tumor-specificity of the pharma- ceutical. While reactors are being tried, ultimate clinical implementation is expected to require accelerator-produced neutrons. For the favored {p-Li} reaction, a beam of 2.5 MeV protons of average current 10-100 mA is envisioned. Accelerators for fast-neutron therapy D-T generators were prolific sources of 14 MeV neutrons for many years. Few remain today because ‘of maintenance issues and general acceptance that higher energy neutrons are needed. Cyclotrons producing neutrons via {p-Be} or {d-Be} reactions in the 60-70 MeV range were employed in 1970-80. Of these, only the U. Washington machine remains in operation today. Also operating today are the neutron therapy programs at Fermilab (60-MeV protons deffected onto a neu- ‘on target partway down the injector linac), and Faure, South Africa (200 MeV separated sector ‘eyclotron). An innovative fast-neutron therapy system, designed and built by Henry Blosser, has been recently commissioned at Detroit's Harper-Grace Hospital. It consists of a superconducting 60 MeV deuteron cyclotron mounted on the outside of a vertical ring that can rotate about a patient at its center, thus providing isocentric beam delivery. ‘The accelerated beam strikes a target fixed at the ‘outer radius of the cyclotron, and no beam extraction is needed, q-meson therapy The three meson factories (LAMPF, PSI, TRIUMF) all conducted medical trials with x~ mesons. While many hundreds of patients were treated in 1970-80, with innovative pion transport systems, the clinical results and high cost did not indicate promise for this modal- ity, All three programs have been discontinued. 1.6.12.2 Radioisotopes Radioactive isotopes are widely used in both diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Tracers, isotopes either alone or attached to physiologically relevant molecules, are used for functional imaging, detecting activity or hyperactivity concentra- tions in tissues. Imaging is possible using positron emitters (PET) such as 11-C, 18-F, or even with single photon emitters and suitably collimated gamma-ray detectors (SPECT). PET isotopes are short-lived, and are produced with small single- or dual-particle (H or H/D) cyclotrons (<18 MeV) close to the end-use clinic,‘Sec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES While isotopes best suited for diagnostics emit hard gammas to minimize absorption in the body, alpha and beta emitters are preferred for therapeutic applications, limiting dose to the volume close to the isotopic application. The isotopic dose is applied either by uptake (e.g. iodine in thyroid treatments) of injected material or by sur- gical implantation of radioactive seeds (referred to as Brachytherapy). ‘Though many of the isotopes used are reactor- produced (e.g. 99-Mo / 99m-Tc), many are made with proton beams of 35 MeV or lower from cyclotrons (e.g. 201-TI, 123-1, 67-Ga, 111- In), Commercial production is concentrated in a few centers with elaborate distribution networks to provide rapid delivery of short-lived isotopes. Research isotopes are also produced at higher- energy accelerators (200-800 MeV protons in TRIUMF, BLIP (AGS-Brookhaven) and until recently LAMPF}. Accelerators for isotope production [11] PET isotopes are most commonly produced by (p,n) reactions with low-energy (11-15 MeV) cyclotron beams. The commercially-available cyclotrons are compact, self-shielded, highly reliable, and totally automated. Targetry and autochemistry units are usually included, providing complete hands-off preparation of isotopes in a form ready for administration, Manufacturers include CTI (Knoxville, TN), IBA (Belgium) and Ebco (Van- couver). Small cyclotron technology has been revolu- tionized by the development of high-quality H~ ion sources, which solved the thermal, mechanical and activation problems associated with beam. extraction (See Sec.1.6.4). For energies up to 30 MeV, magnetic fields in the cyclotron can be high, leading to compact structures, but for higher ener- sgies the magnetic field must be reduced to avoid Lorentz stripping of the H~ ions. TRIUMF (500 MeV) has a maximum field of $ kG. Beam currents for the PET isotope systems are modest (e.g. 50 A). The higher-onergy cyclotrons used for production of longer-lived isotopes push the limits of current for this technology (up to 1 mA). New technologies are being explored for isotope production, including use of other beams such as deuterons and 3-He, with RFQ drivers (SAIC - Fermilab), and ion cyclotrons. Advanced radiography ‘The advent of high fluxes, high quality x-rays from synchrotron ra- 32 diation sources has opened up opportunities for diagnostics with monochromatic x-rays [12]. A notable example is the coronary angiography program started at SSRL and now ongoing at NSLS, in which an exposure taken with x-rays just above and just below the K edge are subtracted, producing detailed image of coronary arteries with little contrast agent, Relevant x-ray energies are in the 10's of keV range. Storage rings with e~ or e+ beam energies 225 GeV are adequate for this purpose. For the lower energy rings, wigglers with high magnetic fields are required. References [1] Waldemar Scharf, Biomedical Particle Accelera- tors, AIP Press (1993) (2] WAH. Scharf, 0.A. Chomicki, Physica Medica XII (1996) 199 [3] CJ. Karzmark, C.S. Numan, E. Tanabe, Medical Electron Accelerators, McGraw-Hill (1993) [4] EM. Khan, The Physics of Radiation Therapy, 2nd Ed., Williams & Wilkins (1994) [5] RR, Wilson, Radiology 47 (1946) 487 [6] Ion Beams in Tumor Therapy, U. Linz, ed, Chap- man & Hall (1995) [7] Hadrontherapy in Oncology, Proc. 1st Int, Symp, on Hadrontherapy (1993), Elsevier Excerpta Med ‘ca, International Congress Series 1077 (1994) [8] W-T. Chu, B.A. Ludewigt, TR. Renner, RST 64 (1992) 2055 [9] W.T. Chu et al, LBL-33749 (1993) [10] R.L. Maughan etal, Hadrontherapy in Oncology, Proc. Ist Int, Symp. on Hadrontherapy, p.377 [12] Isotopes for medicine and the life sciences, Na- tonal Academy Press (1995) [12] W. Thomtinson, NIM A319 (1992) 295 1.6.13 Microtron [1] PH, Debenham, DOE Classical microtron In the classical microtron, first proposed by Veksler [2], an rf cavity with an accelerating gap is placed in a uniform magnetic field B, (See Fig.1.) Resonant acceleration is achieved for electrons that cross the gap near the resonant rf phase ¢, and whose orbit circumferences are integral multiples of the rf wavelength 2. The resonance condition is Vv cos b =vAB @ where V is the peak gap voltage, and 1. is the orbit circumference increment. The harmonic number v is typically 1 or 2.Magnet LS RF Cavity Figure 1: A classical microtron and a racetrack microtron, AF Lina’ Classical microtrons supply pulsed electron beams at energies from 5 to 45 MeV. Practi- cal cavity designs limit the resonant energy gain V cosy to approximately 1 MeV. Condition (1) then demands a low-field magnet (< 0.3 T), which limits the maximum energy. Cavity cooling limitations necessitate pulsed operation, Like other resonant accelerators, the microtron enjoys phase focusing, which leads to good energy stability and low energy spread. Racetrack microtron [3, 4] The classical microtron’s single magnet is replaced by two “end magnets” in the racetrack microtron (RTM), and the cavity is replaced by a linac. (See Fig.l.) RIMs obey condition (1) and are phase-focused. Resonant energy gains of 10 MeV or more, c.w. operation, and magnetic fields above 1 T are possible, The largest is MAMI [5] at U. Mainz, three cascaded RTMs producing a c.w. beam of 855- MeV electrons with horizontal and vertical emittance of 10 nm-rad and 0.7 nm-rad respectively, and 50 keV energy spread. Each end magnet in the last stage of MAMI weighs 450 tons. CEBAF ‘can be considered a variation based on the RTM principle. References U1] S.P. Kapitza, VIN. Melekhin, The Microtron, Har- ‘wood (1978) [2] VIL. Veksler, Proc. USSR Acad. Sci. 43 (1944) 346; V.L. Veksler, J. Phys. USSR 9 (1945) 153 (3] RE. Rand, Recirculating Electron Accelerators, ‘Harwood (1984) [4] MAD. Wilson, PAC 91, (5] H. Herminghaus et . 1990 Linac Conf. (1991) 362; Also see MAMI website at -nutpyfwvww.kph.uni-mainz.de/, 33 Ch.1: INTRODUCTION 1.6.14 utp Colliders R Palmer, BNL The idea of muon colliders was introduced by Skrinsky et al [1] and Neuffer [2] and has been studied in more detail since 1993 [3, 4, 5]. Muon Colliders are promising, but they are far less developed than their hadron or e¥e~ counterparts. No muon collider has ever been built. ‘The main advantages of muons, as opposed to electrons, for a lepton collider are: © Synchrotron radiation, that forces high energy electron colliders to be linear, is negligible. ‘Thus a muon collider can be circular and smaller. * Because the muon collider can be circular, the muon bunches can collide many times. The number of such collisions is limited by the muon lifetime and is related to the average bending field in the muon collider ring, with Neolttons © 150 Bayo [Tesla}. « Synchrotron radiation as bunches cross each other (beamstrahlung, Sec.2,6.2) is supressed by the higher mass of the muon. This allows the usc of larger bunches of muons and reduces the energy spread of the interactions. « s-channel Higgs production is enhanced by a factor of (m/me)® = 40000. This combined with the lower energy spreads allow more precise determination of Higgs masses, widths and branching ratios, But there are problems with the use of muons: ‘© Muons are obtained from the decay of pions, made by higher energy protons impinging on a target. ‘The proton source must have a high intensity, and very efficient capture of the pions is required. ‘© The selection of fully polarized muons is in- consistent with the requirements for efficient collection. Polarizations only up to 50% are practical, and loss of luminosity is inevitable (¢*e™ linear colliders can polatize the 7's up to 85 %), © Muons made with large emittance must be cooled quickly before they decay. Conven- tional synchrotron, electron, or stochastic cooling are too slow. Ionization cooling (Sec.2.8.4) is the only clear possibility, but does not cool 10 very low emittances. ‘* Due to the short lifetime, conventional synchrotron acceleration is too slow. Recirculating. accelerators or pulsed synchrotrons are needed.Sec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES PAL atarch PROTON SOURCE ‘eons } PRODUCTION POLARZATION LP SELECTION Py ‘aa « Cellar secon fionzaTion cota 20 Stage 210 ater TOTALS Ge, ee Figure 1: Overview of a4 TeV Muon Collider. ‘¢ Because they decay while stored in the col~ lider, muons radiate the ring and detector with decay electrons. Shielding is essential and backgrounds will be high. Radiation hazard from neutrino radiation, proportional to E%, is an issue when center of mass energies > 3 TeV. The basic parameters of a 4 TeV collider [5] and a 0.5 TeV demonstration collider are given in ‘Tab.1. The 4 TeV collider is shown schematically in Figs.1 and 2, ‘The main components of the 4 TeV collider could be: ‘© A proton source with KAON [6] like parameters (30 GeV, 10" protons per pulse, at 15 Hz). 34 ‘A liquid metal target surrounded by a 20 T hybrid solenoid to make and capture pions. ‘* A5TT solenoidal channel to allow the pions to decay into muons, with rf cavities to decelerate the fast ones that come first, while accelerating the slower ones that come later. A solenoidal snake and collimator to select the momentum, and thus the polarization, of the muons, © A sequence of ionization cooling stages, each consisting of: (@) energy loss material in a strong focusing environment for transverse cooling; (ji) linac reacceleration and (iii) lithium wedges in dispersive environments for cooling in momentum space.% EE WY hese i \ ju. Figure 2: Layout of the collider and accelerator rings. ‘Table 1: Parameters of Collider Rings c-ofmEnergy (ev) 4S ‘Beam energy (TeV) 225 Repetitionrate (Hz) 152.5 p-driver energy (GeV) 30 24 Protons per pulse 104 10 ’s per bunch (10!) Fs 4 Bunches ofeachsign 2 1 Beam power(MW) 387 y (mum-mrad) 50 90 Circumference (km) 8 «13 6° at IP (mm) 3 8 @, (mm) 3 8 oy at IP (ym) 28 17 £(cm7s"!) 10% _ 10° © A linac and/or recirculating linac pre~ accelerator [5], followed by a sequence of pulsed field synchrotron accelerators using SC linacs for rf. # Anisochronous collider ring with locally corrected low beta insertion. References [1] VV. Patkhomchuk, A.N, Skrinsky, Proc. 12th Int. Conf. on High Energy Acc. (1983) 485; A. N. Skrinsky, V.V. Parkhomchuk, Sov. J. of Nucl. Phys. 12, (1981)3 (2) D. Neuffer, Proc. 12th Int. Conf. on High Energy ‘Acc. (1983) 481; PA 14 (1983) 15 {3] D.V. Neuffer, R.B. Palmer, EPAC 94; M. Tigner, AIP Proc. 279 (1993) 1 (4] RB. Palmer et al, Nucl. Phys. B (Proc. Suppl.) SIA (1996) (5] uty" collider, A Feasibility Study, BNL- 52503, FermiLab-Conf-96/092, LBNL-38946; Proc. 1996 DPF/DPB Summer Study on High Energy Physics, Snowmass 35 Ch.1: INTRODUCTION [6] KAON Factory Proposal, Accelerator Design Study Report, TRIUMF report 1.6.15 Pulsed High Voltage Devices [1, 2] 4. Nation, Cornell U. Pulsed High Voltage devices were originated by 1.C. Martin of AWRE in England, He used a Marx generator to impulse charge a water dielectric transmission line as a lumped parameter capacitor. The discharge of the transmission line, now as a distributed line, into a vacuum diode reduced the pulse duration, compared to the charging time, by an order of magnitude and hence increased the available power correspondingly. Electron beam ‘was produced by a field emission cathode. Sim- ple systems of this type produce output pulses of 1-10 MV with pulse durations of order 20-100 ns, at impedances of a few to 50 9, depending on the dielectric used in the pulse line. More recent extensions of the technology produced ~30 MV output voltage, sub-P. impedances, and power levels of tens of TW. Applications of this technology include x-ray generation and inertial confinement fusion, Marx generators/Pulse lines The typical Marx Generator uses plus/minus charged columns of capacitors which are charged in parallel and discharged in series, through triggered spark gaps, into a transmission line. ‘The charging and discharging of the transmission line occurs in ~1 is and < 0.1 us respectively. The transmission lines use deionized water or oil as the insulating material, Breakdown strengths of the dielectrics are ~100 and 300 kV/em respectively for pulse durations ~1 pus and increase slowly (oc t~1/8 for sub- ius pulses) with decreasing pulse durations. The transmission line is usually connected to the diode by an overvolted gas or water spark gap. Mod- est changes in the pulse duration and the generator output impedance are achieved through the use of tapered transmission lines connecting the pulse line to the load. In sub- impedance generators the basic Marx generator-pulse line confugura- tion may be repeated many times (¢.g., PBFA Z, generator uses 36 modules run in parallel). In cases where very short duration high power pulses are required, the rise time of the power pulse is decreased by the the use of transfer capacitors. ‘The transfer capacitor consists of a water dielectric section used as an intermediate low inductance unit located between the Marx generator and the transmission line, The fast rising volt-Sec. age on the water capacitor leads to the formation of multiple channel discharges, and hence low series impedance, in the switch. In ultra high power devices the load is connected to the source by a Magnetically Insulated Transmission Line (MITL). In an MITL the feed is an evacuated transmission line in which the wave electric field causes electron emission from the negative line conductor, but does not result in a short circuit of the line since the current in the wave produces a sufficiently large transverse magnetic field between the line conductors to prevent electron gap closure, ‘Transmission line loads The load depends on the application. Three commonly used loads are: (@ Vacuum diodes with field emission cathodes; i) Diodes, with either foil or foiless anodes which are used to produce electron or ion beams; and (iii) Z Pinches. The above arrangements are commonly used for hard x-ray production, high power microwave generation, pellet heating and for the generation of intense soft x-ray pulses. Recent experiments at Sandia have reported the production of 2 MJ x-ray pulses with peak powers of 200 TW. Diodes naturally generate electron beam currents when a suitable polarity high voltage pulse is applied across the diode, With areverse voltage pulse ion beams may be generated if the electron current can be suppressed. This is accomplished by applying an external transverse magnetic field in the diode such that the electron excursion from the cathode is less than the anode cathode gap spacing. Under these conditions energy may be efficiently transferred to an ion beam, Proton and other low atomic number ion beams have been successfully produced, Inductive Addition Induction accelerators are discussed in Sec.1.6.8. High voltage pulses for radiography ot for use in electron beam injectors are frequently produced by the use of a single central cathode conductor as the secondary of several induction modules. The voltage of the cathode is then equal to the sum of the secondary voltage outputs of each of the modules; i.e. the conductor adds the voltages from the modules. For hard x-ray production, which scales as I-V2*, the high voltage output is essential for efficient use of the converter. The Hermes Ill accelerator at Sandia, e.g,, uses 20 1-MV induction modules to produce 2 20 MeV electron beam in a single diode. For electron beam production the increased injector GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES 36 energy allows larger space charge limited beam currents, and reduced beam divergence. Voltage and current fluctuations For many pulse power applications, square voltage and cur- ‘rent waveforms are of secondary importance compared to the power output. This is especially true in multi-TW devices where the low impedance of the generator causes a relatively slow increase in the load current, For example, the PBFA Z driver produces a 2.8 MV, 5 MA, 100 ns pulse power pulse to a Z pinch. The voltage fluctuations are ~ 25% and the current rise time is comparable to the pulse half width. The device is well matched, however, to the dynamics of the imploding Z pinch. The fluctuations in the output of higher impedance devices is, however, much lower and a degree of tuning is possible, espe- ally in the beam production mode of operation, Pulse transformers Many of the above devices ‘are not well suited to high repetition rate operation, except in burst modes. For applications requiring more modest beam currents, (¢.g. Klystrons), pulse transformers offer the preferred modulator configuration, Thyratron switching permits repetition rate use more readily than that achievable with pressurized gas switches. Pulse 400 MHz (for protons). Duty factors range from 0.1% to c.w., and transmitted current to > 200 mA of protons. Figure 1: Schematics of an RFQ with 4-vane structure. Cavity structures Common to all structures are four vanes, excited in an electric quadrupole mode, with special attention given to the field configuration at the ends of the cavity. Three cavity geometries are usually employed: 4-vane, 4-rod and split coaxial resonator. Other structures have been used for early designs and in the remarkable 6 MHz RFQ, using discrete inductors in the resonant circuit (6]. ‘The 4-vane structure is the most popular, in which a cavity with 4-fold symmetry is excited in the TMy20 quadrupole mode (7]. The coupling between the quadrants is weak, and slight asymmetries will excite nearby TMzio dipole modes, deflecting the beam from the central orbit, reducing acceptance and increasing beam emittance. These dipole modes may be controlled with vane coupling rings [8], -mode stabilizers [9] or by resonant coupling [10]. ‘The 4-rod structure is favored for lower fre~ quency RFQs, used for heavy ions, and has been used up to 200 MHz [11]. Unwanted dipole modes are absent in this structure, but inherent mechanical asymmetries exist which may present ‘a problem with longitudinal fields on axis at the ends of the cavity, causing unwanted bunching. Alignment stability in larger structures may be a problem. ‘The split coaxial structure is used at very low frequencies for high-mass, heavy-ion acceleration [12]. A pillbox cavity operating in the TEox0 mode is loaded with two pairs of interdigitat- ing vanes, two from each end, which support a 7 Ch.1: INTRODUCTION quadrupole field in their common region. The injected beam must cross the entrance gap sustain- ing half the vane-vane voltage, possibly causing undesired bunching action. Careful shaping of the vane ends may overcome this objection. ‘The resonant frequency of the 4-vane structure may be estimated by 2-D EM codes such as Superfish [13], but the geometry of the end termi- nation of the vanes requires physical modeling or 3-D computation with codes such as Mafia (14). The other RFQ structures, lacking quadrupole symmetry, require 3-D modeling from the start, usually in the form of physical “cold” models. At high duty factors the wall power density may approach 20 W/cm? in 400 MHz structures, requiting cooling passages in the body of the structure to maintain vanetip position to minimize changes in operating frequency. At low duty factor, conduction or convective cooling may suffice. Peak power demand for typical structures, independent of structure type, is (within a factor ~2) 100 kW/m at 400 MHz, decreasing per unit length approximately as /f. Field equations All RFQs employ a time- varying electric quadrupole field around the beam axis which results in a strong FODO focusing transport system. Acceleration is added as a perturbation by breaking the quadrupole symmetry at the vane tips with ripples (modulations) that add a spatially-varying longitudinal field component E, for bunching and acceleration, The Ez amplitude may vary from zero to full accelerating gradient, depending on the modulation depth, allowing sophisticated buncher designs which result in ~100% beam capture. With a vane-vane peak rf voltage V and vanetip aperture radius a, the strong focusing parameter Bo in a time-varying electric field of wavelength d is Bo= ae @ The betatron phase advance per (A focusing cell length is Br? ® where Agep is the unitless rf gap defocusing parameter [A is defined in Eq.(5)}, Qe A Son = Tar wind A typical design uses ap = 20 — 25°. 08 = 4 + Aeap @)‘Sec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES ‘Vanetip modulations are of opposite deviation from the axis for the even and odd vanes, The first two terms of the Fourier-Bessel series describing the potential distribution near the axis are Ue", 2)=% eos Althreoshs] @) where ro is the vane-tip radius at points of quadrupolar symmetry, k = 2/6. The peak field on axis is E, = KAV/2, where the acceleration strength parameter A is related to a unitless modulation index parameter m > 1, 42 ™ a1 ~~ mPIo(ka) + Io(mka) m is chosen by optimizing the overall RFQ performance using design codes. ‘The quadrupole focusing field, in the pres- cence of non-zero accelerating field becomes xv, “a? 6) E,= where the focusing deficit parameter, x = 1 — ‘Alo(ka), reduces the effective focusing strength to B = xBp in the presence of non-zero vane modulation. The phase space acceptance of an RFQ increases rapidly with field gradient. The peak surface field on the vanetip is B, = xV/ro, where is the field enhancement factor. Depending on the detailed vanetip geometry, x ¥ 1.25-1.55. Above ~100 MEY, the sustainable field is expressed in units of kilpatrick [15], found by solving the implicit equation f= 1.643 Eye" @9/F) o for Es, where the frequency is in MHz and the surface field B, in MV/m. One kilpatrick at 200 MHz is 14.7 MV/m, and 19.4 MV/m at 400 MHz. Short-pulse RFQs may be safely pushed to > 2.0 kilpatrick, with cw. RFQs held to < 1.8 Kilpatrick, Beam dynamics The flexibility of tailoring E, permits sophisticated beam dynamics designs that include adiabatic bunching, resulting in up to 100% capture of an unbunched input beam. ‘Typical designs start with an adiabatic radial matcher which transforms the dc input beam into a radially time-varying beam matched to the FODO focusing structure of the time-varying quadrupole field. This radial matcher usually oc- cupies up to eight 3/2 cells where the focusing ren 20 — BAY 10%) coskz (6) 38 strength B is brought up from zero by ramping the vanetip radius a down to its final value ro. Most (typically 2/3) of the length of an REQ is the adiabatic buncher section where E, is turned on gradually by increasing the modulation index m in a controlled fashion. High current RFQs treat space charge by maintaining similar values of space-charge tune depression in both transverse and longitudinal planes. The most critical point in the RFQ is the end of the buncher section where the beam energy is not significantly higher than at injection, but the bunch charge density is highest. Zero-current RFQs, typically used in low- current heavy-ion preinjectors, use a design procedure where space charge is insignificant. New design procedures (16, 17] result in shorter RFQs with lower output longitudinal phase space than procedures based on significant space charge. Programs such as GENRFQ are used to design the cell table. The accelerator section of the RFQ applies maximum acceleration gradient, bringing the beam to full energy. ‘The program CURLI estimates the RFQ parameters at the end of the ‘buncher, and the programs RFQUIK and PART then establish a cell table for the entire RFQ. The cell table generated with any of the above-mentioned programs is used by the beam simulation program PARMTEQ to generate the RFQ field configuration and pass an ensemble of particles through it, applying space charge at the symmetry point of each cell, A follow-up program OUTPROC analyzes the bunch characteristics at each cell. The design process is iterated until a satisfactory design is found. Higher-order versions of PARMTEQ, such as PARMTEQ-H or PARMTEQM include the first 8 field expansion terms and additional dipole field terms. The vanetip geometry is translated into numerically- control milling instructions by programs such as VANES. One detail, overlooked in early RFQs, is that the two-term potential (4) does not accurately ‘model the actual field. Corrections to the two- term cell table are applied by PARI, PARMULT or MOD12, which also include the higher-order field harmonics for a number of different vanetip geometries of constant and variable transverse radius. The variable transverse radius geometry delivers more accurate fields but is more difficult to machine than the constant-transverse radius ge-ometry, which can be cut with a form cutter. ‘Most of the codes mentioned above are available from the Los Alamos Accelerator Codes Group (LAACG). RFQs have been constructed of OFE copper, copper-plated mild steel and aluminum and of Glidcop, an alumina-dispersed copper material with high strength at brazing temperature (Sec.5.10.6). Joining techniques include brazing and electroformed junctions between cavity section, and various high-pressure spring and C-seal contacts in demountable RFQs. The trend of adjustable vane tip positioning in early RFQs has given way to high-precision machining of cavity parts brazed or electroformed into monolithic structures. Pitfalls The design process is difficult, as many design parameters are available, but inextricably linked together. High quality design codes auto- ‘mate the process to some extent but must be used with care and to evaluate performance under off- tolerance conditions. Mechanical tolerances are tight. The resonant frequency is sensitive to thermal expansion of the difficult-to-cool vanes. High duty-factor RFQs may use many active tuners and/or an additional cooling circuit for the vane, separate from the body of the RFQ. ‘The RFQis a one-parameter accelerator: only the rf gradient is easily adjustable during operation. Several RFQs have exhibited poor performance when the two-term potential is used to set the vanetip geometry, Modern codes correct the two-term potential automatically, avoiding this problem. Due to the strong focusing, transverse beam match in and out of the RFQ requires accommo- dating large beam envelope divergences. The external focusing systems must be in close proxim- ity to the RFQ to maintain small beam size and avoid aberrations. ‘RFQs operate close to the vanetip sparking limit. Clean production procedures and clean vacuum systems must be used, and rf conditioning times may be long. Significant erosion of the vvanetip has not been observed, even after a decade of operation. Examples Approximately two dozen RFQs are in advanced planning or operation as of late 1997 18}, with several others having been decommis- sioned. Roughly half are 4-vane structures, one- third are 4-rod and the rest various low-frequency 39 Ch.1: INTRODUCTION geometries. About one-third are heavy-ion RFQs, the rest accelerate protons, H~ or deuterons. Two proton and two heavy-ion RFQs operate c.w. CERN Linac-2 Injector This is the highest intensity proton RFQ, operating at 202.56 MHz. and hhas accelerated over 200 mA from 90 to 750 keV. Itis a 4-vane structure 1.8 meters long operating at 2.5 Kilpatrick with an rms normalized acceptance of 1.2x mm-mrad, Significant sparking due to a dirty vacuum system was later remedied, allowing operation at a slightly high gradient for 87% beam transmission [19]. BNL AGS Proton Injector This typical 201.38 Miz, 730 keV RPO replaced a 750 kV Cockeroft-Walton, Built by LBNL, this 4-vane 1.6-m RFQ accelerates a 35 keV, 65 mA H- beam with a normalized rms acceptance >0.4m mm-mrad [20]. Bevatron Heavy-Ion Injector This 199.3 MHz RFQ accelerates a Q/A > 1/7 beam from 84 to 200 keV/n with a normalized rms acceptance of 0.5m mm-mrad. The RFQ is 2.24 m long and requires 150 kW with a vanetip field of 1.83 kilpatrick [21]. LEDA RFQ One of the most ambitions RFQs to date is the Low Energy Demonstration Acceler- ator (LEDA), a prototype of the injector of the Ac- celerator Production of Tritium (APT) linac. This c.w. REQ accelerates 100 mA of protons from 75 keV to 6:7 MeV. The normalized rms input acceptance is 0.27 mm-mrad with a peak surface field of 1.8 kilpatrick at 350 MHz, Itis 8.01 m long, 9.3 free-space wavelengths, To reduce the ficld uniformity sensitivity to construction errors, the RFQ is built in four independent modules, each stabilized by quadrupole mode killers, rods which extend from the ends of each section into the structure, perturbing the dipole mode frequency, moving it away from the near-degenerate quadrupole mode frequency (22]. ISAC Heavy-Ion RFQ The Isotope Separator and ACoelerator (ISAC) RFQ is a 4-rod structure operating at 35 MHz, accelerating aQ/A > 1/30 beam from 0.15 to 1.5 MeV/n over its 8 m length. ‘The 4-rod design allows a small 1 m tank diameter with a power requirement of 100 kW to drive the vane-vane voltage to 85 kV. The normalized rms acceptance for <1 #A beam is 0.557 mm-mrad, The vanes are supported by a set of 19 rings along their length (23). Anti m Deceleration RFQ This unusual RFQis a 4-r0d, 202.5 MHz device, similar to thatSec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES used for a proton injector, but instead turned end- for-end. A 202.5 MHz bunched antiproton beam. is decelerated from 2 MeV to 200 keV over the 1.45 m length with the stable phase varying from 160° to —126°. A power of 220 kW excites the vane-vane voltage to 115 KV, with a normalized acceptance of Sr mm-mrad [24]. Future Developments In the quest for high duty factor, low Q/A accelerators, superconducting RFQs are of current interest (Sec.7.3.9). The Positive Ion Accelerator for Very-low Energy (PI- AVE) complex requires c.w. acceleration of a Q/A > 1/8.5 beam from 41 to 578 keV/n, Two SC RFQs in tandem 135 and 76 cm long using a hybrid structure combining features of 4-vane and 4-rod structures will operate at 80 MHz with 150 and 280 kV between the vanes. The tank Q-value is expected to be > 7 x 10° with a power dissipation at 4°K of < 7 W per tank [25]. More RFQs operating at 100% duty factor will undoubtedly be produced, as radioactive beam pre-accelerators or tandem afterburners, or as powerful beam sources. References [1] LM. Kapchinskli, VA. Teplyakoy, Pribory ‘Teknika Eksperimenta 119 No.2 (1970) 19 [2] KR. Crandall etal, Linac 79, p.205 [3] T. Wangles, LANL Report LA-8388 (1980) [4] KR. Crandall, LA-9695-MS (1983) [5] Tutorials can be found in Klein, PAC 83; Scriber, PAC 85; Staples, Linac 86; Schempp, Linac 88; J. Staples, AIPProc. 249, Vol.2 (1992) p.1483 [6) V.A. Batalin et al, Linac 96, p.719 [7] J.A. Potter, PAC 79, p.3745 [8] D. Howard et al, Denton Conf. 82 [9] A. Ueno etal, Linac 96, p.293 [10] L. Young, Linac 94, p.178 [11] H. Vormann, A. Schempp et al, EPAC 96 [12] S. Arai et al, Linac 96, p.575 [13] F Krawczyk et al, PAC 95, p.2306 [14] T. Weiland, PA 15 (1984) 245 [15] WD. Kilpatrick, LBNL Report UCRL-2321 (1953) [16] S. Yamada, Linac 81, 316 [17] J, Staples, Linac 94, p.755 [18] J. Clendenin et al, CERN/PS 96-32 (D1) [19] C. Hill, Linac 94, p.175 [20] J. Alessi etal, PAC 89, p.999 [21) J. Staples et al, 1983 Int. High-Energy Acc. Conf, p516 [22] L. Young, PAC 97 [23] R. Poirier et al, Linac 96, p405 [24) A. Schempp et al, EPAC 90, p.1228 (25) A. Lombardi et al, Linac 96, p.125 1.6.17 Spallation Sources H. Lengeler, CERN In spallation sources [1] neutrons are produced by the interaction of high energy (GeV) protons with a heavy metal target. The high energy neutrons are subsequently moderated to energies suitable for n-scattering experiments (neV to eV). The number of neutrons produced by protons is proportional to the proton energy in range 0.2-10 GeV; in a typical lead target a 1 GeV proton produces 20 neutrons. Because of the weak interaction of neutrons with matter, n-scattering is an intensity limited field, There is a strong interest in more powerful neutron sources. In contrast to reactor sources, which are essentially c.w., spallation sources have the advantage that they can be pulsed. The high peak neutron flux is of interest for most n- scattering instruments. ‘There exist three classes of spallation sources (Tab.1) (2, 3]: @ C.w. sources driven by high energy, high intensity cyclotrons with their inherent small beam losses. Example: the isochronous-cyclotron of PSI, which will develop a c.w. beam power of 0.9 MW at 590 MeV [4]. i) Sources with long (ms) pulses driven by high energy, high intensity linacs. Example: the 800 MeV LAMPF proton linac planned at Los Alamos tu. ii) Sources with short (is) pulses driven by a combination of high intensity linacs and rings. These sources allow time of flight measurements for the determination of the incident neutron energy. It avoids the monochromatisation needed in ms or ¢.w, sources which reduces greatly the ‘useful n-fiux. Time of flight measurements also ask for small repetition rate (< 50 Hz), in order to avoid the overlap of slow neutrons from ‘one pulse with fast neutrons from the next pulse. For beam powers ~ many 100 kW or MW, this goal cannot be realized today by a proton linac alone. One needs a pulsed linac combined with an accumulator ring or a rapid cycling synchrotron (RCS) filled by multiturn injection and emptied by fast one-turn extraction (Fig.1). Kaon-factory type accelerators and induction linacs have also been considered. Existing and planned spallation sources use a proton energy range 0.5-10 GeV.Ch.1: INTRODUCTION ‘Table 1: A few existing and planned spallation sources (1}-[5]. Name Status] Accelerator energies | Average | Rep. | Protons | Pulse beam | rate | per pulse | length at power | (Hz) | (10%) | target (MW) (us) IPNS, ANL [I] | Operat. | 50 MeV linac 0.0075 |'30 03 OT 1981 500 MeV RCS iS, RAL (5] | Opesat. | 70 MeV linac 0.16 50 25 0.45 1985 800 MeV RCS ‘SINQ, PSI [4] | Operat. | 590 MeV cyclotron |< 0.9 cw /- = 1996 ‘LANSCE Operat. | 800 MeV linac’ 0.08 20 3 0.27 LANL [1]} 1977 LANSCE If, ‘Planned | 800 MeV linac T 30 - 1,200 LANL [1] ESS Europe Planned | 1.33 GeV linac 5 350 47 T (6) 2 accumulators (2 rings) NSNS, ORNL | Planned [1 GeV linac TO) 60 10 | 0.55 m7 accumulator 7 H™ sources are followed by high duty RFQ’s (Sec,1.6.16) and a DTL (Sec.7.3.4) or CCDTL. Acceleration to high energy is done in a CCL; the use of superconducting disk loaded cavities has also been considered. In order to keep linac losses low (typically 1 nA/m at 1 GeV) emittance growth has to be carefully controlled at all stages of the linac, Low fey Lot ' ‘Dre ‘Ze Figure 1: (a) Schematic of a pulsed neutron source. 1) H™ source, 2) RFQ, 3) chopper, 4) DTL or CCDTL, 5) nc or sc high energy linac, 6) accumulator ring ot RCS ‘with H~-H* charge exchange injection, 7) beam transport to target, 8) target with moderators and reflector, 9) neutron channels. (b) Time structure of beams at linear accelerator and at target. Depending on the beam power level, different options for linac and ring energies have been used or proposed (Tab.1) [1, 2]. ‘A dominant design criterion is ultra low beam losses for avoiding component, air, and tunnel activation and for allowing maintenance and repair ‘on short notice. Linac The linac has o be optimized for low loss injection into the ring. Charge exchange injection H™-H?t is used. H™ sources with adequate peak currents (up to 100 mA), duty cycle (up to 10%) and low emittance (~0.1 7 mm-mrad) are at the limit of present day technology (Sec.7.1.4). 41 Joss injection requires new ways of halo contain- ment of the H~-beam. Extensive Monte Carlo simulations (including nonlinear space charge forces) have to be applied with up to 10° particles for a realistic layout between H~-source and ting injection, ‘The ultra low injection losses also require the injection line between linac and rings to have a precise control of energy and momentum bite (by ramping and rotator cavities) and a removal of halo particles by betatron and momentum scraping. Compensation of space charge forces and image forces for the low emittance (linac) beam of ‘H™s are essential. At high injection energies, low magnetic fields have to be used to avoid magnetic stripping (Lorentz stripping, Sec.7.1.7) of H~s. Rings [8] New generation rings of short-pulse spallation sources require a large extrapolation of existing accumulator rings or RCS's, in particular, for the needed high proton intensity. At very high beam power the use of multiple rings may become, mandatory. The low loss charge exchange injection usingSec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES a stripping foil is an issue. Elaborated painting schemes with correlated 4-D or 6-D phase space operations have been worked out for filling the ring acceptance as uniformly as possible. Large ring acceptance (typically 300 mm-mrad) are needed for keeping space charge forces and particle losses at a tolerable level. Stripping foils have an efficiency of about 98-99% so that a high intensity of partially stripped H° particles has to be handled in the injection region. This low emittance beam presents an interesting source of high energy protons which can be used e.g. for the production of radioactive beams or muon beams. ‘The ring lattice is generally based on a high periodicity and transition energy should not be passed. Long straight sections are used for rf, injection, extraction and scraping systems. ‘The efficiency of rf trapping can be increased by a low frequency dual rf-system (h = 1, 2) and by chopping the injected H=-beam (atthe linac front end) at the ring revolution frequency, Bunched beam instabilities are most relevant for ring operation; sometimes an e-p instability has been observed. Low impedance beam lines are essenti for RCSs with ceramic vacuum chambers rf-cages are used. Very fast kicker magnets (< 200 ns) (see Sec.7,2.6) are needed for avoiding beam losses at extraction. Particles are brought to the target stations with large acceptance transfer lines which may contain multipole elements for giving the beam a definite density profile at the target. Safety issues are a major concern. Adequate shielding, beam dumps and fast beam loss monitoring acting on a bunch to bunch basis are essential, Large spallation sources have to supply neutrons to a large number of experiments (typically 1000-2000/year). Its design has to be based on high availability, high reliability and short down- times. Spallation targets [1] Water cooled heavy metal targets (Ta, W, Pb, depleted U) with horizontal or vertical injection are in use, but for the next generation of sources in the MW range, liquid metal (Pb, Pb-Bi, Hg) targets are planned. Targets have to contain the nuclear cascade produced by protons, which results in atypical length of ~50 cm and a diameter of 14-20 em. Targets are surrounded by a moderator- reflector layout matched to an efficient production of neutrons in the desired energy range (cold, ther- 42 mal, epithermal). Neutron beam channels, some equipped with multiple neutron guides, bring moderated neutrons to the experiments surrounding the heavily shielded target station. Targets have to withstand high radiation damage. For ‘MW targets this can become comparable to the range expected in Tokamak fusion reactors (> 100 d.p.a. — displacements per atom - produced by p and n knock on, and 10,000 appm — atomic parts per million - of He produced by transmu- tation). For short pulses an additional load stems from shock/stress waves produced by the high energy content (up to 100 kJ) of proton pulses. This, ‘combined load and the absence of corrosion and tritium production linked to cooling water circuits are the main reasons for developing liquid targets, Additional applications Besides neutrons, the high energy proton beam of spallation sources can provide a variety of other particles: muons (e.g. for surface and thin layer studies), neutrinos, and radioactive beams. Its uses as irradiation facilities are also considered, References [1] Proc. Int. Collaboration on Advances Spallation Sources (ICANS); ICANS XII, Abingdon, UK (1993), RAL Proc. 94.025, ICANS XIII (1995) PSI Proc. 95-02 [2] GH. Rees, PAC 93, p.731 (3] P. Bryant, PAC 95, p.322 [4] GS. Bauer et al, PAC 97 [5] 1S.K, Gardner, EPAC 94, p.3 (6] 1S.K. Gardner et al, PAC 97 [7] B.R. Appleton, PAC 97 [8] GH. Rees, EPAC 94, p.241 1.6.18 Synchrotrons and Storage Rings EIN. Wilson, CERN The synchrotron principle Oliphant, who invented the synchrotron in 1943 [1], described it thus: “Particles should be constrained to move in a circle of constant radius thus enabling the use of an annular ring of magnetic field ... which would be varied in such a way that the radius of curvatufe remains constant as the particles gain energy through successive acceler- ations by an alternating electric field applied between coaxial hollow electrodes.” In concept, the synchrotron is closest to the betatron (Sec.1.6.2). A short pulse is injected andthe field rises as the particles are accelerated until they have reached sufficient energy to hit an internal target or to be extracted. Unlike the betatron, the acceleration is not by induction but by fields in an rf resonator fed by a radio transmitter. Particles return to the resonator at each turn of the synchrotron, Fig.1 shows how field and frequency are programmed to maintain a constant radius. VA ‘momentum or ime Figure 1: Field and frequency rise together in a synchrotron, Unlike cyclotrons and betatrons, the synchrotron needs no magnetic field within the circular orbit of the beam. The guide field can be provided by a narrow ring of magnets. Such a magnet system could be scaled to radii and energies far above the cyclotron whose magnets are already bulky and expensive at 100 MeV. Phase stability It was not clear to the inven- tor whether particles would remain in synchro- nism with the accelerating fields but Veksler [2] and McMillan (3] independently discovered the principle of phase stability which proved the solution to this problem. If orbiting particles are timed to ride on the rising edge of the voltage ‘wave in the accelerating cavity, they receive more cenergy if they are late and less energy if they are early so that they oscillate about the stable, synchronous, phase. For all particles, the time average of their energy gain matches the rising magnetic field. Fig.2 shows this principle and how the Jocus is an ellipse in longitudinal phase space. Weak focusing (n-value) Cyclotron builders had discovered that the beam could be prevented from hitting the upper and lower pole pieces by adding vertical transverse focusing, A field with a gradient in the range where n=—-2 O 1. Liv- ingston and Courant wanted to compensate this by reinstalling some C-magnets with their retum. yokes towards the outside and calculated that the focusing improved as the strength of the alternating component of the gradient increased. Courant and Snyder explained this with an optical analogy of alternating focusing by equal convex and con- cave lenses, This alternating gradient focusing was an- nounced in [5], but the idea had actually been patented earlier [6]. Alternating gradient, or strong focusing, greatly reduces the beam's ex- cursions and the cross section of the magnet gap can be much smaller. Its discovery enabled Brookhaven and CERN to build the AGS and CPS to reach 30 GeV (> 5 times the most powerful ‘weak focusing synchrotron). Components of modern synchrotron In a modern synchrotron the lenses are quadrupole ‘magnets. The current in the quadrupole windingsSec.1.6; GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES is programmed to keep their strength in step with that in the bending magnets and with the beam energy. In a modern machine many MW of power flows back and forth between these magnets and the electricity supply grid (Sec.7.2.1). The rf system for protons is usually a relatively modest series of cavities excited by transmitter tubes or, at higher frequency, klystrons. Programming the frequency in a low energy proton machine is achieved by loading the cavities with ferrite discs which depress the resonant frequency at low energy. Increasing the current in a winding around the ferrite causes it to progres- sively saturate allowing the resonant frequency to rise to match the increasing velocity of the accel- crated particles (Sec,7.3.6). Boosters Fig.3 shows a typical synchrotron en- exgy profile during the pulse. Conditions are most ctitical at injection where space charge repulsion of the circulating particles can seriously modify oth longitudinal and transverse focusing forces (See2.5.3). Flat top % 3 25GeV f oo Bases. 60 Mev| Figure 3: Typical energy cycle of a synchrotron. One solution is to dilute the beam by increasing its cross section. This is expensive and involves rebuilding the ring with a larger aperture. It is more economical to build a low energy booster with this large aperture and inject into the synchrotron, Some synchrotrons have several such boosters. Further reading For an introduction to syn- cchrotron, see (3] for electrons, and [8] for protons. For more detailed treatment, see [9, 2, 11, 12]. Some applications of synchrotrons are discussed in Secs.1.6.3, 1.6.12, 1.6.14, and 1.6.17. References [1] MO. Otiphant, The acceleration of particles to very high energies, Classified memo submitted to DSIR (1943), U. Birmingham Archive (2] Vi. Veksler, Comptes Rendus (Dokaldy) de T’Academie Sciences de Y'URSS, 43, 8 (1944) 329 [3] EM. McMillan, PR 68 (1945) 143 [4] MS. Livingston, J.P. Blewett, Particle Accelera- tors, McGraw-Hill (1962) [5] E.D. Courant, M.S. Livingston, H.S. Snyder, PR 88 (1952) 1190; E.D. Courant, H.S. Snyder, Ann, Phys,,. No.3 (1958) 1 [6] N.C. Christofilos, Unpublished report (1950); USS. Patent no. 2.736,799 (1956) [7] M. Sands, SLAC Report 121 (1970) [8] EIN. Wilson, CERN 77-07 (1977) {9} PJ. Bryant, K. Johnsen, Principles of Circular Ac- celerators & Storage Rings, Cambridge (1993) (10) D.A. Edwards, MJ. Syphers, An Introduction to the Physics of High Energy Accelerators, Wiley (4993) (11] H. Wiedemann, Particle Accelerator Physics, ‘Springer (1994) [12] Ace. Schools, CERN 94-01 & CERN 95-06 1.6.19 ‘Two-Beam Accelerators A. Sessler, G. Westenskow, LBNL ‘Two-beam accelerators have been proposed as a power source for high-energy e* linear collid- es. In the TBAs, a high-current, low energy drive beam is used to generate rf power that is applied to a high-gradient acceleration structure, where a low-current beam is accelerated to high energy (Fig.1). Many variations of the TBA concept have been investigated, with early work [1] centered on using FELs to extract rf power from the drive beam. However, most rf extraction concepts (FELs, klystrons, gyrotrons, wake-field) can be configured into a TBA. There are also several choice options for the drive beam source, and the method of drive beam acceleration. The TBA has the advantage of high efficiency for power conversion from the drive beam to rf power. In addition, TBAs scale [2] favorably to high frequencies (> 11.4 GHz) and high accelerating gradients (2 100 MV/m). Presently, the two main lines of TBA research are to either accelerate the drive beam with rf structures, or to use induction modules, Both approaches propose using an extraction technique that couples a monopole mode in an extended extraction structure to a beam which has been bunched along the drive beam axis, ‘Two main approaches One of the main approaches to TBAs is being studied by the Com- pact Linear Collider Project (CLIC) at CERN.‘Main collider beamline high energy, low eurrent) I ‘TBA drive beamline (high current) Ch.1: INTRODUCTION pi optional Figure 1: Conceptual layout of a two-beam accelerator. Feacoelration RRescceleration Induction coll 2 Induetion 291 route) ay Colimator Figure 2: Layout of the TBA reacceleration experiment. They start with an ultra-relativistic drive beam (several GeV) and have no reacceleration of the drive beam (to avoid active elements in the main tunnel). Several methods of drive beam generation are under consideration. Their current “refer- cence” scheme [3] uses a low-frequency (~1 GHz) fully-loaded normal-conducting linac to accelerate the drive beam to ~1 GeV. All the bunches ‘used to accelerate a given high-energy bunch train are first generated with a uniform spacing (~64 cm), After acceleration, the drive beam is funneled into combiner tings that arrange the ‘bunches into a number of groups (~20) with a tighter bunch spacing (~2 cm). The different ‘groups are then routed to different decelerator sections where 30 GHz rf power is extracted and sent to the main linac. The layout of the elements are arranged so that rf power is available in each main linac section at the appropriate time to accelerate the high energy bunch train (~30 m long). The previous versions [4] used rf photoinjectors 45 to generate the drive bunches which were then combined at low energy and accelerated to several GeV by SC rf linacs, The primary challenges are with the degradation of the drive beam from wakes of earlier bunches, which is severe at 30 GHz, and the creation of the intense drive beam. The second approach [5], which uses induction acceleration of the drive beam and maintains its energy at 10 MeV through most of the device, is being studied by LBNL and LLNL. They use klystron-like output structures to extract power at 11.4 GHz from the drive beam. This scheme is referred to as a relativistic klystron two-beam accelerator (RK-TBA). The primary technical challenge in this approach lies in propagating the intense drive beam (hundreds of amperes) over long distances. Theoretical issues In both approaches, drive beam dynamics is the primary matter that needs to be addressed. There are issues of longitudinal stability and transverse stability.Sec.1.6: GLOSSARY OF ACCELERATOR TYPES In a TBA the drive beam is longitudinally bunched and energy is repeatedly put into and extracted from the beam. During this process it is necessary that the drive beam maintains its bunching. At the high energy envisioned by CLIC, the beam is sufficiently rigid that it can propagate a long distance without debunching. In the RK- TBA the rf extraction structures are “detuned” to form buckets which maintain the drive beam bunching. ‘Transverse stability, and beam break-up (BBU, Sec.2.5.1) has been studied by the LBNLILLNL group for the RK-TBA. BBU instability is driven both by the low-frequency impedance of the accelerating induction cells, and the high-frequency impedance of the extraction structures. Proper design of the induction cells combined with the Landau damping that occurs naturally because of the energy spread in the rf buckets is adequate for controlling the low-frequency BBU. The high-frequency impedance effect can be greatly reduced by detuning extraction structures. However, this is not enough to achieve acceptable performance and the LBNL/LLNL group has proposed a “betatron- node” scheme, In this scheme the betatron period is made exactly equal to the spacing between adjacent extraction structures, therefore leading to minimal beam offset at these locations and thus reducing the BBU. The betatroti-node scheme im- poses constraints on the accuracy of the focusing fields and beam energy which can be met. Com- puter simulations show that a RK-TBA can be built with acceptable longitudinal and transverse beam stability. Similar work on transverse beam dynamics has been done independently by the CLIC group. There the problem is simpler because there are no reacceleration gaps and the beam has higher energy, but the problem is more severe because the operating frequency (30 GHz) is higher and drive beam is tightly bunched. Nevertheless, CLIC has been able to make an attractive design of a TBA, Experiments The earliest TBA experiment [6] were performed on ETA-I addressing issues of power extraction. Work on the RK version started shortly after, using the ARC facility, These experiments [7] used a 1-MeV 1-kA 70-ns induction accelerator beam to produce 300 MW of rf power level at 11.4 GHz. Reacceleration experiments [8] were performed on ATA that demonstrated bunched beam transport through two reacceleration induction cells and three traveling-wave extraction cavities (Fig.2). These experiments resulted in a total rf output of >200 MW, with phase and amplitude stable over a significant portion of the beam pulse, CLIC has performed (9] experiments to study the production of short, intense electron bunches from photocathode rf guns and to generate high power 30 GHz rf pulses. In single pulse operation they produced 35-nC low-emittance bunch as well as a 450-nC 48-bunch train, This bunch train ‘was used to generate 76-MW 30-GHz rf power of 27 ns duration which, when applied to their accel- crating structure, produced 94 MV/m accelerating gradient. Present and future activities _A nuniber of programs are being initiated. At LBNL a RK-TBA version [10] was designed as a power source for a linear collider with 1.5-TeV CM collision energy, representing a possible upgrade phase of SLAC’s proposed NLC. An experimental pro- ‘gram has been initiated to build a 4-MeV 600-A. Grive-beam with 8'stages of reacceleration. The ‘experiments could lead to a test where it is used to power the NLCTA accelerating structures. CERN will be building and testing their TBA modules, aiming to produce 480 MW of peak power at 30 GHz. The group is also studying the possibility of creating the bunch drive beam using FELs. References [1] D.B. Hopkins, AM. Sessler, J.S. Wurtele, NIM Phys, Res, 228 (1984) 15 [2] S.M. Lidia etal, Snowmass Workshop (1996) {3} J-P. Delahaye et al, EPAC 98 [4] R. Corsini, Proc. 7th Adv. Accel. Concepts Work- shop (1996) p.1126 [5] TL. Houck, G.A. Westenskow, IEEE Trans. on Plasma Sci. 24 (1996) 938 [6] D.B. Hopkins et al, SPIE High Intensity Laser Processes 664 (1986) 73 [7] MA. Allen et al, PRL 63 (1989) 2472 [8] G.A. Westenstow, TL. Houck, Proc. 10-th Int. Conf, High Energy Part. Beams (1994) [9] [. Wilson, 18th Int. Linac Conf, (1996) p.552 (10) Zeroth-order Design Report for Next Linear Col- lider, Appendix A, SLAC-474 (1996) p.925 1.6.20 Wakefield Accelerators J. Simpson, ANL Wake field (also called “wakefield” or WF) acceleration is one of the older ideas put forth as an“advanced acceleration” technique {1}. The concept drew considerable theoretical attention in the carly 1980s, and since then has been the subject of several experimental programs [2]. The underlying principle of beam driven WF acceleration is that a short, relatively low energy, but high current beam pulse can be used to create high accelerating fields “directly” which can then be used to excite a second beam pulse to high energy. Although many acceleration systems use low energy electron beams as a power producing source [e.g. klystrons, Two Beam Accelerator schemes (Sec.1.6.19)] to drive conventional accelerating structures, it is the “direct” use of beam induced fields which distinguishes true WF accel- crators. A variation of this scheme which uses short laser pulses as the power source is described below. Types of WF devices ‘Two general types of WF devices can be defined. The first, plasma based, relies on the fact that an appropriate laser ‘or beam pulse (call this the drive pulse) passing through a plasma can organize the plasma to produce plasma waves. The plasma waves will have phase velocities equal to that of the drive pulse and can have large internal field gradients which can accelerate beam. The mechanism by which the laser pulse excites the plasma wave is the Pon- dermotive force produced by the laser’s electric field, Referred to as a laser wake field accelerator (LWFA), it should not be confused with the plasma beat wave accelerator (PBWA) concept [3] (Gee Sec,7.3.12). ‘The second type is based on the principle that a short bunched charged particle beam passing through a slow-wave structure can excite wave guide modes in the structure. These modes will have the phase velocity of the drive pulse and canbe used to accelerate a trailing, less intense eam pulse to high energy. Several slow wave structures have been studied, including iris loaded ‘wave guides [4] (similar to conventional cavities), dielectric loaded wave guides [5], and concentric dielectric tubes [6] (driven by a “ring beam” pulse). ‘A variation of the structure based concept is the infilicitously named “coupled wake tube accelerator” (CWTA) [7]. The rf fields produced by an intense drive beam can provide very high power rf, In a CWTA, this rf power is transferred from the beam driven device into a second device having different rf properties where the accelerat- 47 Ch.l: INTRODUCTION ing field is increased several-fold. This concept is, thus a variation of a TBA. Accelerating gradients Different mechanisms ‘suggest limitations to achievable acceleration gradients for the various WF devices. Fields in plasma are determined by charge density and a maximum characteristic charge separation distance of order the plasma wave length. Electrical ‘breakdown is not a problem because “the plasma is already broken down”. A frequently used limitation is set by the “wave breaking” point, when the accelerating field is ~ /ie [MV/cm], where ‘Ne is the plasma electron density in units of em~°. For example, a 104 cm-® plasma could provide an accelerating field of order 1 GV/m. Structures introduce the possibility of strong field breakdown at material boundaries. This is particularly a problem in iris loaded structures, where accelerating fields are limited to those of conventional linac structures operated at similar frequencies. If a dielectric liner is inserted inside a circular wave guide, a slow wave structure is produced which promises improved breakdown limits, Although the limit of a DWFA have yet to be explored, it is predicted to exceed 100 MV/m for devices now under study. There is a fundemental relationship between the maximum energy gain per unit length per particle in the accelerated bunch and the average energy loss per unit length per particle in the drive pulse. It is, that for any longitudinally symetri- cally shaped drive pulse, including a point charge, the ratio of the per particle acceleration rate and the per particle deceleration rate cannot exceed two. This ratio is often referred to as the “transformer ratio”. It can be shown that very asymmetric charge distributions, particularly those with a slow rise and a sudden fall-off, can produce larger ratios. However, the difficulty in producing such pulse distributions with intense beams has pre- cluded experimental tests thus far. Beam dynamics issues Inappropriate beam focusing and deflection, including single bunch BBU, are serious concems for WF accelerators. The production of strong accelerating gradients, by a driving beam carries with it the result that even small misalignments can excite unaccept- ably large deflecting fields. In the case of plasma based acceleration, care must be exercised to ensure that the drive and driven beam are well aligned, and that parameters are such that focus- {ng of the accelerated beam is linear,Sec.1.7: COMPUTER CODE LIBRARY ‘Table 1: Various WF acceleration approaches. WF Device | Max. Grad._| Advantages Disadvantages Experimetal Stamus LWFA | mulli-GV/m | Hi-gradient ‘Requires powerful Preliminary expts. short pusle laser, underway. To date, Poor efficiency. only electrons captured from background have been accelerated, PWRA | GVin | Hi-gradient, Requires difficult ‘Accel. of injected drive beam, alignments, | beam demonstrated Same focus problem at 5-7 MV/m level aswith LWFA. Ali- | using few nC gnments are critical, _| drive beam. Tris loaded | SO MVim | Simple and well | Low grad. Requires | Same as PWFA WFA understood. good beam-beam alignment. DWFA | 100MVim_| Very simple. Requires difficult Same as PWFA Deflection modes | drive beam. canbe damped. _| Extending length requires complicated “staging”. CWTA | S00 MVim_| Stepped up grad- | Requires efficient Experiment under iants, Transverse | coupling of rf power. | construction, beam-beam effects | Drive beam less small, Simple | difficult than that extention of accel- | required by DWFA, eration possible. | but still ‘not easy’. Dielectric loaded wave guides have an interesting and potential advantage over other structures in that extremely large damping of deflection modes can be built into the device. If the beam to be accelerated rides several wave lengths behind the drive pulse, drive beam induced deflection modes can be sufficiently damped that they are not detrimental, Tab.1 summarizes perceived characteristics of the various approaches and the status of related experiments, References [1] AIP Proc, 130 (1985); subsequent AIP Proc., Adv. ‘Accel, Concepts [2] H. Figueroa et al, PRL 60 (1988) 2144; J.B. Rosenzeig et al, PRL 61 (1988) 98; Wei Gai et al, PRL 61 (1988) 2756; K. Nakajima et al, KEK- Preprints-93-158 (1993), Phys. Scripta T52:61-64 (1994); N, Holtkamp et al, NIM A298 (1990) 93 [3] T. Tajima, JM. Dawson, PRL 43 (1979) 267 [4] AG. Ruggiero etal, AIP Proc, 156 (1986) [5] J.B. Rosenzweig et al, Ref.[2] above {6} G--A. Loss, T. Welland, DESY M-82-10 (1982) 48 17) E.Chojnacki et al, PAC 91, p.2557 1.7. COMPUTER CODE LIBRARY A library of many of the frequently used accelerator design codes is supported by the U.S. De- partment of Energy and maintained by the Los Alamos Accelerator Code Group, Los Alamos National Laboratory. The address is http:/www-laacg.atdiv lanl gov/componl.html ‘The compendium includes codes in beam dynamics, electrodynamics, structural design, radiation and transport, controls, and others.Chapter 2. BEAM DYNAMICS 2.1 PHASE SPACE 24.1 Linear Betatron Motion (1, 2] D.A. Edwards, DESY M, Syphers, BNL Equations of motion a" +K,(s)c=0, y! + Ky(s)y =0 a! =da/ds, yf = dy/ds Ke = B'/(Bp) + p-?, Ky = ~B'/(Bp) B = 6B, /de Eqs.(1) are instances of the Mathieu-Hill Equa- tion. Fig.1 shows the coordinate system. a Figure 1: Coordinate System, Solution in phase-amplitude form a(s) = A ae +6) @ a(s) = - age) cos(1p(s) + 6) +sin(y(s) + 6)] @) where A and 6 are constants of integration, a(s) = -6"(s)/2. The amplitude function (or -function), 6, satisfies 286" - 6? + 4g°K =4 @ and the phase advances according to dy)/ds = 1/8. Expressing A in terms of «, 2’ yields the 49 Courant-Snyder invariant, A? = o(s)2(s)? + 2a(s)x(s)x'(s) + B(s)a’(s)? = F (210)? + la(sa(s) + (0)2"(9)P} ©) where y = +42", We have omitted the subscript x from the Courant-Snyder functions a, 8,7. Matrices in terms of Courant-Snyder parame- 2 [2] ,-me-[s], — gigs sin Aw + 24582 cos Ay When 8; and 82 are separated by the repeti- M(s1 — 82) -[- VB (cos Ay + a1 sin AY) VEiBasin Ay VE (cos Ay — ona) | a tion length of the system, e.g. circumference C in asynchrotron, M reduces to © Me =Lcose+Jsinvc, J= [% fo ® Note that J? = —I, and so M3, = Icosnipc + Jsin nyc. The condition for stable motion is tM] <2. In terms of the matrix elements of M(s1 + 82), 3, a, and +7 transform according to B B [ a | =M [ a ] o de th where M = my —2mirmiz mie | mmiymin mama + mam —migma my —2maimaa me and the phase advance from s1 to 82 is Ay =tan™? ua ) = 10) fim-ama)Sec.2.1: PHASE SPACE, Emittance and admittance The Courant- Snyder invariant is related to the phase space area contained within the ellipse according to A? = area/n. The admittance is the area of the largest ellipse that the accelerator will accept. If the half-aperture available to the beam is a(s), * (8)? ate Fe which for constant a becomes 714?/Bmax. ‘The phase space area occupied by the beam is, ‘characterized by the emittance, ¢. Various definitions are in use. For a Gaussian beam with standard deviation , the phase space area containing, admittance = lr a fraction F of the beam is 2 c= ae In(-F) (12) ¢ FC) 0/6 15 r0"/B 39 402/887 6ro7/B 95 ‘Some useful relationships, using the first (F = 15%) definition above: (2?) = Be, (2) = 76, (aa!) = -a8, = 9 (0?)(a?) — (ea!)? a3) ‘The beam “sigma” matrix is defined by (see also Sec.2.2.1) (a?) (xa’) 7 ( Cale and its elements propagate by Eq.(9). During acceleration, the transverse oscillation amplitude oc (momentum)~1/?, and the normalized emittance, ey, is an adiabatic invariant, v *() where 7 is the Lorentz factor. Momentum dispersion The displaced equilibrium orbit for momentum p = po + Ap is given in terms of the momentum dispersion function D, 2(s) = Dep, of, D(p,e+C) = D(p,s) B -a -a ¥ | a én is) (16) D satisfies an inhomogeneous Hill's equation po D+ (K-B - 3 ) =e 17) pw pp 50 where p is the radius of curvature for pp. The matrix M(s1 + 82) may be enlarged to include propagation of off-momentum rays, a7 mi M2 Ms a [2]-[ mn =|(2 «a8 Po Pe where mis = D2—myDi—mpD{ mas —maD1 —mx2D,+D, (19) with D evaluated at po to be consistent with the usual matrix representation of the transverse motion. Particles differing in momenta will follow closed orbits of differing lengths in a cyclic accelerator. The compaction factor, ap, is AC_ Ap _/D Bae a(G) ‘Tune and chromaticity ©The number of oscillations per turn in a cyclic accelerator is the tune, a1 _1 fds vs give $F The dependence of focusing force on momentum leads to a tune variation characterized by the chromaticity &, Qy 2) ‘The natural chromaticity associated with the linear optics is 1 €=-z f Keds @3) while a single sextupole magnet of length £ will contribute BY ‘@) where + sign is associated with the bend plane. Eq.(24) is the basis for chromaticity adjustment using sextupoles. 1 Ag = 45-8. 4) References [1] ED, Courant, H.S. Snyder, Ann, Phys. 3 (1958) 1 [2] DA. Edwards, MJ. Syphers, An Introduction to the Physics of High Energy Accelerators, Wiley (193)2.1.2 Longitudinal Motion (1, 2] D.A. Edwards, DESY M. Syphers, BNL Slip factor and transition The fractional difference in transit time, 7, between successive acceleration stations is related to the fractional momentum difference through the slip factor, 7, according to a) Here + is called transition gamma. At the transition energy, n = 0. Equations of motion as difference equations aah Guts = Ont GrprABntt @ BEnw1 = AEn+ eV (sin gn — sings) n: rf station traversal index harmonic number particle energy rf phase modulo 27 max. energy gain per transit, synchronous quantity (subscript) A¢ [aé ) 14+ FeV cosds Fret eV cos bs with the stability condition hn o<- BREE, Ye <1 o Below transition, 7 < 0, so cosg, > 0 and 0 < $y < m/2 for stability, and above transition, 1/2 < $s X(s) =R(s)X(0) ® This formalism may be extended to second- and higher-order terms [1,2]. 56 Eq.(1) can be expanded as X(s) = RX(0) = Ru Ry Ris Ru 0 Rie ]{ (0) Rar Rap Ras Ra 0 Rog || (0) Rs Reg Rss Raq 0 Rag (0) Ra Raz Ras Ree 0 Ras y'(0) Rs Rea Rss Rsg 1 Res |} (0) 0 0 0 0 0 1 JLAP/P For static magnetic fields, Pp and AP/ Pa are constants of the motion. The determinant det R. = 1. ‘The 0 elements in row six occur because AP/Pp is a constant of the motion in static magnetic fields. The 0 clements in column five are because 2,a/,y,y' and AP/Po do not depend upon I, If all magnets in the system have midplane symmetry about y = 0, then in first order optics the a- and y-motions are decoupled, and Ru Ry 0 0 0 Re Ra Rag ee m 0 Ras _| 0 0 Ras 0 0 el O 0) Res a 00 | Rs Re 0 0 1 Reo 0 0 0 008 Note that some of the R. matrix elements have specific physical meaning, Ry =-1/Fe, Ras = -1/Fy @) where Fy,y are the focal lengths of the system in the « and y planes; and Rig and Rog are the mo- ‘mentum dispersion and the angular dispersion in the « plane, respectively, Ray tracing using the R matrix The R matrix allows one to trace individual trajectories. (rays) through any systems of magnets. To track a beam of particles (assume Gaussian distribution) through the system, the beam may be characterized by a “beam ellipse”, The equation of an ellipse in n-D may be formutated by the matrix. equation X'SOX=1 © where 5 is a positive definite n x n matrix. For example, in 2-D, on oat | 2 x=[5], 2-[oh => ome? -20n 20 + one? =detE 1) See Fig.2. The area of the ellipse is Area = 1(detd)/? TP marine = MintHnay = 7 (8)Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Figure 2: A two-dimensional beam phase ellipse, where FT = Cmax, VF = ngs € = the emittance of the beam, and r2, = 921//@10m is the correlation between x and 2’. The transformation of the beam ellipse from position s = 1 to a position s = 2 in a beam line is given by 2) = RER o The same equation applies for the y, y’ plane and also for the 6-D ellipsoid where air = Tmax VOB = Lnaxr VOB = Ynax, VO Yinaxr VI85 = lmaxs 066 = (4P/Po)maxs and rij = 043 THO is the correlation between the i and j variables in the 6-D phase space. As a result of the fact that the 33 matrix is positive definite, the ri fall in the range —1 to +1, Courant-Snyder notation (See also Sec.2.1.1) The © matrix notation is rewritten as afou on] e =[8 - e=[% wala ta[f | (10) with det T = 1. The equation of the ellipse (Courant-Snyder invariant) is then generated by the matrix equation €, or 72? + 2am! + Ba’? =¢€ ap ‘The area of the ellipse is A = re and the transformation of the ellipse parameters from position 1 to position 2is x'r'x, T=RTR (12) which gives the transformation of (,a,7) according to Eq.(9) of Sec.2.1.1 (notation: R. here is M in Sec.2.1.1). ‘R matrices for important optical elements 37 Drift space L = The length of the drift space. 1L0000 olodoo0o00 ooizod Rait=!9 9 0100 a3) oooo10 000001 Thick lens quadrupole Rehick qued = OD a 0 0 00 —ksinkL - coskL 0 0 00 0 0 coshkL Sah 0 0 0 0 KsinbkL coshkL 0 0 0 0 0 0 ie 0 oO 0 0 ol (a4y This represents a quadrupole which is focusing in the x plane and defocusing in the y plane, This R matrix is measured from the input face of the quadrupole to the exit face. L = the effective magnetic length of the quadrupole; a = the radius of the aperture of the quadrupole; Bo = the magnetic field strength at the radius a; ? = (Bo/a)(1/Bp), where (Bp) is the magnetic rigidity (momentum) of the central reference tra- Jectory, (Bp) = 33.3564 Py kG-m when Pp is in GeVic. Thin Jens quadrupole The two principal planes for ihn Tens quad are both located atthe center of the thick quad, Then, with L = thick quad length, Ree 1 oO 0 000 ~ksinkE 1 0 ooo 0 0 1 000 0 0 ksinhkL 1 0 0 | “1 o 0 0 o10 0 0 0 oolSec.2.2: OPTICS AND LATTICES Note that for both the thick Jens and thin lens, Roy = ~1/Fz and Rag = -1/Fy. ‘Wedge bending magnet Rwedge bend = coskeb = sinkeL 0 —kesinkeL — “coskeL 0 0 0 cos ky 0 0 ky sin kyL #sinkeL aa —cos kel) 0 0 0 0 0 0 fQ-coskeL) 0 0 fsinkel AsinkyL 0 0 Epa 0 0 09) 0 1 48 (keL — sin keL) 0 0 1 where pp = the bending radius of the central tra- Jectory; h = 1/po, k2 = (1 — n)h?, kj = nh?, a = AL the angle of bend of the central orbit, L = the path length of the central orbit, n = —(dB/d)(po/ Bo) is the normalized field gradient of the bending magnet measured on the optical axis (x = 0,y = 0), Rar = —1/Fr Ras = -1/Fy. Figure 3:_A bending magnet. The sign conventions for x, 8, R and A are all positive as shown in the figure, Positive y is out of the paper. Positive fs imply transverse focusing, Positive R's (convex curvatures) represent negative sextupole components of strength S = (~h/2R)sec® f [1]. A wedge bending magnet corresponds to = Ba = 0. Most of the time uniform field (n 0, ke = h = 1/po, ky = 0) magnets are used for optical systems. ‘Then for wedge magnets, 58 ‘Runiform wedge bend = C Sfh_ 0:0 0 (1-C)/h -hs Cc ooo s 0 0 se oO O oO o10 0 S (1-O)/h 0 0 1 (a-S)/h 0 oO ooo 1 an where C = cosa, § = sina. If the R matrix is measured at the center of the wedge magnet, i.c. between the principal planes of the wedge magnet Fig.4), then it becomes simple: Here we separate the Rz and Ry matrices and leave out the path length terms, of Wedge Me Figure 4: Uniform wedge bend whose two principal plans meet atthe center of magnet. Pole-face Rotation Matrix The first-order R. matrix for a pole-face rotation as shown in Fig.3 is R(6) = 1 0 0 000 tang 1 0 000 0 0 1 000 0 0 ~hAtan(g-Y) 10 0 oF 0 0 fo: 10) 0 0 0 oo1 as) where = angle of rotation of pole, 1/h = po = bending radius of central orbit, g = total gap of the dipole magnet, = a correction term resulting from the finite extent of the fringing fields, y= k(hg) 852, kis typically of the order 1/2 to 1, so if Ag is less than 1%, this correction term can usually be ignored.Note that a pole-face rotation on a bending ‘magnet is equivalent to a thin quad located at the input or exit face of the bending magnet having a focal length 1/F, = —htan f in the x plane and 1/Fy = +htan fi in the y plane, For a bending magnet having rotated input and output pole faces, the total R. Matrix for the magnet is R= R(G2)Rwedge bend (G1) (20) Solenoid (see also Sec.4.5.4) Regt = o % so $00 -Ksc © -KS? sc 00 -sc -§ oc % 00 Ks? -SC -KSC C? 00 0 0 0 010 0 0 0 se Q)) where L = effective length of solenoid, K = Bo/(2Bp), Bo is the field inside the solenoid, (Bp) is the momentum of the central trajectory, C =cosKL,$ = sin KL. Rotating the transverse coordinates « and y about the optical axis at the exit of the solenoid by an angle (KL) decouples the z and y first- order terms, i.e. Rrot(—KL)Reot = C S/K 0 o 00 -KS C 0 o 00 0 0 C SKO00 0 0 -Ks c oo| 0 oO 0 ete oO oO 0 0 lil ‘The focal length of a solenoid is 1/F, = 1/Fy = —Rai = —Ras = KS = Ksin KL. Beam rotation matrix co S000 0 ¢ 0500 _|-§ 0 € 000 Re=| > -¢ 0 c00| @ oO o o0o010 0 0 0001 where a = the angle of rotation about the z axis (the direction the beam is going), C = cosa, S = sina. For example a quadrupole rotated clockwise by an angle a about the z axis is Rrot(—@)RquadRrot(+@) = Rrot. quaa (24) A skew quad is generated by setting a = 45°, If the convention is that Ryena represents a magnet bending to the right, then a bend magnet 59 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS bending the beam up is given by the coordinate rotation BEND UP = R(+a)RrengR(—a) (25) BEND DOWN = R(—a)RrexaR(+a) (26) where cy = 90°, a = 180° represents a magnet bending to the left in either of the above equations. References (1) K. Brownet al, SLAC-75-rev-4 (1982); SLAC-91- rev-2.(1977) {2] K. Brown, R. Servranckx, SLAC-PUB-3381 (1984) 2.2.2 Cylinder Model of Multipoles M. Bassetti, C. Biscari, INFN, Frascati Magnetic field components of a pure multipole of order m can be expressed as sinmd = By(r,8,8) = “AEE Ym + 29) = X Gmap(s) °°? Bu(r,0,8) = cose Tray nwt sinm@ Belr.8,8) = Te De Gmnapea(syrrt™ & Gmanls) = (WP get Gaal) Gmapei(s) = Smanls) o ‘The expressions correspond to skew multipoles if sin is substituted by cos (and vice versa). The fundamental function Gmo(s) describe the s- dependence, including fringe fields. Once it is Known, all the field components, up to any order, are defined. The cylinder model [1] provides analytical functions (differentiable to any order) which fit the longitudinal behaviour of a multipole magnet while maintaining Maxwell equations at any ot- der. The fitting parameters are the cylinder radius R, the cylinder half length Z, and the peak value of the circulating current on the end circles I. (2m — 1)! Gmo(t) = tole emtk+1 eT Q) m>0 * rc (F) samen)PTICS AND LATTICES 2 Ans fneton BLD oe0 Meenrements 0 02 04 06 08 1 12 14 16 Figure 1: Example of cylindrical model (two cylindrical models differing in R, Z, and I.) applied to the DA@NE superconducting compensator solenoid. ‘Table 1: Cylinder model for m = Maulupole_[m | Gmo sotenoid | 0 | B.(s) = sea [ 2 Gro(s) = 4 x Dipole 1 an OROREAORE Gaol) = se [of(e) Quadrupole | 2 * me? | aren + 30600] t=Z,-8, A(t)=VB+e s = (Garza) ‘The cylinder model can be extended to m = 0 with some trick, leading to the well known formula for B,(s) of the solenoid, J, being the total current (see Tab.1 and Fig.1). References [1] M. Bassetti, C. Biscari, PA 52 (1996) 221 2.2.3 Lattices for Collider Storage Rings E. Keil, CERN Symbols a, 3,y Courant-Snyder parameters, K = (1/Bp)(4By/dz), Lp Length of whole cell, yu Phase advance per cell, y Bending angle of whole cell, z Transverse. coordinate x or y. Lattice matching A lattice typically is composed of unit cells and insertions. The points where cells and insertions meet require lattice matching. Insertions transport the beam from a point with one set of a, 8, D, D’ to another point with a different set of these parameters. Phase advances through the insertion may also be constrained. Splitting an insertion into modules helps, with each module achieving part of the matching. Matching is done by matching programs [1], which adjust quadrupole and dipole strengths, drift space length. The number of variables > that of conditions. Separated-function FODO cell ‘Two quads, with equal and opposite f, assumed to have vanishing length, separated by length Lp/2. Spaces between quadrupoles are filled by homogencous- field dipoles. Assuming that focusing due to fringe fields is negligible (when p > L,) and that @ <1. In terms of ps (assumed the same in «- and y-planes) and Z [2], f= 4; ate @ a feo @ a nowt a pt = ea) aped ® ‘The sign of a applies to the quadrupole entrances. At the exits, a has the opposite sign. The upper (lower) signs apply to the focusing (defocusing) quadrupole in the plane under consideration. From the focusing quadrupole (s = 0) to the defocusing quadrupole (s = L»/2), Bls) = Bt ~ MEE) 4 ds?tang (8) De)= D+ (1-4) 48 See Figs.1 and 2, 6*/Dp has a minimum near u/2n = 0.21, ‘The natural chromaticity per FODO cell is. “u 1 §ropo = —7 tan oO Ifa storage ring consists of n FODO cells, ithas a total natural chromaticity € = néopo. The synchrotron radiation integrals Zs and Zs (Sec.3.1.4)02 wan 0s 04 Figure 1: (a) 6*/Lp vs /2n, (b+) D*/Lyy vs /2n. 1.0 20-17 08 2 06 & y z ax oe ; 02 pheriiiiiiisty 0 02 04 06 08 1.0 ae Silp Figure 2: 82/Lp, 8,/Lp, and D/Lpp vs s/Ly for the FODO case p4/2x = 0.25. per cell are 5 tasowo = gabe x (1 $anr Ss Lent 2) To,rovo = S (+45) @) where £g = quad length. In a flat ring, the dispersion function often scales approximately with /B, vo) = [9 fa) where 27 is the ring circumference and ve is the horizontal tune of the ring. (10) 61 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS The average 6- and dispersion functions are given approximately by, using Eqs.(2) and (4) for relatively small 1, (Bry) * R/Yey, (D)*R/vB (11) where 27R = nDp, and Vy = Nftey/2n. It follows from Eq.(11) that Ge Ive, WR Ye (12) (For nonlinear momentum compaction factor for aFODO lattice, see Sec.2.3.11.) Combined-function FD cell Two combined- function dipoles of length L»/2 each, with equal and opposite strengths K, and no drift spaces. wn aE og loVE TfK? | I8K4 1-96 * gasia0 +" 13) Equating the leading two terms in Eq.(13) to the leading two terms of cos js yields (overestimating K by <10% for phase advances 4/2 < 1/4) [3] cos jt + (a4) B* at the centers of the F and D quadrupoles are (< 10% error for ts <1/4) Bae (12% ip +) as) while (underestimating D* by <13% for 4/2m < 1/8) Lye uv3 wee (12 AE See Fig.3, Dispersion Suppressor Insertion These insertions match D without affecting a, 8. The idea is to bring D from the value in the FODO cells to zero by launching a forced oscillation of D around a value ~ 4 of that in the FODO cells. (i) Tf x/u = integer, Bis suppressed by 1/1: FODO cells with bending angle y/2, using Eq.(4). (i) It is possible to suppress D within two FODO cells, if their bending angles are chosen as [4] aae(i-y 1 es Tante )? z): v= z an where 1 and (7 are bending angles of the FODO cell on the side where D # 0, and D = 0, respectively. The betatron oscillations are unchanged in both styles of dispersion suppressor. When js = (16)Sec.2.2: OPTICS AND LATTICES 0 02 04 06 08 10 8, Sip Figure 3: Computed (no Taylor series approximation) Be/Lpy By/Lp and D/Lyip vs #/Ly for the combined FD case p:/2n = 0.125. 7/2, both styles coincide. For 7/3 < p< 27/3, there are no reversed dipoles in the dispersion suppressor. Both styles can start at horizontally focusing or defocusing quadrupoles [5]. How- ever, they both work for just one phase advance. (ii) Itis possible to suppress D by just modifying. the focal length of two quadrupoles. In this case, a, 6 and p1 are also modified. (iv) In hybrid dispersion suppressors, some bending magnets are left out, and D is halved by halving the product, Ly, using Eq.(4). By giving them enough free parameters, they can be matched to FODO cells over a range of phase advances [6]. Low-Beta Insertion These insertions reduce the functions to small values, assuming D = 0 already. They are used in colliders to achieve small beam sizes at the IPs. Lattice matching requires four or six free parameters, typically quadrupole gradients, depending on whether only two a’s and two /’s, or whether also two p1’s are matched, Usually a; = ay = D = D! = Oat the IP. Most critical are the quadrupole doublet or triplet near IP. The G-function near a waist is given by Als) = fo+F(e—s0)? 18) where fp is the B-function at the waist position $0. Doublets are often used in e*e~ colliders with flat beams, the first quadrupole from the IP focuses vertically, the second horizontally. In thin lens approximation, their focal lengths dy and dy are found by imposing point-o-parallel focusing, in both planes, 4-2, ha syavarE (9) (sy +82 where 81,2 are the drift spaces from the IP to the first quadrupole, and between the two quadrupoles, respectively. The two solutions correspond to interchanging « and y. In LEP, the point-to-parallel approximation overestimates the focal length by < 8%, and the thin-lens approximation by another 12%. Triplets are often used in pp and pp colliders with round beams. Assuming a symmetrical triplet with the first and third quadrupole having the same strength and equi-distant from the central quadrupole, and in thin lens approximation, the focal lengths t) and ty are found by imposing point-to-parallel focusing in both planes, f+ 82 (2 $17 +35182 +2 327) cS 2(s1 + 82) 752 (2 17 +5 5152 +2 32°) 4 (91 + 82) th [s3(2s? + 3sisa +253)? 1? a= 85753 (s1 + 82)| (20) where 1,2 are the drift spaces from the IP to the first quadrupole, and between the quadrupoles, respectively. In LHC (Version 4.2) [7], the point- to-parallel approximation overestimates t; by < 8%, and the thin-lens approximation by another < 36%. Collins Insertion Collins insertions [8] consist, ‘of two quadrupoles and three drift spaces, inserted at equal distance to the neighbouring F and D quadrupoles in a typical FODO cell with 4. 7/2, where a; = Gy = a and Ye = Wy = 7 The outer drift space si, the central drift space s2, and the focal length of the quadrupoles fc are: aay 2 =07/% fo=ta/y (21) References [1] FC. Iselin, CERN 87-10 (1987) p.181 (2) E, Keil, CERN 77-13 (1977) 11 [3] H. Bruck, Accélérateurs circulaires de particules, Presses universitaires de France (1966) [4] E, Keil, CERN 77-13 (1977) 22 {5] RAH, Helm, SLAC-Pub-3278 (1984) {6} LEP Design Report, Vol. II: The LEP Main Ring, CERN-LEP/84-01 (1984) [7] The Large Hadron Collider: Conceptual Design, CERN/AC/95-05(LHC) (1995) [8] T. Collins, CEA-86 (1961)2.2.4 Lattices Sources A. Jackson, LBNL Many 3rd-generation light sources are now in operation. ‘These facilities are based on e~ or e* storage rings, and take advantage of the extremely bright beams of radiation using undulators. ‘The basic requirements of the lattice for such rings include long, zero-dispersion straight sections (~5 m), and a natural electron beam emittance of $10 nm-rad, There are two lattice types that have been optimized to meet these requirements: the Chasman-Green, or double-bend achromat (DBA) lattice (first used in the NSLS at BNL), and the triple-bend achromat (TBA) lattice (Grst developed for the ALS at LBNL). Requirements of storage rings Third- generation light sources have been optimized to produce high brightness (Sec.4.2, or “brilliance” in Europe) beams of radiation from undulators. ‘Undulator radiation is emitted at a series of discrete wavelengths, A; = Ay[1 + K?/2]/(2i7”), i = 1,3,5,... where Ay is the undulator period length, K = 0.934 Ayfcm)B(T] is the undulator deflection parameter (dimensionless). Given a requirement for undulator radiation of particular wavelengths, there are trade-offs that can be made between A,, K, and 7. To meet the diverse wavelengths required, storage rings have been divided into two energy ranges: the 1-2 GeV rings for VUV and soft x-ray radiation (<2 keV), and the 5-7 GeV rings for hard x-rays (> 2 keV). ‘The requirements on the photon beam emittance, which is the convolution of the electron beam emittance ¢ and the photon beam opening angle, vary widely among users, and the geometry of the photon beamline. The most demanding are experiments that require transverse coherence of the photon beam, e.g,, those that utilize diffractive optics for focusing, Synchrotron radiation is fully coherent if ¢ © A/4n. This is a difficult, and as yet unmet, condition for x-rays (1 keV soft x-ray requires € 0.1 nm-rad), The accelerator is designed to produce the lowest practicable ¢, given the required energy and within space and cost boundaries, Finally, there is a requirement that the undulator straight sections have zero dispersion. This minimizes the influence of the undulators on € as their fields are varied to scan the wavelength range of interest. Although not strictly necessary if scans are over a relatively small range, this for Low-Emittance Light (Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS 63 ‘Figure 1: DBA cell structure. condition has been adhered to in all existing 3rd- generation sources. ‘This final requirement has led to the design of “achromatic-arc” lattices, which allow long dispersion free straight sections, separated by arcs where ¢ is determined, Low emittance lattices The natural (horizontal) beam emittance is (see Sec.3.1.4) _ CyPTs ds Hds w JeTa ’ e we Given the storage ring energy, can be minimized by reducing p, and by minimizing 1. Restrictions on p arise from the desires of the bend-magnet, users (who typically want small p and large 7), and the engineering requirement to minimize total power loading (large p, small 7). The effort to minimize 1 has resulted in the DBA and the TBA lattices used in all existing 3rd-generation sources, One cell of the DBA lattice is shown in Fig.1. ‘The minimum emittance for this achromat is [1] __1_ Get eDBAmn = 7g oa @ where 5 (in rad) is bending angle of each magnet, ‘The minimization requires that the -function Teaches a minimum at a distance of £5/3 into the first dipole. This condition can be met, but with severe restrictions in placement of the quadrupole magnets, and on the -function elsewhere in the lattice. In practice DBA lattices run with € = L.5epBAmin- The first 3rd-generation source with DBA is the ESRF (6 GeV, 32 achromatic arcs). The lattice functions through one cell are shown in Fig.2. Itruns with € = 6.9 nm-rad, com: pated to émin = 3.2 nm-tad. Some restrictions inherent in the DBA design can be overcome by adding a third dipole in the achromat (TBA) [2]. Since the number of dipoles/achromat is increased, p is increased, and € can be made smaller at the expense of a & he Is=Sec.2,2: OPTICS AND LATTICES 40 E $30 g 2 £ 20 3 5 ° 10 20 30 ve Distance (m) Figure 2: Machine functions and cell lattice design of ESRF. Solid—10Dz, dash—Bz, dash-dot—/ sign lattice parameters: E = 6 GeV, ve ¥y =11.2, &g0 = 0.695 x 10-® mrad [3]. Actromat yey Port tnedon ‘SyrmeryPo | Deveson uncon, f i een tpsrion i Seige b+} datromet sa Soden nit Figure 3: TBA cell structure. longer arc. An example of TBA is shown in Fig.3, where the fields in each dipole are equal. Lower emittances can be achieved by making the center dipole longer, with a lower field. ‘The first 3rd-generation source to be designed with the TBA is the ALS (1-2 GeV, 12 achro- mats). The lattice functions are shown in Fig.4. It nuns with ¢ = 3.4 nm-rad, much larger than the corresponding émin but less than the €min of a DBA structure with the same periodicity. Chromaticity correction The linear lattice design described above is merely the beginning of the design, The strong focusing required in both the DBA and TBA designs results in large negative chromaticity. This has to be corrected to = 0 with strong sextupoles, which in turn, leads to small dynamic aperture (Sec.2.3.9). ‘The stable aperture must be adequate for the injection process, and for beam lifetime. In most lattices, a two-family scheme with a sextupole at each LBL ALS 8 TT E g < 25 3 =o wplt a a ° 5 10 15 Tetares Distance (m) Figure 4: Machine functions and cell latice design Of ALS. Solid—10D-, dash—B., dash-dot—B,. De- sign lattice parameters: E = 1.5 GeV, ve = 14.266, vy =8.184, €20 = 0.34 x 10-8 m-rad [3). quadrupole is effected, In the simplest powering scheme, the sextupoles located at focusing quads are powered in one series circuit while those at the defocusing quads are powered in another circuit. ‘This scheme can be satisfactory in a ring with regular lattice, but may not be so in lattices contain ing special insertions, particularly dispersion free insertions. There, the strong nonlinearities introduced by the sextupoles tend to restrict the dynamic aperture unduly. In these cases one must resort to more independent powering circuits for the sextupoles (multiple families), The design algorithm for the optimized distribution needs then to include an automated step for evaluating the dynamic aperture for each trial distribution [4] (see also Sec.2.3.9). In the ALS, sufficient aperture was achieved using two families of sextupoles. In the ESRF, six families were used. Beyond chromatic correction, the lattice de- signer must also check for: (i) sensitivity of the dynamic aperture to magnet imperfections; (i) sensitivity of the dynamic aperture to insertion devices; (iii) beam lifetime, in particular the influence of Touschek scattering (Sec.2.5.9); (iv) intrabeam scattering (Sec.2.5.9). Lower emittance lattices There is need for beams with yet higher brightness. For example, a growing class of experiments at the ALS use microfocused beams, with focal spot sizes significantly below 1 ym”, for microanalysis, crodiffraction, micro EXAFS, microXPS, and na-noEXAFS experiments, These are classic brightness experiments that currently require long exposure times. Lower emittance beams can also be used with small gap undulators to access ~2 keV in the fundamental of the undulator spectrum, with a relatively low energy (2 GeV) machine, This region of the spectrum is important for studies of the L-shell absorption edges of most transition-metals, and the M-edges of rare earth elements. ‘There are many potential routes to lower emittance electron beams. For example, the emittance of the ESRF beam could be reduced by more than an order of magnitude by operating the storage ring at 15 GeV, rather than 6 GeV. This would greatly enhance the transversely coherent flux from the undulators at soft x-ray wavelengths and below. However, the hard x-ray program (served by wigglers and bend magnets), would be effectively eliminated. Unless it is “table-top”, and inexpensive device, the next- generation, lower emittance source, will probably require strong support from a wide spectrum of the existing user community. For this reason accelerator physicists have begun to investigate “hybrid” designs. To meet the requirements of micro- focus experiments, such a machine should push the natural emittance lower by at least one order of magnitude, and have straight sections long enough for placement of undulators. Such lattices can be achieved by utilizing arc cells that conform to the “minimum theoretical lattice” idea [6], matched into straight sections for the undulators [5]. [By removing the achromat constraint, the minimum theoretical lattice gives an emittance 123 of that of Eq.(2).] With E ~2 GeV, and in- novations such as the use of permanent magnet lattice design, these machines could be relatively inexpensive. In addition, high brightness beams can be generated from short, high field bending magnets, placed at positions where both Br and By are small, The photon beam emittance is determined by the electron beam size, and the convolution of ‘the electron and photon beam divergences. At the low emittances being generated even in 3-rd generation sources, the divergence of the photon beam (~ 1/7), is always much larger than that of the electron beam, unless the -function is reduced below a value of 27”, usually a few cm. If high field bend magnets (3-5 T) are placed at the low-8 source points, very high brightness x- Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS ray beams [B > 107 photons/(s mm? mrad? .1% bandwidth), at E,, > 10 keV] are produced, that can service many relatively inexpensive beamlines for experiments such as protein crystallogra- phy and multiwavelength anomalous diffraction. By developing ideas like these it should be possible to galvanize broad-based user support for new facilities that push ring-based SR sources well beyond what is available today. References [1) M. Sommer, LALIRT/83-15 (1983) [2] A. Jackson, PA 22 (1987) 111 (3] J. Murphy, Synchrotron Light Source Data Book, BNL 42333 (version 3.0) (1993) [4] T. Pelaia, PhD thesis, Cornell U. (1994) Ch; D. Rice et al, Proc. B-Factory Workshop, SLAC-400 and CBN-92-7 (1992) p.98; Y. Cai et al, PAC 95, 576; KEKB B-Factory Design Report, KEK Re- port 95-7 (1995) [5] Examples: A. Jackson et al, LBNL-39799 and PAC 97; D, Binfeld et al, EPAC 96 [6] S.¥. Lee, L. Teng, PAC 91, p.2679 2.2.5 Mobius Accelerators R.Talman, Cornell U. By causing betatron oscillation to “toggle” back and forth between and y, the Mobius accelerator produces round beams. This was conjectured [1] and demonstrated {2} to permit higher beam- beam tune shifts. Another potential advantage [1] is that a Mobius ring has only one independent tune and hence only one chromaticity. This halves the number of conditions to be met for head-tail stability [3]. dealized realization Ideally, a Mobius twist section is an element with transfer matrix (in 2 x 2 partitioned form) c fail that sends a — y and y — £2. For simplicity, keep only the lower sign possibility. When inserted into an otherwise uncoupled lattice whose one-turn map is = [cosets sites x-[ —te SID fe Be Si fz C08 p42 — Oe Sits a and similarly for Y,, the resulting one-turn map is M= [x x | ‘The off-diagonal combination EB = X- Y"1, has determinant E = det E =‘Sec.2.2: OPTICS AND LATTICES 2—2cos(s + Hy) + sin pe sin py R, where The two “visible” tunes 1 VE pot @) are symmetric about 0.25. This lattice exhibits sum resonances Y= + ¥y = n/2 forall integers n; the stop band width depends on the lattice func tions at the Mabius twister and is quantified by R. Tdeally one would like Be = By, a2 = Oy, and R= 0. The unstable fraction of the tune plane area = VR/2. ‘Realization with rolled quadrupoles To real- ize it using quadrupoles and drifts, one designs a “Mdbius section” which, when rolled, converts the existing lattice into a Mébius lattice. Let the 4 x 4 map before rolling be M(# = 0) = [ : i ] After rolling by angle ¢, the map becomes block off-diagonal, thus reversing x and y, ifand only if @ = 4/4 and A = —D, oD Do ] ® ‘Letting the phase advances through the unrolled ‘Mobius section be Vy, the condition A = -D translates to Vz - Vy = x and ay Courant Snyder parameters match at the ends. Because the traditional operational lattice tidying tools such as injection optimization, orbit ‘smoothing, and decoupling, cease to function in the twisted latice, one should assure satisfactory performance before rolling the Mobius section, particularly so that Be = fy and az = ay at both ends of the section. Defining the unrolled tunes to bez and Y, with average V = (Vz +7y)/2, after rolling the visible tunes are M(¢= 1/4) = 1 1 wmad+e and v.4=D 7 6) One design (employed at CESR) consists of five consecutive, azimuthally rollable, quadrupoles of strengths 91, 92, 293, 92, and qi. ‘tis assumed that in the pre-existing lattice the gy -end elements are separated by a drift section with central beam waists (not necessarily the same in both planes). The M@bius section is defined to begin shortly before the first q: and end symmet- tically after the second. “To preserve the lattice ‘match, one also requires that the Courant-Snyder functions at these points be the same before and after rolling. Define the drift lengths to be @, d, d, and £ respectively. As well as the requirement that these lengths add up to the available length, three conditions to be met (thin lens approximation) are 1-(€+d)q1 — dg +déng =0 M1 +92 + 95 + Large + (E+ dards +dqags + Edqiqeds = 0 © l+d+ Pag? + 2(€ + d)édgags =0 ‘These conditions give A = —D and make D op- tically equivalent to a pure drift [4]. To complete the match to the pre-existing lattice, this drift parameter is made equal to the physical distance between the end points. ‘These formulas have been confirmed experimentally at CESR [5], where orbit smoothing has been accomplished and orbit separation bumps for colliding beam operation developed. Realization with a single solenoid For sufficiently low energy, the z-y interchange can be achieved with a single solenoid. Define solenoid strength k = eBs/(2p) (definition a factor of 2 different from MAD). With L as solenoid length, the condition to achieve the desired skew diagonal formis cos kL = 0 or KL = 7/2, and in that case the solenoid matrix is 0 0 0 Ik OF 0. E70 Ms=| 9 -l/k 0 0 ® i 0 070 ‘Though this achieves the desired «-y interchange, itremains necessary to complete the match to the rest of the lattice, A “dog-bone” (or “figure-8”) configuration using a solenoid is in (6). References {1] R. Talman, PRL 24 (1995) 1590 [2] E. Young et al, PAC 97; E. Young, PhD thesis, Comell U. (1997) [3] S, Henderson et al, PAC 97 [4] R.Talman, E, Young, unpublished note [5] CESR log, machine studies, June-July, 1997 [6] LM. Barkovet al, 14-th Int. Conf. on High Energy ‘Acc. (1989) p.1385 2.2.6 Alpha Magnet H, Wiedemann, Stanford U/SSRL Alpha magnets (1] are used for off-axis injection into alinear accelerator or for bunch compression.The magnet is half of a quadrupole, sliced vertically with a ferromagnetic mirror plate installed at the midplane. Particle injected at an angle of 4q = 40.70991° with respect to the magnet axis and at the mid-point of the magnet follow an a- like path and exit again at the entrance point with a total deflection of 20q irrespective of the particle energy (see Fig.1). The length sq and apex @ of the a-path are given, respectively by BY. By Sq = 19.1655, » = 7.50513 i; z \olk @ where 6 = v/candy = E/me?. The path length is energy dependent and makes therefore an a- magnet suitable for efficient bunch compression, — Halt Quadrupole — — Figure 1: Schematics of an alpha magnet, References [1] HLA. Enge, RST 34 (1963) 385, 2.3, NONLINEAR DYNAMICS 23.1 Hamiltonian K. Symon, U. Wisconsin 23.1.1 General case ‘The Hamiltonian for a particle of charge e, mass m, moving in an electromagnetic field described’ by electromagnetic potentials Asm, ¢ is [1, 2,3, 4, 67) H(t, Pe, ¥sPy 8,Psit)=ed+T (0) Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Figure 1: Coordinaies Relative to Reference Orbit: «is distance measured horizontally outward, y is distance ‘measured vertically, s is distance measured along the reference orbit from some reference point, and p is the local radius of curvature of the reference orbit, which lies in the 2-s plane, where T= omte? + (re ~ ee)? + (py ~ 04)? +(meeey]” 1 G is the kinetic energy. The coordinates are in Fig.1. The canonical vector potentials are Az = &-dom as 7 (142) 8. Baw ®) For a circular accelerator, all quantities are periodic functions of s, With s as the independent variable the Hamil- tonian is. Hile.pest.Poit~Bis) = ~e4,—(142) Pe (4) where —E is the momentum conjugate to the coordinate t and P, = [ey ~:~ Az)? ye = (Hy ~eAy)— med] = Berme (8) is the kinetic momentum in the s direction. The canonical potentials for magnetic lattice elements, expanded to 4th order in 2, y, are: straight section: A=0, © vet, dn i[- Be (2882-2) 2 2 Bysina 2, (Bisina Basin?a “ay +A 2 ‘Bysin?a By sina + (Bas - Bsn) yeSec.2.3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS Bysin’a Basin?a\ 4 +(2H oe) Bysinta _ Bysinda) 9,9 , Basing 4 +( a4 vt or ag] Bisosaye , Basinacosa, 2 2 2 Bysin?acosa 9 , Bscosa 4 epee com a: Bscoae 7 poe + o arate bea: A= 5[- Be (2+9)2 G3, Sp — (22 et a, ey i ‘UBp * Tap 24 * tape) ¥ aa[-Za+(E-Z) or 3-3 ie Gl BY ay -(B-¥)*¥+(F+Z)¥] © Q" ah — Gaty? —y')] any? + Zt — 62%? -y | - 2 S o to a Ami loav- Gary] 20) (2 BY wi (t-22) « sextupole: Anis (Joy? - i) 44st hv + je) any . Leto (lat Serta ly octupole: A 0 (Fe gr +7 a2) where B(s), G(S), Q(s), S(s), O(s) are the vertical field and its gradients on the reference orbit, defined near the reference orbit by: B= 9B(s) a3) B= s1B)+C)2]_ 1) B= §Q(s)z+2Q(s)y (15) B= 4Q,(s)z-90.(s)y (16) sextupole: B= Dee -y) +45(s)ey an octupole: B= 20(s)(y* — 327y) —90(s)(2* — 3y%z) (18) In Eq.(7), a(s) is the angle between the local tangent to the reference orbit and the to the magnet edge. The parameters in Eq.(7) are given by the field and its gradients on the refer- cence orbit, B B= aaa (9) 3B" Ba = ota 0) BM By = waka peota (21) a Bi+2sin?a) B”? sina Poosta — Bocosta Eq.(8) is for a bend with a gradient. Primes denote derivatives with respect to s and appear in edge corrections. Edge corrections depend on the edge design, Eq.(7) assumes a straight edge (no field parallel to the edge and no dependence of the fields on the coordinate parallel to the edge). It is accu- Tate if edge fields do not extend past the magnet, center. For a thin edge perpendicular to the reference orbit, a = 0. Eq(8) assumes the magnet contours run perpendicular to the reference orbit at each point, so that in the median plane the field gradient depends only on s. The formu- Jae for multipoles assume the edge fields preserve the multipole symmetry about the reference orbit. For other edge designs, these formulae should give approximate values of the coefficients, par~ ticularly if the edges are thin, but they do not include any terms which violate the assumed symmetries. The potential for an accelerating gap may be written, to second order: a= f Vode {a [aw ~Nets vj Ac : 29 -Ferrm}+A w+) oe where V(t) is gap voltage; A(s) describes the field shape with fy, dsA(s) = 1. Usually, one approximates A(s) = 6(¢ — aga;). The terms in z,y are edge field corrections appropriate to a circular gap perpendicular to the reference orbit; they are usually neglected. The potentials for space charge fields are ¢ = Fey) @3) meg **” 4 A+ Daten) 4) Ameoewhere A is charge line density, f is the neutralization fraction, Time rates of change are assumed slow relative to light transit time across the vac- ‘uum chamber. For auniform cylindrical charge of radius a, centered in a circular perfect conductor of radius 6, the function g(«, s) is (7? = 2? + y?) (2,9) = { he pnt ifrsa ifagrs Atay Ftp, wena P 2, 4g tPeteH) , 2B? 2p eAsa1 22 ype ~ Asap, + Seed + oh) HOn(et +y?) + FE? 442) 9) 9 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS. where po = eBp is the momentum of the reference particle, Aye and Aye are the coefficients multiplying «c*y in the appropriate terms of Eqs.(7)-(12), and A Net w= (4-1) AG = 4neoa"Bp Only linear space charge terms have been included. 2.3.1.3 Longitudinal motion ‘The Hamiltonian, to second order in w = E- By lis 0) Ha(o,w8) = EKw? + oP (cosy + ysiny,)A(s) Gl) Subscript s refers to the synchronous energy (€.g. Es Po, sss), K = oot, V is gap voltage amplitude, and A(s) = 1 4(s— 93) (32) a For alinac, 7 = —7/~*. For a circular accelerator, =~ 17, 85 = Sgup + 28Rj. ‘The Hamiltonian (31) implies the difference equations Pit = V5 + (9541 — 85) Kyu; 3) wir = wy t eVjar(sin gj41 — sin Yo,541) Fora linac, if ¥ and the distance As between gaps is a smooth function of s, we may replace A(s) by its average value: Halow;s) = hKut + Koay + sing.) ~ (2-1) Steve AnegBe A(#) is line charge density at the point in the beam. with phase y, and go = 9(0,0) = 1+2In3. For a circular accelerator, with time as the independent variable, the smoothed Hamiltonian is 4) Hu(yswst) 500K hy coos etpsin ys) 1 ewe90 where V is the maximum voltage gain per turn.Sec.2.3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS 23.14 Synchrobetatron coupling The complete Hamiltonian for synchrotron and horizontal betatron motion is [8, 1] Hy (asp, t, -E 3} = -e4,-p (142) [1-22] Sev, o(1+2) fb ral G6) where p is given by Eq.(27), z is the horizontal distance measured from the reference orbit, and is the corresponding momentum, © Make a canonical transformation to synchrotron, betatron variables: oe ~ fr vatnyar + Mose) ee en w= ab 8) 2 = 2-tw (9) Pz = p- ew (40) Subscript s denotes synchronous particle. From. here on p, = po(t = t,). Dispersion function D(s) satisfies D” + kp,D = 1/p, where Pz is treated as a constant and k(s) = #-#% ‘We assume gradients Q(s), like bend fields B(s), change slowly with time in proportion to po(t).. Hamiltonian for synchrobetatron coupling is Hsac($,W,2,Psi8) = spo +His + Hyip+Hxict+Hsve (41) where h = harmonic number, $y is defined by dE, _ oe de ~ nn Y and the voltage across the accelerating gap is « 1 Vt) =0()si edt (© = VO si0 fun) (42) 3) We have (j) assumed Bq.(32), (ti) assumed the bend edges the reference orbit (a = 0), (ii) included quadrupoles, sextupoles, and straights, (iv) kept nonlinear terms up to third degree in W,«, De, ~ os, and the time derivatives of the slowly varying quantities p,, 7. ‘The nonlinear synchrotron term is 1D? | bmw, \ (D = [(t22 , mut) (D_ — [(aee* mt) (5) Sh? D?] 3 Se |w ‘The cubic terms in the betatron variables are (44) (45) =Sys,_1 2 Hus = G2" + pee The nonlinear coupling terms are Hye = Sew (Ser we The coupling terms linear in the time derivatives of slowly varying quantities are Hsvo = Fea(o-sing + (¢— $2) 008 $} +A6)E-doore+ BE 6-7] } 4nR an where nD! it Sao Peta 8) ‘Some handy formulae: dt, Ey z= za 9) rts (50)rts Ch.2; BEAM DYNAMICS ‘Table 1: Tune shifts due to multipoles and momentum offsets. References n | Multipole ay 1} Quadrupole (Bb) 2] Sextupole (BDta)5 3| Octupole $(BD*b3)6? + Hs) (#2) 4| Decapole 2(BD*b4) +4*Dba) ($5) 6 $(6D+bs)5* 5] 12-pole | +48(6°D%s) (32) 8 | + 86%) (B)" [1] KR. Symon, ANL/APS/TB-28 (1997) (derivation | 3(BD%be)5* (2) DA Biwars Mi. Sper, An soduton io || MPe | +4FD*) (5) the Physics of High Energy Accelerators, Wiley 48¢88Dte) (2)*5 (1993) p.129 [3) H, Bruck, Accélérateurs Circulaires de’Particules, Presses Universitaires de France (1966); English translation: LANL Report LA-TR-72-10 (1972) [4] ED. Courant, RD. Ruth, W.T. Weng, AIP Proc. 127 (1985) p.294 (5] LJ, Laslett, Proc. Summer Study on Storage Rings, Accelerators, and Experimentation at ‘Super-High Energies (1963), BNL-7534, p.324 {6] A.J. Dragt, AIP Proc. 87 (1982) p.147 [7] K. Symon, AIP Proc. 249 (1992) p277 [8] T. Suzuki, KEK Report 96-10 (1996) 2.3.2 Tune Dependence on Momentum and Betatron Amplitudes D.A. Edwards, DESY, M. Syphers, BNL ‘Muiltipole expansion AB, +iABz = By ))(bn + tan)(e+iy)” (1) where Bo is the field on the reference trajectory, and by (dn) are the normal (skew) multipole coefficients (see also Sec.6.17.1). Here, we associate with the index n the 2(n + 1) pole. Thus bis the normal sextupole coefficient, and has dimension (length)~? (US convention), ‘Tune shift In 1-D z-motion, the change in phase advance over one turn occasioned by a momentum offset.6 = Ap/p or by a-distribution of n normal multipole fields is ov = 84% [Bnaoe x (Dir6+6 [22cov) 2 where a is the betatron oscillation amplitude at a reference location with amplitude function fo, is the betatron oscillation phase at the entry to the tur over which the above integral is performed. ‘Tune shift is the average of Ay) over qs. See Tab.1 [1]. The amplitude dependence of tune is sometimes called detuning. The dependence of tune shift on 6 describes the effect of nonlinear chromaticity. References [1] Superconducting Super Collider Conceptual De- sign Report, SSC-SR-2020 (1986) 2.33 Norilinear Resonances DA. Edwards, DESY, M. Syphers, BNL ‘Floquet transformation In coordinates ¢ 2//B-and $ = /v, the 1-D equation of motionSec.2.3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS. becomes nbBlGd) BD) “ Bay Po [(9/%tm) + (OM NG +(6 ba) +--+] ‘The perturbative driving term on the rh.s, suggests potential resonant effects when kv = n for any integers k,n. Resonant tunes Lowest order perturbation theory yields that in the presence of multipole terms of order P, a first integral of the motion in 2-D (a, y) takes the form [1] ae wii @ where M and N are positive integers such that M +N = P +1. The — sign in Eq.(2) indicates unstable sum resonances Mv, + Nvy = k, while + sign gives difference resonances Mvz—Nvy = k with bounded, though coupled, motion. The resonances excited by sextupoles (P = 2) are @ constant normal skew We 2p + Vy Y_+2vy normal 3y, kew ‘The alternation between normal and skew excitation is characteristic regardless of the multipole. Resonance width Adiabatic approach to a sum resonance, perpendicular (in v.-Y, tune space) to a resonance line, deforms phase space. The resonance width definition below is the distance in tune space straddling the resonance line within which 90% of an initially Gaussian beam is unstable, 2-D resonances tend to have broader widths than their 1-D counterparts. An example is tabulated below for sextupole-driven resonances at the Tevatron design parameters, with oz = oy = 9, Resonance Width 3vz 0.2660-A,, Qvetry 0.4950 B, Vet 2vy 0.4957 AR By 660 Bi, The driving terms for an Mv; + Nvy = k resonance are [2] a = esta \" Ap = mi® ae buena 2 x cos barnes + xe gi aie (Grek oy i) ouen—t cos rag (Mb= + N6>)] @) where fp is a reference amplitude function at which o is calculated, The starting point of the integration is varied around the synchrotron to max- mize the integrals in Eq.(3). Be x References [1] E.D. Courant, H.S. Snyder, Ann. Phys. 3 (1958) 1 [2] TL. Coltins, D.A. Edwards, Fermilab Tech. Memo. TM-614 (1975); TLL. Collins, Fermilab TM-1405 (1986) 2.3.4 Synchro-Betatron Resonances A. Piwinski, DESY Synchro-betatron resonances (or satellite resonances) are excited when wm with k, m # 0, and n integers. These resonances reduce the lifetime of the beams drastically and limit the performance of circular accelerators, Sometimes they are single particle effects, but more often they depend strongly on the bunch current, The main mechanisms for the excitation of synchro-betatron resonances are dispersions in sextupoles, dispersions in rf cavities, transverse fields in rf cavities, and the beam-beam interaction (Sec.2.6.1) at a crossing angle. The excitation by the natural chromaticity [1, 2], where all sidebands of the integer resonances are excited, is weaker and compensated by sextupoles. Dispersion insextupoles The changes of x’ and y/ in a sextupole depend on ke((xg + D26)? — (yp + Dyé)*] and on Klee + Dz6)(ys + Dy) where 6 = AE/E, k, = integrated sextupole strength, and Dz, = horizontal and vertical dispersion at the sextupoles. These kicks excite the third order betatron resonances 3v; = n. and ‘n, and the following satellite reso- kus + by + my =n Horizontal satellites, =n (excited by D;) 1 (excited by D2 — QW, ty Ve 2M oe)‘Vertical satellites: Qt, = n (excited by Dz) vy £2v, = n (excited by DzDy) Satellites of the betatron coupling resonances Up Uy Vy = ni (excited by Dy) It is assumed that the synchrotron oscillation cenergy is much larger than the betatron oscillation energy, so that the synchrotron coordinates are not changed by the betatron coordinates. For a more precise calculation one has to take into account the path lengthening due to the betatron oscillation [4, 5]. ‘The rise times for the satellites of the betatron coupling resonances are [3] Z Sve Tiny fo fay ® | YL ken Dyny/BonByne! Panton) where 6 is the energy oscillation amplitude, fo is the revolution frequency. For the satellites with a distance of v,/2 from integer and half integer resonances, rh 8 hmDenBaanetn| and for satellites with a distance of 2v, from integer resonances, 1 _ fe 2 - D2) a Tes 2VelS [ken (Din — Din) Bene @) aoe re [am Pen Dan Pinte Note that ua the rise times on 2vz,y F Vs = 1. ‘give an exponential increase. The other rise times depend on the amplitudes and change with increasing amplitude, All these satellites can be compensated by varying the sextupole strength so that the sums in Eqs.(2) to (5) vanish. Dispersion in cavities In a cavity the energy of ‘a patticle is changed and its closed orbit is shifted by D.6E/E. This changes the betatron coordinate by bag = aed © = -p.t [an (6,424) -sno] B Ch.2; BEAM DYNAMICS. with V = cavity voltage, @s = synchronous phase, = rf wavelength, z = longitudinal position. A similar equation is obtained for 62x. Only that part of the energy change which varies with the synchrotron frequency plays a role for a resonance, and not the constant radiation losses. The change of z per revolution can be written 45) b= $5 (o+ 0.5 at = Aytg + Aaaly — wo SE mM with = g[Petene Bz(1—c0s 12) +22] 6s) Aa = ~De(t~ 08s) ~ Dzsin pe Dy = Dubs FDobt Hz = betatron phase advance, a) = momentum compaction factor, C’= circumference. 2g, 2/5, Bz» Bly Dz, and Dz refer to the beginning of the revolution, For linear betatron and synchrotron oscillations an exact solution for the coupled motion can be found. The phases j11,2 of the eigenvalues of the revolution matrix, ‘on the resonance Up Vy =n, are [4] 2 Hi2 = Heys + (1—c08 Ha) CB. sin jis Eq.(8) shows that an instability occurs, ie. the amplitudes grow exponentially, when sin iz > 0. This is a difference resonance, since Ys }z/2n — nis always smaller than 0.5. Nonlinear satellite resonances with |m| > 1 [Eq.(1)] can be investigated approximately. An invariant of motion is [4] a + 2B ego Inmv, ® const, ° where &g and é are the oscillation amplitudes. For most cases the second term in Eq.(9) dominates, and the change of the betatron amplitude is larger than the change of the synchrotron amplitude, Above transition, for satellite resonances Eq.(1), an instability occurs for a difference resonance. This is opposite to the case of ~y coupling resonances, for which difference resonances are stable and sum resonances are unstable. Be- low transition (ap7* < 1), one has to replace apSec.2.3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS. by (apy? — 1)/(7? — 2);.then satellite resonances behave similarly to the 2-y coupling resonances. ‘Synchro-betatron resonances due to a dispersion, as satellites of integer resonances, were first observed in NINA [6] and later in SPEAR [7], PE- ‘TRA [4], DORIS IM[8}, and LEP [9]. They can be compensated with dispersion bumps. ‘Transverse fields with Jongitudinal variation ‘Transverse fields which vary in longitudinal direction inside the bunch can be produced by the ac- ccelerating voltage [10] or by the bunch itself (11. In both cases they are caused by asymmetries of the cavities or by an off-centered passage of the bunch. The excitation can be calculated exactly for Tesonances Vz,y +t Vs = n. For horizontal excitation the kick is / ia! = 8 £ [ee +vBy)dt (10) ‘The integral is taken along the path of the particle between two limits where the fields vanish. The kick can then be linearized to yield ba! = Gz where G= $ [Ga ay ‘The same fields also perturb synchrotron motion, The corresponding energy change which varies linearly with the transverse position of a parte in the bunch is Os ee ge og [ Fivd=Ger~Ge (12) Eqs.(11) and (12) describe a linear coupling. On the linear resonance v, +7, = n the phases of the eigenvalues of the revolution matrix are G [apCBee 12 = Mae = 3) where Gze is the 3-function at the cavity. The oscillation amplitudes increase exponentially on a difference resonance. Assuming a constant synchrotron amplitude, the growth rate for the betatron amplitude fg is [4] é, 1 Ge = 20 p.fo8 where 2 is the synchrotron amplitude. ‘These satellites can be compensated with help of orbit bumps in-the cavity sections. Since the excitation by a dispersion and the excitation by transverse fields are additive, both mechanisms can amplify or compensate each other depending on the phases of the dispersion and the orbit. ‘Since most of the satellites are current dependent, the compensation is complete only for a specific bunch current. (4) 4 Beam-beam interaction with a crossing angle A particle. with longitudinal distance z from the center of a bunch and a betatron displacement zp receives a beam-beam transverse kick (Dz = 0). dah = flap +42) «asy with f the function describing the beam-beam force and 2¢ the total crossing angle. The synchrotron oscillation is also influenced by the betatron oscillation, 6p, = 9 6pz, and SE 8p Os. Pe peal BE pop = O85 = OF (ae + $2) (16) The complete coupling is described by Eqs.(15). and (16). For small oscillation amplitudes one gets a linear coupling Sup + $2) & — with a? ——rNab: 2n70z,en(Ozen + Fy) oxen = JOE POR, Np = number of particles per bunch, f= B-function at the IP, 73,2, = 1ms Tongitudinal, horizontal and vertical bunch sizes. With linear coupling, the phases 1,2 of the eigen- &= a8) values are [4] = fa + 2ne 4 Inky apts, as) 7 pC = %O On9) He = Ha 2m 6g? age Brain, CO See also Sec.2,6.1.3. Computer simulations [12] can be used to determine the strength of higher order satellites. In case of a horizontal crossing all satellites can be excited for which k + m is even (for antisymmet- tic space charge force and beam centers colliding head-on). Many resonances ate suppressed if the: IPs are equidistant. Ifthe phase advances between the IPs are different, e.g. due to machine errors, more resonances can be excited. ‘Experiments with DORIS I [12] as well as the, simulations show that the synchro-betatron resonances excited by the beam-beam interaction with a crossing angle reduce mainly the lifetime and do not affect seriously the beam size or the luminosity. Four parameters determine the reduction of the lifetime: (i) the normalized crossing angle 40/02, (ii) the beam-beam parameter €, (ii) the synchrotron tune Vs, and (iv) the physical or dynamical aperture.References [1] ¥. Orlov, Sov. Phys. JETP, V5 (1957) 45 [2] KW. Robinson, CEA-54 (1958) 13] A. Piwinski, DESY 93-187 (1993) 14] A. Piwinski, 11th Int. Conf. on High-Energy Acc. (1980) p.638 5] A. Piwinski, A. Wrulich, DESY 76/07 (1976) [6] M.C. Crowley-Milling, LI. Rabinowitz, PAC 77, 1052 [7] SPEAR Group, PAC 75, p. 1366 [8] H. Nesemann, 15th Int. Conf. on High Energy ‘Ace, (1992) p.549 (9] JM. Jowett et al, EPAC 90, p.1612 [10] N.A. Vinokurov et al, 10th Int. Conf. on High Energy Acc. (1977)p.272 [11] RM, Sundelin, PAC 79, p.3604 [12] A. Piwinski, PAC 77, p.1408 23.8 Taylor Maps J. Irwin, SLAC A, Dragt, U. Maryland Taylor expansion The equations of motion for a charged particle in an EM field, including the average effect (but not the stochastic effect) of synchrotron radiation, can be written in the form Fhe Kes) = Blaze) J= LN a Given initial conditions 2* at reference position s*, Eq.(1) can be integrated to yield unique final conditions Z/ at position s/. Z* and Z/ are related by the transfer map M, of = Mz @ Integrating Eq.(1) backward in time, the map M is always invertible, Bam z @) Theorem of Poincare: if f;(Z, s) are analytic (have convergent Taylor series) in sand Z, then 2 is analytic in Z*, For charged particle motion, fy involve electromagnetic fields obtained from Maxwell eqations and the conditions for Poincare’s theorem are met, Let Z refer to deviation coordinates from some reference orbit. With 2 being analytic in Z*, M has a Taylor representation (TRANS- PORT) af = SRwekt DTnekeh ® @ + OU juemzbzizin kim + YD Vintmnzi etches + Kirin @ 15 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS which converge for sufficiently small Z with some finite radius of convergence [1]. If Z = (2,2',y,y',t, 6), then Riz is the coefficient of the 2’ term in the expansion of 2: af = Rust + Ryo +---, while Tyg is the coefficient of y/*6* in the expansion for y/ [2]. The number of .monomials of degree 0 through D in N variables is (D + N)!/(DINI). Therefore, if Eq.(4) is truncated beyond terms of degree D, the number of coefficients required to describe such a truncated Taylor map is N(D + N)I/(DIN}). Generating Taylor maps With present techniques of manipulating truncated power series (Sec.2.3.7), it is easy to find these Taylor maps, basically by “tracking” a power series element- by-clement through the lattice, If one must pre- ‘serve symplecticity to the order truncated, canonical variables and “symplectic integrators” may be used [1]. Ina beamline, one or more segments may be of special interest, e.g. a final focus system, a collimator system, or a switch. In the final focus system, s/ is chosen to be the IP. To avoid having the map coefficients depend on the choice of s', one can write the map as a linear map from s* to the TP, followed by a nonlinear map from the IP to itself. If the segment has no significant beginning or end point, but the main interest is its effect at the IP (e.g. a beamline switch in front of a final focus system), one can write the map as a linear map from an arbitrary s* to the IP, a nonlinear map at the IP, and a linear map from the IP to arbitrary sf. fone has several sections referenced to the IP in this manner, they can be composed to give the nonlinear map for the combined sections. For a one-turn map in a circular ring of circumference C, s/ = s*4-C, one can write the map as a linear map around the ring composed with a nonlinear map at s/. The linear map can be further factorized into a map to normalized variables, a phase rotation of the normalized variables, and a map back to physical variables. Using the map to normalized variables, the nonlinear map can be written in terms of normalized coordinates. This can also be done in linear beamlines if the linear ‘beam distribution is specified at some position. Applications of Taylor Maps Maps can be used to replace and speed up element-by-element tracking, to look at aberration content, or to monitor a design process. To look at aberration content one converts the Taylor series to an exponen-Sec.2.3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS tial represention, in which each coefficient corresponds to a unique and readily identifiable aber- tation (Sec.2.3.6). For storage rings, these aberrations can also be specified in an action-angle resonance basis. To monitor a design process one examines the aberration coefficients at each step to ascertain hoped-for improvements. Design ‘codes can be cross-checked by comparing aberration strengths, ‘Experience shows that tracking with high- order maps gives the same results as element-by- element tracking. The needed order of the map depends upon the purpose for which the map is to be used. To get the proper dynamic aperture for electron storage rings for 10° turns, maps of 7th to Sth order are sufficient. For proton storage rings for 10° turns, 11th order seems sufficient. For special-purpose single-pass beamlines, such as final focus systems for linear colliders, 4th order maps are usually sufficient. Fast tracking with maps allows one to explore entire tune planes. For electron rings, it is possible to track with the exponentiated form in action- angle (resonance basis) variables [3]. It is possible to make artificial changes in the aberration content of maps and observe the effect on dynamic aperture to gather information on ways to improve the design. If there are no rf or time varying elements between s* and sf then vat raete y's) 6) Here 6 appears as an external parameter, and it is often sufficient to retain only the first few terms in an expansion in 6, When rf elements are present it is often sufficient to study maps between such elements, The 6-dependent chromatic terms need attention because the transverse emittance is typically several orders of magnitude smaller than the longitudinal, In designing a storage ring, one in- variably looks at the é-dependence of the tunes and -functions, and devises schemes that minimize this dependence, Tunes and -functions can be found from Taylor maps using a normal form process (Sec.2.3.6). It is important to understand how these 6-dependent terms arise (and cancel) in beamline sections. The use of Taylor maps, expressed in different coordinate systems, and their transformation to Lie and normal forms, have become standard tools of contemporary optical system design. ‘These maps provide insight into the nature and 6 presence of aberrations and ways to compensate them. References [1] A. Dragt, U. Maryland Phys, Dept. report (1998) [2] K. Brown, SLAC-75-REV-4 (1982) [3] ¥-T. Yan, J. Irwin, T. Chen, PA 54 (1996) 263, 23.6 Lie Maps A. Dragt, U. Maryland Map and Lie methods provide a framework for ab- stract concepts and computational algorithms related to these concepts, They are an extension of linear concepts and algorithms into the nonlinear regime [1, 2, 3,4]. Poisson Brackets, Symplectic Matrices Let f and g be functions of the phase-space variables % = (41 P1, 425 P2, 4s, Ps) The Poisson bracket: [fg] = a) Fundamental Poisson brackets: [za] = Jos, 2jb=1,6 — Q) where 010000 -10 0000 70h 00 4. 01.0 Hat 0 0 Oj 000001 0000-10 Free Space Choose (x,Pes¥,Pystft) as canonical coordinates, where B= Pe Pe ® with pe = —(m@ct + p2c?)¥/2 = —yme? and PP = —[mPct + (p°c)?]}/? and p° the design mo- ‘mentum, Coordinate £ is time of flight relative to synchronous particle, Or choose dimensionless scaled canonical coordinates (£ a convenient scale length), X=a/é , Pr=ps/p? v/é , Py=p,/p° tactile , Pr=f/(p'o) Relation between P, and momentum deviation © 5=(p—P)/p?: Py = —(1/fo){{1 + (26 + 6°) 63}'/2 — 1} —Bob + (6°/2)(63 — Bo) +--+ 6 = [1-2P,/H+ Pa -1 = —P;/Bo + (P?/2)(1 ~ Bo?) +++where Sy = v°/c = —p°c/p?. Hamiltonian in drift space with s = z as the independent variable and (X, Pz, Y, Py, 7, Pr) as dependent variables is 2P, Haj = pi pag Pe FEF P+ aah 8) Using H, re Ps bene al” Pet. Be Pry + FPG +P ® ‘The TRANSPORT variable a’ equals P, in lowest order, but has second-order chromatic and higher- order geometric and chromatic differences. The variables X, 2' do not form a canonical pair, (Ka AL (10) Consequently, their use makes it difficult to verify or exploit the symplectic condition. See below. Symplectic Maps Given transfer map M, form the Jacobi matrix M (2), 24 Mae!) = Fe ay Ifthe system is Hamiltonian, a is symplectic. for all initial conditions 24, M¢(z‘)IM(z') = J, Wz* (12) A transfer map satisfying Eq,(12) is a symplectic map. Truncating a Taylor map generally violates Eq.(12). ‘The set of all symplectic maps forms a group: the inverse of any symplectic map exists, and is also symplectic; and the product of any two symplectic maps is again a symplectic map. Lie Operator Associated with any function fe, t) of phase-space variables z and time t is differential Lie operator, Sof 0 of a Lane an =9 ‘f9=l9) $9 = loll (gh) = Gf:g)h + gf:h) (4) Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Defined above are Hamiltonian Lie operators. A general Lie operator (or vector field) L, is defined by & a Ly= doa «asy where 2 = (¢1,9,-+-2y), and 94(2),6 = 1, N are a collection of NV functions of «. Hamiltonian Lie operators are when 1V is even and gs(2) = Da(0f/za) Jao. Non-Hamiltonian vector fields are used for dissipative effects (e.g. synchrotron radiation). Lie Transformations, Symplectic Maps Lie transformation associated with generators :f: or f is defined as Rules: ay Lie transformation is used to define a map M, Ale) = es (e))a8 (a8) or more compactly, a= M2! with M=exp(:f:) (19) ‘Maps of the form (19) are always symplectic. ‘Tab.1 gives a few examples. Conversely, for any analytic symplectic map M which sends 24 to z/, there are unique functions A(z), £5024), H9(e4), fale, ne, S such that (Drage -Finn factorization) M 0) Each f(z‘) is a homogeneous polynomial of degree m in 2', and f$* are of the form fe) = ph sitet where S* and S* are = matrices that commute and anticommute with J, respectively. e/t produces translations in phase space (constant erms in Taylor map), ee produces the linear matrix R, e'/ produces T , U and higher order terms, e'/' produces U, etc. Unlike Taylor enSec.2.3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS Table 1; Example Lie maps for some ideal beam line elements, Beamline element] Lie Map Drift length Z exp[- HP? owest order) +P} + pled ‘Thin quad. Q exp(—$:X? — ¥?:) Thin sext. S exp(—$:X® — 3XY:) Kick AP, = {(X) | expl: f° S(@)dz4] ‘t-deflection d exp(4:X:) ‘Thick quad. k, L exp(—L:H:) where H = wyRolrs + TEE z-phase advance @ | exp(—$:P? + X?:) a-phase advance | exp(—$:GP? with Courant +20X Py + 7X?) Snyder parameters series, the factored product Eq.(20) can be truncated at any point while remaining symplectic, ‘To reproduce the Taylor coefficients for a symplectic map M through terms of degree D, it is necessary to specify the generators fi, f2 «+ fai. In the case of N variables this requires [-1+ (D+1+N)!/(D +1)IN1] coefficients, Formula [2]: axtpiy, — f e[l + a(a — f)a%-1pP-1]0/(6-2) oan | ap caae” p=) Pip — { PIL +a(a ~ B)2etph-1}o/(a-A) a {renee ty ) ; 22) where the upper entries are for a # (3; the lower ‘entries are for a = B. Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff Theorem In a ‘matrix setting, the BCH theorem (a deep property of exponential functions) is stated as follows: Let A and B be any two square matrices of same dimension. Form matrices exp(sA) and exp(tB) where s and t are parameters. For s and # sufficiently small, the matrix C with exp(sA) exp(tB) = exp(C) (23) is a sum (BCH serics) of elements formed only from A and B and their multiple commutators, C(s,t) = sA+tB+ Sa,B} 8 vt + Ata, By} +5 BB, A} 2 - 2 aBy + O(stt, 5°12, 5%, st") In the setting of Lie operators, exp(s:f:) exp(tig:) = exp(:h:) (24) (25) 2 ha of ttt Zipa)+ Su tial + Yo. n- 2 £0 plosliall + (26) ) af: 17) en tg: + O(P) (28) Inversion and Concatenation Formulae The inverse of Eqs.(19) and (20) are = Deka : where Rf is the symplectic matrix associated with Ry. Two symplectic maps G0) ccan be concatenated into My Mh = Raexp(:hs:) exp(: R= RRS hs = fi +93 3) 1 hg = fb + 94+ 518,95) hs = ff to.-io m+} F981 he = fe +96— oe a Ff + FU oe — HE Fool = Howth oll + sen + HA os, LF golHere fi denotes the transformed homogeneous polynomial of degree m, Sinl2) = foal R)~*2] G4) There are also formulae when My and M, contain fy and gi factors. Product (concatenation) formulae are used to find the net map for successive beamline ele- ‘ments. In a circular machine, they are also used to find the one-turn (or multiple-turn) map. Fi- nally, they are used to convert Eq.(29) for M-! into standard factored product form. ‘Computation of Maps For each beamline element, M obeys the equation of motion dM/ds = M: - H: with the initial condition M(0) =. autonomous When the Hamiltonian H of a straight beamline element (length L) is independent of s, the map for the body of the element is M = exp(-L:H:) (36) ‘This map can be converted to factored product form and then concatenated with other maps. ‘To convert an exponential form to a factored product form, one way is to apply M to 2‘ to generate a Taylor map, then to use the Taylor map to construct the functions fi, ff, f2, far far -* Other ways, better convergent for large L or large H, involve scaling, splitting, and squaring methods. Ronautonomous When the Hamiltonian is not constant (fringe fields, field non-uniformity), the transfer map is written in the reverse factorized form G5) M=--- exp(:fa)exp(:fa:)R G7) Expand H in homogeneous polynomials #H=Hz+H3+Ha+--: 8) Let S be the symmetric matrix with Hz (1/2) Dab Sab%a7. The matrix R that describes Robeys F.3SR, initial cond. R(0)=1 G9) Correspondingly, fm obey de ds ae ds Se ds 9 ‘Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS. dfs 7 Se = WHE + fe HE) + Fife) pal HE") + 3: fa2(-HE) +EfeS (CHP), ete, 40) with the initial conditions Srn(0)y @) Here the interaction picture quantities Hi8* are homogeneous polynomials of degree m, H(z) = Hm(Rz) 42). Eqs.(39)-(42) are to be integrated numerically. Once R and the fm are determined, Eq.(37) can be converted to standard factored product form by concatenation, Given magnetic field data on the surface of some cylinder surrounding the reference orbit, or- short spinning coil data, or source current distributions, it is possible to make a local (s dependent) multipole analysis from which one can find H as given in Eq.(38). Thus, maps can be computed without idealization or approximation directly from measured or computed field data 25,6). Tn general it is the local multipole strength, rather than the integrated strength, that matters. (Iwo successive sextupoles of equal length Z and ‘opposite strength have an integrated strength of zero. Yet they are not equivalent to a drift of length 2D.) In this connection, note that for current dominated magnets there are windings for which all undesired multipoles vanish locally, and not just globally in the integrated sense [7]. Application of Maps Three well-developed uses for maps: analysis, tracking, and the treat- ‘ment of moments. Analysis (single-pass systems) Write the total transfer map M in the form M = LT where L is a map (often linear) describing the desired behavior for the system and T describes aberrations. ‘Tab.2 gives examples of aberration maps of a spot forming or final focus system. Suppose the system is made of two sections Mi,z and a corrector Cis placed between them, Then'T is replaced by T' with Tl =TM31CM2 (43) Analogous formulae apply for the case of several correctors at several locations. The correctors and their locations are selected so that 7’ is free of offensive generators.‘Sec.2,3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS ‘Table 2: Example aberration maps. ‘Aberration ‘Aberration map T™ Crom. horiz. steering | oxn(e:P, P,:) | (ispersion), strength e Chom. horiz. focusing | oxp(e/2:P2P,:) strength T = exp(:aPs +bP2P? + cPA:) Analysis (circulating systems) Here, normal form analysis is useful [2, 3, 4, 8]. Let M be the ‘one-turn map. Its normal form is N=AMA* 4) where A is a symplectic map selected to make as simple as possible. In case of a static map (no rf), A can be selected so that N = exp(—:h:) 45) ho = (we +whP, + whP2)he + (wy + uP, + wh P?)hy + ah3 + bhshy + chy + dP? + ePi+ fPAte 46) with hy = (X? + P2)/2, hy = (¥? + P2)/2. In principle (46) can be extended to arbitrary order (~ 12" order in practice) providing the tunes are ot resonant to that order. Coefficients in (46): ‘© We, Wy give the “tunes” (= w/2r) of the on- energy closed orbit. wh, uf, ae first-order chromaticities. © w/, wil are second-order chromaticities. © a, b, c are “anharmonicities” i.e. how tunes depend on betatron amplitudes. ©, e, f are linear and higher order “momentum compaction” terms. Map NV’ = exp(—:h:) sends circles in the X, Px and Y, Py planes into themselves, ie. it describes idealized betatron motion. Map A gives complete information about all linear and nonlinear ‘Courant-Snyder parameters, lattice functions (including nonlinear distortion functions) and their chromatic behavior, the closed orbit and coupling effects, Thus, A and A~! describe the transformation between the actual and the idealized betatron motion, Quantities PY = AThey 4) 80 are invariant under the action of M, ie. MI? = J*¥, and generalize Courant-Snyder invariants to nonlinear case. Applying map A-} to turn-by-turn tracking, data, the transformed data lie on circles in the X, Pz and Y, Py planes to the extent that the normal form process succeeds. This presentation of tracking data provides a test for the existence of KAMtori. Let A; and Az be the factors in A that remove closed-orbit offsets and bring the linear part of the remaining map to normal form, respectively. Write the partially normalized map as M! = (AgAr)M(A2Ai)“? = Raexp(:gs') exp (48) Ry = exp(wethe: + wythy: +d:P2:) (49) The generators gs, g4,-++ can be expanded in eigenvectors of the Lie operators :hz: and :hy:. ‘These eigenvectors form the static resonance basis. When such an expansion is made, the coefficients of the various resonance basis vectors are the resonance driving terms in the map M. ‘Methods of this section can be generalized to time dependent dynamic maps (powered rf cavities). All synchrotron oscillation effects are then taken into account including synchro-betatron coupling and resonance effects. ‘Tracking To compute single-particle transport, it is necessary to evaluate (Mz') with M given by Eq.(20). The effect of exp(:fi:) is to produce a phase-space translation, and the exp(:/2:) factors produce the linear transformation (30), The effect of the remaining product of factors exp(:fa:) exp(:fa:) --+ is more difficult to evaluate, Several approaches are currently available. First, a power series of the form (4) in Sec.2.3.5, truncated beyond terms of degree D, may be used. Although truncation generally violates the symplectic condition, such an approach is usually adequate for single-pass systems such as linacs, beam lines, telescopes, and final focus systems. The symplectic condition can be better maintained by retaining more terms in the expansion (16). This can be done for cach of the factors in the product exp(:f3: ternatively, we can combine the generators :, +++into a single exponent using the BCH se- ties, and then use a truncated version of (16) to evaluate the exponential of this single exponent. This method often proves satisfactory for a modest number of turns in a circulating system.For long-term tracking it is necessary to maintain the symplectic condition exactly. For element-by-clement tracking, which is slow, this may be done by using symplectic integrators, ‘When a one-turn map is employed, which is much faster if feasible, mixed-variable generating function or Cremona map approximations to the one- turn map may be used. Inthe generating function approach the action of the product exp(: fa :) exp(: fa :)- ++ is repre~ sented by the implicit (and guaranteed symplectic) map p'=0OF/oq', q =OF/dp! (50) where F(q‘,p!) = g' -p! + P(g',p!) and Pisa polynomial that can be calculated from the polynomials fs, f+. The relations (50) are solved numerically using Newton's method [3]. ‘A Cremona map C is a map that is both polynomial and exactly symplectic. A Cremona map approximation consists of a series of maps C1, C2 +++Gm such that exp(: fa :)expG fa?) srexp(: f+ :) = C1Ca+*'Cm (51) ‘The construction of satisfactory Cremona approx imations requires a knowledge of group theory and cubature formulae on the manifolds S? and SU (3)/SO(3). In general the number of maps m depends on the degree D. For 4 and 5 dimensional phase space one has m = 12,24, 30, 32,50, and 72 for D = 4,6,7,8, 10, and 13, respectively. Because Cremona maps are polynomial and exactly symplectic, they can be evaluated rapidly on a computer to give results that are symplectic to machine precision, It has been found for the LHC that tracking using a Cremona approximation to the one-turn map satisfactorily reproduces its dynamic aperture, and is at least an order of magnitude faster than element-by-element tracking [9]. ‘Moments Suppose /h(2) is the initial distribution function describing a collection of particles in phase space. Define initial moments Z%,.,.. by the rule Fite [darleyraraze: ” (62) Alternatively let Pa(z), where is some run- ning index, denote a complete set of homogeneous polynomials in z through terms of some fixed degree. Then one can define initial moments smi by the rule mi, = ii @Pzh(z)Palz) (63) 81 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Next suppose the particle distribution is transported through some system described by a map M. Then the final distribution at the end of the system is h(M~1z). Correspondingly, the final ‘moments are given by i dzh(M-12)Pa(2) J d®zh(z)Pa(Mz) md, al (64) Since the P, are complete, there is an expansion of the form Pa(Mz) = S>Dap(M)Pa(z) (55) 3 where the Dag(M) are coefficients that can be calculated for any transfer map M. It follows that ‘moments transform linearly according to the rule mf, = 7 Dap(M)mi, (66) 2 Let m be a vector with components ma, and let D(M) be a matrix with entries Das(M). Write (56) in the more compact form m/ D(M)mé. A function of moments I{m] is said to be a kinematic invariant if it obeys the relation T[D(M)m} = Im] 67) for all symplectic maps M. Rather little is known about the existence and properties of kinematic invariants for the set ofall symplectic maps. How- ever, all kinematic invariants have been found when the symplectic maps M are restricted to be linear {10}. Of particular interest are kinematic invariants that can ‘bg constructed from the second- order moments 25). For a 3-degree of freedom system, there are 3 such functionally independent invariants, 1") (2) = e(ZON™), m=2,4,6 (58) Since Z®) is 6 x 6, it has 6 eigenvalues. It can be shown from symplectic group theory that they all are positive, have degeneracy two, and thus have the values 1, Az, and As. The quantities (Aj)? are mean-square eigen emittances that generalize the 1-D mean-square emittances €? = (q*){p?) — (ap)? to the fully coupled case. In terms of the Aj the kinematic invariants have the values IS” = 2(-1)"7[,\P 4 4P +AZ], meven (59)‘Sec.2,3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS References [1] A. Dragt, AIP Proc. 87 (1982) [2] A. Dragt, U. Maryland Phys. Dept. report (1998) {3] A. Dragtet al, Ann. Rey, Nucl. Part, Sci 38 (1988) 455 [4] E. Forest, Beam Dynamics: A New Attitude and Framework, Harwood Academic (1998) (5) M, Venturini, A. Dragt, U. Maryland Phys. Dept, report (1998) 16] P, Walstrom et al, Linac 90; LANL Report LA- 12004-C Conf. (1991) (7) P, Walstrom et al, LANL Report LA-UR-90-4040; IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol30, 00.4 (1994); LANL Report LA-UR-91-3496 (1991) [8] E, Forest et al, PA 24 (1989) 91 {9] D. Abell, Ph.D. Thesis (1995); D. Abell, A. Dragt, U, Maryland Phys. Dept. report (1998) (10) A. Dragtet al, PR A45 (1992) 2572 23,7 Differential Algebraic Techniques M. Berz, Michigan State U. The DA techniques used in beam physics [1] allow the convenient computation of high-order Taylor expansions of the transfer map M which relates final particle coordinates Z to initial coordinates Z; and parameters 8, 4 = M(G8) w The map M is the flow (solution depending on initial conditions) of ODEs z! = F(Z,s), independent variables (2) Because accelerators are only weakly nonlinear, the Taylor expansion usually converges rapidly. Since their introduction (2], DA techniques have been utilized in most newly developed codes [3]- {10}. ‘The DA methods have their origin in the algebraic study of problems involving differentiation and integration for the purpose of solving complicated integrals, ODEs, and PDEs. The topic was, pioneered by Liouville [11] in connection with the question of which elementary functions have elementary integrals. It was then put on a solid foun- dation and significantly enhanced by Ritt [12, 13] and Kolchin [14, 15]. Now the methods have gained prominence in the field of formula manipulation, where they provide the backbone of the theory of analytic quadrature and integration of ODES [16]. Fora given function f of v variables, we form ‘a vector that contains all Taylor expansion coefficients at = 0 up to a certain order n. Knowing 82 this vector for two functions f and g allows to compute the respective vector for f +g and f - 9, since the derivatives of the sum and product function is uniquely defined from those of f and g. ‘The resulting operations of addition and multiplication lead to an algebra, the so-called Truncated Power Series Algebra (TPSA) [17, 18, 19]. One ‘can also introduce elementary functions like exp, sin etc. on TPSA. TPSA allows the convenient computation of derivatives of any functional de- pendency on a computer [21]. For the solution of ODEs and PDEs it is necessary to introduce another operation. For any fixed function g with g(0) = 0, itis possible to determine the Taylor coeflicients of g - 0/8; = 4,4f from those of f. Including the operation 3, 4 with addition and multiplication leads to a differential algebra (DA). Details on this particular DA can be found in [1, 25, 21}. For practical work with DA, care has to be taken to provide elementary operations +, «, 3,,i that work to any order and any number of variables. Since usually many derivatives vanish due to symmetry, the active support of sparsity is essential [19]. Solutions of ODEs and PDEs To determine the map Eq.(1), it is necessary to solve the ODEs Eq.(2). Since usually fields are known only in the midplane, it is often also necessary to solve their PDEs in the process. The crudest approach to solve Eq.(2) is to replace all operations in a tracking code by the corresponding ones in DA [18, 2]. This approach is similar in flavor to the modification of existing code through pre-processors performing “automatic differentiation” [20, 21}, although their derivatives are almost always only ‘obtained to first order, and the real challenge lies in the efficient handling of very large numbers of independent variables. An important practical problem is to obtain higher order terms cor- rectly. This can be done by reducing the step size significantly. This approach has been used to retrofit several existing tracking codes, including SIXTRACK and TEAPOT, for the extraction of high-order DA maps. Using DA techniques it is possible to obtain more robust and efficient integrators. One way is ‘based on the common rewriting of the ODE as a fixed point problem, Mt %=Ht] f(@,3de @) Utilizing the operation 8 for the integral, theproblem can be iterated in DA with 3 as an additional variable. It can be shown that iteration converges to the exact result in n steps, where is the order of the DA operations; moreover, this is not affected if in the ith iteration step the overall order is reduced to i. The result is an nth order integrator; for a given accuracy demand, the integrator typically results in a speed-up of about an order of magnitude, Similarly, itis also possible to solve PDEs in finitely many steps. For this purpose, one elimi- nates differentiation with respect to one variable by integration. For a the PDE v av, aga ngage am @ which describes the scalar potential in particle optical relative coordinates, is rewritten as v= Veet Lt grleo © 418 2%) 12, a) fyb, Ba Be? * by Bee and again, iteration converges to the exact result in finitely many steps. For ODEs that are time independent and for which 7 = Oisa solution, which is the case in particle optical relative coordinates, another method can be applied. For a given function on phase space 9 (Z, 8), it is possible to obtain its derivative along the true solution via fo@=7-¥orZo=179 © the operator L is usually called the vector field of the ODE, and apparently we also have d/ds” g = Lig. If g is not explicitly time dependent, the operator L’ can be evaluated directly within DA for any n; using it for g = 2), the components of the vector Z, we obtain an integrator of adjustable order. This method is utilized in the code COSY [3]; an element is typically traversed. in one step, and orders of 25-30 are usually chosen to obtain integration to neatly machine precision. To conclude we also note that for certain particle optical systems, including the notoriously improperly treated fringe fields, there are other efficient and fast perturbative methods to obtain approximate solutions of high accuracy, like the method of symplectic scaling [22]. Advanced DA operations and manipulation of maps Given the nth order representations of 83 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS two maps M,, and Nj, itis possible to determine the nth order representation of their composition Mno Np as long as Np has no constant parts. To this end, one simply inserts the components of Nn, into the polynomial defined by the coefficients of Ma. This allows to determine the map of a combined system from the maps of the subsystems. Its also possible to obtain the nth order representation Np of the inverse of Mp, as long as its linear partis invertible, To this end, one writes Mn= My + Mf, where M1 is the linear part of Mp. Then we have (Mi +Mj) oNn Mi oN + M3 oNn Nn = MyM(Z~ Mj oN) O) a fixed point problem for Nj. Beginning iteration with Nj, = Ty yields convergence to the exact result in n steps because Mj, is purely nonlinear. ‘The map of the reversion [23] of a system, i the system traversed backwards, is related to the inverse of the map; but since angles change directions when going backwards, the reversed map M, is M, = RoM10R @®) where Fi is the linear map that changes the signs of angles. Another application of the inverse map is re- constructive correction of aberrations in high resolution spectrographs [24], which has been used recently for the $800 at NSCL as well as the spectrographs at TINAF. To this end, not only final positions but also final angles are measured, and this information is used to computationally compensate the aberrations of the system. Specifically, it is approximated that all particles have zero « position at the reaction point; from the computed transfer map we then establish (x7, yy, ay, by) = S(vis6i, a4, s,), which upon inversion yields reaction energy and angles to precisions that are ‘sometimes two orders of magnitude higher than without correction, Inverse maps can also be used to establish mixed-variable generating functions that represent the map [25], which are useful for symplectic tracking. This has been used for tracking of the motion in the SSC (26, 27] and several other machines and is currently used for the study of LHC. Beginning from the n-th order map Mn, we create Nx, consisting of the position part of Mn, and an identity for the momenta; thus (Jy, fi) = Nna(Gis i). Similarly we construct Nn via >Sec.2.3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS (G7) = Noa(Gis Pi). Inversion of Nix} (if possible) yields (4,91) = Nyt (Zp, Pi), and composition with Np,2 from the right yields GiB) =Nna Nui GB) — ©) From this mixed-variable representation, the underlying generating function can be obtained by a mere integration along a suitable path; in a similar way as the case shown here, also all the other three common generating functions can be determined. It is also possible to obtain Lie factorizations, Mn =n {Mi exp(: fs 2) exp(: fa :)--}Z or Mn =n {...exp(: f4 :) exp(: fs )Ma}Z (0) of symplectic maps Mn [25], where =, means two functions are equal up to order n; in fact, the DA approach currently represents the only ‘method to obtain them to arbitrary order. The procedure is order-by-order, in the ith step, all orders, less then é have already been taken care of, and the problem is reduced to finding fi41 such that exp(:figt:)Z = I+ Vfiqs - J agrees with the given map to order é. This is an integration prob- Tem similar to the case of the generating functions above. ‘Another important manipulation of maps is the transformation to normal form (25] (Sec.2.3.6). The first step is the transformation to the parameter-dependent fixed point 7(5) which satisfies (2(5),6) = Mn(2(6), 4). Subtracting the non-parameter identity map TZ on both sides we have (0, 8) = (Mn — 7)(2(6), ), and thus (@8),8) = (Mn -72)-"(0,8) a) from which we read off 2(8) in the non-parameter lines. The linear part of the normal form algorithm itself is based on a study of the eigenvalue spectrum of the map; if they are distinct and complex, then it amounts to a diagonalization to the form ‘R, where the phases of the diagonal terms correspond to the tunes. The nonlinear part of the normal form algorithm consists of a sequence of transformations S, that to order n have the form. Sn = I+ Sp. The orders higher than n in S, can in principle be picked freely, and frequently they are chosen so that all transformations S, belong to the same symmetry group as the original map 25]. Up to order n, we have Sz! =n Z — Sp; letting Np = R + On denote the map that has been normalized to order n, we have Nn = Sn°Nn—19Sn =n (Z+Sn)oNn—10(Z-Sn) =n Rt Ont {Sno R-Ro Sn} (12) Apparently, the S,, in the commutator {5,0 R — Ro Sq} can now be chosen to remove nth or- the symplectic case, it turns ing terms are just those that describe motion on circles, with a frequency that depends on the radius and possible parameters allowing direct computation of amplitude dependent tune shifts. The radius vectors in each phase space pair represent invariants, the quality of which is directly determined by the magnitude of the coef ficients of Sp, the so-called resonance strengths. ‘Trying to minimize their size is an efficient way to enhance the overall nonlinear behavior of the system. Other DA-based tools [1] There are several ‘other DA-based methods not discussed above, For the analysis of spin dynamics, there are methods {28, 29] that allow the computation of the spin map, spin tracking, as well as invariant spin axis ‘fi, (Gee Sec.2.7.9.) There are also extensions of the DA methods to allow for a mathematically rigorous treatment of the remainder terms of Taylor’s formula [30, 31, 32}, which allow for the development of rigorous error bounds for integrators (30], and also a rigorous bounding of stability times of nonlinear motion [33, 34] when combined with ‘methods of verified global optimization [35]. References [1] M, Berz etal, Applications of Modern Map Meth- ‘ods in Particle Beam Physics, Academic Press (1997) 12] M. Berz, PA 24 (1989) 109 [3] K, Makino, M. Berz, COSY INFINITY Version 7, AIP Proc. 391 (1996) p.253 (4) Y. Yan, ZLIB, AIP Proc. 297 (1993) p.279 (5) ¥. Yan, C.-Y. Yan, ZLIB, SSCL Report 300 (1990) [6] J. van Zeits, TLIE, AIP Proc. 297 (1993) p.285 7) J. van Zeijts, F. Nesi, TLIE 1.0, Proc. Workshop ‘on Nonlinear Effects in Acc., IOP Pub. (1993) [8] L. Michelotti, MXYZTPLK, Fermilab Tech. report (1990) (9] W.G. Davis et al, Proc. Workshop on Nonlinear Effects in Accelerators, IOP Publishing (1993) [10] FC. Iselin, CLASSIC project, AIP Proc. (1996)(11) JF, Ritt, Integration in Finite Terms - Liou- ville’s Theory of Elementary Methods, Columbia U. Press (1948) [12] J.F. Ritt, Differential Equations from the Alge- braic Viewpoint, Am. Math. Soc. (1932) (13) JE. Ritt, Differential Algebra, Am, Math, Soc. (1950) {14] ER. Kolchin, Differential Algebra & Algebraic Groups, Academic Press (1973) [15] ER. Kolchin, Differential Algebraic Groups, ‘Academic Press (1985) [16] RAH. Risch, Bull, Am, Math. Soc. 76 (1970) 605 (171 M, Berz, LANL Tech. Report AT-6:ATN-86-16 (1986) [18] M. Berz, NIM A258 (1987) 431 [19] M, Berz, in Automatic Differentiation of Algo- rithms: Theory, Implementation & Application, SIAM (1991) [20] M. Berz, Entry in Encyclopedia of Computer Science & Technology, Marcel Dekker, in preparation (21) M, Berz et al, Computational Differentiation: Techniques, Applications, & Tools, SIAM (1996) [22] G. Hoffstitter, M. Berz, PR B54 (1996) 4 [23] W. Wan, M. Berz, PRE 54 (1996) 3 (24] M. Berg etal, PRC 47 (1993) 2:537 [25] M. Berz, AIP Proc. 249 (1991) p.456 [26] M. Berz, Proc. Snowmass Summer Meeting (1988) (271 ¥. Yan, P, Channell, M. Syphers. SSCL Report 157 (1993) [28] M. Berz, Proc, SPIN 94 [29] V. Balandin, M. Berz, N. Golubeva, AIP Proc. 391 (1996) p.276 [30] M. Berz, AIP Proc. 405 (1997) p.1 [31] K Makino, M. Berz, Computational Differentia~ tion: Techniques, Applications, and Tools, SIAM (4996) (32] M. Berz, G. Hoffstitter, Reliable Computing 4 (1998) 83 [33] M. Berz, G, Hoftstitter, Interval Computations 2 (1994) 68 [34] G, Hoffstatter, M. Berz, PA 54 (1996) 193 [35] M. Berz, Entry in Encyclopedia of Optimization, Kluwer (1997) 2.3.8 Numerical Integration Methods H, Yoshida, Nat. Astron. Obs., Japan ‘The exact time evolution (solution) of a Hamilto- nian system dq_ OH dp__ OH aig On id gagoe ® is symplectic [1, 2, 3]. This means that the mapping from (9(0),7(0)) to (q(t), p(t) along the Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS solution conserves the symplectic 2-form dp A dq = Dydp; A dq exactly. This symplectic 2- form represents the sum of oriented areas of phase space element projected onto the plane of (pi, 4), and for 1-D systems, “symplectic” is identical to “area-preserving” property. Traditional integration methods, such as the Euler method and the classical Runge-Kutta method, do not respect this fact and after a long term integration, fictitious damping ot excitation occurs, making the result, of integration unreliable. One needs integration methods which are designed to keep the symplectic property of the original Hamiltonian flow. These integration methods are in general called the symplectic integrators (symplectic integration methods). With use of symplectic integrators the error of energy does not grow monotonically. This comes from the existence of a conserved quantity which is close to the original Hamiltonian (3, 4). 23.8.1 Methods of realization ‘There are explicit symplectic schemes for systems of the form, H = T(p) + V(q), and implicit schemes for general Hamiltonian systems. Implicit schemes for general Hamiltonian systems The classical 4th order Runge-Kutta method is generalized as follows. For a given system of ordinary differential equations, dz Gato ) coefficients k; are determined by the simultaneous algebraic equations t=1 (+47 Zou) @ = (i = 1,8). Then the one-step mapping z + 2/ is defined by (7 = At) Fazer bk; @ jt Here, aij and by are scalar constants which char- acterize the scheme. This scheme is called the Im- plicit Runge-Kutta (RK) method in general. If the given system is a Hamiltonian system (1), and if the constants a;; and by satisfy the conditions Mis = bias +bj035 — bby =0, (14,9 <8) © identically, then the mapping (4) is known to be symplectic [5, 2}. An implicit symplectic integration method is thus obtained.Sec.2.3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS ‘The simplest case (3 = 1) which satisfies the conditions (5) is given by an = 1/2, bi = 1, and we have the scheme, b= t(2+$h), g=ztth ©) ‘r, more concisely, Z=stry (44) o which is known as the implicit midpoint rule. This scheme has 2nd order accuracy. For s = 2, an example is given by ne wa=[ pig FS *], e-t8 a ®) and this scheme has order 4, For general Hamiltonian systems, it is also possible to design symplectic schemes using the “generating function” [6]. Explicit schemes for special Hamiltonian systems For Hamiltonian systems of the form H=T)+V(q) o there exist explicit symplectic algorithms. The idea to construct explicit schemes is simply to approximate the original Hamiltonian flow by a composition of trivial symplectic mappings, d=ater(Z), y=» ao Op and 1=% ¥=p- ar (FZ) an repeatedly. Here constants (cj, di), (¢ = 1,...k) are determined so that the composed mapping (q,p) — (q’, 2’) coincides with the Taylor series expansion of the solution up to the desired order. The simplest, Ist order scheme (g,p) — (d,7/) is given by ov 7 or ee (ee daatr() eae "ae The 2nd order scheme (9, p) — (q', p’) is attained Fee’ 97? (Se et tr (oT =g4t (2 13) d=9 2 (Spy a3) and this scheme is known as the leap-frog method. 86 This problem to derive explicit symplectic integrators is well reformulated in terms of Lie algebraic language (Sec.2.3.6). First rewrite the ‘Hamilton equation (1) in the form dz qe Hel ) where brackets stand for the Poisson bracket. If we introduce a differential operator :G: by :G:F = (G,F, then (14) is written as 2 = ':z, so the formal exact solution of 2(t) from Otot =7 is given by a(t) = lexp(—r:H1)]2(0) For a Hamiltonian of the form (9), we have 2(7) = expir(A+ B)l2(0) (16) where A T: and B . Operators A and B do not commute in general. Suppose (ci, d;) is a set of constants which satisfies exp[7r(A+B)] = (15) k [I exp(cirA) exp(dirB) + O71) A) is for a given integer n, which corresponds to the order of the integrator. Then consider a mapping from z = 2(0) to 2! = 2(r), given by k = fu exp(cir A) exv(ar8)| z (18) 1 This mapping is symplectic because itis a product, of elementary symplectic mappings, and approx- ‘mates the exact solution (16) up to the order of 7, Furthermore (18) is explicitly computable. In fact (18) gives the succession of the mappings aatra(Z) a as) fori = 1 toi = k, with (go,po) = 2 and (Qe, Pk) = 2’. An n-th order symplectic integrator is thus realized. For example, when n = trivial solution is cy = dy = 1, (k = 1), which corresponds to the identity exp[r(A + B)] = exp(rA) exp(rB) + O(7?) (20) and gives the Ist order integrator (12). When n = 2, we find a solution cy = cp = 1/2, di = 1, da 0, (k= 2), ie, exp[r(A + B)) ce (54) exp(rB) exp (54) +0(75) 21) and yields the 2nd order integrator (13). % PiComposition method to obtain higher order schemes Once a lower order scheme is given, a higher order scheme is obtained by a composition of lower order ones (7, 3]. For example, let S2(7) be a 2nd order symplectic scheme, (13) or (7). Then a 4th order integrator S;(r) is obtained by a symmetrical composition of 2nd order ones as S4(7) = Sa(wit) 0 Sa(so7) 0 Sa(ait) (22) with: —2'/3 1 yom MA 7-7) In order to have a 6th order integrator, S¢(r), composition of 7 2nd order one is necessary: Se(t) = S2(ysr) 0 S2(yaT) 0 Sa(yi7) © Sa(yor) S2(yi7) © Sa(yer) °S2(ysr) (24) with numerical constants. 1776 .79984 17887 .23557 32133 59357 78451 36104 77560 —Uy+y+ys) (25) Much higher order integrator can be obtained by a composition of lower order ones in a similar way. 23.8.2 Symplectic method vs. nonsymplectic method For the harmonic oscillator, H = }(p? + q?), the Euler method (non-symplectic) gives the mapping g 1 orjf@ [y]-[, i][s] 2 and one finds easily that at each step, the value of energy is multiplied by (147), ie, (p?+97) = (1+7?)(p? +4). On the other hand, the Ist order symplectic scheme (12) gives the mapping 1 T (y]-[2 sa] [3] and the energy does not grow monotonically. This is because (27) has the exact conserved quantity AaH+tmh=1E +e) +50 8) and the numerical solution cannot deviate from the true solution curve. For general Hamiltonians, there exists always a conserved quantity A=H+7H+77Hp+78Hs +. 29) which is given as a formal power series of 7, as far ‘as symplectic algorithm is employed. This prevents the occurrence of fictitious damping or excitation, which is common when anon-symplectic method is used.. Zo a7 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS References U1) B, Halrer, S.P Norsett, G. Wanner, Solving Ordinary Differential Equations (2nd rev. ed.), Springer (1993) [2] JM, Sanz-Serna, MP, Calvo, Numerical Hamil- tonian Problems, Chapman & Hall (1994) (3] H. Yoshida, Celest, Mech, 56 (1993) 27 [4] G. Benewin, A. Giorgilli, J. Statistical Phys. 74 (1994) 1117 [5] IM, Sanz-Sema, BIT 28 (1988) 877 (6] PJ. Channell, J.C. Scovel, Nonlinearity 3 (1990) 231 [7] H. Yoshida, PL A150 (1990) 262 23.9 Dynamic Aperture J. Irwin, VT. Yan, SLAC ‘The dynamic aperture (DA) is defined as the maximum phase-space amplitude within which particles do not get lost as a consequence of single- particle-dynamics effects. It is typically determined by numerical particle tracking. Programs that have been frequently used in recent years include MAD [1], TEAPOT [2], DIMAD 3], SIX- ‘TRACK [4], DESPOT [5], and LEGO [6]. The simulation procedure can be divided into 3 steps: Step 1. Define the bare lattice and establish that ithas a sufficiently large DA. Step 2. Introduce systematic effects, such as solenoids together with their compensation schemes, fringe fields, known stray fields, parasitic beam-beam crossings, weak-strong head- on beam-beam interactions, kinematic nonlinearities (at high energy the kinetic term in the Hamiltonian is well approximated by a linear P? term, to which one can then add P4 correc tions), and the best available estimate for systematic errors. Step 3. Add random errors, such as random ‘magnet errors and random (or correlated as the ‘case may be) misalignments, usually for several different seeds. Correction schemes must be activated for correcting centroid orbits, dispersion, coupling and ‘A-functions before tracking, Usually particles are tracked through the lattice from larger amplitude to smaller amplitude until particles are no longer lost within a pre-set maximum number of turns. Figs.1-4 illustrate frequently used methods for presenting particle loss data. Because of radiation damping, the details are very different in electron and proton rings.Sec.2.3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS 3 Survival Plot fo ate r b F Syren Oncaea q igo spear of dem ad Sm | sotolotivvelisd wo Coden Initial amplitude (mm) ‘Figure 1: Survival plot for the SSC. PEP-I HER Bare Lattice ERD Saab anapo TTT 10 YY Initial amplitude (em) X Initial amplitude (em) Figure 2; Maximum 2-D amplitude plot with fixed synchrotron oscillation amplitude for PEP-I HER Bare Lattice, Electrons Damping plays an important role in electron rings. Typically the damping time, Taamp, is several thousand turns, If a particle survives for ~ 1000 turns, its amplitude will have decreased, and it is likely to survive indefinitely (up to its quantum lifetime, see Sec.3.1.4). Thus, for electrons, the DA can be well approximated by that aperture within which particles survive for ~ 18%Tdamp- To save computing time, one first determines the DA for 15%Taamp without explicit inclusion of synchrotron radiation and consequent, damping, and verifies later that the DA is indeed slightly larger when damping is included. With very large damping this may not apply. ‘Since in electron rings unstable particles must L.16tsolupdate254, Mat 16 16:59346 PST 1996 Tuoeted Figure 3: Swamp plot - the smallest maximum amplitude vs. tune in a tune plane for PEP-II HER Lattice. be lost within a relatively small number of turns, the underlying loss mechanisms must depend on resonance effects rather than slower diffusion processes. Smaller DAs occur along low-order resonance lines, Because of the wealth of their mum- bers, it is important to control the influence of sidebands (by constraining the variability of tunes and 6-functions with 6), Thus chromatic compensation is the central design task to attain acceptable DAs. This is especially true in recent storage ring colliders which have small -functions at IPs. The IR lenses give rise to strong chro- ‘matic behavior. Standard schemes of distributing sextupoles near quadrupoles may fail as the required sextupole strength becomes large. Special sextupole pairs, located near the IPs at the appropriate phase and not interleaved, have been used [7]. An alternate approach is to use many families of sextupoles [8]. Since one wishes to determine the DA for ‘many tunes (Fig,3), and for many assumptions on systematic and random errors for several random seeds, computation time is an issue. To speed up tracking, map-tracking techniques can be used (Sec.2.3.5). Maps can be written in exponential form using action angle (resonance) variables, to display the resonance content of the one-turn map. This can help in monitoring the design pro- ‘cess and identifying resonance terms needing attention, Fig.5 shows a typical plot of the normalized resonance driving terms [9]. These resonancePEP.I HER Bare Lattice Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS futtyanter90_a_jauw12ibare T1M8:S6 PDT 1995 of 2 2s £ 2 i: <1 iB ; ere Paes B Sexo 3% is Boel Seis ore ‘off momentum / (,00061*10) Figure 4: Aperture vs. rf voltage (top) and aperture ys, momentum amplitude (momentum aperture plot) (bottom) for PEP-II HER Bare Lattice. terms (along with tune shift and linear terms) can be stored in a file. One then uses a fast tracking technique called nPB tracking [10] to get a DA for each working tune. The working tune can be switched while leaving the nonlinear terms unchanged to explore the DAs for the entire tune plane (see the swamp plot in Fig.3). For colliders, since one wishes o optimize the luminosity as well as the DA, one pays attention to beam properties at the IP (such as the dispersion and chromatic behavior of the -functions). Also the nature of the beam-beam tails can dra- matically influence the beam lifetime. The flow in the beam-beam tails is dominated by resonance effects, and lattice resonance strengths can play a role in tail behavior. Fig.6 shows a typical tail- density plot [11]. Protons For proton rings, the DA is defined as. the aperture within which undamped particles survive for the entire length of an injection cycle. (The bunch size adiabatically damps during acceleration, s0 itis the injection cycle that is relevant.) This cycle can last 2 10” turns. Although Amol’d. diffusion rates are still too small to be meaning- ful, subtle diffusion processes such as from overlapping resonances (Chirikov criterion [12]) are now relevant. Itcan be important to include power supply ripple effects. ‘A widely accepted approach to determination of the DA is to find the mean particle-survival time as a function of amplitude and presented in a survival plot (Fig.1). Survival time increases as 89 0.001 Normalized Coefficients Figure 5: Normalized resonance driving terms for PEP-IILER Lattice. amplitude decreases, and in practice appears to get asymptotically large at some amplitude. This amplitude is defined to be the DA. The underlying physical process which determines this asymptote is still obscure. Because of the huge computation times required for survival plots, one-turn 1 1th-order Tay- Jor maps, shown to reproduce element-by-element tracking results, have been used to speed up the tracking time by an order of magnitude [13]. A kick factorization method for reducing tracking times even further while maintaining sufficient ac- ‘curacy is under study [15]. A survival-plot extrapolation method [14] has been presented with a simple empirical law, =) D(N) = Doo (0 + lem a) where the two parameters, b and Doo (dynamic aperture at the tum N’ = oo) are determined through interpolation of the survival plot for finite tums. There have also been attempts to find reliable particle-loss predictors that would require a fac-‘Sec.2.3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS SSBRBRRS BRRBRS oe 46 8 10 0246 8 10 ax A Figure 6: Beam-beam tail for PEP-I HER. tor of 100-1000 less turns. They all rest on the belief that if a particle is long-term unstable, it will exhibit a significant and discernible amount of chaotic motion. These methods include: 1) determination of diffusion rates in amplitude space [16]: This method uses nonlinear normal forms [17] to calculate high-order invariants. Particle migration from the high-order (usually 6th-order) invariants for 10* turns may be used as a criterion to determine the amplitude-space boundary of long-term stability. Due to chaos, the migration in amplitude might be expected to grow oc VN, where NV is the number of turns. The 104 ‘tum amplitude change can then be extrapolated to 10 turn, The boundary based on this extrapolation has been called the "diffusive dynamic aperture (DDA) [18]”. 2) determination of diffusion rates in frequency space - the frequency map analysis [19]: This is a numerical method based on Fourier techniques which provides insight into the global dynamics of multi-dimensional systems. Accord- ing to the KAM theorem, in the phase space that is sufficiently close to an integrable conservative system, many invariant tori will persist. Trajec- tories starting on one such torus remain on it thereafter, executing quasiperiodic motion with a fixed frequency vector depending only on the torus, The method numerically computes the fre quency vectors associated with each of these invariant tori. Although the frequencies are strictly speaking only defined and fixed on these tori, the algorithm will numerically compute, in a finite Figure 7: Frequency map plot for ALS. time span, a frequency vector for any initial condition, One can then construct a map, called the frequency map which will associate with the frequency vector of each set of action-like initial conditions. On the set of initial conditions corresponding to KAM tori (regular orbits), the frequency vector will be a very accurate approximation of the actual frequencies. This will not be the ccase in the chaotic regions (nonregular orbits). By looking at the frequency map one can distinguish between regular and nonregular orbits, and a diffusion rate in the frequency space can be determined, Fig.7 shows a frequency map in tune space for the ALS. The « and y tune of each surviving particle tracked over 2048 turns is plotted as a single dot, Small amplitude particles tend to oscillate with tunes close to the working point (14.28, 8,18) while particles with large amplitudes oscillate with tunes shifted left and downward, 3) the Lyapunov exponent: This method (20, 21, 22] uses the evolution of trajectories initiated by two neighboring particles in phase-space to determine the Lyapunov coefficients. If the two neighboring particles reside in the stable phase- space region, the distance between them will grow in time only linearly, but if they reside in the chaotic region, their separation will grow exponentially. The maximum Lyapunov exponent at the n-th turn is estimated as [22] in) _ gf an) = in P= na 2?) where |" — 2 | is the phase-space distance be- ‘ween the two particles at the n-th turn and the: tial phase-space distance, |g — | is infinitesimal. If the particle is stable, then X(n) goes to 0 as n — oo, otherwise, \(n) will reach a limit. @This method and other similar methods [23] have ‘been used to predict the survival plot asymptote in the case of the LHC. References (1) KC. Iselin, CERN-LEP-TH/85 (1985) [2] L. Schachinger, R, Talman, PA 22 (1987) 35 [3] R.V. Servranckx, TREDN-93-4233 (1993) [4] F Schmidt, CERN/SL/94-56(AP) (1994) Wrulich, DESY 84-026 (1984) [5] E. Forest, unpublished {6} Y¥. Cai et al, SLAC-PUB-7642, (1997) [7] Y.Cai et al, PAC 95, p.576 [8] KEKB B-Factory Design Report, KEK Report 95- 71995) {9} ¥-T. Yan, J. Irwin, T. Chen, PA 55 (1996) 263 [10] J. nwin, T. Chen, ¥-T. Yan, SLAC-PUB-95-6727 1995) (11) T. Chen, 3 Irwin, RH, Siemann, SLAC-PUB- 7193 (1996) [12] B.V. Chirikov, Phys. Rep. 52, No.5 (1979) 263 [13]_¥-T. Yan, AIP Proc. 249 (1992) 378; Y. Yan et al, Proc. Workshop on Nonlinear Problems in Future Part. Acc., World Scientific (1991) 77 [14] M. Giovannozzi, W. Scandale, E, Todesco, AIP Proc. 395 (1996) p.243 [15] J. Irwin, AIP Proc. 326, (1995), 662; D, Abell, ‘A. Dragt, to be published. [16) J. Irwin, Y-T. Yan, PAC 89, p.1340 [17] E. Forest, M. Berz, J. Irwin, PA 24 (1989) 91 [18] J. Irwin, SSC Report SSC-233 (1989) [19] HS, Dumas, J. Laskar, PRL 70 (1993) 2975; J. Laskar, D. Robin, PA 54 (1996) 183 [20] G, Benettin, L. Galgani, JM. Stelayn, PR Al4 (1976) 2338 [21] F Schmidt, F, Willeke, F. Zimmermann, PA 35 (1991) 249 [22] -M, Giovannozzi, W. Scandale, E. Todesco, AIP Proc, 395 (1996) 243 [23] M. Boge, F. Schmidt, AIP Proc: 405 (1997) 201 2.3.10 Decoherence M.A. Furman, LBNL Ifa stored beam is kicked transversely by an angle Ac’ (or is injected offset), its centroid betatron signal decoheres due to betatron tune spread. We define = @/oe and p = (a20 + Bre’)/oz where a, 8 and o, are the lattice functions and mms beam size, respectively, at the observation point (= kick point). We assume: (1) the beam is, Gaussian in (<, 2’) and in 6 = AE/Eo; (2) there’ is no -y coupling and no synchro-betatron cou- 1 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS pling; (3) damping, quantum excitation and the ‘mutual interactions of the particles can be ignored; and (4) the tune dependence on amplitude and energy offset (Sec.2.3.2) is y= vy — wg +p) +66 @ ‘Then the time evolution of the beam centroid is 0,2) sty = 32F 0) mn 2_i8 (+6) = RFP (-2ninn ro @ where n = tum number, @ = dnpn, Z = BAe? /o and the chromatic form factor F(n) is F(n) = exp [2 (& y ssPtamg] @) The second moments after the kick are Bl es)fl ® ZFUn) 2g92 \ [28h grep? (“Team = 2 p= 4anw — (oh — Stan! 20 ©) The normalized rms size is o2(n)/o2(0) (()—(a)?). Note that (q?)+(p?) = 242? = constant. The amplitude A = ((q)? + (p)*)*/? of the beam centroid is ZF \ we Ge [x = — 149 Long after the kick, @ > 1, the centroid amplitude decoheres as A ~ 0-, while the rms beam size approaches an equilibrium a2(00)/a(0) = (1+ 22/2)"?, ‘As time elapses, F(n) periodically comes back to its peak value of unity. Therefore, if c., 0 = 0), the beam centroid “recoheres” with the synchrotron period. This effect provides a way [3] to measure the product €cs (assuming v% <1). If u # 0, the recoherence is still partially present. The formulae above apply to 1-D. Extension to 2-D, including «-y coupling in the tune dependence with amplitudes, is addressed in (4). Ref.[5] treats the decoherence phenomenon including synchrobetatron coupling, damping and quantum excitation. Ref,{6] applies the canonical Hamiltonian perturbation formalism to 2-D Aln) =Sec.2.3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS decoherence in the presence of an arbitrary nonlinear tune dependence on amplitudes; this formalism allows computing the decoherence rate of a beam trapped in a resonant island. Ref.{2] presents data on the dependence of decoherence rate on beam intensity in the SLC (in particular, the dependence on the sign of € through head-tail damping), while [7] analyzes this effect using a two-particle model, Experimental observation of head-tail damping at the TRISTAN MR is analyzed in (8). A full 3-D analysis is provided in [9], and is used as a tool to measure the emittance in TRISTAN, References (1) RB. Meller et al, SSC-N-360 (1987) [2] MG. Minty et al, PAC 95, p.3037 (3) LC. Hsu, PA 34 (1990) 43 [4] S.Y. Lee, Proc. Int. Workshop on Nonlinear Prob- tems in Acc. Phys. (1992), Inst. of Phys. Pub., Conf. Series No.131, p.249 [5] H. Moshammer, PR E48(3) (1993) 2140 [6] J. Shi, S. Ohnuma, PAC 93, p.3603 [7] GL. Stupakoy, A.W. Chao, PAC 95, p.3288 {8} N. Akasaka, S. Kamada, EPAC 96, p.1141 [9} S. Kamada, N. Akasaka, K. Ohmi, PAC 97 23.11 Momentum Compaction and Phase Slip Factor KY.Ng, FNAL ‘The phase slip factor 7 is the relative slip in revolution period T for a particle with fractional off- momentum 6 = Ap/po, i. AT/To = n6. where the subscript zero stands for on-momentum, The various orders of momentum-compaction factor a% give the relative increase in closed-orbit length C for an off-momentum particle, or C = Co[l + a94(1 + on + 026? + -+-)]. Denoting 7 = to + m5 + mé? +--+, we have [1] 1 1m , 363 =Q0- 5, nang — e+e ™ ns B28 m , 368m , (1-568)63 = apa) - + P+ ee 2 ee 26 ; (a= sal) _ 5(3~769).$ wn we ® where (i and Yo are the Lorentz factors of the ‘on-momentum particle. The transition gamma is defined as 2 = Vi1/ao. To lowest order, all off-momentum particles have the same transition gamma when ay * —3, and cross transition at the same time when ay * —$. For a FODO lattice with thin quadrupoles of integrated strength B'/(Bp) = S/L, where L is the half cell length with dipole bending angle 0, ‘we have approximately (2, 3] S(Do- Do} s(b-D; 1-56 es eore et 1 1) S(D2-D2) _$°(B8-D3) agar ws S(P2= Da) eat) 2) where the dispersions at the F- and D-quads have been expanded, respectively, as Do+Dib+ By6? ++++, and D = Do + Di5 + Dod? + When S < 12, a, — +3 and reduces to +4. when chromaticities are corrected by sextupoles. For an isochronous or quasi-isochronous ring, we must require the spread in 1 for off- momentum particles to be small also. Therefore, @ and a2 need to be controlled in addition to ao. In fact, first-order effect of sextupoles can alter ay, that of octupoles can alter a, etc. For example, when a thin quadrupole of integrated strength S; = B't/(Bp), a thin sextupole of Sp = B"e/(Bp), ot an octupole of S3 = B” £/(Bp) is placed at a location where the horizontal and vertical dispersions are D, and Dy, their first-order effects are [4] 5 Mao = —Z(D2 - Dj) Aaya, = -52(D2- 90503) Aaoan = -20% ~ 6D2D3 + Dé) (3) ‘The Hamiltonian describing the longitudinal phase space is (Sec.2.3.1) [5] 2 mt wan (Me m6 2 3 + aE [cos(. + Ad) + A¢sing,](4) If only the mp and m terms are considered, the two series of distorted pendulum-like buckets, in the top figure (¢, is set to zero) begin to merge to the middle figure when |jo/m,| is lowered to Bl faba-+)ie- saWith further reduction of |no/m, the buckets become a-like (lower figure), which shrink to zero when |np/m| = 0. The a-like bucket of total height |370/(271)| is small. It is asymmetric with momentum spread and is susceptible to longitudinal head-tail instability. If the m term is climinated, the Hamiltonian will be dominated by no and np and the bucket becomes pendulum- like again (3}. If the Hamiltonian is dominated by the 7 term alone, the kinetic term is similar to a quartic potential providing maximal amount of synchrotron-frequency spread and therefore Lan- dau damping. ‘Some experimental results on isochronous or 4quasi-isochronous rings can be found in (6. References [1] K. Johnsen, Proc. CERN Symp. High Energy Ace. ‘and Pion Physics (1956), Vol.1, p.106; J. Wei, PhD thesis, SUNY at Stony Brook (1990, rev. 1994) (2) KY. Ng, Fermilab Report FN-578 (3] KL. Ng, NIM A404 (1998) 199 [4] D. Robin etal, PRE 48, 2149 (1993); D. Robin, H. Hama, A. Nadji, Proc, Micto Bunches Workshop (1995) p.150 [5] KR. Symon, AM. Sessler, Proc, Int. Conf, High Energy Acc. (1956) p44 {6} D. Robin et al, AIP Proc. 367, p.150 and p.181 2342 Nonlinear Dynamics Experiments S.Peggs, BNL Hadrons do not emit significant synchrotron radiation (E < a few TeV), following near- conservative equations of motion for as long as 10° periods (accelerator tus). Hadron colliders a Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS are therefore excellent test beds for controlled experiments on nonlinear near—Hamiltonian dynamical systems. In addition to their intrinsic interest, such experiments are also important for maximiz~ ing accelerator performance. Weak diffusion is often significant, e.g. through intrabeam scattering and external noise sources. Strong dissipation is the norm in electron storage rings, enabling the observation of strange attractors. Non-resonant non-chaotic transverse motion Experiments often record the turn-by-turn time series (71,222, 91, ya)+ observed at 2 BPMs, after a bunched beam has been kicked transversely [1, 2, 3, 4]. From this one can construct the action angle time series (Jz, x, Jz, $z)t at a single reference point in the ring - a Poincare surface of section. A single turn is the natural unit of time t, and the motion is fundamentally discrete, not continuous. The unperturbed phase advance per turn, 2n(v20 mod 1) is usually of order one radian (1- Decase). Nonetheless itis often possible to invoke aone turn discrete Hamiltonian Hy, where Je] [Je] [-2F1/OG. [i]. [é]+ [afar], © In the 2-D case the general form of H; is = IveoJe + 2VyoJy @ + LVisudi/2 af? sin kde + by + dist) im where the set of indices (ijkl) depends on the type of nonlinearity [5]. If sextupoles are being considered to first order, then (ijkl) (3030, 3010, 1210, 1212, 121-2). In the simplest cases Vijai can be predicted analytically - otherwise a numerical simulation is required. ‘Turn-by-tum data is often analyzed as distortion surfaces of Jz and Jy in (tz, by) space, and as Discrete Fourier Transforms (DFTs) of Jz and Jy. The horizontal surface is Jel ey by) = Jeo — Dey in i/2 75/2 x Jay Jif: sin(kds + lby + isnt — TVA) where the resonance denominator dominates when vig = kvzo + Ivo approaches an integer. Peaks in the horizontal DFT are described by the first order solution of the equation of motion _k Vig Jt) = Jr i) a 22 Zsinleval Psinfrval x JERI? sin(2aveat + doje) _k Vig sini] «= © @Sec.2.3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS Similar expressions for Jy($z, ¢y) and J,(t) are ‘obtained by replacing & Visia with t Vijn. The number of Vist terms is many, and amplitudes a, = je etc. are often more ap- pealing than actions. Some experimenters sum- marize the turn-by-turn data by three smear statis- tics, which are the standard deviations of the amplitudes, scaled to become dimensionless [5]. The horizontal smear is given by = (azae) & = Gel o Via nina 2 7 anol cr the vertical smear by 2 (yay) _ 6 2 (ay)(ay) 2 . PVG oe asa ~ Leite and the correlation smear by 2 {ady) oy = Ger (0) RLVSa aia, 2-2 ‘Oitd+3 sin2 lap o™ Sg 2 aintra] = ‘where it is assumed that 8, = 8, = 1. There is excellent agreement between predicted and measured distortion surfaces, DFTs, and smears in controlled experiments with a small number of dominant nonlinearities (6, 7]. A significant practical problem is the signal decoherence that occurs due to the tune spread across a non-resonant kicked bunch, with a timescale ~ 100 turns, Near resonant non-chaotic transverse motion Ifthe base tune is close to arational fraction, yp = I/N, then the net motion in phase space over N turns is small. Near resonant motion in 1-D is described by an N-turn Hamiltonian Hw, Je Je ~ Bini 26e) (el. [el [osname], © where Hy is now (approximately) a constant of the motion. In general (e.g. with beam-beam interactions) Hy = 2-2) o + U(J)+Vn(J) cos(N¢ + dn) ‘With magnetic nonlinearities it is often legitimate to replace U(J) with UyJ?, where Ug is experimentally accessible as the strength of octupolar detuning. Sometimes it is also appropriate to sub- stitute Viy(J) = Vy TN/2, Stable resonance islands form around fixed points of the motion at J = Jz, with an island half width of AJ = 2fVn(Jn)/UR(Jr) (10) where a prime denotes differentiation with respect to J. The small amplitude island tune is ao z [oxGmUKn) (A) Beam kicked into a resonance island does not decohere, so that a persistent signal is observed at the resonance tune [3, 6]. The transients and the asymptotic strength of the persistent signal can be used to measure v; and AJ. Itis also theoretically possible to use kicked beam persistent signals to study 2-D resonances that confine the beam to islands in ($2, ¢y) space. No such data has yet been obtained, This is a potential avenue for investigat- ing ultra-long timescale effects such as modula tional diffusion (8). ‘Tune modulation and chaos It is practically important for long-term stability to study the response to an externally applied tune modulation, v = wy +q sin(2ryyt) 2) where g is the tune modulation depth and vy is the modulation tune, Boundaries between the four dynamical phases in (viy,4q) space are approximately illustrated in Fig.l [5, 8, 9]. Adiabatic trapping may occur when the modulation is slow enough, vy < vz, observable as a modulation in the strength of a persistent signal. Resonance islands are stable in the presence of fast modulation, vm > vr, with stable sideband islands appearing at a tune spacing of Av = vyq/N if the modulation depth is large enough, q > vz/N. Massive chaos occurs if the sidebands overlap (Chitikov criterion) [10]. Persistent signal loss marks the transition to chaos when the tune modulation parameters are adiabatically “chirped” across a line of stability, Longitudinal dynamics The same standard map structure applies to rf buckets, transverse resonances, and free pendula. Nonlinear experi- ‘ments are often simple and clean inside rf buckets, especially with beams that are much smaller than the bucket [11]. The transverse island tune vy is analogous to the synchrotron tune v,(6) for small amplitude (6 ~ 0) oscillations. When rf voltage ‘modulation is applied AV/V = v sin(2vyzt) (13)3 8 10.00 1.00 0.10 ‘Tue Modulation Depth q/¥, 001, bot 0.10 1.00 Tune Modulation Frequency V/V, 10.00 100.00 Figure 1: Approximate boundaries between dynamical phases in tune modulation space, for V = 5. 10 i uP os 3 a gz 00 3 B08 a > “1.0 05-03-01 Of 03 0S RF phase, d/2n Figure 2: Poincare surface of section of longitudinal phase space, plotted every period of a voltage modulation with v= 0,002 and v4 = 1.8%5(0). the equations of motion are those of a paramet- tically driven pendulum. A family of Mathieu resonances arises, with the primary islands at an amplitude dp given by vyq = 2v4(6p), as illustrated in Fig.2, Motion near the separatrix be- ‘comes chaotic. Analogous Mathieu resonances also arise in a more detailed inspection of the “Amplitude Modulation” region of tune modulation space in Fig.1. Weak Mathieu resonances also arise through -function modulations (8). ‘Many practical studies of longitudinal dynamics have been performed, including double rf systems, phase modulation, barrier bucket dynamics, transition crossing, re-bucketing between xf systems, and parasitic beam extraction of stored ‘beam halos using crystals [11, 12]. The longitudinal beam distribution can be tomographically reconstructed from a series of wall current monitor profiles, even in the presence of significant rota- tional shear [13], as shown in Fig. 3. Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS 95 Figure 3: Tomographical reconstruction of beam fila- menting in CERN-PSB rf buckets. The raw data is 72 profiles spanning about 1 synchrotron period. ‘Weak diffusion and beam echoes Weak diffusion plays a significant role in limiting hadron collider performance [14]. One experimental goal is the measurement of the difiusion coefficient D(J) in the Fokker-Planck equation oy oy _ 8 oy Ft = 5 [pense] as) where (J, ¢) is the beam distribution in action angle space, t is the time in turns, and »(J) is the tune - transverse or longitudinal, One way to ‘measure the transverse D(J) in a narrow region of J = Jp isto kick a bunched beam by J, creating a hollow beam whose evolution can be followed by periodically measuring transverse profiles [1]. Longitudinal unbunched beam echoes el- egantly measure D(J) in longitudinal space (Sec.2.3.13). Strong dissipation and strange attractors Beam can be trapped and observed in strange attractors when strong dissipation is present, through the radiation damping of an electron beam, or through the electron cooling of a hadron beam. Photographs of synchrotron light from as carly as 1968 show beam trapped in transverse resonance islands [15]. Attractors have also been studied in longitudinal dynamics experiments (11). Trapped beam can be moved around in phase space, if control parameters such as the base tune ate varied adiabatically. Strong hysteresis is common,Sec.2.3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS References (1] A. Chao et al, PRL 61 (1987) 2752; T. Chen et al, PRL 68 (1992) 33 [2] S.Y. Lee et al, PRL 67 (1991) 3768; D.D, Caussyn et al, PR Ad6 (1992) 7942 (3) T, Satogata et al, PRL 68 (1992) 1838 (4] W. Fischer etal, PR ESS, No.3 (1997) 3507 {5] S. Pegs, Proc. 2nd ICFA workshop, CERN 88- 04, and SSC-175 (1988) {6] NV. Merminga, A study of nontinear dynamics in the Fermilab Tevatron, Ph.D. Thesis, U. Michigan (1989) [7] MY. Li, A study of nonlinear motions in large synchrotrons, Ph.D. Thesis, U. Houston (1990) [8] 7. Satogata, Nonlinear resonance islands and mod- ulational effects in a proton synchrotron, Ph.D. ‘Thesis, Northwestem U. (1993) [9] F. Zimmermann, Emittance Growth and Proton ‘Beam Lifetime in HERA, Ph.D. Thesis, Hamburg U. (1993); ¥. Wang et al, PR E49 (1994) 5697 (10) B.V. Chirikov, Phys. Rep. 52 (1979) 265 (11) M. Ellison at al, PRL 70 (1993) 591; M. Syphers at al, PRL 71 (1993) 719 [12] W. Gabella etal, PA 42 (1993) 235 [13] S. Hancock et al, EPAC 98 (14) O. Bruning, Ph.D. Thesis, Hamburg U. (1994), W. Fischer, Ph.D. Thesis, Hamburg U, (1995) [15] GN. Kulipanov et al, Novosibirsk Preprint INP 68-251 (1968) 2.3.13 Echo G.V. Stupakov, SLAC Transverse echo The echo effect [1] in a circular accelerator (2] could be observed where the beam in the ring is deflected off-orbit at time t = 0, causing its centroid to undergo betatron oscillations. After these oscillations have completely damped out due to decoherence, the beam is excited again by a quadrupole kick at ¢ = 7. ‘This kick does not produce any visible displace- ‘ment of the beam at that time, but it turns out that close to time t = Techo = 27 the beam centroid undergoes transient betatron oscillations with an amplitude that is a fraction of the initial beam offset. Assume that at t = 0 the beam is deflected in the transverse direction by a. Define g = 2/JBe and p = (a0 + Get!)//Be. Assume no 2-y coupling and neglect synchrotron damping and quantum excitation. The initial distribution function of the beam is assumed Gaus- sian, Y(q,p) = (2me)~! exp [-(q? + p?)/2e], with ¢ the rms beam emittance. At time t T 04 08 S02 4 5 ° 5 10 (Htecrodta Figure 1: Amplitude of the echo signal for 7 = 1074 and different values of Q: Q = 0.02—dash, Q = 0.08 = solid, Q = 0.2~ dash-dot, Q = 0.3 ~ dash-dot-dot, 96 a quadrupole kick of strength @ (= the ratio of the -function at the quad to the focal length of the quad) is applied to the beam. We assume Q < 1. The echo arises as a result of nonlinear beam dynamics in phase space. It is due to the tune dependence on the amplitude of the betatron oscillations e+ E @ where j1 is the dimensionless nonlinearity parameter. Second order perturbation theory {1, 2] pre- Gicts the echo amplitude 9 = /q? + = ap (7, ta Teche a G Ta ) where 7 = Qr, 74 = To/4np is of the order of the decoherence time with Tp the revolution period, and F(e,y) = a v=w-E ) 2 (2? — 98)? + 4yep ‘As follows from Eqs.(2) and (3), the echo occurs at about t = Teehoy and the duration of the echo pulse is of the order of the decoherence time Tg. It decays as oc |t — Techol~*/? for large |t—Techo|. The echo signal for different values of Q for 7 = 1074 as a fraction of the initial amplitude a is shown in Fig.1. It is seen that increasing Q initially makes the echo signal stronger until the shape of the signal changes into a two-bump waveform and the maximal amplitude of the echo goes down, The absolute maximumn of the echo in this example is imax = 0.38a and is reached for Q = 0.08. Notice, that in addition to the echo effect at t = 2r higher order echos (with smaller amplitudes) can be observed at even multiples of 7 [2]. @)ots 2 480,004)" 25 Figure 2: Echo signal (in arbitrary units) as a function of delay 7. Effect of diffusion The above theory neglects all dissipative processes in the beam. However, echo is very sensitive to diffusion in the phase space, The reason is that echo results from nonlin- car interaction of small-scale perturbations generated during the evolution of the bunch distribution, These perturbations can be easily smoothed out even by a weak diffusion, The effect of diffusion on echo for a bunched ‘beam was studied in [3] when 7 < 74. In this limit, the echo signal is characterized by a single bump (small Q cases in Fig.1) with the maximum value 1™™* achievable at t = Techo! aQ t oo 74 1+ BDoPugrs/3e 4 where wo = 2n/Ty and Do is the diffusion coefficient, See Fig.2, For small 7, the maximum echo signal linearly increases with 7. This is the regime when diffusion effects are negligible, For large 7, the deformation of the distribution function due to the diffusion becomes strong enough to compete with the formation of the echo, and causes 1™** to decay «x 7~? in the limit t + 00. Longitudinal echo The above is transverse echo. Longitudinal echo can also be observed for bunched beams [4]. In this case, the dipole kick corresponds to the instantaneous change in the rf phase, and the quad kick is equivalent to a sharp increase in the rf amplitude. The theory of longitudinal echo has also been developed for unbunched beams (5, 6, 7]. In this case, the echo phenomenon can be viewed as a nonlinear mixing of two waves propagating around the ring. If a short duration rf excitation is applied to the beam first at revolution harmonic nwo, and then at frequency mu after a delay 7, the echo can be observed at the difference fre~ quency (n—m)uo atatime Teeno = m7/(n—m). ot €h.2: BEAM DYNAMICS oes os 0.008. ‘Aree ete) 9.008 2018 0.026, a ae os eteeoa pecan 0 Tine [ee] Figure 3: Beam response to impulse at n = 9, followed by m= 10. Echo experiments Echoes have been observed in the Fermilab Antiproton Accumulator [5] and at CERN SPS [8]. The echo signal measured in the Fermilab experiment is shown in Fig.3. A theoretical fit to the data gave an effective diffusion rate in the beam corresponding to the diffusion time Taye = 300 8. An extremely small diffusion rate corresponding to the doubling of the energy spread after 10” s has been measured by means of echo in the CERN experiments (9). References U1] RW. Gould, TM, O'Neil, JH, Malmberg, PRL 19 (1967) 219 2] G. Stupakov, SSCL Report 579 (1992); G. Stu- pakoy, $. Kauffmann, SSCL Report 587 (1992) {3] G. Stupakow, A.W. Chao. PAC 97 (4] N, Mahale etal, SSCL-N-817, 1993 5) LK, Spenzouris, JF Ostigy, PL. Colestock, PRL 76 (1996) 620 {6} 0. Bruning, CERN SLI95.83 (AP) (1995) (7) E. Shaposhnikova, CERN SL/Note 95-125 (RF) (1995) {8} O. Bruning et al, CERN SL-MD Note 217 (1996) {9] 0. Bruning et al, EPAC 96 23.14 Transverse Beam Shaping J. Irwin, SLAC ‘Octupoles can be used to create uniform distributions in 1-D, Fig.1 shows an example [1]. By cor- rectly choosing phases and strengths of the two octupoles one can achieve the same distribution in both planes as shown there for the horizontal distribution, Remarkably, by using 3 octupoles one an achieve a round uniform distribution of similar quality. And by using 4 combined octupolesSec.2.3: NONLINEAR DYNAMICS r T T ‘auscnipoie ?* one} in \ \ Baan hers Bar Distance Figure 1: Shaping of the horizontal and vertical distribution by 2 octupoles [1]. 0.5; Figure 2: The steepest curve is the distribution func tion, the top curve is the focal length function, and the remaining curve is the original Gaussian distribution. egies op eacsaeay) and dodecapoles one can do even better. An example of this is shown in Fig.2. In this case the intention was to use the uniform distribution as a lens, so the radial charge distribution was chosen to get an almost-constant focal length extending to as large a radius as possible, As shown in Fig.2, this lens focuses a radius that includes 85% of the charge to a focal length that only varies by a couple percent. The lattice for achieving round distributions with 3 octupoles consists of 3 180° phase advance modules. The first module has a large horizontal Bmax at a point where both the « and y phase have been advanced to 90°. Subsequent modules are identical except both quadrupoles and octupoles are rotated around the beam axis by 60° and then 120°, When using dodecapoles the lattice consists of four such modules each rotated by 45°. One of the remarkable features of these rotations is that the resultant kicks are purely radial. Three rotated octupole with Hamiltonians H = 2‘ —6x7y?+y4 add to yield Heys = 3 * 3(8max — Bmin)?r* where 1? = 2? + 9? is the radius in normalized phase space variables at the phase of the octupoles. For four dodecapoles the system hamil- 98 tonian for ocutpoles is unchanged and the dodecapoles contribute Heys = 4* 5 (Bmax—Bmin)*r®. If five modules are used, the octupole and doce- ‘capole are unchanged and the five 14-poles add to produce Hays = 5 * 175 Imax — Bmin)*r*, Using these methods in combination, one can achieve a considerable variety of beam shapes starting with Gaussian or near-Gaussian distributions. References (1) N. Tsoupas et al, PAC 95, p.1695, 23.15 Hénon Map and Standard Map XT. Yan, SLAC These are maps often used in bench mark tests in the study of dynamic apertures (Sec.2.3.9). The simplest nontrivial area-preserving transfer map is a 2-D (phase-space) polynomial map of degree 2. It can always be written as Fatt = 0054+ (Pm + Sp) sin p Prt —Pn sini + (Pn + Sep)cosy (1) where «,p are the canonically conjugate pair of phase-space coordinates, This is called the Hénon map (1). In Lie form (Sec.2.3.6), it is given by M=R(y)et™ ‘This map corresponds to a clockwise rotation of angle 1 (phase advancement), followed by a thin sextupole kick of strength 5 in the horizontal plane, Although simple in appearance, it is complicated in mapping iteration. Numerical iteration is needed to identify the long-term stable region. On the other hand, the simplest synchrotron motion map, considered with a thin rf cavity kick, can be written as (Sec.2.1.2) Sn b+ Giasindn ~ sng) Gntt = Gat Qmhn(bnts)bnst @ Ione redefines y = hln(6)|6, 2 = $/2n, then the symplectic map (2) for a stationary-bucket synchrotron motion becomes the standard map: Untt = Yn —2nv2sin27zn ati = mod(tm +t) — @) where v, is the synchrotron tune, The Lie form for the standard map is My = ettemasig— with y being the conjugate momentum of 2. aeReferences (1] M. Hénon, Quart. Appl. Math. 27 (1969) 291; M, Hénon, C. Heiles, The Astronomical Journal 69 (1964) 73, 24 ELECTRON GUNS AND PRE- INJECTORS HG, Kirk, BNL R. Miller, D. Yeremian, SLAC Symbols Used B peak rf field, Arr the rf wave- Tength, Tprebuncher cavity length, I beam current, Io = 4meomec*/e Alfén current = 17 kA, [For ions, Io = 31 (A/Z) MAJ, r radius at edge of an axially symmetric beam, écdge the normalized emittance at beam-edge, ry, beam radius at cathode, Ey electric field at the cathode, By ‘magnetic field at cathode assumed constant over beam cross section, T' cathode temperature, dy, rf phase when particle is at the middle of cavity, Ey photon energy in laser photocathode, #, surface work function, ®,¢ Schottky correction for quantum tunneling, kg Boltzmann constant. 24. Brightness [1] ‘An important characteristic for both particle and photon beams is the ability to focus as many particles as possible onto a small area. This attribute is related to the beam parameter, brightness B (Sec.4.2), For a charged particle beam, B Ip/(€xty), where Ip is the beam peak current. The geometric emittance (¢,) is proportional to the area occupied by the ensemble of particles in the aa’ (or yy’) space, The rms geometric emittance is €yrms2 = + (2?){a”?) — (aa) normalized emittance is ey = By€g, where By is the dimensionless momentum of the centroid of the beam. A small beam spot size is obtained if one has a small emittance and a large beam convergence though focusing optics. Efforts to increase the brightness of particle beams have concentrated in two areas— production of high-brightness beams at sources and beam-cooling concepts in which the phase~ space of beams is reduced in either the transverse, longitudinal or ultimately 6-D phase-space. For ‘some applications such as colliders and FELs, itis important to produce high-brightness beams and transport them to their point of utilization, A 99 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS high-brightness source will abate and may even obviate the need for downstream cooling systems, ‘The basic strategy is to produce the particles in a small spatial volume and with small radial divergence. The spatial extent of the source can be controlled by adjusting the radius of the source whereas the radial divergence is typically a fundamental characteristic of the source. To quan- tify this characteristic, the transverse divergence of the beam leaving the source area is often referred to as the temperature of the source. Given the temperature of a source, one is still left with the transverse dimensions as an adjustable parameter. One cannot, however, indefinitely reduce the radial dimensions of a source, as self-field (Le. space-charge) forces depend on beam volume and must be balanced with external forces produced by magnetic fields. The radial space charge forces are proportional to (1—v?/c?) = 1/7, where 1 is due to the electric field and v?/c? is due to magnetic fields. As v?/c? —+ 1, radial space charge forces vanish, This leads one to use high-field gradients at the cathode to quickly accelerate the beam from the source to relativistic energies. References (1) KJ. Kim, NIM A275 (1989) 201 2.4.2 DC High Voltage Guns and Bunching Systems [1, 2, 3, 4] 2.4.2.1 Gun characteristics J= ATP exp [- a) Richardson’s law For a temperature-limited thermionic gun, current density is (Pu — ® | ket where A ~ 60 A/(cm?-K) for metals. ‘Work functions for typical materials: 4.5 eV, tungsten yx 12eV, oxide cathode Ba0-Sr0 (2) 2.0eV, dispenser cathode (A dispenser cathode is tungsten sponge with rare earth filling and oxide coated.) Quantum tunneling gives a Schottky correction Sq [eV] = 0.012/B, [kV/em] 3) For field-induced cathode and current density, see Sec.6.12, For more on gun design, see Sec.7.3.2.1.Sec.2.4: ELECTRON GUNS AND PRE-INJECTORS Child’s law A space-charge limited, nonrela- tivistic electron beam has beam current I=kvi2 @ where V is voltage between cathode and anode, perveance K depends only on gun geometrical shape, independent of geometric size, or gun material. For a planar gun with cathode area Ay and cathode-anode spacing d, K = $§0,/ 26.44. With dincm, V in volts, I/Ay = 2.33 x 10-°V9/2/d? Alm®, See also Eq.(7), Sec.2.8.2. 24.22 Longitudinal dynamics Bunching distance In a prebuncher, the criti- ccal bunching (perfect bunching in the linearized limit) occurs at a distance Lpunching following the 2.4.23 Radial dynamics Envelope equation For an axi-symmetric beam (ee also sec.2.5.3.1), a, t 20 Stge _ Wt at — BaBiog ~ Bg 9 1D where k = eB,/(2m_cB7) in a solenoid. The third term is adiabatic damping. The fourth term is space charge spreading term (coefficient in front of 1/r is generalized perveance), ‘The last term is the emittance term. Near a sharp focus, or shortly after a beam goes through a pin-hole, the emittance term dominates. Possible sources Of €edge are shown in Tab.1. See also Sec.2.8.2. Table 1: Approximation for sources of emittance in 2 prebuncher, pts injectors. Arf Me Lounehing = 37 cB ©) [source Exige, normalized ‘Space charge is ignored in Eq.(5). Dounehing isthe | mag.fiux at cath, wenrtBe longitudinal focal length. Buncher/Capture in vp = cstructures Equa- | thermal cathode ore BE tions ofmotions Photocathode Ore Eb ds Tet & -3) increment due to going dy i through single cav. a8 hl x OE = ~gsing © | inprebuncher with ¢ the rf phase of a particle, Bec the rf wave [increment due to going | 522, x phase velocity. Close to beam center, the longitu- inal wave number is through a buncher [1+ +4) singo] yen bre = Brame 8? M In order for a space charge dominated beam with 6,7, ¢ the values for the beam center. Capture condition (Gy = 1 structure) follows from Eq.(6): 08 foo = C08 bo — jo(1— Go) (8) with Goo the asymptotic 1f thase a the end of acceleration, go initial rf phase, “70, Bp the initial 8. Most efficient bunch length compression oc- ‘curs when cos do ~ 1 and 2am =f) aE "yo(1 — Bo) & 1 @ In this case, cosa. 0, Condition (9) requires the energy gain in one rf wavelength, eB dy, be comparable to mec? © 1.5 MeV. This is easier satisfied by S-band than X-band. 2nmec?/(eHAt) < 2 is the condition for barely capturing stationary electrons in forming dark current. ape 100 not to scrape against the beam pipe (radius b) after going through a waist (waist size r..) for a distance L, one needs to require (pil) "Eto be < 5ry and also approximately < b/2. Brillouin Flow A space charge dominated beam has an equillibrium radius req (beam size does not scallop) by balancing solenoid focusing and space charge divergence. This magnetic field is found from Bq.(10) to be mec (8 1\¥? a= Re (Fr) ay ‘A mismatch in meeting condition (11) causes beam envelope to scallope with a plasma wave number K, ar 36 =P+a i + ome By lord, * Bark, If By is fixed, req o 1/7 is adiabatically damped. (12)Space charge laminarity Eq.(11) applies to the + 3 av bunch center, This B, overfocuses the head and tail of the bunch because of the weaker space initial growth of the rms emittance, dey 12 1 This mismatch becomes weaker as the beam is adiabatically accelerated so the radial oscillations ms emittance damp out. This is the smooth focusing case of a space-charge compensated beam space charge force. Radial equation of motion in an rf structure opr o pee (ga ds z 0k mer (€Bs\? han (i) oo fields. The 1/6 and —1 terms in the cos ¢ term are due to the electric and magnetic fields in the and considering only the accelerator section inside, the transverse wave number ky is given by BoB meet with 6, 7, 9 for the beam center. mode in a prebuncher cavity, 1/8 = 0, integrating Eq.(14) over ey (impulse approx.), wit _ *(s cos¢m = 1, Eq.(16) gives a defocusing focal length f ~ 2Leunching- ver/capture, By = 1, Ape ® 2 ee e+ (1+ a) sinds| ay ing Eq.(17) again gives the fifth entry in Tab.1. For sino = 1, Eq.(17) gives a defocusing fo- ©), this gives a strong defocusing, f * Aye, which is to be mitigated by rapid acceleration, or by a charge forces there. This mismatch induces an Sai F (13) of the ends of the bunch and the oscillation of the line, which restores the distortion due to linear Ignoring space-charge forces, co za ~1)eoe where By = eytneae ee annnee cavity body respectively. Ignoring the solenoid Baza (1 Pafcosg (15) Prebuncher cavity For a standing TMoto efit ) os bm (6) Eq.(16) gives rise to the fourth entry in Tab.1. For ‘buncher/capture Integrating over the length of where a are initial parameters. Integrat- cal length f © 2mec*fo70/(eE). With condition converging incoming beam. 101 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Busch’s theorem The theorem relates angular velocity to the changes in magnetic flux through the beam cross section, ; 5 $= eagle) — 8 where ¢ is the azimuthal angie, r(s) the radius of beam edge, ©(s), & the magnetic flux (rr?B,) at s and cathode respectively. (8) References [1] PM. Lapostolle, A.L. Septier, Linear Accelera- tors, North-Holland (1970) p.115 [2] JD. Lawson, The Physics of Charged-Particle Beams, Oxford, 2nd ed. (1988) [3] S. Humphries, Jr, Principles of Charged Particle Accelerators, Wiley (1986) [4] M. Reiser, Theory and Design of Charged Particle Beams, Wiley (1994) 243 RF Guns (1, 2,3) The development of rf guns as electron sources stems from their ability to achieve electric field gradients much higher than standard DC sources, This has the advantage of quickly boosting electrons to relativistic velocities thus mitigat- ing harmful collective effects such as self-fields. Other time-dependent effects can, however, appear, Note (Fig.1) that a cell filled with an accelerating mode has focusing fields at the cell entrance and defocusing fields at the cell exit. These focusing/defocusing forces are time dependent. A decelerating arrangement has the inverse attribute. Figure 1: A cylindrically symmetric rf cell with beam axis along the bottom line of the figure. Rf cells provide a time-dependent focusing effect on a beam traversing it. The strength of the effect depends on the phase of the electric field with the beam at the time of traversal. As a result, a particle bunch emerging from an rf cell has a time-varying structure to its phase-space orientation (Fig.2) which results in an increased global beam emittance. This can be compensated‘Sec.2.4: ELECTRON GUNS AND PRE-INJECTORS Figure 2: Global emittance growth resulting from time-dependent rf focusing effects. The phase-space distributions of individual segments is often referred to as slice emittances. by subjecting the bunch to a time-varying focusing element such as an rf cell which supports a T Moyo mode, Such an element provides focusing in one transverse plane while defocusing in the other plane. Such a solution would be appropriate for applications in which low emittances are required in one dimension but not the other. Alter- natively, one can contemplate forming an rf triplet system in which both transverse planes are appro- priately focused or defocused. Another approach would entail a final shaping cell which is dedicated to providing the appropriate time-varying focusing structure 50 2s to align the phase-space orientations of each longitudinal segment. In this case, cylindrical symmetry can be maintained allowing both transverse dimensions to be simultaneously compensated. References (1) C. Travier, Proc, Workshop on Advanced Acc. Concepts (1994) p.57 {2] RL. Sheffield, PAC 95, p.882 [3] L. Serafini, J. Rosenzweig, PR E55 (1997) 7565 24.4 Compensation of Space-Charge Effects (1, 2) To minimize the beam emittance, advantages can be realized by reducing the radial extent of a beam source. First, the initial beam emittance is reduced and second, the beam is less sensitive to rf dynamic effects as it traverses subsequent cell apertures. However, this results in increased forces due to self-fields. The middle section of the 102 Figure 1: Global emittance growth resulting from intra-bunch self-fields, The greater defocusing forces at the bunch mid-section result in larger divergences and therefore ultimately larger transverse dimensions, vn (EERE wn ne Figure 2: A system capable of space-charge emittance compensation, beam bunch experiences higher defocusing self- field forces than the ends of the bunch. This results in a phase-space orientation which is different for the middle and the ends of the bunch leading to an increase in the global emittance of the particle bunch. See Fig.1. For low-energy beams this emittance growth can be significant but can be compensated by using a dedicated rf cell (see Sec.2.4.3). For example, the beam may enter the cell when the accelerating gradients are small but exits the cell with high-focusing action (ie. de-celeration) so that the middle of the bunch receives more focusing than the ends. Alternatively, one can use an accelerating cell such that the focusing action is applied at the cell entrance and the beam exits the cell when the electric field amplitude is vanish- ingly small. It is possible to perform this compensation, however, without the use of a special transverse focusing rf cell. The strategy is to use adc lens near the cathode to focus the beam. The beam is then accelerated during which the space- charge forces act to realign the intra-bunch phase-Figure 3: The time evolution of space-charge ‘compensation—m refers to the mid- and ¢ to the end- ‘segments of the bunch. 1) Initial longitudinal distribution; 2) Initial transverse phase space distribution with no transverse-longitudinal correlation; 3) After drift from the source; 4) After the focusing lens; 5) After drift and self-fields defocusing; 6) After further drift— note the greater compression of the end-segments relative tothe maid-segments; 7) The slice emittances be- zginning to align; 8) Slice emittances aligned. Acceler- ation of the beam during this process assures that the slice emittance realignment is retained in the laboratory frame of reference. space orientations, The emittance is minimized at high enough energy where the self-field forces have vanished. See Fig.2. This emittance compensation is achieved by Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS inverting the self-field topology within a particle bunch so that the radial component of self-field forces become greater for the end-segments than for the mid-segment. See Fig.3, At the launch of the bunch, the defocusing effects of the sclf- fields at the mid-section led to higher average divergences and therefore larger radii than those at the ends. If the focusing action of the lens is properly set, the bunch is first brought to a convergent state, then passes through a waist condition in which particles within the bunch do not migrate from positive to negative (or negative to positive) axial coordinates, a condition known as laminar flow. The end-segments begin this process with a smaller diameter and this continues throughout the process. The diameter differential remains, to first order, invariant but the diameter ratios of mid- to end-segments greatly increase thereby increasing the self-field forces within the end-segments relative to the mid-segment, Thus, the process leading to the initial emittance evolution of the particle bunch is reversed. If we, in addition, accelerate the beam while this compensation is proceeding, then the emittance compensation just achieved can be locked in, References (1) BLE. Carlsten, NIM A285 (1989) 313, [2] J.C. Gallardo, H.G. Kirk, PAC 93, p.3615 2.5 COLLECTIVE EFFECTS 2.5.1 Collective Effects in High Energy Elec- tron Linacs K. Thompson, SLAC K. Yokoya, KEK Symbols: Average longitudinal and transverse ‘wake functions per unit length along the beam Tine are Wy(z) {units V/C/m} and W.(z) {units ‘ViCim?} respectively; z is the longitudinal sepa- ation between the exciting and the witness point charges, We ignore any dependence of these functions on position s in the beamline, 2.5.1.1 Single bunch effects Single bunch longitudinal dynamics Energy variation and minimization See Sec.43 for a discussion of the wake functions (Particularly Eqs.(5-6)) and resulting energy spread. In order to minimize z-dependence of 103‘Sec.2.5: COLLECTIVE EFFECTS ‘Table 1: Two-macroparticle model solutions. ap = Beos No acceleration ks [oss + New. (6) Tepes sinks] | Uniform acceleration | and smooth focusing: sont (adiabatic, ie. a < ko) (#) where effective length: seq = x Jo k(s')ds! New, (0) 2 [sostass ‘tkyEoar In(1 +.a8) sin tos] a 2) 2 [cos host + MeO og sin asa] particle-energy, the rf phase at bunch center, dt, is chosen so that bunch center comes slightly ahead of rf crest. Residual energy distribution is usually a double-peaked shape when under- corrected and single-peaked when over-corrected. One can also optimize energy spread by shaping the longitudinal distribution p(z) before injection a). Assuming sinusoidal rf voltage of constant amplitude V, bunch phase for minimum energy spread is [2] c fe 1 sngo=——5 [ eveids Here do > 0 means ahead of rf crest; V'(z) is the slope of voltage within the bunch. See also Eq.(7); Sec.43, ‘Two-macroparticle model Using the fundamental theorem of beam Toading [3], energy loss for head and tail macroparticles (separated by distance é, each having charge NVe/2) is di Brent @ aE 1N N, St = -yemO- Teme Energy Loss due to space charge For longitudinally y aussian Tach of length o and radius 4, travelling in cylindrical, perfectly conducting 104 beam pipe of radius b {4}, 1 /zNe imeo a2 1 2. z dE Ben ae, (2+ a CG) @) where f(u) = wexp(—u?/2). Energy loss due to resistive wall For Gaus- sian bunch [5], dE 1 Né z So = Fans (4) © Flu) = -lul/e0"4 [ean ~ Frya)sen(u) hat Tay] where o¢ is the conductivity, and I4/4 and I.a/4 are modified Bessel functions evaluated at u?/4, Single-bunch transverse dynamics The equation of motion is [6] E(cerZee9)) + BOHM aL,9) = 2 f” e)Wid -2el2,3)de!—) ‘The energy spread effects and discreteness of focusing elements are omitted. For uniform p = N/I (Vs length of bunch), Wa(2) = Wz, and variation of E and k is adiabatic, the asymptotic form of ratio of final to ini-tial amplitude is fs aoe (248,10) (>) © NWI? ph _ds W)=—Tf Boy ® (L = total length of linac.) This beam break- up instability growth is very large for linacs with large single-bunch charge like those for linear colliders. This problem is usually cured by BNS damping. ‘Two-macroparticle model With two macroparticles (spacing £, charge Ne/2) injected with initial displacement @, solutions are given in Tab.1 (3, 4]. For the case with no acceleration (EZ = constant) and constant focusing (k1, ky = constants), if ky = kp = k, then New.) Ep esinks (8) while if ky = k and kz = k-+ Ak, with Ak < k, then fh (9) 299) z Ak x 2 sin(Aks/2) sin [a+ | © BNS damping and autophasing [7] In two- macroparticle model, to make head and tail macroparticles follow the same orbit, Eq.(9) requires: _ News) 4EkAk 4Ek ao or, with Ey = E, Ey = B+AB, AE <£, and ky = ky = k, Eq.(10) becomes AE = NWO, where € is related to chromaticity: 4E = e428, These are autophasing conditions; also sometimes called BNS damping conditions, but BNS damping may also refer to cases where betatron oscillation is actually damped in parts of the bunch. To achieve autophasing for an arbitrary bunch distribution p(2) [8] (case of no acceleration), Ak) _ ef SHO) 8 [oe Wate 2! aD) ‘These autophasing conditions also apply to uniformly accelerated case with p = 1/2. See also Eq.(8), See.43. Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Choice of rf phase profile involves consideration of minimizing energy spread, optimization of BNS damping, and amount of acceleration sacri- ficed by putting bunches off rf crests. One solution is to run behind rf crests early in linac, introducing appropriate BNS energy spread, then run ahead of crests later in linac so as to reduce energy sptead at the end of linac. Quadrupole beam break-up can occur if beam. is sufficiently intense and transverse beam size is comparable to beam pipe radius [9]. In contrast to dipole BBU, this can occur even if beam is well- steered to axis of accelerator. 2.5.1.2 Multibunch Effects Multibunch longitudinal dynamics Symbols: q = bunch charge, = fundamental mode loss factor, Ty = structure filling time, fy = <2t- where v, is group velocity in the structure, L, structure length, t = bunch spacing, ng = total number of bunches in the bunch train. For multi-bunch dynamics, only the fundamental accelerating mode is important; its effect is called beam loading (Secs.2.5.2, 7.3.5). The loaded accelerating gradient at time t after the first bunch enters the structure, for constant gradient structures with rectangular input wave, is [3] #0) 6 (12) where r, = shunt impedance per unit length (Q/m), 7 = attenuation parameter, I = eN/ty = average current, x = min(t/Ty, 1). € is constant for t > Ty (stationary state), When the beam pulse is very long (> Ij), therefore, the energy gain is almost uniform in practice, If the beam length is Sy as in the case of normal conducting linear colliders, transient beam loading must be compensated to obtain uniform acceleration (see below). Assuming a constant-impedance structure and approximately square rf pulse of amplitude &o, the fraction of energy extracted by a single bunch is (jo <1) (Go = 2m9)? rig 0 £ ‘The steady-state beam loading voltage is V;'" =~ wigbeye. Multibunch energy compensation methods wT Machedsiling: By alusing Uing and bunch spacing of train, one may cancel most loon ar en" 1-e-3r m=1- 3) 105Sec.2.5: COLLECTIVE EFFECTS bunch-to-bunch energy variation in a short train [10]. When optimized so that the first and the last bunches have equal energies (for a constant impedance structure), ty 2nig/(1 + fo) aa) Ty; Be UF hota + Neg _ Dyeltthe)so/ta Tad — ethan) Here so is the distance rf pulse has propagated in structure when the first bunch is injected, and 14 is the attenuation length of rf. The residual energy “sag” in train is bE N(N-2) 9 Bap Fm (wm <1) 5) 2. Pre-filling of structure (Sometimes called amplitude modulation or AT’ method.) Pre-filling of the structure with rf before the beam is injected can be done in such a way that the energy gain of each bunch during the transient period approximates the energy gain of each bunch in steady state [11], In the simplest form of this scheme, the amplitude of the input rf field is linearly ramped during the first filling time, then bunch train is injected during the second filling time. Shap- ing of the input rf wave form can be done, e.g, by controlling the phases at which two (or more) Klystron outputs are combined. 3, Staggered timing: Timings of rf pulses into a certain number of accelerating sections are distributed [12, 13, 14] over a filling time (or over a bunch train length, whichever is shorter; usually this method is used for long bunch trains). The distribution of delay times can be adjusted at time of operation. ‘The required fraction of de- layed sections is mMaet , 2V5" me a (a6) moe Vithea where Vif. is rf voltage for a filled section. 4. Af method: This is achieved by mixing structures of slightly different frequences. The required frequency difference is Aw = O(1/nats). Once constructed, only the voltage and phase of these structures can be used as control knobs. In all these cures the residual energy spread ‘can theoretically be reduced to < 1%, The last two methods have the problem that compensation is non-local, so that energy spread may be large in the low energy end of linac. For the second ‘method, the rf pulse shape is closely coupled to 106 the pulse compression method (if the latter is required as in linear colliders). It is possible to create the desired pulse shape during pulse compression process. Multibunch transverse dynamics ‘The cumulative BBU instability, first studied at SLAC (15, 16, 17, 18], has been treated for various cit- cumstances: long/short beam pulse, strong/weak focusing system, rffinduction/superconducting linacs, etc [19]. See Sec.4.3 for the effect of multibunch BBU on beam emittances, jon of motion One can treat each bunch as a point charge (since electron bunches are short). (Finite length bunch is discussed in [20}.) For ng equally-charged, equally-spaced bunches, each bunch represented as a single macroparticle with charge Ne, E(3)tq + E"(8)th + E(s)ka(8) tn ai =NEY Wil(n—J)Oe(s) AD) i A difference from single-bunch BBU is that W, is dominated by one or a few resonators having large shunt impedance, Walz) = Datei sin“ (1g) k k e Since the wake function eventually dies away as z —+ 00 due to finite Q, the beam approaches steady state when beam pulse becomes very long [21}. This is particularly important for c.w. linacs (20). In case of a single isolated resonator with infinite Q, the amplitude blowup factor of the last bunch takes a form similar to Eq.(6) with domi- ‘nant exponential factor eV” (n > 1) having wee n=enaNWio [ao 9) where W/o is the coefficient of sine function for the resonator mode in Eq.(18). The condition 1 S 1 crudely determines the required reduction factor of Wo. For linear acceleration and focusing that scales as EP, solutions in WKB approximation, for an arbitrary wake, are Ne ald) = (2000) + sre (Ba) © exol-ivte 0mt x YL Wi((n—poas(s') ales) = J kale” These equations for zn(s) may readily be solved numerically. Daisy chain model If the wake field is negligible beyond more than one bunch spacing, and acceleration and variation of focusing along the my) F cxolii(s,0)) 20) where: linac are ignored, we have 22] af+Re = 0 en 2 a+ Kan = NEMO, | >a For initial conditions zin(s) = 1, 2%,(s) = not i an(s) 5 f @) c= where ¢ = “W400 For sufficiently large |os], the amplitude of oscillation of bunch n grows as s"-1, The criterion for little or no blow-up in linac is | L| < 1 where L is length of linac. Analytic two-particle and daisy chain results given above still hold for case of linear acceleration and a focusing function characterized by p = 1/2, provided that s is interpreted as the effective length (See Tab.1) and 2-n(s) is interpreted as bunch offset with adiabatic damping factored out, as discussed above. Control of multibunch BBU If the linac is not too long and focusing elements not strong, the method of laser guiding can be applied [23]. The laser ionizes gas in the structure, and the ions cre~ ate a potential which causes spread (amplitude dependence) of the betatron fequency. For large scale linacs, several methods (and their combination) have been proposed: 1, Effects of wake are minimized if bunches are neat zero crossings of wake, i.c., dominant deflecting mode frequency satisfies sin w_t, = 0. 2. BBU does not occur if Q of dominant deflecting mode is small enough so that wake does not reach the next bunch. When wake can reach only the next bunch (daisy chain model), the condition that the emittance blowup be small is NeWiOl 2 __ds Toh rR & 107 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS For X-band linear colliders Q < 15 — 25 is required, Many types of such strongly-damped structures have been designed. One of the most strongly-damped structures, the choke mode structure [24], satisfies this requirement for all the deflecting modes, 3. If deflecting modes have a frequency spread, the sum of all the modes can be reduced and BBU can be largely suppressed [25, 26]. ‘Spread can come from random construction errors [27]. Or, structure can be designed so that cell dimensions differ slightly from cell to cell s0 as to give mode frequency wy a spread within each frequency band, causing decoherence of wake function. Constant gradient structures already have some frequency spread, but one can design structures to optimize this decoherence; such are called detuned structures. Required rms spread of frequency is oy % 1/(2te). Since the number of different frequencies is limited (= number of cells ‘eel Per structure), wake recoheres after time ~ Neeutts. Thus when the number of bunches is large (& O(Mceu!)), additional measures may be needed to control the wake (interleaved detuned structure and/or damped detuned structure) (28). References [1] FJ. Decker, R. Holtzapple, T. Raubenheimer, Proc, LINAC 94 (1994) p.47 (2] K. Bane, AIP Proc. 153 (1987) [3] P. Wilson, AIP Proc. 87 (1981) p.450 [4] A. Chao, Physics of Collective Beam Instabilities {in High Energy Accelerators, Wiley (1993) [5] A. Piwinski, DESY report HERA 92-11 (1992) [6] A.W.Chao, B.Richter, C.Y.Ya0, NIM 178 (1980) 1 [7] ¥. Balakin, S, Novokhatsky, V. Smirnov, Proc. 12th Int. Conf. on High Energy Acc, (1983) [8] V.Balakin, Proc. Workshop on Linear Colliders (1988) p.55. [9] A.W. Chao, RK. Cooper, PA 13 (1983) 1 [10] RD. Ruth, Proc. ICFA/INFN Workshop on Physics of Linear Colliders (1988) (11) KA. Thompson, R.D. Ruth, PAC 93 [12] RB. Neal, ed., The Stanford Two-Mile Acceler- ator, Benjamin, (1968), p.84, 13] RH, Helm et al, IEEE Trans, Nucl, Sci. NS-16, No.3 (1969) 311 [14) B. Aune, J. Leroy, A. Mosnier, PAC 83, p.2995 [15] RB. Neal, WH. Panofsky, Science (1966) 1353 [16] RH, Helm, G.A. Loew, Linear Accelerators, ‘North-Holland (1970) [17] W.K.H. Panofsky, M, Bander, RSI39 (1968) 206Sec,2.5: COLLECTIVE EFFECTS [18] VK. Neil, L.S. Hall, R.K, Cooper, PA 9 (1979) 213 (19) ¥.Y, Lau, PRL 63 (1989) 1141 [20] CLL. Bohn, J.R, Delayen, PR A45 (1992) 5964 [21] RL. Gluckstern, RK. Cooper, PJ. Channell, PA 16 (1985) 125 [22] K.A. Thompson, RD. Ruth, PR Dl (1989) 964 [23] GF. Caporaso, Linac 86, SLAC, 1986, p.17; GF. ‘Caporaso et al, PRL 57 (1986) 1591 [24] TShintake, Jap. J. Appl. Phys. 31, L1567 (1992) [25] K.Yokoya, DESY 86-084 (1986) [26] RL. Gluckstern, F. Neri, RK. Cooper, Linac 86, Stanford, p.540 [27] RL. Gluckstern, F, Neri, RK. Cooper, PA 23 (1988) 37 [28] K.A. Thompson et.al, PA 47 (1994) 65 25.2 Beam Loading D. Boussard, CERN 25.2.1 Single-bunch passage in a cavity ‘The amplitude of beam-induced voltage is @ gle bunch charge (assumed short bunch with o < Art), R/Q = cavity geometric, parameter, C = (w-R/Q)-! = equivalent shunt capacitance of cavity, fe = We/2m = cavity resonant frequency. Energy deposited by the bunch in the cavity is fue = ® ‘The net energy received by the bunch is W = a¥g sind ~ We = 4 (Ve sings ~ 3%) where Vj = generator voltage, and ¢, = beam phase angle (counted from zero crossing of rf wave). The net voltage seen by the bunch is 1 V = Vasings — 5Vio @ Observations: (1) The bunch sees only half of its own induced voltage (“Fundamental The- orem of Beam Loading” [1]), and (ii) Loss factor of cavity on a particular mode is 24 3B 2c ‘A phasor diagram at the rf frequency is shown. below with ~ and 7+ = rf voltages before and after the bunch passage, 7 = net voltage seen by the bunch, and is = rf component of bunch current, The vectors Vio and % are in phase. wes 108 108 ‘asearas < 2.5.2.2 Cavity equivalent circuit [2] In the figure below, V = cavity voltage, Ry = shunt resistance of tetrode seen from cavity (transformed to the gap), i = pure current source (transformed to the gap), and #} =rf component of beam current, Note that maximum power and efficiency of the tetrode does not correspond to veg TOtOdE ‘The phasor diagram (steady state, above transition case) is shown below with io = V/R = generator current needed to produce V when the cavity is at resonance and there is no beam current, R = R'R,/(R! + Ky), ¥ = is/io = Vo/V = beam loading parameter, Vj = beam- induced voltage at resonance, g = stable phase angle (short bunches) measured from zero crossing of rf wave, ¢, = cavity impedance phase angle (tang. = Aw/o, Aw = We ~ wet, and g = w-/2Q1), Qu = R/(§) = loaded quality factor of the cavity, and z = phase angle be- ‘tween generator current (or grid voltage) and v. eel i 3 Steady state equations From the phasor diagram, Cavity Beam tang, ~¥ cos $y tangy 1+Ysingy 6)io(L + ¥ sin ge) 008 61, Optimum detning (real load) is obtained when GL =0,0r tang.=Y cosy, or Av=wpo=Yocosdy 1) This is the usual operating condition of a cavity which is automatically obtained by its servo tuner. © tg Case of a matched generator (e.g. klystron and circulator) Use the same equivalent cit- cuit, where Ry is the transmission line impedance (wansformed to the gap) and replace 7, by 2% where 7, = forward traveling wave current in line (tansformed to the gap). The cavity coupling coefficient fis given by fe = R’/R. ‘The forward power Py in the line (i.e. power flowing from klystron + circulator towards cavity) is given by y= i Rei ® At optimum coupling, 8. = opt» / Boge = ie =14 Rha and optimum detuning Aw = wo, the combination (cavity + beam) is matched to the generator and the required rf power is minimum, 1 ‘Val a e aRtD ZV sind (a0) where the first term on the rh.s is cavity loss, while the second term is the power transferred to the beam. There is no reflected power dissipated in the circulator load (see figure below). Py = Ppmin = Equivalent coupler power Peq is the traveling- wave power in the line which produces the same peak fields. It is an important parameter for the design of rf couplers, usually tested in traveling wave conditions. For a (cavity + beam) undercou- pled i.e. Be < Aopts Pag is independent of ip, iv 2R ‘The following figure shows the rf powers vs eam current for a cavity driven by a matched generator and optimum detuning Aw = wo or or =0: ay Pa = Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS -V(iRg+tR) -ViR' 0 VR a) 2523 ‘Transmission of small modulations (AM and PM) through a cavity with beam loading [2] To evaluate the dynamic behaviour of an rf system including feedback loops (amplitude,phase,tuning, etc), it is useful to know the transmission of small modulations around the static operating point. The inputs are modulations of ig (generator current) in amplitude (AM) and phase (PM), modulations of és (RF component of beam current), and tune modulations. The outputs are the amplitude and phase modulations of the cavity voltage V. Generator current i, to cavity voltage V PM to PM og = Fle [o?(1 + tan? ¢.) + o(1+Y¥ sings) +07¥ (sings — tang, cosy)] (12) PMto G3 = al — 0 (cos $s + tang, sin dy) +0(tan dz ~ ¥ cos gy) ] (3) AM to AM 6% = GS (4) AMtoPM Gg, = -G, (1s) where D = s* +208 + 0(1 + tan? ¢,) with s the Laplace variable. Beam current é, to cavity voltage V PMtoPM GB =X [o*(tangs cosds—sin gx) —osin dss] a6) (tan gz sin d5-+cos dys)+0 cos $23] =F le anSec.2.5: COLLECTIVE EFFECTS AM to. AM G2, =GE (18) AM to PM G8, =-GE (19) ‘Tune modulations from 2 = Aw/o to cavity voltage V = o tos Gy = 20) AM ane Gan = =EBEH ay 2.5.24 Periodic beam loading at multiples of fo 13,4) Modulated beam current (¢.g. unequal filling of bunches) at multiples of the revolution frequency fo results in AM and PM of V. Self-consistent solution, valid for only one cavity in the ring or identical, equal-voltage cavities, is given by AM % = Lupo x 22 ay wpo(1 + tan? gy) — Aw + (s +0) tan dy (e+ 0)? — Awfwpo(l + tan® gs) — Aw)] PM Py 7 wD0 x 23) {woo( + tan?) — Aw] tan dy — (s +0) (s +0)? — Aulwpo(i + tan? gy) — Au} Optimal detuning For optimal detuning with Aw = wpo = oY cos dp, which corresponds to areal load to the generator, one has AM dy _ _wpo(s +0 +wpo tan dy) tan gy ae (8+ 0)? — who tan? dy (24) Py __wpo(s +o —wpo tan’ dy) 5) @% (8+0)F who tan by Magic detuning For “magic” detuning with Aw = wpo(1+tan? ¢y), one obtains simple, first order responses AM ay _ _ po tangs a sto 26) g P,__ wo ‘oy “S40 @ ‘With magic detuning, perfect compensation of phase modulations due to beam gaps in collider rings is possible [3]. Uniform bunch train For a uniform bunch train of length to followed by a gap and Aw = wo, d> © 0, there is no amplitude modulation, and the phase modulation corresponds to a single first-order response with maximum phase excursion (for ¢ < 1/To) 1Rwes dmx = 5G Gill — to) = wpo(To — to) 8) where i = average rf component of beam current, To = revolution period. Periodic behavior of beam phase as a function of time is shown below for several values of oTp. yn 2.5.2.5 Rf power needed for transient beam- loading correction [4] The objective is to keep 7 constant independent of i. The solution is to provide via the rf generator an additional current Ai, = —i to cancel out i, variations which cannot be corrected by cavity detuning (usually slow). For a fully modulated beam (e.g. injection transient, beam gap), the required power is also generally modulated, e.g. if the cavity is tuned for no beam [Aw = 0, g. = 0, case (a) of figure below]. However, for a half-detuned cavity [case (b) of figure below], the power is unmodulated (the required peak power is in this case minimum). 110rs 5 420 t L: _ Pa ‘ Iba, © ANG r wos tae ain TT) 1% Igsletl gat CETTE » VR ene Nig Installed peak power for a tetrode (f, = 0) Consider two cases: (a) cavity on tune for zero current, and (b) cavity half detuned. Case a BR Caseb Aw 1 Vase Te tory >io a pet 7Q”"v ly fo, (iv\? ava+ (3) = for iy K ip Installed peak power for a klystronand cireu- lator (5 = 0) By 8 Vig R 4 G0) BR io)” 6) where 2 = (1/2)(R/Q)(we/Aw) = cavity reac- tance. With cavity on tune for zero beam current (Aw = 0), and optimum matching, one has for case (a), 1 1 te ° 2) #- (¢) ou ” V2 Vv? Vin i PR wie for R'is > V (33) P; fluctuates between Vis/8 (when i = 0) and Vin/4 (when fy = a max). ‘With cavity half detuned, Aw (1/4)(R/Q)(weis/V), and optimum matching, one has for case (b), 7 —S 34) z ( 64 Vv? Vv? Vin Rte 5) for Rly > V Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS 25.2.6 ‘Traveling-wave cavities [5, 6] In smooth approximation the transient response of ‘a matched traveling-wave cavity to a point charge having synchronous velocity is an rf burst starting at time z/vp and of duration z/v, (vp, %, and group velocities in the structure, inal coordinate). In frequency domain, Baw) = 0 where Ei = beam-induced rf field, Ro = effective shunt impedance of structure, L = total length of structure, 3 = relativistic factor, and 7 = transit time factor, ar! (1% rio) on The beam-induced voltage is 4 Wau (es) 26 68) For traveling-wave cavities the transfer impedances from generator and beam are different. This is in contrast with standing wave cay- ities, which for a given mode exhibit the same transfer function (circle in figure below) from generator or from beam to cavity voltage. Perfect correction of beam loading is not possible with traveling-wave structures. This is illustrated by the transient response of a traveling-wave cavity to a step in generator power (linear rise of voltage) and to a step in beam current (parabolic rise of voltage). Figure below shows the impedance seen by ‘the beam, Solid curve is for traveling-wave structure, Dotted curve is for standing-wave structure, Fe Figure below shows the transient response of a traveling-wave structure. M1Sec.2.5: COLLECTIVE EFFECTS _ >t yt Linear Yoh 1 Parabolic ee ligt References [1] P. Wilson, IXth Int. Conf. On High Energy Acc. (1974) p.57 [2] F. Pedersen, PAC 75, p.1906 [B] F. Pedersen, CERN/PS 92-59 (RF) [4] D. Boussard, CERN SL/91-16 (RFS) {5] G. Déme, Proton Linac Conf, (1976) p.138 [6] D. Boussard, CERN Acc. School(1996) 2.53 Space Charge Effects in Circular Accel- erators B. Zotter, CERN 253.1 Direct space charge effects Impedances (See also Sec.3.2.5) The electric and magnetic forces (Fiz and Fy = ~6°Fp) due to a straight beam of charged particles nearly cancel when their velocity v = cis ultra-telativistic (6 = 1), both in free space and in a perfectly conducting, concentric smooth pipe. ‘The factor 1-6? = 1/7? < 1 then reduces the direct space- charge force and hence the longitudinal space- charge impedance: Zn _ $20, n Bye where n = w/wo. The g-factor is g = 1+ 21n(b/a) for a circular cylindrical beam of radius ain a concentric pipe of radius b. Space-charge force is quite weak in proton machines with GeV energies, and completely negligible in high-energy electron machines, However, in proton (or ion) machines in the MeV range, space charge is often the domi- ‘nant impedance. It corresponds to a negative inductance, sometimes called capacitive although it is cc w like an inductance, In machines operating above transition this may lead to negative mass instability (Sec.2.5.6). a) 112 ‘The transverse space-charge impedance is ;P%(1_1 fale-z) ® where R = average machine radius. For a uniform beam with elliptic cross section (1, half axes a and az, the first term in brackets should be replaced by 2/a1,2(a1 + a2), and by 1/o2,y(02 + oy) for a Gaussian distribution, Betatron tune shifts are proportional to ZI and can bring tunes onto resonances leading to particle losses. In high-current machines, the tune variation can be reduced by surrounding the beam with an rf shield following the beam profile such that the ratio 6/a remains constant. In bunched beams, tunes are different in the center and at the edge of a bunch, and the whole tune region should avoid low order resonances. The direct space charge force is centered on the beam and not the chamber axis. Hence it is independent of any transverse displacement of the beam and does not affect rigid dipole oscillations. However, it changes the external focusing forces which leads to the beam envelope equation for the ‘beam half-width a, (see also Seo.2.4.2.3), Paz ds? The equation for the beam half-height ay is obtained by interchanging all subscripts 2 and y. Here K; is the external focusing strength, including possible gradient errors, e; the emittance in the @ or y plane, A the (constant) line density, ro the classical particle radius, and ~y the energy factor. The space charge force leads to an envelope modulation which reduces the tune shift to 3/4 Av. for the antisymmetric (“quadrupole”) mode, and to 1/2 Av\®) for the symmetric (“breathing”) mode, where Av.) is the space-charge tune shift when the modulation is neglected, Curvature effects The compensation of elec tric and magnetic forces is perturbed when the beam trajectory and the surrounding vacuum chamber are curved. The impedance of a perfectly conducting chamber of rectangular cross section (half height A, half width w) bent in a circle of radius R is purely reactive [2]: 2 ImZi w 29 (2 y}« where the constants A and B are close to unity when w > 2h, and about 0.7 when w = h. Za hw me Sn (8) em (Eq.(4) holds for k = w/Be < (n/h)/R[w, corresponding typically to a frequency of 100 GHz. At higher frequencies, there are resonances with P/Q values given in terms of Bessel function ze- 10s of large order [3]. Based on a simpler model of a circular beam between two infinite plates separated by 2g, the real part of the radiation impedance can be approximated by [4] Zy Io Ret = 300[05 ©) The effect of curvature on transverse beam motion due to the centrifugal space charge force was first considered important [5], but it is cancelled almost completely by that of the transverse electric field on particles with different energies (6). Nevertheless, curved trajectories can lead to emittance growth due to additional forces [7]. The en- ‘ergy gradient along a Gaussian bunch becomes ge __2NoForo __p, (2) © edt ~ Var Reais °\a, while the additional transverse forces are NoEo -4 eh Rd = ~Febe Pe ean NB Re) = em (Z) © where Fe) = f° Selo- were Fi) = (a Spee ®) These transverse forces as well as the longitudinal energy gradient in dispersive regions contribute to emittance growth, 2.53.2 Betatron frequency shifts In addition to direct space-charge fields, induced Jields due to charges and currents in the surround- ‘ing vacuum chamber walls (“image fields”) shift the betatron frequencies, which is often called Laslett tune shifts {8}. Below we present the vertical tune shifts; the horizontal ones can be obtained by exchanging y ++ « and height «+ width. Incoherent tune shifts refer to changes of betatron frequencies of single particles in a beam. Let wy = Myo be the unperturbed betatron frequency, Fy the vertical forces due to induced and space-charge fields, Jo the beam current, and yo the offset of beam centroid, To first order, Fy = yo oF Vy lwo Ppl © 13 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS. The first term gives rise to a change of the incoherent betatron tune Vine with 7 1 ay Mie =~ Teach By lence 1 When the shift Aving < vy is small, Avize © (v2 — v2,.)/2¥me- Incoherent tunes of different particles in a beam usually vary over a finite range called tune spread. Coherent tune shifts change the frequency of the beam centroid. Measurements of tunes, e.g. with pick-up electrodes sensitive only to average motion, show the coherent tune which satisfies 1 [2 oF) | marek | By lv=w0=5 Byo| sl For small shifts, Avcoh * (V3 — ¥3,4)/2Veoh- The difference between Wine and Weon is proportional to OF,/Oy and OF,/Ayo and equals U+(1+4)V, where U and V are the transverse Aa4e dispersion relation coefficients, proportional to the transverse impedance Z,: — 2x rol U+O+V ain 02 Unbunched beams The vertical tune shifts for ‘unbunched beams in a perfectly conducting vac- ‘uum chamber of half-height h, between perfect magnetic pole pieces at a distance -:g from the axis, can be written 2ro Rlo(B) [er , o€2, Ese Aine oy Le aaa] OP fs , Pe Avion = — 0 RB) a ae ec By re as as where (8) is the average -function (= R/v in smooth approximation), ro the classical radius of the particle, The first expression for the coher- cent tune shif, called integer formula, is valid for very thin walls through which ac magnetic fields can penetrate, while the second one, called half- integer formula, is for the usual case of thicker walls where these fields do not penetrate (9]. The transition is discussed in [9]. The Laslett coefficients for beams in the center of some common geometries are shown in Tab.1, where K(k) is the complete elliptic integral of the first kind with modulus k, given by exp(—2K'/K) = (w — h)/(w +), where h and w are the chamber half height and width,Sec.2.5: COLLECTIVE EFFECTS ‘Table 1: Laslett coefficients for simple geometries. Coefficient | circular elliptic cross section parplate | comments e00¥ 12 b/(a+8) - | direct space charge EecH 12 Pfala+b)_ Z ewe 0 |to5 le +k?) (= KY ~ 2] | 412/48 | coherent electric eov/H a : stx?/24 | coherent magnetic i) (2K ; : av 12 z we CY -1] 0 | incoherent electric 2KK ax | Wpi- (ey J 7/16 &v - - 0 | incoherent magnetic on : a 16 = VI— Bis the complementary modulus, and Kl=K(e)! ‘When a beam is partially neutralized, and 1) expresses the ratio of densities of particles of opposite charge to particles in the beam, the electric fields due to direct space-charge and duc to induced charges are reduced, while the magnetic field remains unchanged. This can strongly increase the direct space-charge field, which is no longer multiplied by 1 — 6? = 1/7? but by 1 ~ 6? ~n, To avoid excessive tune shifts when 1 > 1/7? one needs to reduce neutralization, e.g. with clearing electrodes or lower rest gas pressure. Tune shifts of unbunched beams with neutralization are given in Eq.(14) with B = 1. Im- age coefficients for off-axis beams can be found in [10, 11). The image coefficients ep and €, for closed magnetic boundaries (¢.g. circular or elliptic) cannot be calculated for 1 — oo since the induced magnetic field would not permit a charged beam. to pass through. They have therefore been calculated for perfect magnetic yokes with gaps [12]. Closed magnetic yokes are used e.g. in superconducting magnets, but there the coefficients €2 = & — Osince the magnetic material is driven completely into saturation (jt + 1). "This relation is much simpler when expressed with the nome, defined as q = exp(—7K"/K), which is a common parameter in most computer codes for elliptic integrals, 114 Bunched beams For bunched beams, several terms in the expression for the tune shifts are proportional to the peak rather than the average current, ‘This can be taken into account by division with the bunching factor B < 1, defined as the ratio of average to peak current. This xe ale 1-6-9 EB The neutralization in bunched beams is usually weaker than in unbunched ones, and can be further reduced by leaving a gap in the filling pattern, For machines with vacuum chambers consisting of sections with unequal dimensions, one needs to calculate the tune shifts for each chamber type separately, and add the contributions in proportion to their lengths. References {1} L. Teng, Report ANLAD-59 (1963) (2) YK. Ng, R. Warnock. PR D40 (1989) 231 (3) R. Warnock. P, Morton, SLAC PUB 4562 (1988)[4] A. Faltens, LJ, Laslett, PA 4 (1973) 152 {5] R. Talman, PRL 56 (1986) 1429 [6] E. Lee, PA 25 (1990) 241 (7] V.Derbenev, Y. Shiltsev, SLAC-PUB 7181(1996); P.Emma, R. Brinkman, PAC 97;R.Li, CL. Bohn, J.L Bisognano, PAC 97 {8} LJ. Laslett, BNL Report 7534 (1963) p.324 {9] B. Zotter, CERN/ISR-TH/72-8 (1972) [10] B. Zotter, CERN/ISR-TH/74-11 and 38 (1972) [11] G. Guignard, CERN Report 77-10 (197) [12] LJ. Laslett, Report UCRL 18892 (1969) 2.54 Vlasov and Fokker-Planck Equations B. Zotter, CERN Liouville theorem The Vlasov Equation describes the evolution of a continuous distribution function ~p in phase space. It is essentially a col- lisionless Boltzmann equation, or an expression of the Liouville theorem, which states that, in the absence of collisions and dissipation, the local density in phase space must remain constant dyj/dt = 0. Expressed in conjugate variables 7 and oe oy Bee ae. Bn? qa) Written in eae and velocity eae 4,8, ea. ee +dfey- Bao @ with aga replaced by the force on ae of charge e and mass m. The Lorentz force # = e( +0 x B) should be obtained from the self- consistent EM fields, Linearized Viasov equation Consider 2-D phase space (p,q), and write # as the sum of a time independent (stationary) part Yo(p, 4) and a small time dependent (perturbation) part ¥a(p,9,t). For a Hamiltonian system, ¢ Hap and p = —OH/0q, by satisfies Ovo OH _ Oo OH eG Gq Bp ~ Op oq = OH @ where the square brackets are Poisson brackets (See.2.3.6). It follows that Yo = Yo(H), and does not depend explicitly on p or g. The linearization consists in neglecting terms of second order in oe a may go Oy += an — in (4) aay op ig @ a Fa is the saioasey part of fe force (due to the applied external EM fields or force generated by go, e.g. through wake fields); Fi is 1s Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS the small, time-dependent part of the force generated by ty through wake fields. If the perturbation is oscillatory ~ exp(—iwt), one can replace (8/€t) + —iw. The equation permits the determination of w (complex). ‘The distribution (and thus the beam) becomes unstable if w has a positive imaginary part exceeding radiation damping. Fokker-Planck equation [2] In the presence of dissipative force or random noise, the phase space density is no longer conserved. This leads to the FP equation: We ay oe 2ay +D at © , D = the damping and diffusion coefficients. In case damping and noise come from synchrotron radiation in electron storage rings (Sec.3.1.4), we have (3, 4] Horiz. Vert. Tong. (ap) a D ms where Up = (4n/3)remec?y*/p, Du = (Nu?) /2 = (55/48V3)refimecty" /p? (u photon energy), Cy = (55/32V3)h/mec, E = mec, 17 slip factor, p bending radius. The mms size is given by 0? = 02 = D/2a. In the z-motion, is identified with p rather than q because quantum excitation occurs in # rather than 2’. References U0] A. Hofmann, CERN 95-06, Vol.I (1995) p.259 [2] J. Jowett, AIP Proc. 153 (1985) p.864 (3] M. Sands, SLAC-121 (1970) [4] A.W. Chao, Lecture Notes in Phys. 296, Springer- ‘Verlag (1986) p.51 2.5.5 Potential Well Effect B. Zotter, CERN Symbols J, bunch peak current, Ip average cur- Tent, mg number of bunches in beam, V;¢ rf voltage, Vso = Weo/wo, Ys = Ws/Wwo Zero-currentSec.2.5: COLLECTIVE EFFECTS and perturbed synchrotron tunes, b vacuum chamber pipe radius, 7 time displacement of particle from bunch center, h harmonic number, 0 sip factor, ¢%s synchronous phase, £o zero-current bunch length, £ and AE bunch length and energy spread, € = 16/Vet = Opel,/vZE = 2rle/hVee cos ye scaling parameter (dimension 2-1). We have = ,[Rmrcosye y_ Inle AE Yo=\\ on BiB Te? toa, Ee Proton bunch lengthening Without synchrotron radiation, the longitudinal emittance (c 2A) is invariant, It follows from Eq.(1) that Cus = uw @ For £ > 6, the impedance is mainly inductive with 2, /n = —iwoL = constant (n = w/wo), and [1] 3 TpZe B= A(-am ee ® Ze = 2 9 ° n 2B where B = £run/2mR the bunching factor. The second term in Ze is from direct space charge, g = 1+2Inb/a (Sec.2.5.3.1). ‘Eliminating the synchrotron frequency yields a quartic equation for the bunch-lengthening factor: = t/l, a-dze-1=0 ® Electron bunch lengthening For electrons, the energy spread is constant for low currents. The energy distribution is Gaussian. For linear motions the line density is also. Gaussian, Eq(1) yields ows = own (0 = 02/0) O} This leads to a cubic equation for x = 0/00, w—2-&Z,= © Note: (a) Eq.(6) docs not apply if £ < b where ‘resonant impedances dominate. (b) Coherent synchrotron radiation can also produce bunch lengthening [2], but this is usually weaker than effect of the impedance, Equation of motion fo} ér ae ae wer = On (2 ~ 72a) o where the higher-order-mode impedance Zpom and the potential-well impedance Zpot are 3 Rez (pu) Jo(es#) 5p) paaeo Zrom x ReZ(puo) \(puo) paneo = Ji(pwot) Ent Zee Kp) x > ImZ(pu0)pA(pwo) parce The second expressions are valid for small amplitudes of the synchrotron oscillations. The perturbed synchrotron frequency is a(i-£. Yo(1 ~ 3Zpct) ® while the center of the oscillation is shifted by Ay = heZhom Gaussian bunches For a Gaussian bunch, one substitutes A(w) = exp(—w?o?/2) into Eq.(8). Relating to the effective impedances for modes ‘m = 0 and m = 1 (Sec.3.2.6), @) we fm = See) Zp = Cam (2)" (10) ‘Turbulent threshold The energy spread of an electron bunch remains unchanged with increasing current up to the turbulent threshold, where also the slope of bunch length versus currents increases. Dynamics in this regime is not completely understood. The bunch length above threshold can be expressed in terms of the scaling parameter €. For an impedance described by a power law Zy(w) = (Z)o(w/wo)*, one gets [4] oe Z| Nero ze (F ) 7 For an inductive wall a = 1, and ~ €¥/8, ‘However, turbulence is mainly due to the high frequency part of the impedance evaluated at Werte = e/ez. Then [5], ea (a) =a [BL a2) | qa +(2 ‘The turbulent threshold current is Ta= Vorky vaB/e |, Z1A pee e ap|Z/nlerit 1Z/nlecr, (13) 116‘The bunch length at threshold oy,/o0 = [i + 2 (Z/n)pct/|2/nlert| " Above threshold, (Z/r)poxy mo [erate] oe (2/2) por au. ae > teal 48 Haissinski equation Fora given wake function, the equilibrium line density satisfies [6] Mr) = Kexp [-votr) wef" asters ono] as) where Up(r) = 72/202 for a linear rf voltage (parabolic potential), S(r) = [7 W;(t)de is the step-function wake potential with W, the wake function (Sec.3.2.1), The constant K is determined by normalization f \(t)dt = 1. For a purely resistive impedance R,, the Hiaissinski equation can be solved [9], = 2/Q]n) exp 7?/203 £00 [Coth() - erf(r/oov2)] where £ oc Rely; it can be obtained from the normalization f dr\(r) = 1. The solution corresponds to an asymmetric bell shape. For an inductive impedance S(r) = L6(r), hence [8] 2p 2a Eq.(17) can be solved numerically and corresponds to bunch lengthening above transition. For 2 capacitive impedance, bunch shortens above transition, For more realistic resonator impedances, solutions can be found by a perturbation algorithm [9], results shown in Fig.1. For other impedances, the Haissinski equation is integrated numerically. A divergence may occur for higher currents which has no physical significance [10]. The bunch deformation is important for determining instability thresholds [11]. 6) No) = Kexp [ +h] an References U1} S. Hansen et al, PAC 75, p.1381 2} C. Pellegrini, A. Sessler, Nuovo Cimento 53 B (1968) 198 [3] B. Zotter, CERN Report SPS/B1-14 (1981) [4] A. Chao, J. Gareyte, PA 25 (1990) 229 [5] A. Hofmann, 3, Maidment, LEP-Note 168 (1979) HT Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Figure 1: Electron bunch in resonator impedance for various currents. (6] J, Haissinski, Nuovo Cimento 18 B (1973) 72 I7] A. Ruggiero, PAC 77, p.1205 [8] G. Besnier, B. Zotter, KEK Report 90-21 (1990) ps2 [9] J. Hagel, B. Zotter, KEK Report 90-21 (1991) p.59 [10) K. Bane, SLAC-PUB-5517 (1990) [11] K. Olde, KEK Report 90-21 (1990) p.64 2.5.6 Single-Bunch Instabilities in Circular Accelerators B. Zotter, CERN ‘These instabilities can occur either in the longitudinal or in one of the transverse directions (usually more limiting vertically), Robinson instability The detuning of a cavity by the induced current of a bunched beam leads to stability limits for the tuning angle y = tan™[2Q,(wr — wer)/we] [1], 0 (Fanaa) ® ‘moe Eo _tnl e Zin where Appwm is the momentum spread (full width at half maximum). The form factor F’, of order unity, depends on the particle distribution (ee Tab. 1). Resistive wall instability Currents are induced in metallic vacuum chamber walls by the beam. Due to the finite resistivity of the walls, they extend behind the position of ultra-telativistic charges. ‘Their EM fields act on charged particles arriving later and may increase their oscillation amplitudes, and cause instabilities in bunched or unbunched beams, in the longitudinal [3] or a transverse direction [4]. The skin depth in a metal of resistivity pe and permeability pis 6, = V2pe/(ww). For metal walls thicker than 6, the resistive wall impedances of a circular pipe of radius b are Zi) _ #20, _ HRZo We) = spin Zw) = Tbe A) where 2rR is accelerator circumference, Since Z,/n x Z, o by x w~/?, the largest impedance ‘occurs at the lowest frequency. For transverse instabilities, this lowest frequency occurs at min = worin(y —[},.¥+1]-v} ) where [v] = non-integer part of the betatron tune. v. See Eq.(11), Sec.2.5.7 for growth rate. This single spectral line has narrow band width, and thus oscillates for a long time and may cause coupled bunch instabilities. Impedances at all other betatron frequencies may be grouped into a wide frequency band, These fields decay rapidly, hence drive only single bunch instabilities such as head- tail modes discussed below. Longitudinal coupled-bunch instabilities can also be caused by a resistive wall, but are usually weaker. In general, impedances due to all elements should be added to determine beam stability, as can be done with computer programs [5, 6). Febreeh = 118 Table 1: Form factors F’ for various distributions. F arg Z = tan! (im Z Re Z) Distrib, | —x/2] 0 | =/2 | Remarks sharp- Parabolic | 1.047 | 0.798] 0 | Case 32 Keil- power |) #061 | 1061 | 0611 | SS Quartic [1.073 [1.194 [ 2.203 [rounded Gaussian {| 0.942 [1.359 | oo _| rounded Triangular} sharp- 0 | 20] 0 | ease Rounded with 1% tingle | 2555 | 198 | 1265 | oinding ‘Microwave instability In addition to potential well bunch lengthening (Sec.2.5.5), an increase of bunch current J, can lead to longitudinal instabilities of a single bunch, independent of the presence of other bunches in the machine, [See also Eqs.(12-15), Sec.2.5.7] Because it is often accompanied by high-frequency signals, itis also called microwave instability. Oscillation frequencies change with amplitude due to non-linearities, hence this instability is usually self-limiting and only rarely leads to particle loss, but may reduce luminosity in colliders since bunches do not keep an optimum distribution, For long bunches, e.g. of proton beams, the impedance is mainly inductive and the threshold current is given by the Boussard criterion (7), Ay ¢ plome (Aeneme” © n e ly Py This agrees with the (simplified) unbunched- beam or Keil-Schnell criterion (33), 4a ¢ Fol (Aeneme)* Oy n e Io moc applied to the local values of current and energy spread in a bunch. The form factor F’, shown in ‘Tab.1, depends on particle distribution and ratio of real to imaginary part of the impedance [9, 10]. For short bunches, the impedance seen by the beam is dominated by resonances at higher frequencies, and may lead to turbulent bunch lengthening. A tentative explanation for this is longitudinal mode coupling {11] (Sec.2.4.7). Operating with 7 < 0 can reduce bunch lengthening since the usually inductive impedance then shortens it [12]. However, theoretical and experimental investigations show thatthe turbulent threshold is lower with the shorter bunch, giving a larger energy spread. Head-tail instability Short-range transverse wake fields, excited by particles at the head of a bunch, may excite oscillations at its tail. Syn- chrotron motion brings these particles again to the head and they continue to excite particles behind. ‘These oscillations will grow (head-tal instability) if they add in phase due to a finite chromaticity & = Av/6 (13, 14] and ifthe grow rate exceeds radiation and Landau dampin; In the lowest mode, m = 0, all particles in a bunch oscillate in phase, which corresponds to a rigid dipole oscillation at the betatron frequency. The m = 0 modes unstable for € <0. Since the natural chromaticity of circular machines is negative, one must correct it with sextupoles. Bunch shape modes with m > 1 oscillate at synchrotron side-band frequencies wg + muy. In the m = 1 mode, particles at head and tail have opposite phases (when € = 0), the bunch “toggles” about its middle, while higher modes (m > 2) oscillate with m nodes over the bunch length. Modes with m > 1 may become unstable for € > 0, but their growth rates are usually small and easily stabilized by damping except for large machines with very strong transverse wakes. For short bunches, the growth rate of the m-th mode is (ignoring radial modes) [15] NL Nptoe éupe Tm any env * uit (0) In) Io) ® with Np number of particles per bunch, 2 the z-amplitude of synchrotron oscillation (airbag model), ro classical particle radius, wg the betatron frequency. Example For resistive wall [14], 1 V2Jm roc Netvi x im a yam, = with permeability, ce conductivity, chamber half-height. The factor Jm (G7? azvainz) G diycos myy/sin ) for m = 0,1,2 is approximately 2.9, -0.57, -0.21. For negative chromaticity € < 0, the m = O mode is strongly unstable, while the higher modes are weakly unstable for € > 0. ‘Example For the case with constant wake- function Wi(z) = —Wo, 1 8 am NaroWok? entyZevy Tm 19 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Longitudinal head-tail instability This instability appears when the momentum compaction has an appreciable nonlinear dependence on energy. It has been seen at the CERN-SPS [16]. The ‘growth rate of the instability can be written [17] 16m?mNaro ae one m7 en ee on % [odin(0)Ines(a) + (1 ~m)JB(0] where o = w2/(2c), 2 is maximum z-amplitude of synchrotron oscillation of all particles (wa- terbag model), 1) = tN -+™m65+--- is the phase slip factor (Sec.2.3.11). For the case m = 1 (dipole mode), Eq.(11) can be rewritten as 1 cms dE a Spb dé (a2) where AE is the energy loss of the beam bunch to the impedance. Its dependence on bunch length 2 characterizes the growth rate of the longitudinal head-tail instability. ‘Transverse mode coupling instability (TMCI) TMC, also called fast head-tail instability or strong head-tail instability, occurs when the frequencies of two neighboring head-tail modes approach each other due to detuning with increasing current during accumulation. The original name transverse turbulence [18] is more appropriate for beams being injected into machine well above threshold, when a large number of modes may become coupled simultaneously. Its threshold current is lowest in the y-plane since many elements are less high than wide, 2nv,B/e TBe ‘F(oz) The form factor F = 1 for short bunches. For longer bunches, it increases proportionally to az, and is essentially the ratio of the machine impedance to the effective impedance. For Gaussian bunches and broad-band resonator impedances, Ithreeh Cat be expressed with the transverse loss or kick factor (02) which elim- inates the need for a bunch length correction factor, Fehresb = (13) Cif,E/e Y Bis.s(02) The constant C, ~ 8, but is often replaced by 2z [10] as in Eq.(13), For more exact calculations of the threshold one should use computer Febresh = (4)‘Sec.2.$: COLLECTIVE EFFECTS programs solving for the coherent modes [19], including bunch lengthening [7] and potential-well deformations with current, For the case of constant wake with Wi(z) = —Wo and a two-particle model beam bunch, the TMCK reshold comme 8 wpwalE/e Faves = cas) where wp. are the betatron and synchrotron frequencies. TTMCI is a severe limitation of single bunch current for large high-energy electron storage tings which have a high transverse impedance Z,, = (2R/0)Z/n because of their large radius Rand the large number of rf cavities. References [1] K. Robinson CEA Report CEAL-1010 (1964) 12) X. Nielsen, A. Sessler, Proc. Int, Conf. High En- ergy Ace. (1959) p.239 3) K. Neil, A. Sessler, RSI 36 (1965) 429 (4) J. Laslett, K, Nell, A. Sessler, RSI36 (1965) 436 {5} A. Hofmann et al, PAC 79, p.1514 [6] M, Zisman et al, LBL-21270 (1985) [7] D, Boussard, CERN/PS-BI (1972) {8] E. Keil, W. Schnell, CERN/ISR-TH/69-48 (1969) [9] A, Ruggiero, V. Vaccaro, CERN/ISR-RF/68-33 (1968) {10} B. Zottet, CERN Report ISR-GS/76-11 (1976) (11] F Sacherer, PAC 77, p.1393 (12] S.X, Fang et al, KEK 94-190 (1995) {13} C, Pellegrini, I! Nuovo Cimento 44 (1969) p.447 [14] M, Sands, SLAC Report TN-69-8 and 10 (1969) [15] A.W. Chao, Physics of Collective Beam Instabil- ities in High Energy Accelerators, Wiley (1993) [16] D. Boussard, T. Linnecar, EPAC 90, p.1560 (17) B. Chen, Thesis, U. Texas at Austin (1995) {18} R. Kohaupt, Int. Conf, Part. Acc. (1980) p.562 (19] Y. Chin, CERN/SPS 84/2 (1984) [20} B. Zotter, CERN/LEP/AP 89-82 (1989) 2.5.7 Sacherer Formulae B. Zotter, CERN In longitudinal phase space z = rcos0,¢ = wor sin, a bunch shape mode ~ exp(—imé) is specified by the azimuthal mode number m (nm = 1 dipole, m = 2 quadrupole etc.), when only the lowest radial mode is considered. Its pro- jection onto real space Am() is called line density mode. The coherent frequency wy, can be obtained from the (complex) coherent frequency shift Aw = weoh — Wine if the incoherent oscillation frequency wine is known [1]. For np > 1 120 bunches, the coupled bunch mode number 0 < ni < ng gives the phase-shift 2nn/np between oscillations of adjacent bunches, Longitudinal bunch oscillations For ng equally spaced and populated bunches, with total beam current Ist = np Ip, the coherent frequency shift of for m > 1 is [2] Teo ZA) mu Aum= 11 IBhVrcosy, ‘The incoherent synchrotron frequency ws = vio is a function of beam current, wo is its value for vanishing current, Vr = Vew?/w3y = the total voltage seen by the beam, Vet = applied rf voltage with harmonic number h = wet/wo, and ys = stable phase angle. Above transition, 90° < y, < 180° is needed for stability, hence cosy < 0. An. inductance, for which Ze = ~iwoL, then gives a positive coherent frequency shift, compensating almost exactly its negative incoherent frequency shift. The bunching factor B = np for is the ratio of bunch length L = Serr to bunch spacing 2nR/np. Assuming the modes do not depend on impedance or beam current, the effective impedance (Sec.3.2.6) can be expressed we Yo Fee nln) ponco “mp where the spectral power density Hm(w) 0 Vim(w)/? is normalized by Sop Hm(wmp) = 1. The oscillation spectrum is wimp = wo(nep+n+ ‘my,). The summation over all frequencies can be replaced by one over only positive harmonics with upper and lower sidebands, as illustrated in Fig.1 for the case of 4 Gaussian bunches in a resonator impedance. Proton bunches have mostly a parabolic distribution, and Legendre modes Xm ~ Pm(r) are eigenmodes in an inductive impedance. How- ever, sinusoidal modes Mr) ~ sin{rmuor) or cos[r(m + 1)wor/2] (for m odd or even) give better agreement with observation. Their spectral power density is Hyn(w) = Cr (m-+1)?. wg = @ 1=(-)"** cos(wrr) 2 [@r/a)? = (m +3} @ with Cm = 2ngwot/1* for normalization. Pro- ton bunches are usually long compared to the vac- ‘uum chamber diameter; the impedance is mainly inductive, Zy(w)/n = —iuoL is constant and isFigure 1: positive harmonics with upper and lower sidebands, weighted by spectral power density of a Gaussian. In- dices 0,1,2,3 are multibunch mode number for ng = 4. Effective impedance as summation over equal to Ze, hence the frequency shift is mostly real, When the bunches are short compared to the rf wavelength, the coherent shift of the dominant dipole mode (m = 1) is equal and opposite to the incoherent one, and thus W,,oh remains constant with current. Electron bunches usually have a Gaussian distribution, and oscillate in Hermitian modes, Hr (wmp) = Dra(wrapt)?” €xP(—Wwing?”) 4) Dr = U'(m + 1/2)/nguo for normalization. ‘Neglecting potential well deformation and turbulence, the frequency spread due to a sinusoidal rf voltage is cos Bs - 16 © The effective spread for a parabolic bunch is approximately mS/2(m-+1), whileitis mS/4 for Gaussian bunches. ‘When modes with different mode numbers do not couple, an instability may occur if the total frequency shift |Aw| is larger than the effective frequency spread; Landau damping is lost, and if the growth rate 1/r = —ImAw exceeds radiation damping. Resonator impedance With resonant frequency wp, shunt impedance Ry and quality factor @, the coherent frequency shift is 1+ Fain? ys Au _ Ry lo ao = 85° BR cos p,m ware) D(a) © ‘The form factor F(z) is proportional to 2” for short bunches, while it is 64m/72? for long ones. The factor D depends on the attenuation ag Twp/NBQui between adjacent bunches, D(2) = ~ioa 1 Te 121 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS where 24, = —2ri(n + wr/wp)/ng — ag. The maximum value of |D| is about unity for narrow band, and approaches zero for wide band resonators. ‘Transverse bunch oscillations The transverse mode frequencies are wimp = wo(ngp +n — mavg + my,). The transverse mode number mz is usually taken to be unity (dipole oscillations), while the longitudinal one (m > 0) should include the rigid bunch oscillation m = 0, which usually has the largest frequency shift and is most likely to become unstable [6, 7]. The coherent frequency shift of a bunch with total current Fict = nplp and energy Eis (3, 4] tec hap? “m+ 4nvgEB with the effective transverse impedance Aw = 8) 2.5 = S> Z.lnp)Hmlonp v0) ©) pence Hp, is evaluated at the mode frequency wmp shifted by the chromatic frequency we = €wo/nvg where € = dvg/6 @ For a constant impedance Zig ~ Z..Hm»(we), one obtains the unbunched beam result divided by the bunching factor, and by (m-+1) since higher modes are more difficult to drive. (ii) For a narrow-band impedance, when only a single resonance at frequency wr contributes to the sum for the effective impedance, the coherent frequency shift becomes tec Ito.Zs(wr) ‘m+1_ 4xvgBo “riaky PO ann ») where x = wer, is the chromatic phase-shift across the bunch, and F”(wrz) = Hm(w)/B. (ii) The resistive wall impedance has a single large peak at wmin {Eq.(5), Sec.2.5.6]. The narrow-band (or long range) contribution is approximately Aum Aum tec Z,(wo)hot ay m+ 4nvgEors V npB The short range contribution can be approximated by replacing the infinite sum for the effective impedance by an integral over all frequencies, and is usually negligible. Longitudinal mode coupling Different oscillation modes can strongly couple when detuning makes two mode frequencies approach each‘Sec.2,5: COLLECTIVE EFFECTS other, A single bunch will become unstable for currents above a threshold given essentially by the unbunched beam expression applied to the peak current. For longitudinal oscillations, turbulent bunch lengthening will occur until the bunch is stable again. This is also called microwave instability (Sec.2.5.6). Its threshold can be expressed. in terms of matrix elements which are functions of impedance and beam current, _ mis he 2” Mm = 57 BBV, with the generalized effective impedance gmk) $> Zlwormp) py 13) at x Cinpian nem) ¢ cs where Hym,e(w) = Am(w)Xz(w) is the cross power density. The coherent frequency w is determined by the condition w—mils— Mmm — —Mmm+1 -Mnmes w= (m+ 1 |=9 —Mntimt (a4) ‘The threshold current is determined by |Mmm+t| =3|Mmtim+1 — Mmm — Wal (15) ‘To couple different azimuthal modes requires strong impedances at frequencies above the beampipe cutoff, which occur rarely in actual machines. However, impedances at lower frequencies can couple radial modes with the same azimuthal mode number m, when the bunch shape is asymmetric, e.g. due to potential well deformation in resistive impedances [8, 9]. Contrary to its transverse counterpart (TMCI, Sec.2.5.6), coupling of radial modes occurs at lower beam currents than coupling of different azimuthal modes. References [1] F Sacherer, CERN/SI-BR/72-5 (1972) (2] F, Sacherer, CERN/MPS-BR/73-3 (1973); PAC 73, 825 [3] F. Sacherer, Proc. 9-th Int. Conf. on Part. Acc. (1974) p.347 [4] F, Sacherer, Erice School (1976), CERN 77-13 (1977) p.198; CERN/PS-BR/76-21 (1976) [5] F. Sacherer, CERN/PS-BR/77-5 and 6 (1977); PAC 77, p.1393 [6] A. Hofmann, K. Hubner, BZotter, PAC 79, p.1514 [7] B. Zotter, CERN/LEP/89-74 (1989) [8] K, Oide, K. Yokoya, KEK-Preprint 10 (1990) [9] M. D'yachkoy, R. Baartman, EPAC 94, p.1075 122 25.8 Landau Damping [1, 2,3] AW. Chao, SLAC, B. Zotter, CERN Collective oscillations of a beam of charged particles with a spread in their proper frequencies will not grow exponentially when their parameters are inside a certain stability limit determined by Lan- dau damping. Landau damping is not dissipative damping but is simply the absence of instability due to redistribution of the particles. A practical way to obtain the stability limit is to measure the beam transfer function (Sec.7.5.3). Beam transfer function, no wake Consider a ‘bunched or unbunched beam executing longitudinal or transverse oscillation, Let the frequency spectrum p(w) be normalized to unity, and be centered around with spread S < @. Equation of motion for the driven beam is é+u%e = Ae @ The beam centroid response, in absence of wake effect, is = Aint p(w) yt (2) = [ws , 690 2 or with u = (9 -9)/S, () = xhge*{f(u) + to(u)] flu) = SPV J duBh g(u) mS p(Q) where PV means taking principle value, Tab.1 fs examples of f(u), 9(u) for various spectra plw). ‘Transverse oscillation of a single bunch, one- particle model The beam centroid {y) x e~**, The complex mode frequency shift due to wake effect, in the absence of Landau damping (subscript 0) is @) NeproW6z (Aw)o ana (2 —wWp)o = SOW (-kC)eMetTo a a WH Le Mae tun) @ w u where wg is the center of the betatron frequency spectrum, 7 is classical radius of the particle, Bz is G-function at the impedance, Wi (z < 0) and Z, (v) ate the transverse wake function and impedance.Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS ‘Table 1: Spectrum and beam centroid response functions for a bunched beam executing betatron or synchrotron oscillation, of for an unbunched beam executing betatron oscillation. Spectrum | Sp(w), fu) g(u) é-function | 6(0) Yu 76 (u) Lorentz | She tof cco rectangular | $1(1 —|v)) }in|s44] $H(1—[ul) parabolic | 3(1—v4)H(1—|ol) | [2 —u2) In| 44] +24] 3 ~w)H(1 — Jul) elliptical | 2H(1—|vl)vI=wF | 2[u—sen(u)H(lu) - 1) Vu? =I] | 20 — lu) VI bi-Lorentz | apPay wes oir Gaussian | Feet??? Vow? for Mev sinh(uy) | Ze"? tion, ‘Table 2: Spectrum and beam centroid response functions for an unbunched beam executing synchrotron oscilla- wwoy ur Spectrum | Spluo),v = (@o —w0)/S | FO) Gu) S-function | 6(v) = 0 Lorentz | dae ar wip rectangular | 5H(1 —|vl) wa 3l6(u- 1) - d(u +1) parabolic | 3(1 — v?)H(1—|v)) in |eH|-3 SuH(1— ul) tri-elliptical | (1 — v?)9/?H(1—|v|) | 8u?—8|ulVu2—1 H(\u|-1)—4 | Suv —w? H(A — ful) bi-Lorentz 2 Pour fe wae With Landau damping, 9 is determined by w= s (1 =e) wit(-Kc) the dispersion relation fas ve 1 gy _ S ~ Tey rig) = GL [porto poe ‘To obtain boundary of stability: (1) trace the locus of the rh.s. of Eq(S) as w is scanned from =00 to 00. (2) Plot the Lins. of Eq.(5) as a point on the same complex plane, (3) If this point lies on the side which contains the origin, the beam is stable; otherwise itis unstable. Fig.1 shows the stability boundaries for various p(w). Shaded regions are unstable. A simplified stability criterion, as sketched in Fig.1(h), leads to (4, 5] (Awol < 5 © where Sy is the half width at half maximum of the frequency spectrum, Longitudinal oscillation of a single bunch, one- particle model The dispersion relation is still Eq,(S), but with NeronWwe? (Aw)o = (Q—ws)o = Ameo 9 123 (Po + ws) Zj(pwo + | on where w, is the center of the synchrotron frequency spectrum, W(z < 0) and Zy are the longitudinal wake function and impedance. Stability boundary is given by Fig.1, and Eq,(6) remains a simplified stability criterion with Sj the FWHM spread of w. Transverse oscillation of unbunched beam Transverse dipole perturbation oc e7#t+in(s/R) with n the mode number. Dispersion relation remains Eq.(5) but (wp + nie — 2)/S (Aw)o = (~nwo ~wp)o ® meg Noages alert) Stability boundary is given by Fig.1. The simplified stability criterion Eq.(6) has the followingSeo.2.5: COLLECTIVE EFFECTS 4 [. Huneon | \ 6-4) |} 0%) a ; : { ' el . : 2 6 teen fa i i peed “*lpeat 2 a sods aan dt 1 wi Sag 1 * imo, i 1 1 ihe 4 0 4 Boe Red, Figure 1: Stability diagram in the complex plane D; = 1/(f + ig) for a bunched beam executing betatron or synchrotron oscillation, ot for an unbunched beam executing betatron oscillation, () If the frequency spread S is due to an energy spread A6, 9G |= 1 +61 Ady [Zi (nwo+we)| < Zo ae aNeseee @) where € is chromaticity. (ii) For broad-band impedance rolling off at frequency w and if € = 0, Eq.(9) becomes 7ClnlweASy Za, < 10) Al<20Frrepeas OO ‘Transverse oscillation of bunched beam For a ‘bunched beam whose length is smaller than the 124 2 Reds | Figure 2: Stability diagram in the complex plane D2 = 1/(F + iG) for an unbunched beam executing synchrotron oscillation. pipe radius 6, Eq.(10) becomes wyinicAd; Az; myuisAzt 2|Zil> 024/63) and for non- relativistic energies in the rest frame (7702/2 < 1) the Bessel function can be expanded for large arguments and one gets CT ih (at 350,80FEimg Om) ) with Clem) = - Sem roo, 3ém | my w\ udu +f (1432+ 2mZ)e a _ Snb}o} Col ere] #2 = o2+o2D2 = oy +03(D? + D2) For D, = 0 this result agrees with [8]. 0.6 Intrabeam scattering The rise times of the three bunch dimensions (Gaussian distribution) due to intra-beam scattering in storage rings can be written [9] : de (4% s040) © (! ’ 4) (4 [re aver ) + Bi a, oa}) © Dio +—5* S(a,b,9) 8 M with ne racNp 641? Bo exeyosop 221,282 ,5 on” oF o2, oe, ons ony 2d = Whe y= thy Ge 3 G 7028 Ay q = on8 a €2y = 02,4/Bz,y = horizontal and vertical emittance, d = the smaller of the horizontal and vertical beam radii. The function f is Gs. 1) £(a,b,9) = orf {2m [25 3 +a) }4 3u? —0.577. du (8) 126Peaa+(l-au?, Q? = P+ (1-0)? The derivatives 8, , and Di, , areneglected. Their influence on the rise times is weak. They are included in (10, 11, 12]. Also a linear 2-y betatron coupling can be included [12, 13]. The energy in the CM frame is assumed to be non-relativistic, Arbitrary energies are considered in [14]. The function f has the property [9] laq ) = 0 1b y+ + PE o a’a’a. which is useful for the calculation of the rise times, With this relation one obtains ‘D2 Saba) + 34(2 (-(8)-@)-@-() ¢, is the longitudinal invariant and the bars denote the average values over all particles. Eq.(10) shows that below transition (7? < 7%, = 1/ap © 1/ (D2/3)) the sum of the three (positive) invariants is limited, and an equilibrium can exist. Above transition, Z,, é, and €, can grow simultaneously and an equilibrium does not exist. Eqs.(5)-(7) were compared with measure- ‘ments in several proton and antiproton storage rings as ISR [15], SPS [16], and AA [17}, and the deviations were found to be < 10-20%. A different approach for the intrabeam scattering is made in [10] based on the classical two-body scattering rules in quantum mechanics. They give qualitatively the same result, but differ somewhat in numerical evaluation, especially below transition, In various reports approximations for low or high energies [18, 19], estimates of the growth rates, 20}, and modifications for non-Gaussian particle distributions (21, 22] are presented. A computer ‘code for the rise times can be found in (23). For e~ and e* beams the sum of radiation damping, quantum excitation, and intrabeam scattering always gives an equilibrium, 0 Ano Sue 1 = teyp/ Tove with o20,y0,0 = ms due to damping and quantum excitation, 72.,p = radiation damping times. Since Teyp = Tayp(2z,0y, 0p) the system of three equations (11) must be solved iteratively. Special cases for the momentum transfer due to ay 127 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS intrabeam scattering in only one direction are considered in (6, 8}. The lifetime due to the diffusion process is [24] (a2) with Raye = (Asyp/Fou9)* Azyg= maximum acceptable amplitudes. References 1] C. Bernardini et al, PRL 10 (1963) 407 (2) J. Haissinski, LAL Orsay report 41-63 (1963) (3] B. Giteimann, DM, Ritson, Stanford U. report HEPL-291 (1963) {4] U, Voelkel, DESY 67/5 (1965) (3). Miyahara, Jap. Journal of Appl. Phys., Vol.24, No.9 (1985) p.L742 {6} J. Le Duff, CERN Acc. Schoo! (1987) (7) A. Piwinski, to be published [8] H. Brueck, Accélerateurs Circulaires de Partic- ules, PUF (1966) (9] A. Piwinski, Proc. 9th Int, Conf, on High Energy ‘Ace., Stanford (1974) p.405 (10) J.D. Bjorken, S.K. Mtingwa, PA 13 (1983) 115 [11] M, Martini, CERN PS/84-9(AA) (1984) [12] A. Piwinski, CERN Acc. School (1991) p.126 (13) G. Parzen, EPAC 88, p.821 [14] TT. Toyomasu, KEK Preprint 92-11 (1992) [15] K. Hiner, PAC 75, p.1416 [16] LR. Evans, J. Gareyte, PAC 85, p.2234 [17] M, Martini, S. van der Meet, CERN PS/AA/MEJNote 75 (1984) [18] G. Parzen, NIM A256 (1987) 231 [19] J, Wei, PAC 93, p.3651 [20] A. H. Sprensen, CERN Acc. School (1986) (21) 5. Wei, A.G. Ruggiero, BNL, AD/RHIC-81 [22] 7.0, Raubenheimer, Proc. Workshop 4th Gener- ation Light Sources, SSRL92/02 (23] R. Giannini, D. Méhl, CERN PS/AR/92-22 (1993) [24] K.W, Robinson, MIT, Report CEA-69 (1958) 2.5.10 Ion Trapping, Beam-Ion Instabilities, and Dust E Zimmermann, SLAC Positively charged ions trapped in the beam potential affect performance of electron and antiproton storage rings. Size of the trapped ions ranges from single atoms, small molecules, to micron- size dust particles. Effects of trapped ions on the beam include: increased emittance, betatron tune shifts and broadening, collective instabilities, reduced beam lifetime. In future storage ringsSec.2.5: COLLECTIVE EFFECTS ‘Table 1: Selected properties and effects of trapped ions. propertyleffect formula trapping condition (no gap) [5] AD Acc, = Pape or mLeepfi Sc trapping with gap Ty [2] |cos(wilerain/c) — wiTy sin(wiltrain/c)/2| <1 single-ion oscillation frequency [5] hae a) ‘equil. ion distr. (no gap) [6,7] y= shea Ralg)e-* with € = y/2a)? coherent tune shift Avz.ycoh ¥ BzyT0QMonC/[4n7y02,y(9x + Fy)] incoherent tune shift Avaysine © 2AVs,ycoh inc, phase shift along train (1 pass) Ade.u(s) © BavtpQMons/[172y(o2 + oy)) ‘Table 2; Instability growth rates for classical (multi -turn) ion-related instabilities; n closest integer, Tion 1 (CrenCdgus)e ¥p = Wf RB, ve = y/zeAEE RS, Avy = 1 for dust particles), A ion mass in units of proton mass mp, Astom and Zstom the atomic ‘mass and atomic number of the dust particle con- stituents, f = wi/2n ion oscillation frequency in the beam potential, 7tn thermal lifetime of dust, Patticle, Tmap melting point, Tyq equilibrium temperature of trapped dust particle, rp classical radius of the beam particles (in most cases ro = te OF 7p)s deus = Pgas/(KBT) the residual gas den- Sity, Peas the gas pressure. More symbols are defined in Tabs.1 and 2. 2.5.0.1 Ion Trapping Average beam potential for bi-Gaussian distribution (round pipe, elliptical beam) is [1, 2] [a 2 ‘Tete eNg Yaw) © ~Feles ade Bi = ee. e Beer _ V208 + qy/203 +9 x 128constant + achaay + ayer ~ oii [iy + as (0+ 2) TZy +a (1+ 284)] a for zy Sox, 0y constant + (seE aay + Volt) for oy Ky K 022 Koz n(2$2) foray > carey oO where Zo = 377.2. Refs.[2, 3, 4, 5] give overview and discussion of ion stability, accumulation, removal and effects on beam; Ref.{2] discusses longitudinal ion motion; Refs,[8, 12, 13, 14, 15] present theories and observations of conventional (ie, multi-turn) coherent beam-ion/electron instabilities. Tabs.1 and 2 give a summary of these effects. ‘Techniques for ion removal include (i) clearing gap; (ii) beam shaking (cf knock-out) [8, 9, 10}; Gi) clearing electrodes. 2.5.10.2 Dust particles Capture of positively charged dust particles has been observed at many electron and antiproton storage rings [18, 19, 20, 21, 22). The estimated equilibrium temperature Taq of ‘a trapped dust particle allows to predict whether it explodes after being trapped by the beam, or, in case it survives (when Teq < Trap), What its thermal lifetime will be. Teq is determined by a balance of ionization energy deposition and heat radiation, - 1 Tha tla 7 ™ © Very roughly, for a spherical particle of radius R (Ris not the ring radius here!), AE 2R°Nenafop dE | @) At bon Woray — d(62)|min where p= mass deaty, 4E/d(0a)in 1.8 MeV cm? g-, and AE ee fe as BEIGE) a, .R) @ Absorption coefficient Q(w, R) for small particles can be found according to Mie theory [21, 23). Q depends on the material and also on shape of the dust particle. Itis calculated from the complex dielectric function, e.g., using program BH- MIE [23]. If Taq > Trmp, patticle explodes. If Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS. Tea < Trnpy the thermal lifetime due to evapora- tionis 22 A, Ardem ma = A * ~Yirtipiaoaks 2/8 p(Tea(A)) [Pal [aq(A) Av ‘Bmp anp (es) where p(T) is the vapor pressure as a function of temperature, Eqs.(2)-(5) are solved numerically. Mlustrative example shown in Fig.! [21]. 10, th (8) TT 1 10% A 1 1% — 1088 Figure 1: Thermal lifetime rip of tapped dust particles in the HERA electron ring as a function of mass. The dynamic stability of a trapped dust particle, as well as the betatron tune shift and the beamlifetime reduction that such a particle may induce, are determined by its equilibrium charge. The equilibrium charge is calculated by equating the ionization rate 4 Zotom Te Rt = foNNareq— Shan JON Nara and the field evaporation of ions [24] Oe we Aston KT? is x sl © +V eva ae imegRkpT -b 1" ye oe ar'ey(t")| o where Cp is the heat capacity at constant pressure, Ni is Avogadro's number, U and V ionization and vaporization energy, respectively, and _ workfunction, The trapping of photoelectrons is another discharging mechanism. Finally, there are two effects by which a trapped dust particle can reduce the beam lifetime: 129Sec.2.5: COLLECTIVE EFFECTS Table 3: Rise-time estimates for fast beam-ion instability and equilibrium with feedback and noise; 2 12 © ( sargi88gezaqy) the coherent angular ion frequency (@ = 1 assumed), (Arne its ms variation around the ring circumference, and f(z) = z/7a/7-/(naLeep), where z denotes the longitudinal position along the ‘Dunch train (z = O at the start of the train), 7a is the (feedback) damping time, and (y2(0)) the rms oscillation amplitude of the first bunch in the train, approximation asymptotic behavior | characteristic rate 1/7 : 1 _ Adgas ion By Nel?ndrert* Lie ~ = = Seale Bree woe linear treatment (y < oy) [29] y~exp( t/t) a= ayinei ont o,) PANE - 7 c with decoherence & spread Af: [31] | y ~ exp(t/re) pm royaiee ods aie nonlinear regime (y > oy) [32] yn t/tn aah ihe equilibrium state with (2) © ra] Te (y?(0))4?/(24nB) (for 7 <1) feedback and noise [33] (Wa) & VralTe W*(O))e*7/(4tmp) (For > 1) A Figure 2: Schematic picture of resonant tail excitation for two different betatron phases; beam moves to the Tent @ Bremsstrahlung on nuclei field [25] Ag Azim e Aatom2to20y0 l6r2a, AE, 183 (Seu Fuge) © where AE/E is energy acceptance; Gi) Bremsstrahlung in collective field of dust parti- dle For needle-shaped particle of transverse radius R and length A, aligned in beam oo we af Nyioyrar 5 moe” we 5 _ea(r) mae a SEES OE 2hyQre min(r/h, 1) TO) Ter? 130 8h Posten Bunch Bectrons Figure 3: Schematic of fast beam-lon instability which can arise due to ion trapping in electron bunch train of due to trapping of free electrons in single positron bunch, where Pmax is defined by T(rmax) = 0.02 [26]. In most cases, this second effect is not important. 25.103 Single-pass ion effects in storage rings and linacs Nonlinear coupling effect due to ions can cause vertical emittance growth. It is contained if beta- trom phases have |j12—p1y|/12| > 5% [27]. How- ever, resonant single-bunch tail excitation can still occur (Fig.2). An initial perturbation yo(z, s) = 92/02 c05(3/By + $0), €8., due to wakefields,1000 2000 's (meter) 3000 4000 Figure 4: Simulated growth of the action of the vertical ‘centroid for every twentieth bunch in the NLC Damp- ing Ring for a vacuum of 10~® Torr of CO gas; growth saturates at about oy due to nonlinearity of beam-ion force. leads to emittance growth after distance L [28], 2 1 ( GLByNonte ) ao yoy (ox + oy) ‘where Aion is the ion density at end of bunch. Figs.3 and 4 illustrate the fast beam-ion insta~ bility mechanism. The theory and simulations, are discussed in Ref.{29, 30, 31, 32, 33] and summarized in Tab.3. (Possible) experimental evidence is discussed in [34, 35, 36]. Agy(L) References [1] S. Kheifets, DESY PETRA-119 (1976) [2] D. Villevald, S. Heifets, PEP-II AP-18.93 (1993) 3] A. Ponce, Lecture Notes in Phys. 400, Springer Verlag (1994) [4] ¥. Baconnier, A. Poncet, P. Tavares, CERN/PS 94- 40 (1994) {5] ¥. Baconnier, G. Brianti, CERN/SPS/80-2 (1980) [6] PE Tavares, PhD thesis, U. Campinas (1993) [7] TO, Raubenheimer; F-J, Decker, J.T. Seeman, PAC 95, p.3291 [8] R. Alves Pires et al, PAC 89, p.800 [9] J.C. Lee et al, PAC 95, p.2968 [10] S.J. Werkema, PAC 95, p.3397 [11] H.G. Hereward, CERN MPS/Int. DL 64-8 (1964) (12] H.G. Hereward, CERN 71-15 (1971) (13) E, Keil, B, Zotter, CERN-ISR-TH/71-58 (1971) [14] G. Koshkarev, P. Zenkevich, PA 3 (1972) 1 [15] LJ. Laslett, AM. Sessler, D, Mol, NIM A121 (4974) 517 [16] E, Fischer, K. Zankel, CERN/ISR-VA/73-52 (1973) [17] 0. Grbbner, R.S. Calder, PAC 73, p.760 131 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS (18) H. Saeki et al, RSI 62, No.4, 874 and No.11 (1991) 2558 [19] D, Sagan, NIM A330 (1993) 371 [20] E, Jones et al, PAC 85, p.2218 [21] F Zimmermann et al, PAC 95, p.517 [22] DRC. Kelly et al, PAC 95, p.2017 (23) CF Bohren, DR. Huffman, Absorption and Scattering of Light by Small Particles, Wiley (1983) ° [24] E.U. Condon, H. Odishaw, Handbook of Physics, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill (1967) [25] A. Piwinski, CERN 85-19 (1985) [26] K. Yokoya, P. Chen, Springer Vetlag, Lect. Notes in Phys, 400, p.415 (1990). [27]. Raubenheimer, P. Chen, Proc. LINAC’92 Conf, (1992) (28) P. Emma, T. Raubenheimer, F, Zimmermann, EPAC 94, p.1162 (29] TO. Raubenheimer, F, Zimmermann, PR E52, No.5 (1995) 5487 [30] G.V. Stupakov et al, PR E52, No.5(1995) 5499 [31] GV. Stupakov, Proc. Int, Workshop on Collec- tive Effects and Impedance for B factories, KEK Proc. 96-6 (1996) p.243 (32) Ref.(31}, p.270 133) A.W. Chao, G.V. Stupakov, Proc. MBI97 workshop (1997) (34) J. Byrd et al, PRL, Vol.79, No.1 (1997) 79 35] M. Kwon et al, PR E57, No.5 (1998) 6016 [36] T.-S. F, Wang, PAC 95, p.3143 25.11 Electron-Cloud Effect M.A. Furman, LBNL Background The clectron-cloud (or photo- electron) effect (ECE) was first identified at the Photon Factory (PF) at KEK [1]. This is a transverse coupled-bunch instability that arises in e* machines. Unlike the ion-induced instability, which is observed only with an e~ beam, the e* beam instability persists even if there is a substantial gap in the bunch train. In addition, the coupled-bunch mode spectrum is qualitatively different from that observed with an e~ beam under otherwise similar conditions. The phenomenon disappears when the bunch spacing $a becomes sufficiently large, and it cannot be attributed to known machine impedances. The amplitude of the unstable motion saturates and is ac- ‘companied by the excitation of vertical coupled- bunch oscillations, and possibly of a vertical emittance growth. The growth rate exceeds the range of the feedback system, and it has not yet been measurable, The observations so far have beenSec.2.5: COLLECTIVE EFFECTS limited to the measurement of the coupled-bunch mode spectrum, and the beam size. Experiments U1, 2], simulations [3, 4, 5] and analytical work {6, 7] indicate that the origin of the instability is an electron cloud that develops inside the vacuum chamber, coupling the transverse motion of the bunches. The phenomenon has also been observed at BEPC (Beijing) [2] with features qualitatively consistent with those at the PF. A related instability has been previously observed at CESR [8], ‘where electrons are trapped in the chamber by the ‘combined magnetic field of the bending dipoles and the electric leak fields from the distributed ion pumps, leading to horizontal coupled-bunch motion, Phenomenology Although the ECE is not quantitatively understood at present, a picture has emerged from the studies: the synchrotron radiation emitted by the bunches upon traversing the ‘bending magnets ejects photoelectrons, with typical energies of a few to tens of eV, upon hitting the vacuum chamber wall. As successive bunches g0 by, these photoelectrons are accelerated, hitting the walls of the vacuum chamber with a much broader energy spectrum. They can then be absorbed or can emit secondary electrons which, in tum, are kicked by the beam (electrons can also be generated from ionization of the residual gas, although this is typically a negligible source). This electron cloud, which is inevitably generated by a positively charged beam, couples the transverse motion of successive bunches, potentially leading to an instability. The ECE is expected to be a generic phenomenon for intense, multibunch, positively-charged beams. Calculations show that the electron cloud develops quickly following injection of the beam into an empty chamber, with a risetime of tens of bunch spacings, typically less than,100 ns, and is, sustained as long as there is beam in the machine. If there is a long gap in the beam, of if the beam is extracted, the falltime of the cloud is comparable to the rigetime. The effective wake function induced by the electron cloud is of short range (several bunch spacings), and the resultant calculated coupled-bunch mode spectrum is broadband and in qualitative agreement with observations. The estimated instability growth rate for the PF is 7-1 ~ 1000 8-1 Experiments ‘at BEPC [2] show that the current threshold is a sensitive function of the verti- 132 cal chromaticity gy, so that the instability can be effectively controlled, as it was at the PF, by rais- ing éy a few units above its nominal value. This suppression can be understood as due to various kinds of damping mechanisms [9]. The threshold is also a sensitive (increasing) function of sp but is not sensitive to the existence of gaps in the bunch train at fixed total current. Theoretical studies also show that the electron cloud is expected to have an effect on high- energy multibunch proton machines, notably the LHC [10}-[16]. The cloud of electrons can de- posit substantially more energy on the walls of the vacuum chamber than the synchrotron radiation from the bending magnets. This extra power deposition is a concern for the cryogenic system. Although simulations can account for the basic features of the observations at the PF and BEPC, a systematic comparison of theory and experiment is not yet available, The complicated phenomenon combines many features such as beam energy, bunch current, bunch spacing, vacuum chamber geometry and properties of the chamber surface material such as photoelectric quantum efficiency (photoelectric yield) Y, sec- ‘ondary electron yield § and photon reflectivity R. The simulation programs reflect this compli- cation, It is not yet clear whether these parameters can be combined to provide a single criterion for a threshold or an estimate of the growth rate. For example, depending on the chamber material and geometry, and the beam characteristics, the average density of the electron cloud may be more sensitive to Y or to 6, It may also happen that the electron cloud is in a most unfavorable “runaway condition” such that its density grows monotonically following beam injection. In this case, the space-charge forces of the electrons eventually suppress Y and 6, and the average density reaches a saturation comparable to the beam neutralization level. Furthermore, the spatial variations of the electron density distribution are as important as the average value, and these variations are dra- matically different in the field-free regions of the machine from those in the dipole bending magnets. A sample simulation result is given in Fig. 1 6). Favorable conditions vis @ vis the ECE require ‘one or more of the following features: 1, Low current and/or large sg. Calculations show that the instability growth rate 77! scales faster than linearly with bunch cur-Figure 1: Simulation of the electron cloud effect in a field-free region in the arcs of the PEP-II positron ring. ‘The images represent the simulated time-averaged electron density assuming 6 corresponding to TIN and a photoelectric yield per absorbed photon of unity. Top: R = 1. Bottom: R = 0. The beam (not shown) goes through the center of the chamber. The low-density region to the right of the chamber is due to the electrons escaping through the antechamber slot. In the top case, the photoelectrons are generated approximately uniformly throughout the vacuum chamber. In the bottom case, the photoelectrons are gener- ‘ated primarily just above and below the slot, leading to high-density spots, rent Jy at low Jj, and it may saturate at large Jy. A long bunch spacing sp allows the electrons in the cloud to dissipate, hence 77} decreases at large sg. Experience from the PF and BEPC shows that the instability threshold as a function of total beam current is rather low, some 2-3 orders of magnitude below the “beam-induced multipactor- ing” threshold, first observed with a bunched proton beam [17]. This indicates that the ECE is not a resonant phenomenon, in agreement with simulations. Low Y. The electron cloud density is directly proportional to Y, and 7~" is, in turn, proportional to the cloud density. . Low 6, The choice of vacuum chamber material is important. Although pure Al has a low 6 peak value <1, its surface is normally covered with a layer of AlOs with peak 6 ~ 2.5 — 3, among the highest of 133 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS all practical metals. One way to ameliorate this is to coat the chamber with TiN (peak 6 ~ 1.1), Most other practical metals, including Cu and stainless steel, have peak 6 ~ 1 ~ 1.3 when properly cleaned. }. Long bunches and/or strong magnetic fields. In the bending magnets an important parameter is weas/c, where Ww, = eB/mec is the cyclotron frequency. If weoz/e < 1 the electrons acquire a relatively large 2 momentum from successive bunch passages, and thus hit the chamber walls at shallow angles, enhancing 6 (it is not correct to conclude from this that the field-free sections are necessarily a problem because the electrons there are not trapped into vertical helices, as they are in the dipoles). 5, Antechamber. If the vacuum chamber has an antechamber on the outer-radius side, most of the high-energy synchrotron radiation es- capes without yielding photoelectrons near the beam. Nevertheless, there is a small fraction of low-energy photons that are radiated at wide angles that inevitably remain inside the chamber, Low-energy photons, however, generate photoelectrons more efficiently [18] than high-energy photons (unless their energy is below the work function of the metal), Thus the quantitative advantage of an antechamber is not a simple linear function of the number of photons it allows to escape from the chamber, Cures Various methods have been proposed to ameliorate the ECE, In the arcs of the PEP-II e+ ring with Al vacuum chamber, 6 is a critical parameter, and it has been reduced by coating the chambers with ~ 1000 A of TIN [19]. The instability growth rate is then estimated to be within the range of the feedback system. For KEK-B, where the ECE is dominated by photoelectrons, it has been proposed to wrap a solenoid of strength ~ 20 — 30 gauss around the vacuum chamber in the field-free regions in the arcs (20]. The idea is to force the electrons to remain trapped near the walls of the vacuum chamber, safely away from the beam. At the LHC, the photon reflectivity in the arcs is a key parameter, and various methods to decrease it, such as surface roughening or other surface treatments, are being considered.Sec.2.6; BEAM-BEAM EFFECTS References [1] M, Izawa, Y. Sato, T. Toyomasu, PRL 74(25) (4995) 3044 [2] Z.Y. Guo et al, Proc, MBI-97 workshop (1997) 1B] K. Ohmi, PRL 75(8) (1995) 1526 [4] K. Ohmi, EPAC 96, p.1069 [5] M.A. Furman, G.R. Lambertson, Proc. MBI-97 workshop (1997) [6] S. Heifets, Proc. CEIBA95 workshop (1995) [7] AY. Burov, N.S. Dikansky, Proc. MBI-97 workshop (1997) [8] J.T. Rogers, PAC97 (9] K. Ohmi, MBI-97 workshop (1997) [10] F, Zimmermann, LHC Report 95 (1997) [11] 0. Grobner, PAC 97 [12] GLY, Stupakov, LHC Report 141 (1997) 13] J.S. Berg, LHC Note 97 (1997) [14] J.B, Jeanneret, CERN SL/Note 97-48 (AP) (197) (15] OS. Brining, LHC Report 158 (1997) {16] M.A. Furman, LBNL-41482/CBP Note-247 (2998) (171 0. Grobner, Proc, 10th Int, Accel. Conf. (1977) 277 [18] ©. Grobner et al, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A7(2) (1989) 223 (19} K. Kennedy et al, PAC 97 [20] S. Hiramatsu, H. Fukuma, Proc, MBI-97 workshop (1997) 2.6 BEAM-BEAM EFFECTS 2.6.1 Beam-Beam Effects in Storage Rings [1, 2,3,4,5) K Hirata, KEK ‘We assume a two-ring e*e~ collider with one interaction point (IP). Modifications for other types of colliders are straightforward, The beam-beam effects consist of () the beam-beam interaction at the IP (s = 0) and (ii) the transformation from IP to IP. The two are independent of each other dynamically but all beam-beam phenomena are combined effects of them. 26.1.1 Infinitely short bunches ‘One can ignore the bunch length 0, when o, < Bg at the IP (q stands for either « or y). Let (a, y) be the transverse distribution of e* beams. The luminosity (Sec.4.1) for very short bunches, Lo, is Lo=N+N™ fo J dady p*(2,y)o" (2,y) () At the IP, a patticle is kicked by the beam- beam force Pay > Pay fey(tv) Flay) = NzOsyd*(@,yi0*) (2) where ¢ is the “potential” which depends on the p of the other beam, $*(2, y; 9) = Fe [deray ote 2*,y-v)0le¥") where G(r, y) = — In(x? + y?). Gaussian beams If p* is Gaussian, p*(s, y) 1 gp | -eaz? _ w=)? droog? |~ ae CRP where @* = (z)4 and of = /(e—2*)Ju, ete, the force felt by a particle can be put in the Bassetti-Erskine formula [6], 2 Fayl@—87,y- 075 03,09) @ Fy], G21 y) + tFe(@, Y, 025%) “asi wits) © -00(-- z)-(S) Here w is the complex error function (see See.1.5.1) w(z) = e~* {1 ~ erf(-iz)} See also Eqs.(4-7), Sec.2.6.3. Define the (incoherent) beam-beam parameter €* as @e NF re Be 1 “Ya Qnog (oF +05) where 6° is the nominal (= without beam-beam effect) #function atthe IP. ‘When both beams are Gaussian, N+N“fo WDyLy Gary? x eo[- 252 with the effective beam size (of)? + (7)? ztiy 2 208 - 29), © Lo Le 134‘The coherent beam-beam parameter & is defined as, 2 Nzre Ge ® Te BRDy(Es + By) The luminosity, Eq.(7), can be expressed in terms of E as g a fo_NNu147- Oy which shows that the 4%"s should be small to obtain large luminosity, because there exists an empirical upper bound for 5s, Linear dynamical effects In the linear approximation, the dynamics can be treated as 1-D system. We denote (, pz) simply as (g, p) and omit + designations, Here we use the weak-strong picture, where one (weak) beam consists of a single article so that it does not affect the other (strong) beam. tune shift When 3* = 2- and g* = 97 atthe IP, ‘the head-on collision reads q)oxf4 1 a [2)- [8]: <= [aeve 3 (a0) Here & and fi are the nominal values. It is combined with the one-turn matrix without beam- q mT) =*(2] [ q P M costo sin io sin Ho/Bo cos uo From the eigenvalues of MK, we get cost = cosy — Anko sin pig (12) For infinitesimal value of fo, we have v = 1/2n = Yo + &o. Thus fo is also called the beam- beam tune shift parameter. For a finite value of o, the tune is shown in Fig.1, The stability of the motion requires an Ho z (13) Dynamic beta [7] The new f-function, 8, at the IP can be found from KM? . oo fo < grout cosy Bsing siny/B cose 135 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Figure 1: The real tune v as a function of vp and fo. as a= a ABHe = fe snp 1 + Ano cot jup — 4763 4) Dynamic emittance [8] Synchrotron radiation effects can be included by putting q)_, q Al []-me[s]+[8] 09 where A is 2 x 2 matrix representing the average effect of radiation on the one-turn matrix and the "5 represent its stochastic effect. Define the en- (?) (ap) velope matrix (ap) (*) ] R= [ The equilibrium value of R is the solution of R=(AMK)R(AMK)'+D, D (a6) ‘The equilibrium emittance is e = Vdet R. A and D are determined by the lattice in the arc and do not depend on the beam-beam interaction, If hm 0 |, v-avizw[® 2] 1+ 2n€o cot Ho 1+ 4n€o cot jo — 4n?63 ‘The dynamic beta, dynamic emittance and dynamic beam size (/e8-+O(5)) effects are illustrated in Fig.2. By Eqs.(13) and (14), vp slightly above an integer is preferred. €0 +O(6) (18)Sec.2.6: BEAM-BEAM EFFECTS Figure 2: Dynamic beta, emittance and beam size ef fects as functions of x for go = 0.05, Solid curve is a /oo; dashed curve is ¢/¢o; dotted curve is 8/8. Offset collision When there are offsets (a+ — &- = d, and J+ — 9” = dy), the deam-beam ick, Eq,(10), is modified as follows [9]: “ 0) 0) 0) a kez 1 —key 0 | | Pi & loo 10 = % whey 0 ky 1) L py 9) where n hay tig = Bea, [Le Ags ~ ten —8{ w(B) ~etmo}] Any they + kes = ae fi [1-eAw + apap 4 + ide) {w(B) -e with’ . Nonlinear 1-D models Round beam For oz = oy (round beam) and # = 7 = 0, and if we observe a particle always with y = 0, we get SF (a0) 20) oe (8) | $8 («02) = NET te Flat beam For oy Ee oz and y < oz, and we observe a particle always with « = 0, then [10] Py > Py - FF 27) = Nate vin, y 136 Nonlinear Perturbative Effects Under the as- sumption of linear betatron oscillation and the ‘beam-beam kick at the IP, the first order perturbation shows the amplitude dependence of the tune shifts [1, 11, 12, 13] - tee(H) ay Tha) 22 (ate f (+ uj? + u/a)? Ve (22) w = 4+g(4) @) [ants bo G+ uC 4 atu? Here Z(2) = e*[o(x) -h(e)) Zale) = e*(e) where /@q is the amplitude normalized by og, a = oy/oz is the aspect ratio, and Io and I; are modified Bessel functions. Coherent beam-beam motion Assume the Rigid Gaussian Model (RGM) in which the beams are Gaussian with the nominal beam sizes and only their barycenter can change [14]. The beam- ‘beam kick for the barycenters are [15] ; MERE —3* gH Ba By) pt we @4) Py where F is in Eq.(5). A consequence is that the linear approximation of the kick for py is 69 = —4n 5/65 (T* — 7) instead cad of Ba (10). ‘The one-turn map is M=O(s,p)RES Wis the block-diagonal 4 x 4 matrix through the arc, Bees) = [PE We] ue) = | So Sn Moperates on the dynamical variables (Z4, Z-)* where‘The beam-beam kick matrix R is 2 a The perturbed tunes are given by cos pt +c0s ye 2 — rep sinyg — np sinug £3VD cos = (28) where D = 169725} sin pf sin yg +c08 ug —cos uy —2nBf sin uf +2nE5 sin pp |? ‘The mapping is unstable if: (i) vf or vy S half integers (half integer resonances); or (i) vf +5 S integer (sum resonances) [14]. When ft = v5 = vp, Mis simply U-UA UA ] M=|"uA U-UA which can be diagonalized as a ju . a [ 0 U-2UA haat Lyi La [ -II ‘Thus the dynamics is spit into two modes: @).e-mode: the mode is Zo = 5 (2* + 27 =a ) whose cigentune is unaffected (vg = »). i) r-mode: the mode is 1 ee ae d whose eigentune is gives as 608 pln = C08 po — 2a (EI + ‘When two beams are identical, Ye = + £0. Choice of working point In more general cases ‘where there are NV e* bunches and NV e~ bunches, periodically placed and colliding at Nzp period cally placed collision points (denoted as N@NV Nip), we know that [16]: (0 All the cases can be reduced to one of the two irreducible cases, Nip = 2N and Nyp = N with N odd; (i) Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS. oe) os ae 0.00 06 ome os tS (e006) oe ° 1 aa «8 6 Figure 3: The threshold values of & as functions of 1 (the “one turn” tune). Upper: 363=3 case, Lower: 30366 case, In irreducible cases, with perfect symmetry between bunches, beams, IPs, and arcs between IPs, the instability occurs for Yo S £Nrp/(2N) with £= 1,2, .,.2N (This pattern repeats for vo at ev- exy Nzp); (ii) With broken symmetries between bunches and IPs, the instability pattern for vp is similar to that of the 1@ 1 = 1 case. Examples for 36353 and 363=6 cases are shown in Fig.3. Spontaneous beam separation, etc. The RGM as- ‘Sumes each beam behaves as a single particle. Other features related to RGM are G an explanation why the four-beam compensation scheme of DCI [17] experiment failed (18, 19, 20, 21}. Gi) showing serious instability if the two collider rings have different circumferences [22]. iii) beyond the threshold of the half integer resonances, two beams tend to separate from each other at the IP (Spontaneous Separation of Beams) (14). iv) analysis of parasitic collisions (23, 24]. (¥) extension of Eq.(24) for the case where the transverse axes of both beams are tilted [25]. Visible frequencies When we deflect beams with ‘a single frequency, we can observe peaks in its response corresponding to the above two modes (26, 27}. When 33° < 1 the peaks sit on vp and M+Es +Ep ~ vo-+€o. Thisis a consequence of the RGM. A more accurate estimate of the visible 137Scc.2.6: BEAM-BEAM EFFECTS tune shift can be summarized by [28, 29] U_ = + G(r)fo 29) where r = oy/(oz + oy) and fA), horizontal a= {Ky verod where A(r) =1.33-0.37r+0.279r? = (31) For a very flat beam, r = 0 and G is 1.33 (horizontal) and 1.24 (vertical). For higher order coherent motions, refer to [2, 30, 31] and references quoted therein. When the deflection is large, one can observe a hysteresis in the frequency response of the beam [15, 32]. 2.6.1.2 Long bunches When o, is comparable to fi, we should consider the bunch length effect (hour-glass effect) [33]. The interaction now depends also on the longitudinal position 2. The collision between particles with z+ and 2~ takes place at $= S(zt,27)=(z+-—27)/2 (32) where the beam sizes are different from those at 5 =0 (the IP). Luminosity The geometric reduction of luminosity due to the hour glass effect is discussed in Sec.4.1. ics The only known symplectic beam- ‘beam map usable for a long bunch is the synchro- beam mapping [37]. The map for the collision of an e* having 2* and a 3-D Gaussian e~ bunch is, as follows: The strong e~ beam is cut into lon- ‘gitudinal slices: each slice is represented by 2~, its longitudinal coordinate at = 0. Let nj be the number of electrons in the i-th slice. Then the beam-beam kick is represented by the Lie operator Teo| i which acts on the 6 phase space coordinates of the ef at s = 0, Here, S is defined by Eq.(32) and X=2+peS(z*,27), ¥ =y + pyS(2*,27) The o’s should be evaluated at s = S so that, e.g., oz (5) = ¥/(2)o + 2(p2)0S + (p2)05? Here ( )o is the average at s = 0. & (%%25(8),05(8)):] 63) 138 The map Eq.(33) is the successive application of the following a = 2 4S(nm)fx Pe" = P2— fx vr = y+ Sea)fy By" = py fy aw z BE" = pe— Dixie — Fil 1 1 -5frby-5fl-9 G4) where . fx = ME f(,¥;00(8), 0915) fr = ME (XY s00(5), 0065) g = AE [Raa(0;2")40(%, Ys 00(5),24(5)) + Raa(0;2*)9u(X, ¥, o2(5), oy(5))]S Ge(2,Y, Fx, Oy) = oe ay 2(¢3 - x {es thy +2 [ee oy 2613 Dispersion at IP, crossing angle These two are known to introduce synchrobetatron resonances (Sec.2.3.4) even when the beam-beam kick does not do so [38, 39]. Dispersion Here, we review the properties of the arc, which are represented by the one-tum. ‘map around the IP (¢ = 0). The revolution matrix ‘M(0) can be obtained by any 3-D tracking code but usually itis useful to represent it in terms of art several parameters (3, 10, 21 for 1-D, 2-D, 3-D). ‘One way to do it is as follows [40]: m oO 0 M(0)=H"™R| 0 m 0 |RH 0 0 my (1-“a6}1 HH, He retile (1 2a) a, i -H, al (36)Here 0 b= V1—detR, By sin oy I = [oe eee | m= i —nsinpy — cosy — ay sin yy Here I stands for u, v,w andy = (1 + a?)/y. Ry is a 2x2 horizontal-vertical coupling matrix defined and calculated from the physical one-tumn matrix [40]. This factorization can express any symplectic matrix, The n's (generalized energy dispersion) reduce to the usual dispersion when there is no dispersion in cavities; otherwise, the ¢’s (generalized time dispersion) may appear [41]. The simplest case where there is a vertical dispersion at the IP and nothing else, i.c., where nh, = Ne = th, = 0, a's vanish, ('s vanish, the beam-beam force is linear as K, Eq.(10), and in the weak-strong situation, then the synchrotron tune is modified as (42] (1h)? ox as well as the usual transverse tune shifts. Crossing angle The crossing angle can be treated by using the Lorentz boost for both beams, At the IP (s = 0), we perform (0) Doar (0") BB" (or) 2) Ae(0)--- Here “BB” is the (symplectic) beam-beam kick for the head-on collision. In the ultrarelativistic limit, D can be written as [43] tan bz + [1+ hg single yt hgesing 2/eosd + hizsing (Pz — htan )/cos 6 Py/ cose Pz —Petang+ htan? Here ¢ is the half crossing angle and the horizontal crossing was assumed, (Pes Py Pz) = Pz +1 - yf/(pz +1)? — v3 — 23 38) and ht = Oh*/Op}. See also Eqs.(15-20), $00.23.4. Bot x= en 139 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Figure 4: The geometrical luminosity reduction factor £/Co as a function of ® = go, /o2 and By/ce, The geometrical luminosity reduction factor can be obtained from Eqs.(6-7), Sec.4.1. This factor is shown in Fig.4 for the case with two identical beams, References [1] A.W. Chao, AIP Proc.127 (1983) p.201 [2] A.W. Chao, SSCL-346 (1991) [3] AIP Proc. 214 {4] Proc. 3rd Advanced ICFA Beam Dynamics Work- shop on Beam-Beam Effects in Circular Colliders 1989) [5] Proc. 7th ICFA Beam Dynamics Workshop on Beam-Beam Issues for Multibunch, High Lumi- nosity Circular Colliders, JINR (1996) (6] M. Bassetti, G, Erskine, CERN ISR TH/80-06 (4980) 17] B. Richter, Proc. Int. Symp. Electron é& Positron ‘Storage Rings (196) p.-1-1 (8] K. Hirata, F, Ruggiero, PA 28 (1990) 137 19] B.W. Montague, CERN/ISR-GS/75-36 (1975) (10) S. Peggs, R. Talman, PR D24 (1981) 2379 [11] A. Lejeic, L. Le Duff, Proc. VIM Int. Conf. High Energy Acc. (1971) p.354 [12] EB. Keil, CERN/SR-TH/72-7 and CERN/ISR- ‘TH72-25(1972) [13] A. Chao, AIP Proc. 57 (1979) p42 (14] K. Hirata, E, Keil, NIM A292 (1990) 156 [15] K. Hirate, NIM A269 (1988) 7 (16) K. Hirata, E.Keil, PA 56 (1996) 13 (17) G. Arzelier et al, Proc, 8th Int. Conf, High En- ergy Acc, (1971) p.150. [18] Ya.S. Derbeney, 3rd All-Union Conf, on Acc., (1972) 382 [19] Ya.8, Derbenev, SLAC TRANS 151 (1972) (20] NN. Chau, ‘D. Potaux, Laboratoire de VAccélérateur Linéaire Rapport TechniqueSec.2.6: BEAM-BEAM EFFECTS 5-74 (1974); Rapport Technique 2-75 (1975) [21] E, Keil, Proc. 3rd Advanced ICFA Beam Dynam- cs Workshop (1989) p.85 22] K. Hirata, E, Keil, PL B232 (1989) 413 (23) K. Hirata, AIP Proc. 214 (1990) p41 [24] M, Furman et al, LBL-32435, ESG-193, DAP- NIAJSPP 92-03, ABC-49 (1992) [25] V. Ziemann, SLAC-PUB-5479 (1991) [26] The SPEAR group: 9th Int. Conf. on High En- egy Acc. (1974) p.66 (27) T. Ieisi, T. Kawamoto, K, Hirata, NIM A265 (4988) 364 [28] RE. Meller, RH, Siemann, PAC 81, p.2431 [29] K. Yokoya, H. Koiso, PA 27 (1990) 181 [30) A.W. Chao, R, Ruth, PA 16 (1985) 201 (31) K. Hirata, [3] p.175 (32) T. leis, K. Hirata, PAC 89 (1989) p.709 [33] S. Krishnagopal, R. Siemann, PR D1 (1990) 2312 {34] GE. Fischer, SLAC report SPEAR-154 (1972) [35] SPEAR Storage Ring Group, PAC 73, p.838 (36] M. Furman, PAC 91, p.422 (37] K. Hirata, H. Moshammer, F. Ruggiero, PA 40 (1993) 205 (38) A. Piwinskl, DESY 77/18 (1977) [39] Y. Kamiya, A. Chao, SLAC/AP-10(1983) [40] K. Ohmi, K. Hirata, K. Olde, KEK-Preprint 93- 83 (1993); PRE 49 (1994) 751 {41} S. Petracca, K. Hirata, PAC 97 [42] S. Petracca, K. Hirata, AIP Proc, 395 (1997) 369 (43) K. Hirata, PRL 74 (1995) 2228 2.6.2 Beam-Beam Effects in Linear Colliders P. Chen, SLAC Linear colliders require the collision of intense ete beams to reach high luminosity, This in turn gives rise to intense electromagnetic beam fields that strongly affect the motions of the particles in the oncoming beam. There are two catagories of strong-field beam-beam effects: the disruption effects (1, 2] and the beamstrahlung effects 13, 4, 5, 6]. The former are essentially classical effects associated with the bending of particle tra- Jectories. The latter has to do with the radiation triggered by the bending. The disruption effect, causes the modification of beam size, and thus the effective luminosity, while the beamstrahlung effect causes the spread of the CM energy. In addition, the high-energy beamstrahlung photons will further interact with the beam fields and with each other through QED and QCD processes, and create detector backgrounds. 140 For muon colliders (Sec.1.6.14), one studies the conventional beam-beam effects (Sec.2.6.1), beamstrahlung, coherent pair creation, and QED and QCD effects. However, these effects are found to be not serious for typical design parameters [7]. 262.1 Disruption with negligible beamstrahlung. Disruption parameter and divergence parameter All disruption effects can essentially be described by two parameters, which are defined in terms of the unperturbed beam parameters at the IP. The Lorentz-invariant, dimensionless disruption parameters in the x and y directions are 2reNoz Weyl(Fe + oy) where oz, 0y,and 0 are the rms beam sizes at the IP (s = 0). D < 1 corresponds to weak disruption, or focusing, while D > 1 is strong disruption regime where the particle dynamics becomes nonlinear. The divergence parameter is defined as os Acy = Re @ where (2,, are the f-functions at the IP. The A parameter measures the “hour-glass” effects due to the inherent divergence (emittance) of the incoming beam. Luminosity enhancement The effective luminosity and its reduction due to the hour glass and the crossing angle effects is given in Eqs.(5-9), Sec.4.1. For a round beam (Dz = Dy = D), and in the weak disruption limit where D < 1, the luminosity enhancement factor is [2] xP +O(D*) a) ay Hp=1+5 sa @) Beyond the D < 1 limit, computer simulations are indespensable. However, computer simulations using the code ABEL [8] gives a useful ap- x [In(+VD)+21n(0.8/4)] (4) In the flat beam limit, i.e. R = o2/oy > 1, where 1-D approximation is employed, computer simulation gives the scaling [9] Hp,(R> 1) = Hp(R=1)¥8 6)when Dy D, Ay < A, and Dz and Az + 0. For the intermediate “quasi-flat” regime, a scaling law applies (9], Hp = HiZHh® 1+2R! _ 1/2, Ro1 1m) = Ee =(TR Rok © This scaling law, being a further extrapolation of the round beam and flat beam limits, is progres- sively much less accurate. Disruption angles The disruption angle of a particle due to beam-beam interaction is characterized by the nominal deflecting angle 2eN _ Deve = esto) oO 2 ‘The maximum and the rms values of the outcom- ing angles among all particles in one beam obey the scaling laws deduced from computer simulations for flat beams in the limit Ay — 0: 0.55 4 + 050,)77* ymax ~ 2.5 0y,rms @) Kink instability When the ete~ beams collide with an initial offset, this offset grows exponen tially. This is the kink instability. Ironically, this tums out to be beneficial feature for linear colliders. For sufficiently large Dy, even if the initial offset Ay >> ay, the kink instability will help bring the two beam centers together and recov- ers the expected luminosity to a large extent. For oy < Ay < Gry the beam centroid motion is approximated by Dyoy Or Syms ~ 0 °® and the two beam certroids can overlap in time if. Ay SoyDy 10) ‘Multibunch crossing instability Linear colliders are often designed to collide two trains of ‘bunches. In this case the kink between two bunches at the IP will further influence the tra- Jectories of the later bunches, and the offset will grow along the bunch train. This is called multi- ‘bunch crossing instability. The criterion that the ‘blow-up factor of the offset be less than two at the last of np bunches is 1 Dy a1) 3+3 ay 141 4 np S1+ DD, Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS 2.6.2.2 Beamstrahlung with negligible disruption Beamstrahlung parameter All beamstrahlung effects are descirbable by the Lorentz-invariant, dimensionless beamstrahlung parameter ‘YT, defined as rsh met uF Fry)? (12) where p,, is the four-momentum of the particle and Fy, is the mean energy-momentum stress ten- sor of the beam field. In terms of the Schwinger critical field, 15, pe oh = 4.4 x 10°Gauss 3) and the mean field strength (E + B), T can be expressed as aot 8) 8 dN oo igorg aGancero), | ao T is a mearsure of the ficld strength in the electron’s rest frame, ie, y(E + B), in units of Be. As Be signals the onset of nonlinear QED effects, T < 1 comesponds to the classical limit, while YT > 1 the deep quantum regime, of the beamstrahlung effects. The fact that the beam field is not uniform across the beam indicates that the mean field strength introduced above may not be sufficient in describing certain beamstrahlung phenomena, and a local definition is necessary, The maximum beam field corresponds to a maximum Tmax, which is related to the mean value by Tmax © Br (as) In principle, all beamstrahlung effects should be calculated locally, and integrated over the beam cross section, However, the global beamstrahlung parameter, Eq.(12), often suffices. Number of photons and average energy loss ‘The most important physical parameter in beamstrahlung is the average number of photons emitted per electron during the collision, Oz ny 2.54[52 7] Uo(T) (16) 1 DoT) = TE ‘The average fractional energy loss due to beamstrahlung, on the other hand, is a0; bpe Laat] 104(1) 1 OT) * Trae a7?‘Sec.2.6: BEAM-BEAM EFFECTS ‘The average energy of all the emitted photons is, _ 4V3,,Uo(T) { 0.462 (T + 0) Tas TDACE) ~ { 16/68 oe) Note that the average photon energy is finite (about 1/4 of the initial electron energy) when Too. Differential spectra and luminosity under multiphoton process _It is important to know the luminosity as a function of the effective ete CM ‘energy, so as to unfold the energy dependence of particle production processes. In addition, the low energy end of the e*e~ and -y spectra are also important for background analysis. When ny < 1, the energy spectrum for the final e* or e~ beams is (a) = e-™6(z@ -1) + (1-e™™") f(1-2) , as) where « is the ratio of the final to initial electron energies, 5(a — a is the 6-function and 10) = Be [* Kyotntv , a) is the spectrum of the emitted photon (the Sokoloy-Ternov spectral function), and Kgys is a modified Bessel function, ‘When n, 2 land Y < 1, the cascade final electron energy spectrum is (T $10) ¥@) = + [a-e™s0-2) +H) 21) where Te = 22) H@) ~ Lares Fay + Aime) @3). where y(n-+1, ny) is the incomplete gamma function. The CM differential luminosity under this, circumstance can be derived {10], A dharen alt =e P6(1 — 5) Lo ds safe HG) +f Se SHeMt/a)} eo Here s is the CM energy squared for a system of two particles with energies 21 and x2 (s = 2322), normalized to the design CM energy squared, s0= 4. 142 The final beamstrahlung photon spectrum is found [11] to be 1 (238 aay _ yy -1/8 Tap) ar) ¥*a-») xeV/TU-VIG(y), (1S5) 25) where 1 = (x24)? ow) = ay 1 ~! {om esa YT 1 = : Ee-2 1-e™]} 9 oy) ~ 1-(0-y)? Qn See also Eq.(12), Sec.3.3.1, The CM 777 luminosity is a di Er = ff ayndans(o—vivndo(u)ous) (28) ‘This integration is done numerically. Depolarization due to beam-beam interaction ‘There are two major mechanisms that cause the spin depolarization of the e~ and e+ beams during ‘beam-beam interaction, One is the classical precession under the beam field desbribable by the Thomas-BMT equation. The other is the spin-flip, or the Sokoloy-Ternoy, effect upon the emission of beamstrahlung photons. ‘The average final depolarization due to the T- BMT effect is [12] 3 my i (AP) ear = soa5 Totty. Q9) while that due to the Sokolov-Ternov effect is [12] (AP)srx Lyn, (1ST S100) G0) The net average depolarization is then the sum of the two contributions. It is also important to estimate the luminosity weighted depolarization, [AP], which is related to (AP) by a simple numerical factor, [AP] 2.6.2.3 QED and QCD backgrounds ‘The beamstrahlung photons, as well as the more conventional bremsstrahlung photons, generated during the beam-beam interaction, plus the laser photons in the case of 7-7 collider [13], will further interact with the oncoming beam and among =0.273(AP) epthemselves via QED and QCD processes, and produce particle detector backgrounds. Three in- gredients are needed for the calculation of such backgrounds: (i) 7-7 luminosity spectrum for the given linear collider design; (ii) the cross section for a photon to turn into e+e~ pairs (QED) or hadronic minijets (QCD); (iii) a detector simulation to evaluate what fraction of the produced particles are seen as the detector background. Item (@ is given earlier, Here we will review (ii). We will not discuss (ii). Coherent pair creation A photon propagating through a transverse EM field has a probability of turning into e*e™ pairs. In the context of linear collider beam-beam interaction, this process has been called coherent pair creation (14). Such a process can be contributed by cither the real, beamstrahlung, photons, or the virtual photons comoving with the high energy particle. For ‘beamstrahlung coherent pair creation, the average number of e*e pairs created per primary electron is seer)" (1) G2) where i (7/128) exp(—16/3Y), (I $1) 31) {Test Bar 25a) (r>1) 33) The energy spectrum of the coherent pairs can be approximated by (when T < 10) ant, a a Bc ooleaty ae xeol-aeCZ+723)] ‘When T > 1, the contribution from virtual photons becomes significant. The virtual process is sometimes called the trident cascade (14), : 9 nee SSr]am) @5) where QL) #0.23aInt , (Y>1) G6) Minijets A high energy photon can tum itself into a quark-antiquark pair from time to time. ‘When two photons collide, they can interact in the quark-quark collision mode. The quarks will then interact hadronically, which has an increasing cross section as the two-photon CM energy rises. One such process is the hard scattering that tums the two initial quarks into quarks or gluons at large transverse momenta, Because of its rising Ch.2; BEAM DYNAMICS ‘ross section and the tendency of coming out with large angles, this minijets process can be a source . of backgrounds in linear colliders [15, 16, 17]. The cross section for events with jets of pi. > Pay where ps is the final-state parton (quark or gluon) momentum cutoff, is (17] o(p.) = {1 ~ exp[— Y(p.)/20]} Here ois the total cross section, o(y7 = hadrons) = a0{1 + (6.30 x 10-*)[In(s)]* + (soo) G8) G7) where 9 ~ 200 nb, s is the two-photon CM. energy-squared in (GeV)?, and Y(p,), the jet yield, is the total hadronic cross section times the mean number of jets per hadronic event, for a given py, ic. (nyet) = V(ps)/o 9) The dependence of the jet yield on the CM energy of the colliding quark-antiquark (not to be confused with 3 above), Fem, and p, is parametrized as (within 20% accuracy for p, < 10 GeV and Eem < 10 TeV) (Bam) esBen) = ArT MooBon) = Aas Bly.) * peer] with A; = 4000 nb, Ag = 0.82, As = 3.0, and B(p.) 14.2 tanh(0.43 pl C(p.) = 0.48/po4* 1) Eem, As and ps ate in GeV. One can further integrate Y(ps, Eom) over Eom up to s to obtain ‘V(p.). Ie is argued [17] that for our purpose the cutoff should be taken at p, = 3.2 GeV. ‘The above is the recipe for evaluating minijet yield in two-photon scatterings. When further convoluted with a given photon spectrum, whether from beamstrahlung, bremsstrahlung, or laser, it will generate the estimated minijet events in linear colliders. References [1] R. Hollebeek, NIM 184 (1981) 333 12) P.Chen, K. Yokoya, PR D38 (1988) 987 [3] RJ. Noble, NIM A256 (1987) 427 - [4] M. Bell, J.S. Bell, PA 24 (1988) 1; R, Blankenbe- cler, $.D. Drell, PRL 61 (1988) 2324; P, Chen, K. ‘Yokoya, PRL 61 (1988) 1101; M. Jacob, T:T. Wu, Nucl, Phys. B303 (1988) 389; VIN, Baier, VM. Katkov, VIM, Strekhovenko, Nucl. Phys. B328 (1989) 387 143Sec.2.6: BEAM-BEAM EFFECTS [5] P, Chen, Lecture Notes in Phys. 296, Springer- ‘Verlag (1988) [6] K. Yokoya, P. Chen, Lecture Notes in Phys. 400, ‘Springer-Verlag (1992) [71 P. Chen, Nucl. Phys. B 51A (1996) 179 [8] K. Yokoya, KEK Report 85-9 (1985) [9] P. Chen, PAC 93, p.617 [10} K. Yokoya, P. Chen, PAC 89, p.1438 {11} P. Chen, PRD 46 (1992) 1186 [12] K. Yokoya, P, Chen, AIP Proc. 187 (1988) p.938 [13] LF, Ginzburg et al, NIM 205 (1983) 47 [14] P. Chen, in Research Directions of the Decade, ‘Snowmass, World Scientific (1990); P. Chen, V. Telnov, PRL 63 (1990) 1796 [15] M. Drees, RM. Godbole, PRL 67 (1991) 1189 [16] J.R. Forshaw, J.K. Storrow, PL B278 (1992) 193 [17] P. Chen, T. Barktow, M. Peskin, PR D49 (1993) 3209 2.6.3 Parasitic Beam-beam Effects and Sepa- ration Schemes JM, Jowett, CERN 2.63.1 Separation schemes Encounter points _ Counter-rotating bunches starting at azimuths s*, s~, at a given initial time, inating of circumference C,, encounter each other at two azimuths separated by C/2, (3,8) = (Sgt, ceee) (mod €) 1) All encounters between beams of arbitrary bunch structure (sf',...8%;4), (87 «-8jy-) are given by a matrix of such pairs (3a Gay Gaur (ia de GSace | @ (8,8) neon (8,8) aces (Bs Bae ne The 2M~ encounters experienced by bunch i of the “+” beam are listed in row é of the matrix. The SF differ amongst themselves by multiples of the rf wavelength Aye and the 343, 343 by Arr/2. Unwanted collisions can be suppressed entirely, by separating the beams into two separate vacuum chambers, and/or partly, by separating the orbits within a single chamber, over some part of the circumference. (Two rings with different circumferences and a common section are also possible.) Typical separation schemes If the beam energy to charge ratios are equal and opposite, 144 aT! “Tl < So — 3 Figure 1: Head-on collisions with electrostatic separation allowing bunch encounters near an IP, The two beams may continue into separate rings or the elec- ‘tostatic bumps may close within a single ring (a type of “bunch train” scheme) allowing parasitic encounters only within the separation bumps. has, Figure 2; Example of parasitic crossings near an IP with a crossing angle. The bunch spacing in one beam is half that in the other. Dotted arrows indicate encounters that take place at times +:S,/2c relative to the moment shown. Further encounters take place at £54/c. E*/q* = E-/q (g., equal-energy ete~- collider), orbit separation requires transverse electrostatic or time-dependent magnetic fields. Otherwise, static magnetic fields can also separate (€.g., unequal-energy e+e~-collider, pp-collider). Ifthere are no common sections of the orbits (e.g., two-ring collider with crossing angle) a separating field may not be necessary. Some typical separation schemes are shown in Figs.1-3. Schemes with crossing angles can allow smaller bunch spacings than those with head- on collisions, Side-effects Separation schemes which involve displacements of the ideal orbit from a nominal orbit (typically passing through the genters of magnets) require detailed evaluation of changes to the optical functions, tunes, etc. Moreover these may differ between beams. E.g,, in a pretzel scheme with horizontal separation p(s) in a FODO lattice the perturbation of the dispersion function Dao > Dz = Dzo + Dar gives rise to a number of effects including a change in the longitudinal damping partition number (Sec.3.1.4) for ete beams, au(6) Jane OE 2 = Inte i Ke,Dads (3)N ° ve Figure 3: Horizontal orbit of one beam in a “pretzel” scheme (LEP) with many potential locations for par sitic encounters in the arcs where the beams are separated ina single vacuum chamber, Head-oncolisions occur at the even-numbered IPs. Anti-symmetry about the IPs helps to equalize the global optical parameters between the two beams. (Courtesy J.-P. Deluen) IP where K is the quad gradient, 2.6.3.2 Long-range beam-beam effects Beam-beam kick Consider the beam-beam force on a test particle of charge Ze at position 2 = (2,y, 2) due to the charge distribution, (2), of the opposing beam, (The coherent behavior of beams must be obtained by summing these forces over the beam and is not amenable to straightforward analytical treatment.) The potential [1] is = oz) a) ol oat a S af [an a oldyel-*" "aa Ne_ = ~ “Greovin Jo 2 2 oP (cade - adhe - xx) Teac? + t)(203 + t)(202 +t) where the last form holds when p(#) is a 3-D gaussian with rms oz,y,z and normalized to Ne, In the short bunch limit, the components of the beam-beam kick poy = Joy [ au 6) 145 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Figure 4: Beam-beam kicks in prad felt by a 1 GeV, ‘unit charge, particle as a function of horizontal (left) ‘and vertical (right) separations around a bunch with N = 10", ¢, = 1mm, o, = 0.2 mm. In the plots on the left, the other separation is zero, while on the right a non-zero separation is included. Each plot has the same scales and the (scaled) Gaussian charge density {s also shown. ate conveniently computed in complex form 2, 3] Ape + Apy = —2801(2,y, 02,04), where II(#, y, a,b) = Vee eit] -cir iy [ae] \. (@>by>0) II"(x, -y,a, 8), (a>by <0) 2(i) (1-""), @=9 aTI*(y, 2,6, a), ( max(¢z,dy), the beam looks like a point charge, the kick is purely radial and Eq.(6) can be approximated as 2ZNro (x,y) (ApesAn) = This formula is useful in preliminary design of a separation scheme. Beam-beam tune-shift The beam-beam interaction produces tune-shifts @)wlan eet t ' + ' ° Figure 5: Kick vector field where the length (and color) of the arrows indicates the kick strength. Gray shading indicates the charge density. Same parameters as Fig, where (x,y) is the position of the closed orbit (Center) of the weak beam relative to the opposing beam. In the case of a Gaussian beam, the change of variables ¢ = tan(u/2) transforms Eq.(4) into a form convenient for numerical evaluation, Usually it is best to integrate separately over the neighbourhoods of u = 0 and u = x. Examples are shown in Fig.6. For large separations, Egs.(7) and (8) give (Gongs) = Poe Figure 6: Parasitic beam-beam tune-shifts for a particle on the closed orbit, calculated perturbatively, for the same conditions as Fig.4 with Be = 8, = 1m. ‘The charge density is also shown, The distribution of tune-shifts with betatron amplitudes inside a bunch can be derived analytically, extending Eqs.(22-25), Sec.2.6.1 in the case 146 of a single encounter [7, 8]. Beyond this, simula tion techniques are generally more practical, Simulation techniques and systems of bunches A weak-strong [9, 10] simulation studies the behavior of a single test particle in the fields of an opposing beam, regarded as a fixed charge distribution. The beam-beam encounters are simulated as special optical elements, using the kicks (6) with fixed p(2). Linear and nonlinear maps propagate the orbit and optics between beam-beam kicks. The optics and tune of a test particle can be found as functions of its amplitude with respect, to the closed orbit, giving tune footprints for the weak beam. Since different bunches in the weak beam may see different sequences of encounters, this procedure must be repeated, resulting’ in different orbits, optical functions and tune-footprints, for each of them. Bunches in the opposing beam also see differ- entfields. In general, a self-consistent solution for the closed orbit and optics of a two-beam many- bunch system has to be found [11]. In particular, different pairs of bunches may collide at an IP with different separations, sizes and optical functions. ‘Some bunches in the system may be unstable and be lost, changing the stability of others which may subsequently be lost (e.g. the “PACMAN” effect) [12]. Simple Criteria for adequate separation Present understanding provides no simple universal criteria for the adequacy (adequate beam lifetime, tolerable effects on beam sizes, etc.) of a separation scheme. Simple criteria [13] can be used in a design phase, pending thorough simulation, analysis or experiment. If X; is the separation at encounter i (head-on excluded), o4 a relevant beam size (e.g. max(cz, oy), then some of the simplest criteria are ° X; > ngoj, where tg = 5.5-7 © xis byt < Emaxy Where Emax © 10~4-10-3 Dba E Gut < fimaxy where Gar © 107° Applicability depends on the nature of the beam (lectrons or protons) and other conditions, Ex- periments have shown that none of these criteria are necessary or sufficient. In hadron colliders, a strategy of minimizing the tune-spread in all the bunches is generally followed [14], possibly involving the compensation of tune-shifts betweendifferent parasitic encounters. Parasitic encounters may also drive additional resonances [15]. References U1) K. Takayama, Lett, Al Nuovo Cimento 34 (1982) 190 [2] M, Bassett, G.A. Erskine, CERN-ISR-TH/80-06 (1980) (3] R, Talman, AIP Proc. 153 (1987) p.827 [4] K. Hirata, H, Moshammer, F. Ruggiero, PA 40 (1993) 205 5] V. Ziemann, SLAC-PUB-5582 (1991) (6] J. Irwin et al, PAC 95 [7] AB. Temnykh, Comell U. CBN 93-1 (1993) [8] M. Meddahi, R, Schmidt, CERN SL/90-15 (1990) [9] P. Beloshitsky, E. Perelstein (Eds.), Proc. 7th ICFA Beam Dynamics Workshop (1995), JINR Report 1996 (10) A. Temnykh, D. Sagan, PAC 97 U2) E, Keil, CERN SL/95-75 (1995) [12] D, Neuffer, S. Pegs, SSC-63 (1986) (13) A.B. Temnykh et al, PAC 93, p.2007 (14) W. Herr, PA 50 (1995) 69 [15] D. Siergiej et al, PRE 55 (1997) and references therein, 2.6.4 Beam-Beam Compensation Schemes S. Peggs, BNL ‘The magnetic field in a quadrupole magnet can be written in the form By + iB, = G(a + ty) while the magnetic field due a counter-moving round beam is By +iBz © G(x ~ ty) for ‘small displacements. Quadrupoles (with external ‘current sources) focus in only one plane while the beam-beam force (with sources at the origin) focuses in both planes. This fundamental difference defeats simple schemes which attempt to perform bbeam-beam compensation using well placed magnets [1]. Practical schemes can be categorized as: (@ Direct space charge compensation with four beams; (i) Indirect space charge compensation using secondary beams or plasmas; and (iil) Beta- tron phase cancelation between neighboring IPs. Long range beam-beam collisions (Sec.2.6.3) can also be used to partially compensate beam-beam tune shifts and spreads. Direct space charge compensation If each comoving pair of bunches in the scheme shown in Fig.1 has exactly the same intensity and distribution, then no particle sees a net beam-beam force. Two rings with a common intersection region are required. This simple scheme was first proposed 147 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS. for COPPELIA (3 GeV, Orsay) [2], and was implemented for e* at about 1 GeV at DCI [3]. Un- fortunately, “nonlinear resonances still strongly affect the four beam interaction”, and collective effects cause observable coherent signals [4, 5,6]. ‘The coherent beam-beam limit with four beams is predicted to not differ significantly from the coherent limit with two beams, in qualitative agreement with observations [7, 8). Figure 1: Four beam compensation in storage rings, Four-beam schemes proposed for e* linear colliders are plagued by plasma instabilities, in that “small initial bunch displacement errors lead to charge separation” [9, 10, 11}. Continued studies of the “charge separation” or “kink” instability confirmed that “a minute deviation from neu- trality is amplified as the like-charge beams repel each other” [11, 12, 13]. The offset of two co- propagating beams, 2A, grows by a factor Dou ., _€4 4D Boa or (er @ with Dz the disruption parameter (Sec.2.6.2.1). Although the implementation of precision matched beams is technically daunting, the potential benefits are such that the scheme is still pursued [11]. Indirect space charge compensation In storage rings, a relatively low energy beam with a matched shape profile intercepts the circulating beam once per turn, and is then discarded. A transverse secondary ¢~ beam was proposed for CESR at Cornell [14], and schemes using a comoving 10 keV e~ beam were proposed for the ‘SSC and the Tevatron [15, 16]. In linacs, a scheme hhas been proposed using the motion of plasma electrons to neutralize charge and current densities (17). A very large plasma density is required, introducing a large number of background beam- ion events. No indirect beam-beam compensation scheme has moved beyond the conceptual stage, to date, Betatron phase cancelation A single set of ‘beam-beam resonances may be eliminated by adjusting the phase advance between neighboring‘Sec.2,7: POLARIZATION IPs in a storage ring [18]. For example, if the phase advance between two IPs is Ag. = Ady = 2n(p/N + @) (,9,N integers, p odd), then all beam-beam resonances of order N’ are canceled. This scheme, which has not been tried in practice, relies on the collision points being clustered - not, smoothly distributed around the circumference. Other resonances, tune shifts, and tune spreads are left uncompensated. References [i] ¥K Batygin, T. Katayama, RIKEN-AF-AC-3, 197 [2] 1B. Augustin et al, p.113, Vol. 2, Proc. 7h Int, Conf, H. E. Acc. (1969) [3] G. Arzelia et al, Proc. 8th Int. Conf, High Energy ‘Ace, (1971) p.150 [4] H. Zyngier, AIP Proc. 57 (1979) p.136 [5] YaS. Derbenev, 3rd All Union Conf. on Acc. (4972); INP 70-72 (1972); SLAC TRANS 151 (1973) {6] E. Keil, Proc. 3rd ICFA Beam Dyn, Wkshp. (1989); CERN-LEP-TH/89-37 (1989) [7] Orsay SR Group, PAC 79, p.3559 18] R. Chehab et al, Proc, 11th Int. Cont, High Energy ‘Acc, (1980) [9] VE. Balakin, N.A. Solyak, Proc 13th Int. Conf. High Energy Acc. (1986) [10] N. Solyak, INP 88-44, Novosibirsk (1988) [11] D, Whittum, R. Siemann, PAC 97 [12] ¥. Chin, DESY 87-011 (1987) (13) J.B. Rosenzweig et al, Proc. Lake Arrowhead ‘Wecshp., AIP Press (1989) p.324 (14) R. Talman, unpublished (1976) [15] E. Tsyganov et al, SSCL-519, (1993); JINR-E9- 96-4, Dubna (1996) (16) ¥. Shiltsey, D. Finley, (4997) 117) D. Whittum et al, LBL-25759 (1988) {18} S. Poggs, Proc. Wkshp. on AP Issues for SSC, ‘UM HE 84-1 (1984) p58 FERMILAB-TM-2008 2.7. POLARIZATION 2.7.1 Thomas-BMT Equation T. Roser, BNL Precession of polarization vector P of a particle with mass m and charge Ze is given by [1]-[4] PL axe de a) 148 7 B is defined in the particle rest frame, H and 3 in the laboratory frame, B = B, + By, By = (@- Bae. In the frame rotating with J given by the Lorentz force equation and assume Ey = 0, a = Gxt A Ze P_Exd) aP Zz axe Zel ong . = ny GBs + (1+ G) By y_\Ex + (@ Fo 3) @ @ G = %? is the anomalous magnetic moment; 9 = 34 is the gyromagnetic ratio (Landau factor). e =e[tcevi | 221 fa] e 0.00115965 | 0. 1 0.680342 Hw 0,00116592 | 90.6220 0.00330816 p__[i7e2es [0523341 [0.572843 a 0.142562 13.1522 0.0227940_ SHe | 4.19144 0.669910 0.895023 SH | 7.93689 0.353779 0.847401 Note: @) In the rest frame, No = - 38 B = -36, (1+ @) B. Gi) For By = 0 and By = ory > 1, one has 2/9 = Gy, This is the spin tune in this special case. ii) The “magic” energy for which & is independent of Bis given by y = 1+ 3. References [1] B.W. Montague, Phys. Rep. 113 (1984) 1 (2] LH. Thomas, Phil. Mag. 3 (1927) 1 (B} V. Bargmann, L. Michel, V.L. Telegdi, PRL 2 (1959) 435 4] S.¥. Lee, Spin Dynamics and Snakes in Syn- chrotrons, World Scientific (1997)2.7.2 Spinor Algebra T Roser, BNL The coordinate frame is specified by the indices: (1,2,3) = (radial outward, longitudinal forward, vertical up) = (2, 8, ). The Pauli matrices 4 = (01,0203) “(23H <1.04p 202 = ogo3 =I o101 o301 tr(oi) = 0, @-@ (9-8) = (@-8) +12. (ax) ‘The normalized vector P has the spinor representation Ba ylay eee (al + emg AL] © ‘Thomas-BMT equation can be written in the spinor or unitary representation, a 79% B = &. (2-fi)v © or i m2) “CA --£1(-8), 0-8) Solution for constant & (Axis fi, |] Vv) =M(Awt)d(0), or M (4-8 ®) = M@ut) (#- FO) Mt wt) where the rotation operation M (angle y = wt around axis fi) is Mi) =u)is exp [+ (4-A) 4] @) cos (2) ~i(a-A)sin (8) Conversely, given the rotation operator M, the rotation angle and axis can be found by the inverse operation, a “6 2 ® “3 a () ) = ptr(M) item) (10) 149 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS The net spin rotation for one tun is given by the one-turn matrix Mo 0(0), Mo(8)=Mn---MzM; (11) where 0 is the starting oy ending) azimuth. The spin tune Yep and the spin closed orbit fig (also called fig axis or stable spin direction) are 1 5tt (Mo (6)) independent of 8 Ft (@Mo (0) £08 (rsp) a2) if2 ain (tm) 2.7.3 Spin Rotators and Siberian Snakes T. Roser, BNL fio (6) (13) “Spin Rotators” are devices which rotate P, pre- ferrably without changing @. Examples of Spin Rotators: 1, Wien Filter: Transverse Hz and By with condition £32 = 17° H, the spin rotation is described by _ Ze(i+G) e = Aner Bats Mwnn = cos2—iosin$ (1) 2. Solenoid: no Ze(1+0) - a J P1as Monod = cos£—iopsin® (2) Example: y = 90° and p = 1 GeV/c requires f Byds = 1.88 T-m for protons and J Byds = 5.23 T-m for electrons. 3. Dipole: ZeG = Top | Bets Mpipoe = cos$—iossin$ — @) Example: y quires { Byds ‘J Byds = 2.31 Tom for electrons. 4, Full twist helical dipole with B (s)=Bo (sin 2%, 0, cos 254), A>s>0: g= x [Vivid - 1] M = cos$-i(or+yos)sin$ @) ZeG Bod x= (+g) eaeSec.2.7: POLARIZATION 5. A “Full Siberian Snake” rotates P by 180° (e = 7) around an axis in the horizontal plane with angle o from # (Snake axis angle) [1]: Mgnake = i(o1cosa+ogsina) (5) Note: @ MpipoleMsnakeMbipote = Msnake- i) Type 1 snake: snake axis is longitudinal (a = 90°) (iii) Type 2 snake: snake axis is radial (a = 0°) References [1] Ya. Derbenev, A.M. Kondratenko, PA 8 (1978) us 2.74 Ring with Spin Rotators and Siberian ‘Snakes T. Roser, BNL 1, In an ideal ring without spin rotators or Siberian snakes, the one-turn spin rotation matrix is Mo (6) = exp (—iosmGy) Note: In this case, Usp = Gy. @ 2, Ring with solenoid (partial type 1 Siberian snake) at 0 = 0 [1]: Mo(8) = cos $cos (G7) ioxsin Sain ((n- 9) Gy) ia sin $ cos ((n ~ 8) Gr) @ ig cos $ sin (x7) Note: cos(7t¥sp) = cos $ cos (wG). 3. Ring with full Siberian snake with axis angle axat Mo (8) ilo, cos(a — (n — 0)Gy) + agsin(a—(x-8)G%)] @) Note: Yep = } for all 8. At the location 6 = 7, the stable spin direction is fio = cos a+ §sina. In particular, with a type 1 snake (a = 90°) at 8 = 0, fio(@ = x) = 3, i.e. the beam polarization is longitudinal. Ring with two full Siberian snakes with axis angles c% and cx at Ba and 65 : Mo (0) = —exp(—iaax) X = Op — Ga + (7 — Oy + Oa)Gy ‘Mg is energy independent for 8 — then rp = + (ay — aa). @ 150 5, Ring with N pairs of full Siberian snakes with axis angles of, and of at 6% and 6: Mo(@) = (~)" exp(-iosx) $5 (chat) it x + F-3(4-#)] or ei energy independent for m3 then Yep co} x Note: Mo Deen (6% — 65) FEE (af - 08). References [1] T, Roses, Proc. Workshop on Siberian Snakes and Depolarizing Techniques (1989) p.1442 2.78 Depolarizing Resonances and Spin Flippers T. Roser, BNL Thomas-BMT equation with azimuthal coordinate 9 as independent variable and the fields expressed in terms of the particle coordinates: q@ -i[a+eny-oa+e(4)] where pis the bending radius, Resonance strength is (1) x= - f fexp(-iK6)d9 2) The case K = kP + vy gives intrinsic resonance driven by vertical betatron motion; P is the super periodicity. The case K = k gives imperfection resonance driven by vertical closed orbit distortions, For an isolated resonance, € = ex exp (iK8). Ina frame rotating around 9 with tune K, wx = exp (5x00) » We __i[Gy-K -ex ] dw ~ ~3| ~& K-Gy\¥« ©) Under adiabatic conditions, ne (Gy-K) @) V(Gy- K} + lexl?Passage through an isolated resonance is described by the Froissart-Stora Equation (2), re ( with a = “G2 (crossing speed). Fast passage — Pano © Fitiat- Slow passage + Pinal —Prattiat — spin flip. Artificial resonance from local oscillating field (w = applied frequency, wp = revolution frequency): @) 2a By = Bycos(wt) G46) [Pde eng 4 6 An ip wo By = By cos(ut) i (14+Gy)SBids 9 w K = Eg Kant So Spin flip by ramping artificial resonance through resonance condition with speed a: = Kena = Ketart = nN @) where N is number of tums during ramp. For more than 99% spin flip: 1 Kena — Ketart 2 l4ex 5 €x 2 Toon @) In a ring with Snakes (Ysp = 4) additional higher order ‘Snake’ resonances [3] occur at ener- ies close to intrinsic resonances of the ring with- ‘out Snakes when the fractional vertical betatron tune 2k-1 wey 10) With vertical closed orbit distortions Snake resonances also occur when Ay = Ay = 2k a) 2(2ly References [1] ED. Courant, R. Ruth, BNL-51270 (1980) [2] M. Froissart, R. Stora, NIM 7 (1960) 297 [3] S.¥. Lee, 8. Tepikian, PRL 56 (1986) 1635, 2.7.6 Polarized Proton Beams and Siberian Snakes AD. Krisch, U. Michigan In 1973, the first polarized proton beam was successfully accelerated in the Argonne ZGS. The 151 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS depolarizing resonances were not too strong in the weak focusing ZGS; thus it only required care- fal orbit control and fast betatron tune jumps to maintain the polarization while crossing the resonances [1]. Figure 1: The complex individual depolarizing resonance correction hardware installed in the AGS [2]. In 1984, polarized protons were first accelerated at the Brookhaven AGS, Maintaining the polarization was much more difficult, because the strong-focusing AGS has strong depolarizing resonances, As shown in Fig.1, the AGS required complex hardware modifications for this difficult job. Moreover, 45 resonances needed to be corrected individually to maintain the polarization up to 22 GeV. A typical AGS resonance correction curve is shown in Fig.2 [2]. The polarized beam tune-up required 7 weeks of dedicated AGS operation. Clearly this individual resonance correction technique was impractical for a much higher energy, since the number of imperfection resonances to be crossed is E / (0.52 GeV). Thus, it became clear [3] that Siberian snakes [4] (Sec.2.7.3-4) were needed to accelerate polarized protons above 30 GeV. Many Siberian snake experiments have been performed at the 500-MeV IUCF Cooler Ring. ‘The snake was a 2 T-m superconducting solenoid installed in a 6-m straight section, as shown inot ores whee o 4 bo ravaneto | ° a : 1 1 ae 10 0.05 oO 0.05 tthe tt Spares Figure 2: Individually correcting the Gy = 9 imperfection resonance at the AGS [2]. Figure 3: The Siberian snake and the depolarizing resonance study hardware installed in the IUCF Cooler Ring [5, 6, 71. Fig.3. Fig4 shows the experimental result for crossing the Gy = 2 imperfection resonance with and without the snake, Without the snake, full polarization was achived only when the imperfection magnetic fields were exactly corrected; any small imperfection field destroyed the polarization, With the snake, full polarization was maintained over the entire range of imperfection fields [5]. Fig.5 shows that the snake can also overcome intrinsic depolarizing resonances [6]. Other Siberian snake related experiments performed in- 152 feng Figure 4: Siberian snake overcoming the Gy = 2im- perfection resonance at IUCF [4]. al Ly Stabe & zg T et B woh 7 Tn, E | sed oe oe 1 ! \ zeke Btn yy Figure 5: Siberian snake overcoming the Gy = 3+ 1% intrinsic resonance at IUCF [6]. cluded: rf depolarizing resonances, which can calibrate the beam energy or fiip the spin direction; synchrotron sideband resonances; partial Siberian snakes; and snake depolarzing resonances [7]. ‘Another experiment was done using a warm solenoidal partial Siberian snake at the AGS. The result of it overcoming the 40 imperfection resonances is shown in Fig.6 [8]. Proposals exist for accelerating polarized protons at Fermilab (6 Siberian snakes in the Teva- tron and 2 snakes in the 120-GeV Main Injector) [9] and in the 820-GeV HERA proton ring [10]. Construction is progressing to install 2 Siberian snakes in each RHIC ring, which will use polarized protons injected from the AGS, The AGS-Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS [5] AD, Krisch et al, PRL 63 (1989) 1137 [6] J.B. Goodwin etal, PRL 64 (1990) 2779 {7] R.A. Phelps et al, PRL 78 (1997) 2772 [8] H. Huang et al, PRL 73 (1994) 2982 [9] SPIN Colaboration, U. Michigan Report UM HE 95-09 (1995) [10] SPIN Colaboration, U. Michigan Report UM HE 96-20 (1996) [11] T.Roser, PAC 95 2.7.7 Radiative Polarization in Electron Stor- age Rings D.P. Barber, G. Ripken, DESY Sokolov-Ternov effect [1] Relativistic clec- ‘tons in a storage ring emit synchrotron radiation (Sec.3.1). A very small fraction of the radiated photons cause spin flip. For electron spins aligned along a uniform magnetic field, the T| and |f flip rates differ and this leads to a build-up of spin polarization antiparallel to the field, Positrons be- ‘come polarized parallel to the field. The transition Figure 6: Partial Siberian snake overcoming imperfection resonances at AGS [8). Polarized Proton Collisions ai BNL tates for electrons are 5V3_ ehh 8 wa = Stace (+) 5v3_ eh ( 8 ) \ Wy = ~~ (1--3) «a Peat i= Temes Uva) © lf For positrons, interchange plus and minus signs here and elsewhere. The equilibrium polarization in a uniform magnetic field is independent of 77, pee idee Wi eo posas1 Oy WutM 5V8 For a beam with zero initial polarization, the time. dependence for build-up to equilibrium is ‘sue on a Fete P(t) = Pa[l—exp(-t/m)] — @) ise where the build-up rate is ewan" ae a ath =e mae oS ‘Figure 7; Polarized proton scheme at AGS-RHIC [11]. or miey Fe RHIC polarized proton scheme is shown in Fig.7 o 99 Cim|pim? fi). 79 depends strongly on -y and p but is typically minutes or hours. When p = p(s), just average References Eq.(4) over the circumference C. [1] TL. Khoe et al, PA 6 (1975) 213 (2] FZ, Khiarl et al, PRD 39 (1989) 45 {3] AIP Proc. 145 (1986) [4] Ya.S. Derbenev, A.M. Kondratenko, PA 8, 115 (1978) 153 Baier-Katkov flip rate For electron spins initially aligned along an arbitrary unit vector é the ‘generalization of Eq.(1) is [2] = f2@-ara Bed weal af +r Reb ©Sec.2,7: POLARIZATION where § = direction of motion and 6 = (3 x 3)/\8|. bis the magnetic field direction if the electric field vanishes and the motion is perpendicular to the magnetic field. The corresponding instantaneous rate of build-up of polarization along & is. reat f-2E-97] @ Thomas-BMT equation Neglecting radiative spin flip, the motion of the CM spin expectation value € of a relativistic charged particle traveling in EM fields is governed by the Thomas-BMT equation dé/dt = 1 x € (Sec.2.7.1). We write Ha Get 4 ger +o ®) where (is due to design fields on the design orbit and Gr + JIP(= J") is due to fields ‘on the closed orbit whereby J? is due to field imperfections and corrections. °° is due to synchrotron and/or betatron motion with respect to the closed orbit. On the closed orbit the T-BMT equation Se =O xe 6) can be solved in the form &s) = REs(s,s0)E(s0) 10) where R&%q is a rotation matrix. The real unit eigenvector (rot. axis) for the one turn matrix RE.4(8 + C, 8), denoted by fig(s), is the periodic spin solution on the closed orbit. For a perfectly aligned flat ring with no solenoids, fio(s) = +9. The one tum matrix has a complex conjugate pair of eigenvalues e*"', Given ftp, we introduce a pair of unit vectors (thio, io) such that fig X tho = foy by x fto = tho, fulfill Eq.(9), and obey tito(80 + C) + ifo(s0 + C) fre [rio(s0) + éla(so)] 1) ‘The (rio, ip) are usually not periodic in s. But by applying a further rotation by an angle p(s) around fig we can construct the-vectors (rit, [), th(s) + ti(s) = eo) [rto(s) + ilo(s)] (a2) By choosing Yxp(3 + C) — Yp(8) = 27p, the set (fo, 2) is then periodic in s with period C. The vectors (ri, f) are needed in Sec 2.7.8. 154 The closed orbit spin tune Usp is the number of spin precessions per turn around fig. For a perfectly aligned flat ring without solenoids Yep ay, where a = (g ~ 2)/2 (see Sec.2.7.1)? Only the fractional part of the spin tune can be extracted from the numerical values of the eigenvalues e*2""», For the definition of spin tune away from the closed orbit see [3]. Baier-Katkov-Strakhovenko (BKS) equation Neglecting the effect of stochastic (synchrotron radiation) photon emission on the orbit and imag- ining that all particles remain on the closed orbit the equation of motion for electron polarization is, 4,5] ap dt 9° x B (13) 1 p_ 2a 85 wey P-a8P 9+ 5H] In the case of horizontal motion in a vertical magnetic field, we have & = (ac/p)9, and 6(s) = 9. By integrating the BKS equation, one finds the generalized Sokolov-Ternov formula for the asymptotic electron polarization in arbitrary magnetic fields along the closed orbit, : § dota ars 5v3'° $dsl=HO 7 See [6] for a compilation of time scales. Usu- ally, in rings containing dipole spin rotators (Secs.2.7.3, 2.7.4) the polarization |Fys| cannot reach 0.9238 [30]. The BKS polarization build-up rate is -1_ 5V3en1 [1-3 (to-3)'] Toa 3 mg? C To . as) in accord with Eq.(7) by replacing € — fio and averaging. Radiative depolarization The stochastic element of photon emission together with damping determines the equilibrium phase space density distribution, The same photon emission also imparts a stochastic element to J and then, via the ‘T-BMT equation, spin diffusion (and thus depolarization) can occur [8]. The polarization is the result of a balance between the Sokolov-Ternov effect and this radiative depolarization. In the approximation that the orbital motion is linear, the Peis 4) fn this and the next sections, we use the symbol "a” instead of “G” as inthe rest ofthe Handbook.value of the polarization is essentially the same at each point in phase space and azimuth and the polarization is aligned along the Derbenev- Kondratenko vector fi [9]. ‘The unit vector field f depends on s and i = (@,Pe,¥sPy2,6). A(i;8) satisfies the T- BMT equation at (i; s) and is periodic: f(a; s) A(d;s-+C). On the closed orbit fi(d;s) reduces to fio(s). Derbenev-Kondratenko-Mane formula Tak- ing into account radiative depolarization due to photon-induced longitudinal recoils, the equilibrium electron polarization along the fi field is (9,7, 3] Pax = aax $ ds (payxb- A )), 3 fs yp - 10-3? +# (88) ) where ( ), denotes an average over phase space at azimuth s. This formula differs from Eq.(14) by the inclusion of the terms with 3 and use of ft instead of fig. The ensemble average of the polarization is (16) Peraae(8) = Pa (A) an and (fi), is very nearly aligned along fto(s) (see the angle estimate below). The value of the ensemble average, Pane,ax(8), is essentially independent of s. The effect of transverse recoil can also be included but contributes derivative terms analogous to 3% which are typically a factor -y smaller than 98 and can be neglected unless $4 is very small (11, 12). If 9 were to vanish, a Pax of 99.2 % ‘could be reached (11, 12, 3]. In the presence of radiative depolarization Eq.(15) becomes 2, ra at as) : fa(t=ie 2+ (8) TOF / This can be written in the form 2.4,4 ag) Tak ‘Tat = Tdep where 7,2! can be (very well) approximated by Toe in (15) and é . a (9a)? mz v3 eo e «(AG . (20) Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS. The time dependence for build-up from an initial polarization Po to equilibrium is P(t) = Paagax [1 — e°1/"4] + Per!" (21) This formula can be used to calibrate polarimeters (See Eqs.(21) and (22), Sec.2.7.8) [35]. However, the calibration will be imprecise if $4 in the numerator of Eq.(16) is not well enough known, For examples of build-up curves see [30]. Resonances Away from the spin-orbit resonances (see also Eq.(11), Sec.2.7.8) Yop = + Reve + kydy+hevz (22) A(t; 8) * fig(s). But near resonances fi(i; s) de- viates from fig(s) by typically tens of milliradians at a few tens of GeV and the deviation increases with distance in phase space from the closed orbit. The spin orbit coupling function 3%, which quan- tifies the depolarization, can then be large and the equilibrium polarization can then be small. Note that even very close to resonances, |{ii),| = 1: the ensemble average polarization is mainly influenced by the value of Pay in Eq.(16). To get high polarization, one must have (2/86) < 1 in dipole magnets. The machine optimization required to make 9% small is called spin matching (Sec.2.7.8). Asymmetric wigglers If 75,2 is very low be- ccause the energy is low and/or the average curvature is small the polarization rate can be enhanced (see Eq.(15)) by installing a string of dipoles in which short dipoles with high fields are interleaved with long dipoles with low fields of opposite polarity while ensuring that the field integral of the string vanishes. For more details, and discussion of advantages and disadvantages see [6]. A particular potential disadvantage is that the enhanced radiation loss can require that extra rf power be installed and that the energy spread increases so that the depolarization rate increases owing to stronger synchrotron sideband resonances (Sec.2.7.8), Kinetic polarization |The (numerator) term linear in 3 in Eq.(16) is due to a correlation between the spin orientation and the radiation power {6]. In rings where fig is horizontal due, say, to the presence of a solenoid Siberian Snake (Secs.2.7.3, 2.7.4) [6], 3% has a vertical component in the dipole fields. This can lead to a build-up of polarization (“kinetic polarization”) even though the Pure Sokolov-Ternov effect vanishes. The rate is Tal 155Sec.2.7: POLARIZATION Phase space and polarization evolution equations If the orbital phase space density obeys an equation of the Fokker-Planck type (Sec.2.5.4) ey 3) os where Cyp is the orbital Fokker—Planck operator, then the spin diffusion is described by the “Bloch” equation F bgp BHA KB 4 where & = G/(ds/dt) and P is the “polarization density” = 2/fx (density in phase space of spin angular momentum) (15, 16]. To include the Sokolov—Temnov effect see [17]. Beam energy calibration A polarized electron beam can be depolarized by applying a weak oscillating magnetic field perpendicular to fio with a frequency f,¢ related to the fractional part of the spin tune Psp by [18] Set = foe ot fer = foll—Pap) (25) Thus the required fer gives an accurate measurement of Zap and this gives high relative precision knowledge of Ysp. By relating Yap to the average energy of each beam, high precision measurements of the CM energy of colliding ete~ beams and of the masses of vector mesons such as the ‘T's and the Z can be obtained [19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. Other beam parameters can also be measured [17]. The polarization need not be large for these measurements so that by Eq.(21) the depolarization can be repeated at intervals of about Tax. Notes For an overview of measurements see 125, 30, 26]. For an overview of the theoretical background see [3]. References [1] A.A. Sokolov, LM, Temov, Sov. Phys. Dokl. 8 No.12 (1964) 1203 [21 VN. Baler, VIM. Katkov, Sov. Phys. JETP, 25 (1967) 944 (3) Articles by D.P. Barber (with and without co- authors), in Proc. ICFA workshop on Quantum. Aspects of Beam Physics, Monterey, World Sci- entific (1998); also as DESY 98-96 and LANL archive [4] VN. Baier, VIM. Katkov, VM. Strakhovenko, Sov, Phys. JETP. 31 (1970) 908 (5) E. Storck, Z, Naturforsch, 23a (1968) 1914 [6] B. Montague, Physics Reports 113 (1984) [7] DB. Barber et al, Phys, Lett. 343B (1995) 436 156 [8] VIN. Baier, Yu. Orlov, Sov. Phys. Doki. 10 (1966) 1145 {9} Ya, Detbeney, AM. Kondratenko, Sov. Phys. JETP. 37 (1973) 968 [10] SR. Mane, PRA 36 (1987) 105 [11] DP. Barber, S.R. Mane, PRA 37 (1988) 456 (12) LIN. Hand, A. Skuja, PRL 59 (1987) 1910 [13] D.P. Barber et al, NIM A338 (1994) 166 [14] C.W., de Jager, V. Puitsin, Yu.M, Shatunov, Proc. 12th Int. Symp. High Energy Spin Physics, ‘World Scientific (1997) (15) K. Heinemann, DESY Report 97-166 (1997) and [Los Alamos archive: physics/9709025 [16] K. Heinemann, DP. Barber, talk at Frascati, May 1998. To be published in Nuovo Cimento A. [17] Ya.S. Derbenev, A.M. Kondratenko, Sov. Phys. Dok, 19 (1975) 438 [18] Kh.A. Simonian, YwF. Orlov, Sov, Phys. JETP, 18 (1964) 123, [19] YuM. Shatunov, A.N. Skrinsky, Particle World 1 (1989) 35 [20] R. Assmann et al, Z. £, Physik C66 (1995) 567 [21] M. Placidi et al, EPAC98 [22] DLP. Barber et al, PL B135 (1984) 498 [23] W.W. MacKay et al, PR D29 (1984) 2483 [24] DP. Barber, in “Electroweak Effects at High En- cexgies”, Ed, H.B. Newman, Plenum Press (1985) 399 (25) DP. Barber, Proc. 12th Int, Symp. High Energy Spin Physics, loc.ct, [26] YuM. Shatunov, PA 32 (1990) 139 2.78 Computer Algorithms and Spin Match- ing D.P. Barber, G. Ripken, DESY There are two classes of computer algorithm for estimating the equilibrium polarization in real rings: @) Methods based on evaluating $3 in the Derbenev-Kondratenko-Mane (DKM) formula (Eq.(16) of Sec.2.7.7) given the ring layout and magnet strengths; and i) The SITROS [1] algorithm which estimates Téep (Sec.2.7.7) using Monte-Carlo tracking. ‘The class (i) algorithms are further divided according to the degree of linearization of the spin and orbital motion: (ia) The SLIM family (SLIM (2, 3], SLICK 14), SITF [1}) and SOM [5] and ASPIRRIN [6]. The latter two utilize the “betatron-dispersion” formalism outlined below and all are based on a linearization of the orbital and spin motion,(ib) SMILE [7]: Linearized orbital motion but nonlinear spin motion; (ic) SODOM [8]: Linearized orbital motion but nonlinear spin motion; (id) SpinLie: Nonlinear orbital motion and nonlinear spin motion (Sec.2.7.9); and (if) SPRINT [9]: Linearized orbital motion but nonlinear spin motion, The linear approximation - SLIM We now present expressions for 3 in an approximation in ‘hich the orbit and spin motion are linearized and in which @> (Sec.2.7.7) is linearized as in Eq.(2) below (the SLIM formalism). In linear approximation we write (see Sec.2.7.7) Ai(i; 8) = fto(s) +a(d; s)rn(s)+ (a; s)f(s) (1) valid for a + 6? < 1 and we write the components w®, ws, wéP in the form (10, 11] 2 3 : uw | =Faxe| Y ® e a 6 where 7 = (2,P2,¥sPy, 2,6) describes motion with respect to the closed orbit. In particular Ps = 2 and py = y/ (except in solenoids). The detailed forms of the matrix Fsxo for bending magnets, quadrupoles, skew quadrupoles, solenoids and rf cavities can be found in [11, 12], The orbit motion in sextupoles is linearized, For example for a quadrupole, defining § (1+.a7) 9 where 9 = £9 one has 000000 F(s) oo0g000| @) g00000 In linear approximation the combined orbit and spin motion is described by 8 x 8 transport matrices of the form Moxe Osx2 Goxe Daxa acting on the vector (i, a, ), where Mgxe is a symplectic matrix describing orbital motion and Gaxo describes the coupling of the spin variables (cz, 8) to the orbit and depends on rin(s) and {(s) (see e.g. Eq.(14)). Daxz is a rotation matrix associated with the spin basis rotation of Eq.(12) in Sec.2.1.7 (10, 11]. M= @ 157 Ch.2; BEAM DYNAMICS The eigenvectors for one tum defined by M(50 + C80) «Gu = Aw dy are written in the form do) = | FAS} |, lon) = oo)” fork =I, II, III, elo) = [B00 |, aloe) = oo)” fork=IV © for arbitrary 99. The %, are the eigenvectors for orbital motion with eigenvalues x = e~#2mVe and with v_, = vy (k = I, II, IID), These eigenvectors obey the orthogonality relations, and are properly normalized [2]. The corresponding eigenvalues of M(s9 + C, 89) are Ay = Ax (k = I, HW, HD) and \y = ev with vy = Yep and with Y_jy = —Ypy. The spin parts of the eigenvectors *y(s0) (k = 1, IE, 11) and Dy, (80) can be written as Taso) = —[D(s0+C, 50) ~ Se] x G50 + ©, 50)i%(s0) fork =I, II, III ) apt = Aa[ 3, Jers fork =1V and WK (80) = [We (s0)]” (4 = I, IT, THI, IV) In this linear approximation (i; 8) can be obtained via [13, 14, 11] alits) —fols) = | 29) ] Ata) Fa) = | et} {Agi (s) + A-nD_x(8)} a where the amplitudes A, are determined by the orbit via w= ¥ wefhstt Then with respect to the (to, rh, f) frame, oh 7 6 DL (vist — vaste} weit Im > keh Note that this is independent of the phase space vector @ and that $3 is periodic in azimuth in {Avdi(s) + A-ad-a(s)} @) vise ®Sec.2.7; POLARIZATION the machine coordinate system, In this approximation the depolarization time is then (Eq.(20), See.2.7.7) B5V5eyh 1 peto 1 Toon = 3g mae Chey “TOE a a x & (= > cm) BS nr 0) This is the formula used in SLIM to calcu- Jate the depolarization rate, SLIM is based on thin lens optics. SLIM-like programs for thick lens optics are SLICK and SITF. In this linearized theory the vectors fi(d; 8) and $8 display only first order resonance behaviour, namely the resonances Mp =k kr t+ kv + kin (1) with |kz| +|krr|+|kzrr| = 1. They arise from the denominator matrix in Eq.(6). The theory is not valid beyond the limit /o? + B® « 1. Ina fully uncoupled optic I + «, II + y and IIT — z. This formalismn forms the natural language for the method of maximizing the polarization called “spin matching”. Thus comments on the other programs will be postponed until later. Spin matching in the SLIM formalism In practice the spin matching of real rings takes place in stages as follows. Stage 1: Strong synchrobeta spin matching of the perfectly aligned ring From Sec.2.7.7 it is clear that to maximize the polarization we must minimize 73,3. Then by Eq.(10) we need to minimize vj, (k = I, II, IID) ot the components of 1, at azimuths where 1/|p(s)|° is large. The vgs determine the orbit excitation due to synchrotron radiation (Sec.3.1.4) [15]. In particular, for rings without -y coupling, v?,, usually vanishes in the arcs since the vertical dispersion 7,, = 0. However, v*,, does not vanish inside spin rotators (Secs.2.7.3, 2.7.4) containing vertical bends. On the other hand vs, tends not to vanish in the arcs since the horizontal dispersion 7, # 0. Finally, Ufrys essentially never vanishes. Each case must be evaluated individually but the minimal recipe is to try to minimize w, for (k = I, I, IID, only at azimuths where |v,,(s)|?/|p(s)|° is sufficiently large. This in turn requires (Eq.(6)) that G(s + C, 8) - de(s) for (k = I, II, IID be minimized. This must be achieved by designing 158 the ring layout with this in mind and then providing sufficient flexibility in the optics by providing enough independently powered quadrupoles. Subsequent calculations with SLIM will indicate whether the match criteria for the adopted design suffice. Consider, for example, a specific mode k. Label those bending magnets at which |,,(s)|?/|0(s)|>_ is large by pa, ya, wy ny). ‘Then the suppression of depolarization associated with the kth mode requires that t,(s,,) = 0 for all (i = 1 to ing). In general (see Eq.(6)) this in turn requires [16] G(Spa 81) Te(S,) = 0 GSpa» S42) Fe(Si2) = 0 GC (Su, +, 84n) Te(Sun) = 0 (12) where we suppressed the label “k”, To fulfill Eq.(12) we then require the Gij(Sus15 Sux) 10 vanish when the jth component of , does not vanish. The matrix G can be written in the form (en, a) = fds Dlr, 3) DME, 1) where ee 8 wn[t a a}? om Thus Gis(5y,15 $1.) depends on the orientation of (1h, 2) so that in some cases some elements of Gj (S,141» 84) Vanish automatically, But in general these conditions can only be fulfilled by adjusting quadrupole strengths ~ while maintaining other necessary features of the orbital optics. We call this strong synchrobeta spin matching. A section of the ring satisfying a condition in Eq.(12) is, spin transparent for mode k. The interpretation is immediate: the overall spin-orbit coupling for the section vanishes for mode k. Clearly, the exact spin matching conditions are very dependent on the layout of a machine and each case must be handled individually. In thin lens approximation. the G matrix for a quadrupole of length /g is _ [dy 0 -ie 000 os lee 0 +gm: 0 0 cll a4) where G = (1+ a7) 9lq. The thin and thick lens forms of G for other magnet types are given in (2,3, 17]. If the Gij(9u441, 9) cannot be brought to zer0 while maintaining an acceptable optic, thenthe G(s, +C, 8,,)Te(8,,) themselves should be minimized. This essentially means that the effects of elements of the G matrices of sections of the ring are made to pattially cancel one another. The spin matching of a ring with a solenoid Siberian Snake (Secs.2.7.3, 2.7.4) has provided an example of this [6]. By Eq.(7) reduction of G(s +O, 8)d_(s) for (k = I, II, IID also reduces the angle between ft and fig at azimuth s. Alternative Stage 1: Harmonic synchrobeta spin snaiching ofthe perecly aligned ting of the perfectly aligned ring Tf the strong spin matching methods are impractical for some reason, another approach aimed at minimizing the strengths of depolarizing resonances can be adopted. Rewrite Eq.(6) as, [was (0) wea(3o)) e2¥¥en(0040) =m [8 dag? er ntneral¥/0 — ea] = tila /C—vep(@)] x [Iatim, letim, lytimy] x. Fa(s)etornsle = P+) = : = FF dPetamic ie @ = 2 [F dactinten ri Certvntd lo x [lakimy lekime lyimy ]xFie(3) so that [wis (80) Fé wea (s0)] = ae ES ger ttalrntvnpleo/o je ‘e ze [MtVep — P] The condition that w,(s,,) = 0 for all (¢ = 1 to nx) is now be replaced by [ter (Sus) FH wea u,)] = eMC) $00 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Near to the resonance vp + Yap — 5 = 0 the sum over p is dominated by the term containing c&}), This corresponds to the spins’ seeing a stationary field in the (fto, tio, fo) frame, proportional to cf, which rotates spins away from fio. Note that o(¥) is independent of 3,,. ‘Approximate spin matching can be achieved for all s,, by adjusting the optics so that an appropriate set of the c\Z) are small, This is called harmonic synchrobeta spin matching. See also [16, 18]. For mode k and orbit amplitudes Ax and A_;, the strengths of the resonances are proportional to Ayo; and A_xc;5. The concept of resonance strength is important for the acceleration of polarized protons (Sec.2,7.5). Normally only the case of flat rings is considered so that fio is vertical, The formalism presented here shows how to define resonance strength for arbitrary ori- tations of fig, See also [19, 20]. On resonance with e!2*1%2%m-P]/C = 1, the coctticients ¢&? take the form 1 éf © age-i¥u(3) OD = x[letim, le+ime by + immy ] TAO for Ve + Yop = W 2 5 jeter (8) B= s af” die x[le—ims le—ime ly—imy ] “FiR(3) for ve— Yep = BG (15) These can be obtained from the SLIM algorithm by calculating the matrix G at the resonance for one turn but without the backward spin basis rotation (Eq.(12), Sec.2.7.7) that, in SLIM, is applied at the end of one turn [12]. ‘Reformulation in terms of beta functions and dispersion [21] “We can reformulate Stage 1 by making a transformation of the particle coordinates from ©, Pes Y>Pys 2,6) 10 Ht = (8,82, I,By» 2, 6) via the transformation a=ki where 1 0 0 0 0.-m 0 1 0 O 0 —p 0 0 1 0 0 -m% Ks) 0 0 0 1 0 -m ™ —-m ™ —™m 1 0 00 0 001 159Sec.2.7: POLARIZATION whereby the dispersion vector ff = (m, Ta, Ms, 14) is the periodic solution of the linearized equations of motion for (2, Pz, ¥ Py) with § = 1 and without the rf cavities. Then B=a-6m, G=y-im ‘The matrix K is symplectic so that the formalism remains canonical. In particular, the new transfer matrices M and eigenvectors @,, are obtained via M(s2,81) = K(s2)M(s2,81)K~*(s1) and M(s+C,s) = K(s)M(s+C,s)K-*(s) = 4,(s) K(s) d,(s) so that the eigenvalues and orthogonality conditions are unchanged [12]. Furthermore the new matrices F and G are F(s) = F(s)K~1(s) and G(s2, $1) = G(s2, 81)K-*(s1). ‘The depolarization rate then takes the form a1 _ BbVBeA1 pete Teepe 36 me CI, TOF ; 2 x & (= Ly (a(n) fe nici with fe = Dh [K~'ondf, = vfs and the = ‘Wy. This formulation has the advantage that in the special case, or the approximation, of no orbital coupling, the 6 x 6 orbit matrices just consist of three 2 x 2 matrices on the diagonal. The eigenvectors #,(s) of the revolution matrix are then written in the form ee eal o a= ,in= bur = | 6: oy é nT Zz MIT 2 z-—1 ,(8) #48) © = Sap lea = 2,y,z) and the fy are given by fr = fr —Gnm - tom) ifr = fy = -Giem - Sram) and frri(s) = fe = VHe-H, The functions fy and fry are closely related to the quantity me? + (anne + Bath)? Br in (22. frrr is in practice almost independent of 3 (Gee below). Note that these ’s and ('s are Courant-Snyder parameters and should not be =1,1) 160 confused with the quantities in Eq,(1), With these coordinates the ¥ matrix for a quadrupole takes the form . 00000 0 Fe= 00 9 0 0 gms g§ 0000 gm ‘We can write = wat ‘Bx(s0) = [D(s0+C, 50) — Aa] x G(s0+C, 80)éx(s0) for (k = I, II, ITD) and we use a representation of the G matrix in the form Glen, 2) = f” a D(o0, 5) Gol) AG, 51) ns with =| In thin lens approximation the G matrix for a quadrupole is te —m, Gé- [7h 9-H 00m +amy 0 +4mz 0 0 K2 where 1 = —Glym ~ GleMs and Ka = +Gmym + Gmzns. We see that as a result of separating the transverse coordinates into betatron and dispersion contributions, columns six of F and G contain terms depending on dispersions. The strong spin matching condition i, = 0 for suppressing depolarization now amounts to setting the G(su..15 $4) 5e(8,,) to zero in analogy with Eq.(12). Then in the special case, or approximation, of a fully uncoupled optic and by taking into account only the depolarizing influ- cence of quadrupoles this is equivalent to requiring (23,24: For horizontal motion: — Cee [as foo x [ly(5) £ imy (3) ] eFC (16) For vertical motion: a oem A H+ as, [Bgl set x [Le(8) + a JeF¥o®@ = 0 an For longitudinal motion: Gan 1 pts gclas(@) +4) “VEC Say, VEG xg(s)e™ {ny [lo(8) & ime(8)] tne (ly(3) + im,(3)]}eF™) =0 (18)Since in practice synchrotron motion is well approximated by simple harmonic motion (25), 6,(8) is almost independent of s and a(s) ~ 0, ‘Then Eq.(18) may be approximated by _Gtay i 1 pus V2 VEC Joy, x eF ml fy, [1e(8) £imz(3)] +ally(8) £4my(A)}} =O 9) Harmonic synchrobeta spin matching in terms of beta functions and dispersion follows the path detailed earlier under “Alternative Stage 1” but with the eigenvectors %, and the matrices F. ‘Typical expressions can be found in [24], Commentary ~~ Spin matching should be carried out using thick lenses so that the optic is correct. Strong spin matching by minimizing the integrals in Eqs.(16-18) requires explicit integration. Further- more Eqs.(16-18) must be modified if there is significant orbital coupling. Thus in practice the numerical fitting involved in strong spin matching can be cartied out most simply by minimizing the Gij(Si41» #12) Since these already represent integrals and do not need knowledge of the dispersion, Moreover these matrices are precisely those contained in the SLIM program so that cross checks between programs are simplified. Another advantage ‘of working with the G matrix is that it allows sections of the ring to be studied and made transparent in isolation since no knowledge of Courant-Snyder parameters is needed; use of G emphasizes the local nature of spin transparency. On the other hand Eqs.(16-18) and the split-up versions depend on Courant-Snyder parameters and these in turn depend on the structure of the whole ring so that the “locality” is masked, When studying the spin transparency of aring, itis often useful for diagnostic purposes to set elements of the G or the G matrices to zero artificially and thereby obtain an impression of which sections of the ring are most dangerous. For example by switching off column six of G in quadrupoles, the effect of dispersion can be cleanly separated from. the effect of betatron motion. One can also in- ‘vestigate the system by using the matrix handling facilities in symbolic algebra programs [17]. Fi- nally, the G and G matrices are in general energy dependent, But a spin match made at the design energy is usually still effective for a few tens of MeV above and below, except near resonances. dig( ae“) 161 Ch.2; BEAM DYNAMICS Some examples Tn a perfectly aligned flat ring (no vertical bends) with no solenoids and no c-y coupling, no spin matching is needed. A spin rotator (Secs.2.7.3, 2.7.4) based on dipoles and containing no quadrupoles is automatically almost spin transparent since the elements of G are usually smaller in dipoles than in quadrupoles [17]. Dipole rotators containing quadrupoles need explicit spin matching (26}. Spin rotators based on a combination of solenoids (which rotate fig from the vertical into the horizontal) and dipoles (to make the polarization longitudinal at an IP) [17] are not automatically transparent. They also cause -y coupling. However, by sandwiching quadrupoles and skew quadrupoles among sections of solenoid the coupling can be eliminated and by careful choice of the sandwich structure some terms in columns 1 to 4 of G for the rotator can be made small at the same time [17]. Column 6 remains troublesome but for antisymmetric solenoid schemes [17] the columns 6 of the rotators cancel each other. For further discussion on solenoids see (27, 28). For a straight section (e.g. surrounding an, IP) where the polarization is longitudinal and which only contains quadrupoles and drifts, the spin precession angle is a linear combination of the overall orbit deflections Ap, and Apy in the quadrupole fields {17}. ‘Thus spin transparency implies making Ap, and Ap, vanish for all orbits. If the straight section is geometrically and opti- cally left-right symmetric, this can be achieved with an optic for which ten Ay, = —a, and tan Ay, = —ay where the Ay’s are the phase advances between the IP and the outer end of the straight section and the a’s appertain to the outer end. So the eight conditions that columns 1 to 4 of the G matrix vanish have been reduced to two conditions by the symmetry. Furthermore, this is an example where the spin matching conditions reduce to purely optical conditions. ‘These conditions can also be formulated directly in terms of G. By choosing 1 = § and th = & and requiring that the elements Gj; and Gos vanish for the stretch from the IP to the outer end, G vanishes for the whole straight section for arbitrary orientation of 7h, { around the longitudinal fig. If the straight section contains rf cavities, their influence on the spin transparency can often be neglected.‘Sec.2.7: POLARIZATION Other examples of the use of symmetry to simplify the spin match can be found in [24] where spin matching using variants of Eqs.(16- 18) for a ring with dipole rotators is discussed, The results of a calculation with SLICK before and after a spin match can be found in [29]. Ex- perimental observations resulting from successful spin matching involving spin rotators are described in [30]. Cor iter for strong spin matching Strong spin matching facilities based on evaluation of spin-orbit integrals (e.g. Eqs.(16-18) ) are built into the programs ASPIRRIN and SOM. To do spin matching in terms of G the code ‘SPINOR [31] can be used. Stage 2: Harmonic closed orbit spin matching ‘Once the perfectly aligned ring has been spin matched, the effects of misalignment must be addressed, In a perfectly aligned fiat ring with no solenoids, fio is vertical so that ly and my are zero. Then by inspection of the G matrix elements for horizontal bends, quadrupoles and rf cavities it is clear that for no z-y coupling, columns 1, 2, 5 and 6 of G(s + C, 8) vanish so that by Eq.(6) G(s) and wy17(s) are zero. In particular columns 1 and 2 of G and columns 1, 2 and 6 of G vanish. Moreover, for no zy coupling vj, vanishes. Then by Eq.(10) 73cp, ua is automatically zero. In rings with vertical bends (e.g. in spin rotators) fio is made vertical in the arcs by design. In real misaligned rings there is a vertical closed orbit distortion and fo is tilted from the vertical in the arcs (see below) so that the above mentioned columns of G and G for the arc quadrupoles do not vanish. In practice the tilts can be tens of milliradians and they increase with energy (they are roughly proportional to a7) but even these small angles can lead to strong depolarization so that it is essential that the ring be very well aligned from the beginning, Note that vertical closed orbit distortion leads primarily to depolarization due to horizontal synchrobetatron motion in the arcs, Note also that tilts of tens of milliradians cause a negligible decrease of the underlying ST polarization (Eq.(14), Sec.2.7.7). If there is a vertical correction coil and a BPM near each quadrupole, one can try to minimize the combined vertical kick (“kick minimization”) 132] applied to the orbit by each quadrupole and its correction coil and thereby reduce the tilt of fto due to the distorted orbit’s being off center in the (misaligned) quadrupoles. This also reduces 162 the generation of spurious vertical dispersion so that the driving of vy and v, (Eq.(11)) resonances is avoided. This presupposes that the positions with respect to the quadrupoles of the BPM’s are well known, ‘These relative positions can be estimated using beam-based calibration (Sec.4.5.5) [32]. However, kick minimization will not be effective if, say, he dipoles have significant tilt misalignments, If these measures are insufficient, a further ‘method for bringing fio closer to the vertical is needed. fig, and thus its tilt, for the distorted ring ccan be obtained as described in Sec.2.7.7 but one gains more insight by using a perturbation theory based on SLIM concepts [33]. Viewed from the (Ao, m, 2) frame calculated for the design orbit, the first order deviation of fig from the design orientation can be written as Cu, eittkilo oe x Ie where the hy, are Fourier coefficients given by [6r01(s) — én02(s)] = Fe 1040 : hem g [as du@) - (aero Here a)of bk 4 [4] = [ -mt —ms Peal wees F deo — $ | ABs(1+ 0%) AB,(1 + a7) where the ABoy,s are field errors and deo is the deviation of the 6-D closed orbit from the design orbit. Sfig can be minimized by using correction coils to adjust the closed orbit (e.g. by generating closed bumps so that the luminosity is not affected) in such a way that the real and imaginary parts of fix, with k near vp, are small. This technique is called harmonic closed orbit spin matching and is embodied in the program FIDO [34, 35]. See [18] also. If the machine distortions are not well known and if the closed orbit, cannot be measured well enough, the closed orbit correction must be carried out empirically by observing the polarization. If the distortions and the orbit are well enough known the correction coil strength can be calculated ab initio (determin- istic harmonic closed orbit spin matching) [36]. ‘The correction scheme should be chosen so that, it achieves the maximum effect on éfto with the smallest possible additional orbit distortion.Harmonic closed orbit spin matching can in principle be used to minimize the S/%9 due to an uncompensated solenoid placed at the position of anominally vertical fay. However, this is achieved ‘more efficiently by generating relatively antisymmetric vertical orbit bumps (spanning horizontal bend magnets) on each side of the solenoid (37,38). Tt might also be useful to weight 6/%9(s) by 1 periodic function p(s) [39]. In that case one tries to minimize p(s)5fo(s). This is worth trying, for example, if the main source of depolarization due to misalignments is the coupling of non-zero ly and my to the horizontal dispersion in the arcs (see Eq.(19)). This is often the case, as can be seen by examining the numerical values of the contributions of each mode (Z, IT, 111) in Eq.(10). Then p(s) is taken to be m. To minimize p(s)6fio(s) one must minimize the harmonics hy, of . Hs) = p(s)(di — td) +1'(s) [6n01(s) — é6r02(s)] = h(s+C) whereby (8) [6r01(s) — t6n0a(s)] = 12 De eee Stage 3: Further tuning Harmonic closed orbit spin matching can generate spurious vertical dispersion and this in turn generates vertical emittance (nonzero vf 5) and also ensures that column 6 of G for the quadrupoles does not vanish. Thus extra depolarization can occur. It might then be useful to overlay a harmonic vertical betatron match (k = IT in Eq.(15)) on any existing Stage 1 match, when possible. Likewise, to overcome the effect of spurious vertical dispersion in column 6 of G one could use extra vertical correction coils to overlay a harmonic vertical dispersion match (k = IIT in Eq(15)). Usually both of these two extra matches would be empirical. One could also try to combine the harmonic closed orbit match and the harmonic vertical dispersion match into one procedure. Stage 4: Beam-beam spin matching ‘The beam-beam interaction (Sec.2.6) is equiva- Tent to a nonlinear lens and can spoil a spin match. ‘The effect of the beam-beam interaction on the polarization is not fully understood but ithas been suggested that the beam-beam depolarization can 163 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS be reduced by balancing the beam-beam deflection of spins against subsequent deflections taking place in the ring quadrupoles, The condition for minimizing the effect of vertical kicks is independent of the current and charge distribution in the ‘opposing beam and takes the form [40] Mz — ily ecient) + +:— a Ve zy 4 sin ee ¢ iy ily) = x [ ds /Bye* (mz + ile) =0 ‘An equivalent prescription in SLIM formalism allows an arbitrarily coupled optic to be treated (41). Higher order resonances To go beyond the lin- carization of spin contained in Eq.(1) one writes ti; 8) = (1-a?—6?)'/*Ao(s) + ath(s) + Bis) (20) (for a? + 6? < 1) and does not linearize the T- BMT equation. Then spin-orbit resonances of arbitrarily high order can appear in 9 [7], The strength decreases with the order (= |ky|+|kyz|+ \krrzl). In practice the most intrusive higher or- det resonances are those for which Yep = k y+ krrrv ir. These “synchrotron sideband resonances” of the first order parent resonances are due to modulation by energy oscillations of the instantaneous rate of spin precession around fio. ‘They originate in the part due to synchrotron motion in the term @*> fi appearing in the full equations of spin motion (i.e. beyond the SLIM level) [42]. The depolarization rate associated with side- ‘bands of isolated parent resonances (Yep = k-Ev,) is approximately proportional to the depolarization rate for the parent resonances. Thus the effects of synchrotron sideband resonances can be reduced by doing the spin matches described above, Explicit formulae for the proportionality constants (“enhancement factors”) can be found in [43, 44]. The imnderlying strength parameter of synchrotron sideband resonances is (ayas/vz)? which increases strongly with the energy and energy spread. Other computer codes The SMILE algorithm is restricted to linearized orbital motion and calculates 2% by an extension of the first order perturbation theory of SLIM to high order using Eq.(20) and full 3-D spin motion. The algorithm involves multi-turn spin-orbit tracking. High order resonance effects are manifested by resonance denom- ‘nators but the formalism ensures that the vectorSec.2.7: POLARIZATION ‘vis of unit length. The highest required absolute values of the ky, krr, krrr ate specified as input SODOM represents ft by a spinor notation. The periodicity condition A(i; 8) = fi(i;s + C) (Sec.2.7.7) is equivalent to periodicity in the three phases of linearized orbital motion and the one tum 2 x 2 spin transfer matrix on a synchrobeta orbit is also periodic in the initial orbital phases, ‘The spin transfer matrix and #i(i; 8) are then represented by Fourier series. The Fourier coctfi- cients are obtained numerically and Ai(d;s) can then be reconstructed. By constructing ft at many points in phase space $# can be obtained by numerical differentiation. ‘The highest required absolute values of the ky, krr, kr11 are specified as ‘input parameters. The algorithm SpinLie utilizes Lie algebraic methods (Sec.2.7.9) and can handle non-linear orbit motion and 3-D spin motion. The vector fi(i;5) can also be obtained by stroboscopic averaging using the code SPRINT. 9% can then be calculated by numerical differentiation. This algorithm automatically includes all orders of resonance, The above algorithms all exploit the DKM formula (Eq.(16), Sec.2.7.7) but the SITROS program simulates the depolarization process directly using a Monte-Carlo tracking simulation of the effects on the orbit and then on the spin of stochastic photon emission and damping and delivers an estimate of 7dep. The equilibrium polarization is then obtained from the approximation (Sec.2.7.7) Trot Peg = Phar 21 ’ea, Pen @) where a dol wreStS @2) Trot Toke Tdep This ignores the (normally small) term $4 in the numerator of the DKM formula. References Li] J. Kewisch et al, PRL 62 No.4 (1989) 419; The Program SITF is part of the SITROS package, [2] A.W. Chao, NIM 180 (1981) 29 [3] A.W. Chao, AIP Proc, 87 (1981)395 [4] SLICK is a thick lens version of SLIM by DP. Barber, Private notes (1982) [5] K. Yokoya, User's manual of SOM: Spin-Orbit Matching (1996) [61 CW. de Jager, V. Ptitsin, Yu.M. Shatunov, Proc, 12th Int. Symp. High Energy Spin Physics, World Scientific (1997) [7] SR. Mane, PR A36 (1987) 105 [8] K. Yokoya, KEK Report 92-6 (1992) 19] K, Heinemann, G.H. Hoffstitter, PR E54 No.4 (1996) 4240 {10] H. Mais, G, Ripken, DESY Report 83-62 (1983) [1] DP, Barber, K. Heinemann, G. Ripken, Z. f. Physik C64 (1994) 117 [12] DP. Barber, G, Ripken, DESY report on spin dy- ‘namics and spin matching in preparation, (13) SR. Mane, DESY Report 85-125 (1985) and Cornell Report CLNS-86/750 (14) DP. Barber, K. Heinemann, G. Ripken, DESY Report M-92-04 (1992) (15) A.W. Chao, J. Appl. Phys. 50 (1975) 592 [16] H. Mais, G. Ripken, DESY Report M-84-04 (1984) [17] DP, Barber et al, PA 17 (1985) 243, [18] R. Rossmanith, R. Schmidt, NIM A236 (1985) 231 [19] GAH, Hoffstatier et al, in Nonlinear and Stochas- tic Beam Dynamics in Accelerators, DESY Re- port 97-161 (1997) 20] V. Balandin, N. Golubeva, D.P. Barber, DESY Report M-96-04 (1996) [21] H. Mais, G, Ripken, DESY Report 86-29 (1986) [22] M. Sands, SLAC 121 (1970) (23] A.W. Chao, K. Yokoya, KEK Report 81-7 (1981) [24] J. Buon, K. Steffen, NIM A245 (1986) 248 [25] DP. Barber et al, DESY Report 86-147 (1986) [26] A. Blondel, J. Jowett, Proc. 8th Int, Symp. High Energy Spin Physics, AIP Proc. 187 (1989) (27) AA. Zholents, WN, Litvinenko, BINP (Novosi- birsk) Preprint 81-80 (1981). English translation: DESY Report L~Trans 289 (1984) (28] DP, Barber et al, DESY Report 82-76 (1982) [29] DP. Barber, Proc. 9th Int. Symp. High Energy Spin Physics, Springer (1991) [30] DP. Barber etal, Phys.Lett, 343B (1995) 436 (31) L. Hand and A. Skuja, DESY HERA Report 85- 18 (1985); The program SPINOR has been updated and modernized by D.P. Barber. (32] DP, Barber et al, EPAC 96 33] DP. Barber et al, DESY Report 85-44 (1985) (34) SR. Mane, DESY HERA Report 85-23 (1985) (35) DP. Barber et al, NIM A338 (1994) 166 [36] R. Assmann et al, Proc, 11th Int. Symp. High En- ergy Spin Physics, AIP Proc. 343 (1995) 137) K. Steffen, DESY Report M-82-25 (1982) [38] A. Blondel, CERN LEP Note 629 (1990) (39] DP, Barber, G, Ripken, DESY HERA Report 87- 15 (1987) 164(40) J. Buon, Proc. 6th Int, Symp. High Energy Spin Physics, Journal de Physique, Colloque C2, ‘Tome 46 (1985) [41] DBP. Barber, Private notes (1995) [42] K. Yokoya, PA 13 (1983) 85 [43] S.R, Mane, NIM A292 (1990) 52 [44] S.R, Mane, NIM A321 (1992) 21 2.7.9 Lie Algebra for Spin Motion K. Yokoya, KEK The Lie algebraic method (Sec.2.3.6) can be extended to incorporate the classical spin motion [1]. The Hamiltonian is written in general as 1 = Horr(2,9) + 5+ W(z,8) A) where % represents the six orbit variables, 0 is the machine azimuth, Hoy, the orbit Hamiltonian, § the spin vector, and W is written in terms of the electromagnetic field along the orbit, The ‘Thomas-BMT equation (Sec.2.7.1) is then a ee Gr awe 2 where [ ] is the Poisson brackets. The relation [54,89] = Xp €4je5h is used here. Once the Poisson brackets are given, the Lie ‘map can formally be defined as in the case of orbit motion, The Lic map of an clement of length AO is e~ 48: (valid if 11 is independent of 8 or if Ad is infinitesimally small). In most accelerator applications, the Stern-Gerlach force (the effect of spin on the orbit motion) can be ignored, ‘Then, the map can be decomposed as e~# e~:#: where H and W are polynomials of z. As in the orbit case, one can concatenate the Lie maps to obtain the map of a beamline. In contrast to the orbit case, however, the concatenation of the spin Lie map does not require the Baker-Campbell- Hausdorf formula; it can be written explicitly as etl ti _ ga ® Here cos d = cos $1 cos ga — di + da @ Find = Gamba caste bag © where br = |Wil/2, d= (Wi/|Wal) sin by, etc, When the orbit one-tum map (from @ to 0 + 2m) can be transformed to the normal form e7 Vee: where H is a function of the orbit action variables (23, + 23, 1)/2 (é=1,2,3) only 165 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS and V = V(z,@), the total map can also be written in the normal form, with the same H and V, me © where W is a function of orbit action only and is identified as the spin tune (times 2n). The Derbenev-Kondratenko vector A(z, 6) is given by Fae Vie F0igg, A computer code to evaluate the equalibrium polarization in electron storage rings using Lie algebra is available (2). References [1] K. Yokoya, NIM A258 (1987) 149 [2] Yu, Eidelman, V. Yakimenko, PA 45 (1994) 17; 50 (1995) 261 2.8 BEAM COOLING 2.8.1 Stochastic Cooling J. Marriner, FNAL Stochastic Cooling was invented by Simon van der Meer [1] and was demonstrated at the CERN ISR (2], ICE (initial Cooling Experiment) (3] and Fermilab [4]. A complete theory of cooling of unbunched beams has been developed [5, 6, 7], and has been applied at the CERN and Fermilab An- tiproton Sources, as well as at LEAR [8], COSY [9], and TARN [10]. Cooling of bunched beams has been considered [11] and its theory has also been developed [12]. Bunched beam cooling was demonstrated in the Fermilab Accumulator [13], but practical applications at the Tevatron [14] and the SppS [15] have not been successful. The extension of stochastic cooling to systems operating on more than one degree of freedom has also been discussed [16]. 2.8.1.1 Cooling rates ‘Unbunched beam A simple, but useful, estimate of stochastic cooling rates is To-HM +O where ¢ = beam emittance, NV’ = number of particles, W = fax — finin With frnax min the maximum and minimum frequency limits of the bandwidth W. The fastest cooling is obtained at the optimum system gain, i., 9 = 1/(M +U). TheSeo.2.8: BEAM COOLING mixing factor M may be defined to be the ratio of the peak Schottky power density to the average Schottky power density (averaged over all the Schottky bands in the cooling system bandwidth). U is the ratio of electronic noise power to the average Schottky power density. Bunched beam Bunched beam cooling may be estimated with Eq.(1) as follows. Take a single bunch of azimuthal extent (—© to +8) and consider the unbunched beam that would be obtained by debunching the beam while confining it to the range (—© to +0). Compute the cooling rate with the number of particles (Net) that would be required to fill the entire ring with the same line density, viz., Neg = No(n/@), where Np is the number of particles in the bunch, M and U are computed for this same equivalent unbunched beam. Transverse cooling rate Applying electrical circuit analysis and feedback theory, the betatron amplitude cooling rate for particles with revolution frequency fo = wo/2m is found to be atte = oS a oe { — RRe [iGr((n + v)wo)e*OHe-Hrh] + NIM((n»)u0) +0 ((n »)u0)] x|Gxr((nvy0))"} where A is the betatron amplitude (2 VBAcos(vwot)), Arms is the rms amplitude of the particles with revolution frequency fo, v is the tune, the sum is over 7 with both + and — signs, Axis the betatron phase advance between pickup and kicker, dp, = 2maw/wo, a is the fraction of circumference between pickup and kicker, Gr is the Fourier transform of the gain function (including feedback effects), and Mv) Q fo ar oy 2BN(edpfoArm)*Zp df 2fo Pp —= VO) = EN Chie F where f, is the f-function at pickup, dp is the pickup sensitivity (difference mode signals), Zp is the pickup characteristic impedance, dP,/df and P,/df are the Schottky and noise power spectra, The system gain (fractional change in emittance per turn) is Gp= Gr 14+FrGy ° 166 where Fr is the coherent beam response described below and Grr is the system gain function Mehotode (BB. |g tyr ZaG ale) KBE e © where np, nx are the number of pickups and kick- ets, 6x is the G-function at kicker, dy is the kicker sensitivity (difference mode signals), Z is the kicker characteristic impedance, k = w/c, and G 4(w) is the gain of the amplifier chain. The sensitivities dp and d), are described in more detail in Eq.(23). ‘Transverse beam transfer functions When a voltage is applied, the beam exhibits a coherent response that modifies the closed-loop gain of the stochastic cooling system. The transverse transfer function is (17 Fru) = + f dupio(un)er¥ x [em (1~ aide (1 e ° (: an(mw/wo =) ] where Wo(wo) is the particle density at frequency wo normalized by {5~ diwoo(wo) = N. The sin- gularity in the denominator may be properly evaluated if w! = w — i6 is substituted for w and the limit § — 0* is taken, The result is that the integral becomes its principal value plus ri times the pole term, The beam transfer function is an important ingredient in determining whether the stochastic cooling system is stable according to the Nyquist stability criterion [18]. It also provides a useful diagnostic tool: among other uses itis used to establish the proper timing for a cooling system. Longitudinal Cooling: Description by the Fokker-Planck Equation For momentum cooling, the mixing factor is a function of the beam distribution, and the cooling rate is a function of time. Precise calculations typically calculate the evolution of the distribution function W(E,t), where E is the energy offset from some nominal energy and has a comesponaing revolution frequency. With the Fokker-Planck equation for stochastic costing i is Gr= a” i tan(ru fo + =m) ova Se = on @) where a= Puen (0)F = 2ef} SRe(Gre~*r+) (10) - @ Gua = Re an Gru) = yrpZpmZe5pGa (12) D = Do+Di+Di¥ (a3) Dy = ka(Tp +To)forZ% DlsxGal? (14) ? $5 Zp Z6(E/e) Il where Sp, $x are pickup and kicker sensitivities (for sum mode signals), 1 is the phase slip factor. Do is used to collect effects (like intrabeam scattering) that are not dependent on cooling system gain. Tp (Ta) is the effective noise temperature of the pickup (amplifier). Possible boundary conditions for the Fokker-Planck equation include a fixed flux (By) = ®o or a hard aperture ‘Y(E;) = 0. In the above, [W] = V-}, [6] =s~}, [Fl ils, [Gr] = Ohm, [D] = [Di] = V*/s, [Da] = V¥/s, [Fr] = 1/Ohm. Beam Response Longitudinal The coherent longitudinal beam response is nefo / ton TE (\- aaeoran) o 123 — a)Yo— (on — 0) Vo: | Din venta (16) 2nn RB, Jo ras co and the lattice parameter A is defined as @ (ds .= 55 (¥) a8) The lattice parameter 1) is related to the average value of A by = duo/4 = —nuo/Bpe and \av = KRay. Longitudinal Stacking with stochastic cooling _Itis possible to derive steady-state solutions (8¥/at = 0) of Eq.8). A particular solution for the case of longitudinal stacking [19] is important for the accumulation of antiprotons. Con- sider a range E1 to Ep with constant flux 9 over that range. [19] shows that the maximum cooling 5) 167 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS (largest increase in ©) is obtained with a voltage gain per turn = -—2t0_ VE) = TEN ud for particles with energy B, and WE) = Wyel®-Fi)/Ee (20) (1 = constant of integration) = —2E0(Fnin/ fouax) Bg = tof OD which shows that the amount of cooling is inversely proportional to the flux. The appearance of W* in Eq.(21) is misleading; in an optimized cooling system WT ~ 0.3 and the ux is proportional to the bandwidth (20). 2.8.12 Hardware Stochastic cooling systems typically cover an oc- tave bandwidth with 100's to 1000's of MHz. Pa- rameters of the antiproton source stochastic cooling systems are listed in Sec.1.6.1. The techniques and technology are similar to those used for wide-band communications in the same frequency range. Pickups We assume that the pickup consists of one or more electrodes that have a characteristic, impedance Zp, The voltage incuded on the pickup at some frequency component w is Vp) = Siow) Zp 22) where S = S(x,y, w) satisfies LaPlace’s equation 21) Sy) = B+ dart dyy-- 3) Adding the outputs of 2 electrodes with the proper symmetry results in a momentum cooling pickup with sp = so. Subtracting the same electrodes results in a betatron cooling pickup with dp = dz (or d,). The power developed for each electrode. is P=ZRelVplu)Si(u)] 2H) The total Scottky power collected by the two electrodes in the sum mode is Ps = (efo)*s2ZpN (25) where 2efo is the Schottky current per particle per Schottky band, When a sum mode pickup is used in a longitudinal cooling system, the frequency dependent action of the filter produces the cooling effect [22]. Alternatively, longitudinal coolingSec.2.8: BEAM COOLING may be achieved with a difference pickup in a dispersive region (D; # 0) and the Schottky signal will be = (ery Dien (2) a6 A difference pickup used in a transverse cooling system will develop a Schottky power 4 = (6f0)*BptlzZpN Arms 27) where efoA is the Schottky current per particle per transverse Schottky band. Design of pickup structures has been given in (23, 24]. Kickers The response of the beam to a kicker is AE = 2eSVi, (28) where AZ is the energy gained by the particle, Vi is the voltage on the electrode, and S(x,y), by the reciprocity theorem, is the same as for the pickup operation. The transverse kick can also be obtained from the sensitivity function according to the deflection theorem (also known as the Panofsky-Wenzel theorem), 29) Preamplifiers and Thermal Noise The pickup structure is usually designed to behave like an ideal transmission line, which has a frequency independent noise power density of kT where Tp is pickup temperature. The preamplifier contributes additional noise that is often sufficiently independent of frequency that it can be characterized by an equivalent noise temperature (T,) that is not related in any simple way to the physical temperature of the amplifier. Under these conditions, the noise power spectrum is SP = boy + To) i Ape = D2eVeVeS 30) Reducing the pickup temperature reduces the noise power, and reducing the preamplifier temperature may reduce the noise power of specially designed preamplifiers [25]. Filters Filters used for stochastic cooling have characteristics that repeat every Schottky band. One simple type of filter commonly used [26] is constructed by splitting a signal into two legs, delaying one leg by a time T, and recombining ‘them. The filter response is Gy = (1 — e~*7)/2, ‘which has zeroes at frequencies which are multiples of 1/T. 168 Power Amplifiers The rf power amplifiers used are the ones conventionally used for broad-band applications. The power sources include solid state amplifiers [27] and traveling wave tubes P28). References [1] S. van der Meer, CERN/ISR-PO/72-31 (1972); 8. ‘van der Meer, Rev. Mod. Phys. 57 (1985) 689 [2] G. Carron et al, PAC 77, p.1402; P, Bramham et al, NIM 125 (1975) 201 [3] G. Carron et al, PAC 79, p.3456; G. Carron et al, PL B77 (1978) 353 {4} G. Lambertson et al, Proc. Int. Conf. on High Ea- ergy Acc. (1980) p.794; RL. Hogrefe et al, PAC 81, p.2455 {5] D. Mobi et al, Phys. Rep. $8 (1980) 73 {6] J. Bisognano, C, Leeman, AIP Proc. 87, p.583 [7] S. van der Meer, Proc. Quarks, Leptons, and their Constitutents, p.325; D. Mobi, Proc. Antiprotons for Colliding Beam Facilities (1983) p.97; J. Mar- riner, D, McGinnis, Physics of Part, Acc., Vol I, 2693 {8] S. Baird et al, PAC 89, p.645 [9] P, Britiner et al, EPAC 94, p.1203, [10] N. Tokuda et al, Proc. 12th Int, Conf. High En- ergy Acc. (1983) p.386 [11] D. Mah, Proc. Cooling of High Energy Beams (1979) p41; JJ. Bisognano, S. Chattopadhyay, PAC BI, p.2462 [12] S. Chattopadhyay, LBL-14826 (Ph.D. thesis) [13) J. Marriner et al, EPAC 90, p.1577 [14] G. Jackson et al, PAC 91, p.1758 [15} D. Boussard et al, CERN Acc. Schoo! (1983) p97 [16] S. Chattopadhyay, PAC 83, p.2649 (17) S. van der Meer, CERN/PS/AA/B0-4 (1980) [18] H. Nyquist, S. Bell, Tech, J. 11 (1932) 126 [19] S. van det Meet, CERN/PS/AA/78-22 (1978) [20] FNAL Design Report, Tevatron I Project, (1984) [21] G. Lambertson, AIP Proc. 153, (1987) p.1414 [22] G, Carron, L. Thomdshl, CERN-ISR-RF/78-12 (1978) (23) L. Faltin, NIM A241 (1085) 416 [24] D. McGinnis, Microwave & Optical Tech. Lett. 4 (1991) 433, [25] B. Leskovar, C.C. Lo, LBL-15122 (1983). [26) RJ. Pasquinelli, Proc, 12th Int. Conf, High En- ergy Acc. (1983) p.584 [27] G. Carron, F, Caspers, L. Thomdshl, CERN-85- 01 (1985) [28) B. Leskovar, C.C. Lo, PAC 83, p.212.8.2 Electron Cooling E Krienen, Boston U. Electron cooling is a technique to reduce or to control the phase space of charged particle (e.g. ions) beams in a storage ring. A monochromatic, well-directed electron beam is inserted in a straight section of the storage ring. ‘The average longitudinal velocities of the ion and electron beams are made equal, (i) = (Bej)) (lab.frame) a) In the CM frame of the electrons, cooling of the ions is significant iff, and f,1 are less than, say, 3 times 6, and 6,1. The following equations are all expressed in the CM of the electron beam. Budker-O’Neill model Several models exist to explain the drag force and the cooling time, The crudest is that of a foil moving with the average velocity of the ions [1]. The collision loss (eV/m) 2(mec2)2LZ2 i. Annere(mec?)? LZ’ ® is may where ne is the electron density, L is the coulomb logarithm and Z is the ion charge number. Eq.(2) is derived from Rutherford scattering [2]. Cooling force on the ion « 1/v?. Numerical example: ne = 104 m~%, L 10 ; (@) = 0.001, Z = 1 (proton), then F —dE;/ds © 5 x 10-8/6? (eV/m). Substituting dE;/ds = mydv,/dt and integrating, t= ee pale one - een) @) = 2 x 10"[63(max) — AF (min)]proton Cooling time oc (ion temperature)*/?, Plasma model The plasma model [3] consists of a Maxwellian distribution of two components, say, ions at temperature T; and electrons at temperature T.. Assuming an infinite electron reser- voir, the rate at which the ion approaches the electron temperature, from above or from below, is R-T Ge @ where 3mi/tme (28 4 aT) 52 hal B(2n)?2ner2cLZ? \ mec? © mii = 4x 10" (62 + 6)°? ©) 169 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Initially T, < Tj, we have dT;/dt = —Tj/teq and al 38 Vaner2b2?mec? 46) a3 2 (+ ay? FR38x 1" ae bigs eV /m Eq.(6) shows a maximum for j= fe, with F = 1.3 x 10-8/6? eV/m. Also note: BK Be > F & Biy while B; > Be + F x B;?. 10 ro L tom A emt os 7 z + dio 7 5 tot 4 L os 10% 4 1 1 0.01 | Bie ltt Figure 1: Drag force in Maxwellian electron gas. Fig.1 shows teq and F for 8. = 10~%. Since spherical symmetry is assumed, the graph applies equally well for F or Fi. A 3-D plot of F is shown in [4]. The binary collision theory has been improved in [5]. The dielectric description (6, 7] is derived from the electric field induced by the ion moving through the electron plasma and calculating the reaction on the ion. Qualita- tively the results agree with (3], but amendments must be made if one considers the “flattening” of the electron distribution of electrostatically accelerated electron beams and the application of a solenoidal magnetic field, the “magnetized” electron beam (8). Electron beam Thermionic emission at the cathode (Sec.2.4.2.1) imparts a velocity distribution corresponding to a temperature of 1350 K, or kT: = 0.1 eV. In the CM of the electron beam the transverse velocities are conserved, bas =f E while fy transforms as fy(CM)/8 [oly + 1))-16T./Te, or non-relativistically as ~ (1/2)(6%e/Te). For kp6T. = 0.1 eV and kpTe = 50 keV, 8 = 0.417 so that 6.\(CM) = 0.83 x10-°, possibly three orders of magnitude less than ex. %0.6x10-$ (7)‘A solenoidal magnetic field limits the spatial divergence of the electron beam, but does not change the transverse temperature per se. ex is, tied to a guiding magnetic flux line with radius of gyration R = Bei mec/ (eB). Considerable progress has been made in the cooling in flattened and magnetized electron beams [9]. Ref.{10] shows the temporal change of the emittances €,,., and the change of § = dp/p for LEAR at CERN. ‘The cooling times considered above, are in the CM of the electron beam, To revert to the lab. system these times must be multiplied with 7”. In the presence of solenoid B,, self-magnetic (attractive, current 4), and space charge (tepul- sive, charge density p) fields, the transverse equation of motion (see also Sec.2.4.2.3) is er PR Bir eof Pzr ae mars ~ “ame ~~ 2m? epr_ _ (eto§)*r® + go ame ® We drop the last term, since P, >> eiojr?/4, then ar PR Ate ae mp TUE M)Z~O where we = €Bs/me, 7 = 2iZ0(4- — 4). Spinnit ron Center, Guiding Center Figure 2: Electron motion in (r,6) plane. A parametric solution of (9) may be written as reos@ = Reoswt +r’ cosw't rsin@ = Rsinwt+r’sinu't (10) in which, see Fig.2, the guiding center rotates with radius r’ at an EB x B drift frequency w’, and » _ 2 we jZo 1 ope w = 272 ~ 3B, G 170 J = TO, M0 (dB), | We os B+B (G+ 3] _ [dd we R= B-B(S+S] ay where the subscript 0 denotes the initial conditions. ‘The wavelength of the fast spiraling electron is Dina © 24 — a2) ‘The wavelength of the drifting clectron is Danie © 21S 13) ‘The radius of gyration is Ra<. (ay We ‘The slant of the electron helix is 2nR (kT)? aaa = SER _ (HoT) as) Bat Bynes (Example: kpTy =0.1 eV, 8=0.4— fast = 1.6 mrad.) The slant of the drift helix is o Qnr wr ane Jaan Bye (Example: j = 10¢Am~?, r= 0.01 m, By =0.1 (16) T, 8 =0.4— arin = 3.3 mrad.) The transverse temperature associated with the drift is 2 1242 keTiain = "b= ™ — a/9ev a7 Thus the drift temperature easily exceeds the cathode temperature. Imperfections in the solenoidal magnetic field. can create large transverse temperatures. Upon approaching a dip in the magnetic field lines, the electron sees a radial magnetic component B, and deflects side ways, thus acquiring a transverse velocity 8, = €B,Ar/(mec), which could be potentially several eV for a dip as little as 0.1 mm and B = 1 kG. Depending on resonance relations between the width of the dip and the wavelength, ‘transverse motion may be tuned out by comput- tized treatment. This effect and others like the acquired temperature in the torus and electrostatic potentials associated with constrictions inthe drift tube may very well be underestimated in facilities ‘now in operation. Space charge limited current j is described by Child’s law. See Sec.2.4.2.1.Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Figure 5: (a) Frequency spectrum of Schottky noise, taken at the beginning and end of the cooling process, at the ‘2Ath harmonic of the revolution frequency. (b) Similar spectrum of a low intensity cooled beam, J = 8 x 10° protons. Parameters: (a) Center freq. = 30.574 Mhz, video band width = 1000 Hz, harmonic = 24, span = 100 kHz signal = linear, 6f = 2000 Hz, 1 = -0.67, 5p/p = (1/n)8f/F = 10° Mhz, video band width = 100 Hz, harmoni p/p = (1/n)6f/f = 3* 10-5, 800 Emre 259 KV - an 46436 zi Few lent25A * sm Eso tae) 4 104m Soloolt 8 cofactor 3 2 Tora 8 Sihios St. Vacuum Chanbor 2 8 Cental solnokés 10 Vacuum Pup (ptr) 3 ‘4 GotecorSolnekd 11 VeouumPump(faulnan) & 200 SSupporingFame 12 5yneroten Radon Arona Sconecion Magnet 13 VowingPort 7Ecton Gun Gaede 4 Sacorvane wal ° oo 10 1520 Figure 3: Schematic diagram of a typical electron dentures Frequency (GHz) cooling system. Figure 4; Frequency spectrum of the radiation by 25.9 keV electrons in a magnetic field of 454.3 G. fe is cy- Electron cooler hardware Fig.3 shows some clotron frequency. components of the ICE facility [11]. The toroidal field is adjusted so that it matches the axial flux Higher collection efficiencies become mandator ine of the solenoids. Superimposed on the toroid — jn sctiiste, Tigh current electron cooler, 8. is a small dipole in Helmholtz configuration ad- 99.99% (14). An overview of existing systems justed so thatthe proper bending is achieved. We may be found in [4 ‘mention in particular the resonant focusing in the gun section [12], which optimizes ,. The elec- Diagnostics Electron beam positioning can be tron trajectories are calculated with a program achieved with tungsten wires, becoming incan- [13]. The electron beam is decelerated in the col- descent when hit by the beam. Electric scrapers lector, giving back most (> 99%) of its energy. and other mechanical devices would give a preci- The collector design is comiplicated by the con- sion of 1/2 mm or less {15]. The transverse tem- cern for secondary emission which could be ac- perature may be measured by measuring the syn- celerated back into the cooler. The basic element —_chrotron radiation emitted by the electrons spiral- is the magnetic shunt, diluting the field inside the ing in the solenoidal magnetic field [16]. Fig.4 collector, so that the incoming electrons spiral out shows a sample. The longitudinal temperature and make a soft landing on the collector wall. may be assessed by Thomson back scattering of mmSec,2.8: BEAM COOLING Taser light from the electrons {17}. The rate of formation of neutral atoms is a sensitive test for the relative velocity of ion and electron [18]. ‘The interaction of the ion beam and the electron beam may be used to assess the cooling time, One starts with the ion beam in the cooled position, give the ions a well defined perturbance and measure the time of the re-establishment of the cooled position. Horizontal betatron oscillations may be excited by a short coherent pulse from a full aperture kicker. For the measurement of the equilibrium momentum spread, the longitudinal pickup sensitive to Schottky noise may be used. Fig.5 shows an example of two Fourier analyses of the noise. ‘The signal is proportional to the ‘square root of the particle density. The momentum cooling force may be measured by first cooling the beam and then suddenly increasing the gun voltage and observing the subsequent acceleration of the protons. References (1) G1. Budker, Proc. Int. Symp. Electron & Positron Storage Rings (1966); G.K, O'Neill, PR 102 (1956) 1418 [2] LD. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, Wiley (1975) [3] L. Spitzer Jr, Physics of Fully Ionized Gases, In- terscience (1956) [4] H.Poth, Phys. Reports 196, n38-4, North Holland (1990) [5] Ya Derbenev, A.N, Skrinski, PA 8 (1977) 1 [6] A. Sorensen, EB. Bondrup, NIM 215 (1983) 27 [7] M. Bell, PA 10 (1980) 101; J.S. Bell, M. Bell, PA 11 (1981) 233 [8] Ya Derbenev, A.N. Skrinski, PA 8 (1978) 235 [9] M, Bell, CERN-EP INT 79-10 (1979) [10] A. Wolf, Proc. ECOOL84, KIK 3846 (1985) [11] M. Bell etal, NIM 190 (1981) 237 [12] JR. Pierce, Theory and Design of Electron Beams, van Nostrand (1954) [13] W.B, Herrmannsfelét, SLAC-166 (1973) [14] DJ. Larson, PA 23 (1988) 239 [15] P Moller Petersen, ECOOL84, KIK 3846 [16} C. Rubbia, CERN EP-Int-note 77-4 (1977) [17] W. Kells, Fermilab TM771 (1978) [18] GL. Budker et al, PA 7 (1976) 197 28.3 Laser Cooling in Storage Rings AS. Hangst, U. Aarhus Laser cooling [1] is a well-established technique for cooling trapped ions or atoms. The basic physical mechanism, known as the Doppler cooling, is 172 illustrated in Fig.l. The ion to be cooled must have a two-level electronic transition that can be excited by a laser, In step 1 of Fig.1, an ion (initial velocity vp and in the ground state) absorbs a laser photon. After absorption, in step 2, the ion is in the excited state and has velocity 1 + vr. In step 3 the ion decays by spontaneous emission. The ion recoils, but the spontaneous emission pattern is spatially symmetric, so that after many absorption/emission cycles, the net momentum change due to emission averages to zero. Step 4 shows that the result after many events is a net velocity increase in the direction of the laser beam, -2-O- On Figure 1: Schematic depiction of laser cooling. Phase space cooling works because the radiation pressure force is resonant in the laser frequency, and the resonant frequency is velocity- dependent via the Doppler shift. A single laser beam exerts a force along its propagation direction given by [2] k GP (A-9- 8? + GPA +5) Q@ where P = 1/r is the natural linewidth of the cooling transition, A is the (angular) frequency detuning w — wo of the laser relative to the resonance frequency, 7 is the ion velocity, & is the laser's wave vector, and S is the saturation param- = e(f) where Fis the laser electric field, 1 is the dipole ‘moment for the transition. For constant A, F is a Lorentzian in v, with a width ~ I'/k, which is typically ~10 m/s. Fo, 8) = “lF WBWith two counter-propagating lasers having equal intensity and equal detuning, the forc obtained by superposition, Fa(0, 8) = FAG, R) + Fe, -B) @) Eq(3) is plotted in Fig.2. [For high intensities (S 2 1) and spatially overlapping lasers, the forces may not be summed independently, due to the potential for stimulated redistribution of photons between the two laser fields (3].] For small velocities, the force is approximately linear in ve~ locity dv Pama The maximum value of f occurs for A = —I'/2 and S = 2 and is equal to Ak?/2. Eq.(4) implies exponential damping of velocities with a characteristic time 6/m, For the ions of interest in storage ring laser cooling, this time is ~10~® s. Figure 2: Laser cooling force due to two counter- propagating lasers for the case of ?*Mg* ions, with S=2adA=-§. ‘The equilibrium temperature obtained in this form of laser cooling depends on the competing heating mechanisms to which the ions are subjected. In the case of no external heating mechanisms, the equilibrium will be between the cooling force and the diffusion due to the spontaneous ‘emission of photons. The minimum temperature, known as the Doppler limit, is ar ep o) ‘The energy spread of the cold ions is ~ the energy uncertainty of the excited state. The Doppler temperatures for the ions currently used in storage ring experiments (#*Mg*, "Lit, °Be*) are in the range 104 — 10-* K. More involved laser cooling mechanisms exist and are capable of reaching micro-Kelvin temperatures [4] in clouds of trapped atoms. These methods are not applicable to storage ring cooling. Tp = 173 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Laser cooling applied to storage rings The fast damping rate and very low ultimate temperature obtainable with laser cooling can be used to achieve very cold ion beams, Indeed, clouds of trapped ions subjected to laser cooling crystallize into ordered structures [5]. The idea of forming a crystalline ion beam [6] is thus often associated with laser cooling, The Doppler temperature corresponds to 6p/p ~ 10-7 — 10-6 at the beam energies currently being investigated. One needs to caution that, although the velocity damping rate is high, the range of the force in velocity is small compared to the velocity spreads of typical stored ion beams. Thus the laser will in fact interact with only a small percentage of the ions in a “hot” ion beam. ‘There are currently two storage rings being used for experiments with laser cooling; ASTRID at U. Aarhus, and the Test Storage Ring (TSR) in Heidelberg, where the first laser cooling of stored beams was demonstrated [7]. Fig.3 shows a possible schematic of laser cooling configur tion. Laser light is directed through windows in the storage ring vacuum chamber and overlapped with the stored ion beam in a straight section, ‘The laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) light can be monitored by a photomultiplier tube (PMT) or im- aged onto a CCD camera for measuring transverse beam profiles [8]. The ion beam observed by the phototube passes through a post-acceleration tube (PAT) which is isolated from the vacuum chamber and upon which can be placed a voltage. This voltage locally alters the kinetic energy of the ions and can therefore be used to choose a particular velocity class of ions to be locally in resonance with the laser, Scanning the voltage on this tube while monitoring the fluorescence light from the beam thus allows direct measurement of the ions’ velocity distribution during the cooling process. This is a very important diagnostic technique and a welcome fringe benefit of laser cooling. To date, several species of ion have been successfully laser cooled in storage rings. At the ‘TSR, work has concentrated on the ions "Li* and Bet, In ASTRID early work was with "Lit; the current experiments use *Mg*. That there are relatively few candidates is due to the strict requirement that the ions have a closed electronic transition that can be excited with available ow lasers. The cooling of Li in ASTRID was done with commercial ring-dye lasers, The Be experiments use fixed frequency, stabilized, argon-Sec.2.8: BEAM COOLING te wee Figure 3: Schematic representation of laser cooling experiments, ion lasers. Magnesium cooling is achieved by frequency-doubling visible light from a ring-dye laser to produce the necessary UV light (~280 nm) (9). Both rings have been operated at relatively low energies (100 keV for ASTRID and a few MeV for TSR). For a fixed-frequency laser the kinetic energy of the ions is chosen so that the Doppler-shifted frequency of the laser is in resonance with the ions. Tunable lasers provide somewhat more flexibility. The relevant properties of the Mg and Be cooling transition are given in Tab.1. Laser cooling of Li ions is problematic be~ cause the lower level of the cooling transition is a metastable level, not the ground state. Typically, only a small fraction of the stored ions are in the metastable state, Recent experiments also indicate that the transition is not completely closed, leading to loss of coolable ions [10). Various schemes have been developed for compensating for the short range of the laser force. One solution is to employ two frequency tunable lasers {11]. In practice, the lasers are initially red-detuned far from resonance, the co- propagating laser in resonance with the slowest ions, the counter-propagating laser in resonance with the fastest. The lasers can then be scanned more blue in frequency, acting as “snow-plows” and accelerating or decelerating particles into the narrow velocity range depicted in Fig2. ‘Table 1: Properties of the Mg and Be cooling transition. Tabulated values are for ions which are always in the light field. They must be scaled to reflect the ‘experimental overlap. 2g? Ber ground state 38°Syj2 28a excited state 3p*Ps/2° 2p*Payo lifetime (ns) 37 82 linewidth T/2 (MHz) 42.6 19.4 wavelength (nm) 279.6 313 peak force (1 laser) (eV/m) ey damping time 8/m 18 07 (2 lasers) (us) 7 Doppler limit (mK) 1020471 velocity range T'/k (m/s) 119 6.1 A second method utilizes an induction accelerator to provide a small constant acceleration to the ions [7]. The ions can be accelerated into res- ‘onance with a single laser, creating a stable point for cooling when the laser and induction forces are equal and opposite, see Fig.4. This method has the disadvantage that the stable, cold distribution is only obtainable while the induction accelerator is ramping. 7 A Figure 4: Force from a single laser and an induction accelerator. The stable velocity is indicated by the ‘small circle. A third method uses a single cooling laser and a bunched beam provided by a standard rf cavity [12]. The rf cavity defines the stable velocity, and the laser is used to damp the synchrotron oscilla tions. See Fig.5. Each point represents the relative energy and time (or phase) for a single turn in the storage ring. The particle initially undergoes large synchrotron oscillations. A co-propagating laser beam is frequency-detuned to be in resonance with the ion when it has its maximum negative energy deviation. The ion will then scatter 174photons from the laser beam and be accelerated to a trajectory having a smaller synchrotron oscillation amplitude, The ion will continue to scatter photons until it Doppler-shifts out of resonance with the laser. However, if the laser frequency is scanned to keep the laser in resonance with the jon, the synchrotron oscillation can be damped, as illustrated. An ensemble of particles can be ‘cooled in the same fashion; the initial laser detuning must be large enough to efficiently cool the ion having the largest synchrotron amplitude in the bunch. Such cooling may also be achieved by a fixed frequency laser which is slightly red detuned from the synchronous velocity. & Energy deviation -150 “0.75 0.50 0.25 0.00 0.25 0.60 0.75 Time deviation ‘Figure 5: Illustration of a single ion in a bunch being laser cooled by a frequency-scanned laser. The scales are arbitrary. Status of laser cooling experiments In the present laser cooling experiments, longitudinal temperatures near the Doppler limit are only achieved for very diffused beams (11, 13, 14}. For more dense beams, the heating due to the laser interaction is negligible compared to dynamical heating in the beam due to, e.g. intrabeam scattering (13, 14]. The study of the character and strength of the heating mechanisms is a major research activity. The longitudinal laser cooling methods described above can produce beams far from thermal equilibrium, because the transverse motion is not directly cooled. A single intrabeam collision can cause a longitudinal velocity change Jarge enough that a particle in resonance with the laser “hops” out of resonance. (Again, the short, range of the cooling force can be a liability.) If this happens while the lasers are scanning during the pre-cooling phase, the ion can be lost from the group of particles in front of the “snowplow” Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS (15, 16]. Note that in Fig.3, the ions are not always spatially overlapped by the lasers, but see each laser for about 20% of their orbit. This wors- ens the problem, At the TSR, a method has been developed to extend the effective range of the laser force by use of the technique of optical adiabatic excitation [17]. Bunched beam laser cooling also extends the effective range of the laser force, since the particles’ synchrotron oscillations will periodically carry them into resonance with a fixed- frequency laser. Particles from a cold distribution which intrabeam-scatter out of resonance will also eventually come back into resonance because of the synchrotron oscillation {12}. The geometry of a storage ring does not lend itself to transverse laser cooling. ‘Since the mo- ‘mentum of a single photon is small compared to the momentum of the stored ions, an appreciable force is achieved only by scattering many photons, This is not a problem longitudinally since all straight sections can be used as cooling regions. It is, however, impractical to obtain the necessary overlap with transverse (horizontal or vertical) cooling lasers. One proposed solution involves the use of dynamic coupling between the transverse and longitudinal motion in order to “share” the laser cooling between all three dimensions [18]. ‘The transverse to longitudinal energy transfer via intrabeam scattering can also lead to so- called “sympathetic” cooling of the transverse motion. Since the Coulomb interactions in the beam tend to equilibrate the various motional degrees of freedom, one can in principle cool all three dimensions with only longitudinal laser cooling [19, 8}. Current research concentrates on optimizing direct longitudinal cooling and sympathetic transverse cooling, as well as on studying space charge effects in the resulting dense and cold beams [12, 20, 21}. Perspective In spite of the rather limited experience to date, laser cooling has opened up areas of research in cold and dense beams that are not accessible by other means. The long-range goal is to determine the ultimate limits to stored beam quality or phase space density. Laser cooled beams may also play a key role in the study of strongly coupled one-component plasmas or in fundamental studies of many-particle, nonlinear dynamical systems. 175Sec.2.8: BEAM COOLING References {1] T. Hinsch, A. Schawlow, Opt. Commun, 13 (1975) 68 2} J. Gordon, A. Ashkin, PR A21 (1980) 1606 [3] VG. Minogin, VS. Letokhov, Laser Light Pres- sure on Atoms, Gordon & Breach (1987) [4] C. Salomon et al, Europhys, Lett. 12 (1990) 683, [5] F. Diedrich et al, PRL 59 (1987) 2931; DJ. ‘Wineland et al, PRL 59 (1987) 2935 (6] A. Rahman, J.P, Schiffer, PRL 57 (1986) 1133, (71 S, Schréder et al, PRL 64 (1990) 2901 18] N. Madsen et al, to be published (9] 3.5. Nielsen, Optics Letters 20 (1995) 840 (10) R. Grimm, private communication [11] J.S. Hangst et al, PRL 67 (1991) 1238 [12] J.S, Hangst et a, PRL 74 (1995) 4432 [13] W. Pietrich et al, PR A48 (1993) 2127 [14] JS. Hangst, PhD Thesis, U. Chicago (1992); Ar- gonne Report ANL/PHY.93/1 [15] H.-J. Meisner, PhD thesis, U, Heidelberg (1995) [16) H.-J. Miesner et al, CERN 94-03 (1994) [17] B. Wanner et al, CERN 94-03 (1994) [18] H. Okamoto, A.Sessler, D. Mobi, PRL 72 (1994) 3977 [19] H.-J. Miesner et al, PRL 77 (1996) 623 [20] J.S. Hangst et al, PRL 74 (1995) 86 [21] VA. Lebedev, 3.5, Hangst, J.S. Nielsen, PR E52 (1995) 4345 2.84 Ionization Cooling D. Neuffer, FNAL In ionization cooling (jz-cooling), particles pass through a material medium and lose energy (momentum) through ionization interactions, and this, is followed by beam reacceleration in rf cavities, ig.1). The losses are parallel to the particle motion, and therefore include transverse and longitudinal momentum losses; reacceleration restores only longitudinal momentum. However, the random process of multiple scattering in the material medium increases the rms beam divergence and therefore the emittance. This cooling method is not practical for protons, which would have frequent nuclear interactions, or electrons, which would have bremstrahlung, but is practical for muons, and cooling rates compatible with muon lifetimes are possible. * The differential equation for rms transverse cooling is (1, 2,3, 4, 5] 1 dE dey ___1 dE, BE ds" 7 BB dB) ds 2 ds 176 Manat oa cepeetel mote, PRcpy. aeencoane Aecateratot Wormertin gon, ‘spuy eeptodre Figure 1: Concept of ionization cooling. BES « 26 mpOLRE where the first term is the frictional cooling effect, and the second is the multiple scattering heating, Eis the total beam energy, dE/ds is the energy oss rate, @rms isrms multiple scattering angle, Lp. is the material radiation length, A, is the betatron function, and E, is the characteristic scattering. energy (~13.6 MeV) [6]. The equation for longitudinal cooling with energy loss is doe _ 9% 42 , WABI) — ds ~~ OE at ‘The first termis the cooling term and the second is, the heating term caused by random fluctuations in the particle energy. Beam cooling can occur if the derivative A(dE/ds)/OE > 0. This energy loss can be estimated by the Bethe-Bloch equation, i. Eq.(6), Sec.3.3.1. 6(dE/ds)/OE is negative (or naturally heating) for E, <~0.3 GeV, andis only slightly positive (cooling) for higher energies. In the long-pathlength Gaussian-distribution limit, the second term in Eq.(2) becomes 2 HAE Ee) 3 d(rermec?)?nen? 6-§) @) where ne is the electron density in the material, Eq.(3) increases rapidly with 7, opposing the cooling process, After adding this energy straggling, ionization cooling does not naturally provide adequate longitudinal cooling. However, longitudinal cooling can be enhanced by placing the absorbers where transverse position depends upon energy (dispersion D # 0) and where the absorber density or thickness also depends upon position, such as in a wedge absorber. In that case the cooling derivative can be 28 gh +rewritten as oF _, °F] dE Di wy OE — OB \q* “ds Beppo where p'/o is the change in density with respect to transverse position, po is the reference density associated with dE/ds. Increasing the longitudinal cooling rate in this manner decreases the transverse cooling by the same amount. The transverse cooling term is changed to Note that the coupled transverse cooling (and heating) changes occur in the same direction (ie. horizontal or vertical) as the dispersion and wedge. However the sum of the cooling rates (over 2, y, and 2) remains constant. This sum can be represented, as with radiation damping, as a sum of cooling partition numbers, where the partition number is defined as the ratio of the cooling rate to the fractional momentum loss rate, For <- and y-emittance cooling the partition numbers are dez/ds\ , (dp/ds both naturally 1, a= 9y=( es Ji a yaa © while the longitudinal partition number is ult a(aB/ds) / (dp ub = ae =~ SE G#) Aldp/at) / (dp/at) on i P wu which is a function of muon energy. With (horizontal) wedge enhancement of longitudinal cooling, gz becomes 1 Po while gz, increases by Dp’/po, leaving the sum of the partition numbers Dy = (gz + gy + 91) constant. This sum is a function of muon mo- ‘mentum, and as displayed in Fig.2. EB, - 2 for Py > 0.3 GeV/c, but is smaller for lower energies. However, 5, does remain positive for all en- ‘ergies, which indicates that cooling remains possible even at low ys energies. The above differential-equation discussion is formulated in terms of integrating small changes. In practice, transverse-longitudinal phase-space exchanges may be concentrated in thick wedge absorbers. An equivalent transport-matrix based Ge = @®) a7 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS Lot tt 400 200306 400 Muon Momentum (MeVic) J} ‘500 ° Figure 2: Dy vs muon momentum py. ge and gy are naturally 1 while gz, becomes strongly negative for P < 200 MeV/c. E, remains positive, which implies cooling at all momenta, formalism appropriate for this large-exchange case is presented in [7]. Guidelines for optimum cooling can be obtained from Eqs.(1)-(3) and the partition fune- tions. It is desirable to obtain small 6, (strong focusing) in the absorbers. Strong focusing systems with high-field quads or solenoids, or current carrying lenses (Li or Be lens [8], where the focusing clement is also the energy loss medium) are considered. To minimize multiple scattering emittance dilution, materials with large values of LpdE/ds are preferred (light element absorbers e.g. Li, Be, or hydrogen). Eq.(3) indicates that energy straggling increases greatly with high energies, while the partition function becomes small for low energies (Fig.2). An optimum for cooling with minimal heating would occur at the intermediate values; that is, at -y ~ 3 (where py, * 300 MeV/c or Bp ~ 1 T-m) where 3, ~ 2. Particular scenarios that could obtain ionization cooling of muons by the large factors needed for u+-p.~ colliders are under investigation [9]. In these studies transverse cooling from ey ~ 0.015 to 0.00005 m-rad, and longitudinal cooling by an order of magnitude are required, References [1] AN, Sktinsky, V.V, Parkhomchuk, Sov. J. Nucl, Phys. 12 (1981)3 [2] EA. Perevedentsey, A. N. Skrinsky, Proc. 12th Int. Conf. on High Energy Acc. (1983) p485 (3) D. Neutfer, PA 14 (1983) 75Sec.2.8: BEAM COOLING [4] D. Neuffer, Proc. 12th Int. Conf. on High Energy Acc. (1983) past [5] D. Neuffer, NIM A350 (1994) 27 [6] Particle Data Group: R. M, Barnett et al, LBNL, and references cited within [7] D. Neutffer, Fermilab Pub-96-140 (1996) [8] B. F Bayanov et al, NIM 190-(1981) 9 [9] BNL-52503, Fermi-Lab-Conf.-96-092, LBNL- 38946 (1996), Snowmass workshop (1996) 2.8.5 Crystalline Beams J. Wei, BNL Since mid 1980's, there have been experimental [1, 2] and theoretical [3, 4] efforts to achieve crystalline beams. When the beams in storage rings are sufficiently cold in the beam rest frame, the ions may “lock into” a position where the re- pelling Coulomb force on the average balances the external focusing force. The interest, besides intrinsically on this new state of matter, is primarily on studying the physics of completely space- charge dominated beams, and the possibility of obtaining high luminosity in colliders [5]. Experimentally, ion crystallization has been observed in rf traps [6], static traps [7], and rf quadrupole rings [8] using laser cooling (Sec.2,8.2). Attempts to crystallize ion beams have not been successful due to the lack of effec tive cooling in directions transverse to the beam motion [1, 2], and the lack of suitable storage rings with lattices of sufficiently high periodicity Rh. Conditions of crystallization There are two necessary conditions [9] to form and maintain a crystalline beam: (i) The ring is alternating- gradient (AG) focusing operating below transition, and (ii) The ring lattice periodicity is at least 22 as high as the maximum betatron tune, Con- dition (j) arises from the criterion of stable kinematic motion under Coulomb interaction when particles are subject to bending in a storage ring. Condition (ii) arises from the criterion that there is no linear resonance between the phonon modes of the crystalline structure and the machine lattice periodicity. Beam rest-frame Hamiltonian [9, 10} Con- sider a system of multi-species of ions using the rest frame (2, y,2,t) of a circulating reference particle. Define the reference particle with electric charge Zoe and atomic mass Mo, and define for the ith species of ions with charge Zje and 178 mass M;, %;/Zo, and m= Mi/Mo (1) Measure dimensions in units of the characteristic distance € with €° = rop/6*7’, time in units of /B-ye, and energy in units of 64? Z3e?/4neot, where ro = Zge#/4nepMoc? is the classical radius, Gc and Moc? are the velocity and energy of the reference particle, and p is the radius of curvature in bending regions of magnetic field Bo. In a bending region with pure dipole magnetic field, the Hamiltonian for particles of the ith species is m = 3 (Pi+PR+P?) ® + Vo= >> a @) the summation, j, is over all the other particles. Ina non-bending region with longitudinal electric field and non-dipole magnetic fields, = 1 (pry pry pr) Zi Q2_ 42 Hy = 5 (B+ +P) - Bo @-v) ee aan mY em Oe) + VortUs ® where the quadrupole, skew quadrupole, and sextupole strengths are represented by 7m ~(p/Bo)(OB,/Ax), n1e = —(p/Bo)(OBy/ dy), ng = —(p/Bo)(6By/8x”), respectively, the electrical force F, is expressed in terms of electric field Z, in the laboratory frame, OU, _ 2 Zoekxt ( “3. y . img Moe \Epz) © In the usual case of a single species of ion, Z; m=1 Numerical methods Numerical study of the ‘crystalline state has been performed with the molecular dynamics (MD) method [4, 9, 11] it- crating the equations of motion derived from the Hamiltonian. Ewald-type [12] summation is performed in the azimuthal direction to evaluate the Iong-ranged Coulomb forces among particles and their image charges modelled in periodic “super- cells” for computing efficiency. lzGround-statestructure In a crystalline ground state, the motion of the circulating particles is periodic in time [9] with the period of the machine lattice, As shown in Fig.l, particle trajectory in the transverse direction conforms to AG focusing (breathing), and in the longitudinal direction conforms to the change in bending radius (shear). In the presence of a longitudinal electric field, momentum P, also varies periodically conforming to the energy gain at the cavity [10]. x¥2) 04 05 “Tne (FODO periods) os 40 Pane “oo 0408 “Tie (F000 periods) Figure 1: Particle trajectory of a bunched crystalline beam. The machine consists of 10 FODO cells with Ye = 2.8, vy = 21, and 7 = 14. Lattice components in each cell are displayed in the figure: B is a bending section, Fand D are focusing and de-focusing ‘quadrupoles, and RF is the bunching rf cavity. 0840 The ground state structure is a 1-D chain when the beam line density is low (9, 11]. The structure becomes 2-D lying in the plane of ‘weaker transverse focusing if the line density in the machine is A> o.62y€7? [min(og, 2 ~ 7?)] 6 where Vey are the transverse tunes. For even higher density, the particles arrange themselves into 3-D crystals, becoming helices and then helices within helices. Fig.2 shows such a multi- shell structure at a defocusing location of the lattice. The average ratio between the horizontal and vertical particle spacing is = [v2/(v2 — 7°)}"/5. ‘The maximum spatial density in the laboratory frame is © yVyx/v2 — 77/(26°). If a sinusoidal 179 Ch.2: BEAM DYNAMICS electric field is present, the crystalline structure can be bunched azimuthally. 2 10 “10 ‘ x0 Figure 2: A multi-shell structure with particle positions projected into the x-y plane (X = 25y€~1), Lattice heating A crystalline beam in its ground state, despite breathing and shear motion, remains in the zero-temperature state [9]. At any non-zero temperature the crystalline beam absorbs energy and heats up under time-dependent external forces caused by variations in lattice fo- ccusing and bending. In the high temperature limit, this intrabeam scattering results in a growth rate oc AT~5/2, where the normalized temperature T (with its components defined as the deviation of P., P, and P, from their ground-state values, squared and averaged over particles) is related to the conventional beam temperature T'y at high temperature by 2kpp? Pima with kp the Boltzmann constant. The peak heating rate occurs at the temperature of about T= 1 when the ordering starts to occur, as shown in Fig. 3 [10}. ‘Typically, strong spacial correlation appears in all directions when the temperature is below T ~ 0.05. Lattice shear and AG focusing have similar effects on beam heating. Heating behavior is similar for both bunched and unbunched beams. Effects of machine lattice imperfection [13], ion neutralization, and envelope instability (14] have been studied, Cooling methods In order to attain a crystalline state, the beam must be effectively cooled in 3-D with a sufficient speed to overcome the heating. Both electron and laser cooling provide high cooling efficiency in the longitudinal direction, reaching a beam temperature of less than 1 K, but not, TxSec.2.8: BEAM COOLING +3208 ot at rote tme sop) *4a0258 \ Terperaue,T Figure 3: Typical heating rates as functions of temperature obtained by MD simulation at various line densities A. in the transverse directions (around 100 K) [2]. “Sympathetic cooling” due to intrabeam scattering does produce transverse cooling [15], but the heat exchange becomes ineffective as the beam approaches an ordered state, Coupling cavities operating on a synchro-betatron resonance or regular rf cavities in a dispersive region can provide effective 3-D cooling [16], but the coupling mechanism ceases to work due to space-charge detuning before an ordering can be reached, Real- ization of crystalline beams requires cooling that provides the ions with constant angular velocity, rather than constant linear velocity (so called tapered cooling) {10, 17]. References (i) EE. Dement’ev et al, Zh. Tekh, Fiz, 50 (1980) 1717; N.S. Dikanskii, D.V. Pestrikov, Proc. Work- shop on Electron Cooling and Related Appli- cations, KK 3846 (1984), V.V. Parkhomchuk, AH. Skrinsky, Reports on Progress in Physics, 54 (1991) 919 {2} S. Schroder etal, PRL 64 (1990)2901; 1.8, Hangst, et al, PRL 67 (1991) 1238 [3] J.P Schiffer, P. Kienle, Z. Phys, A 321 (1985) 181; LP. Schiffer, O. Poulsen, Europhys. Lett. 1 (1986) 55 {4) A. Rahman, J.P, Schiffer, PRL 57 (1986) 1133; IP, Schiffer, A. Rahman, Z. Phys.A-Atomic Nu- clei 331 (1988) 71 [5] J. Wei, AM. Sessler, EPAC 98 [6] F. Diedrich et al, PRL 59 (1987) 2931; DJ. ‘Wineland et al, PRL 59 (1987) 2935 (7) S.L. Gitbert et al, PRL 60 (1988) 2022 [8] H. Walther, Proc. Workshop on Light Induced Kinetic Effects on Atoms, Ions and Molecules (1991) p.261 180 [9] J. Wei, X-P. Li, AM. Sessler, PRL 73 (1994) 3089; BNL-52381 (1993) [10] J. Wei et al, Crystalline Beams and Related Is- sues, World Scientific (1996) p.229; Proc. 6th Adv. Acc. Concepts Workshop (1994) p.224 [11] RW. Hasse, 5P. Schiffer, Ann, Phys. 203 (1990) 419 [12] PP, Ewald, Ann. Phys. (Leipeig) 64 (1921) 253 [13] J. Wei, A.M, Sessler, EPAC 96, p.1179 [14] I Hofmann, J. Struckmeler, Proc, Workshop on Crystalline Ion Beams (1988) p.140; B. Yang etal, Phys, Plasmas, 3 (1996) 688 [15] HJ. Miesner et al, PRL 77 (1996) 623 [16] H. Okamoto, AM, Sessler, D. MObI, PRL 72 (1994) 3977 (17) J. Wei, H. Okamoto, AM. Sessler, PRL 80 (1998) 2606; H. Okamoto, J. Wei, PRE (1998)Chapter 3. ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS 3.1 SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 3.1.1 Radiation of a Point Charge H, Wiedemann, Stanford U/SSRL Radiation fields Electromagnetic radiation emitted from relativistic charged particles, especially electrons, as they are accelerated is called synchrotron radiation. Radiation fields B= -2Z4-V¢ and 5 = V x A with retarded Lienard-Wiechert potentials te 6 Ap) = Gree Ri+a-B flee 12) = Rekigadl © where A(¢,) is the distance vector from observer to source, ft = H/R. All quantities on the rhs. are taken at the retarded time cf; = ct — R(tz). With cB = ( x fis the Poynting vector becomes 5,(t) = —eoc?E?(1 + + f)l, and the instantaneous differential radiation power is fi BR), = oP E+ B- as = mE axa) xAl, @ where r = RIL ++ 6) = RO ED and @ the angle between @ and fi. Replacing dW/d = f(dP/dO)dt and taking the Fourier transform of the electric field results in the spatial and spectral distribution of radiation energy emitted by one electron during a single pass (1, 2], ew rome?» dw dQ ante . 2 | / [ax (Ax Hjem ar, @ 181 Specific radiation characteristics are determined by the particular temporal variation of J and ft along the particle path. Radiation power The total radiation power per particle in its own system is re @ Inthe laboratory system," Bree? f(a. 2\?_ (d po Be (ws) - : @)| © Defining acceleration vectors parallel and orthogonal to the particle motion i+ splits the total radiation power into parts due to lon- sgitudinal and transverse acceleration respectively. With Gy = -& $ for longitudinal acceleration, dy\2 Z © Ay = ferent ds In case of transverse deflection by magnetic field ‘and bending radius p we have 6, = 6c/p and 4 PE = Yoremect 1 o and for transverse deflection by electric field € the acceleration is ie = = joume'? ® The =o result is slightly modified by a quantum mechanical correction due to the recoil of the photon on the particle [3], Pam = Pamatat (= 7579 0) where ¢¢ is the critical photon energy [Eq.(6), $ec.3.1.3]. Radiation power depends on the mass of the radiating particle like 1/m*, For protons and electrons of the same total energy, 4 = (=) = 880x107 (10) Ap,‘Sec.3,1: SYNCHROTRON RADIATION Relativistic transformations Transformation of frequency w and unit vectors fi from particle frame (*) to laboratory frame produces the relativistic Doppler effect, w = w*y(1 +4 Bng) ayy and efficient collimation into the forward direction, Noy B+nt tony’ Te pnp Angles with respect to 2-axis transform with n, = cos © and n2 + n3 = sin? © etc. like ; sin’ snes yl + Bos 8*) — Radiation emitted into all forward space (O° < 7/2) in particle system is collimated to within an angle © = +1/7 in laboratory system, References [1] J.8. Schwinger, PR 75 (1949) 1912 [2] H. Wiedemann, Particle Accelerator Physics Il, ‘Springer (1995) [3] 5.8. Schwinger, Proc, Nat. Acad. of Sci. USA 40 (1954) 132 3.1.2 Coherent Radiation H, Wiedemann, Stanford U/SSRL Diffraction limit and brightness Consider a round Gaussian source (0, = V20, = Y2oy) ‘with angular emission distribution (op = V2ox" = V2ay). Further, we-define a diffraction patter where a point P is defined by the coordinates sin¢,¥, where ¢ is the emission angle with respect to the optical axis (Fig.1). The intensity distribution in this pattern is given by Fraunhofer’s diffraction integral [1] Kew « [Pe “Fr elo) odp a exp[-h(korg)"] The intensity distribution in ¢ is still Gaussian and since for small angles ¢ © 0, we find the standard width of the diffraction limited radiation distribution to be a = 1/(ko;). The actual geometric intensity distribution in an image plane depends on the distance and particular focusing arrangement. ‘The diffraction limited photon emittance in the horizontal and vertical plane is wavelength dependent and given by (see also Sec.4.2.2) a az Ray = n= @ pha = 2 orn = 182 Figure 1: Optical diffraction. Radiation from a linear source of length L (e.g. ‘undulator) appears to emerge from a disk of diameter D = Loy in the middle of the source. From difiraction theory it follows for a round aperture that D ~ /o, and therefore with Eq.(2) w= eater) on Depending on the actual criteria used to resolve ‘wo points in a diffraction limited image factors 2 and x may be distributed differently in Eqs.(3) yet preserving Eq.(2). Photon distribution in 6-D phase space is called the photon beam brightness, defined for Gaussian distributions by (Sec.4.2) =—_——_» see 4oreoreoryory (dw/w) ‘where Npp is the photon flux and o7,’s are the effective photon source sizes. The diffraction limited brightness is, with oz, =0-/V/2, etc., _4Npn Brox = 58a fay 6) For a real particle beam in an undulator, the diffraction limited photon emittance is diluted by finite beam size and divergence. Further- ‘more, geometrical considerations increase appar- ent source size in the middle of the undulator, particularly due to (i) path oscillation amplitude ‘a = ApK/(2n7) in the deflecting plane, where Ap and K are the undulator period length and strength (Eq.(6), Sec.3.1.5), respectively; (i) variation of beam size along the undulator (the 4... terms below); and (iii) oblique observation at a finite horizontal and vertical 9 angle with respect, to the optical axis (the 3¢...-terms), 207 + Oboe +0? + Oboe L? + JPL? beCh.3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS. She = Or + oboe Oy = Lott oboy tobe yl? + OL? Oy = 02 + obey © where Opo,u and of,,., are the betatron beam size and beam divergence at the undulator entrance. ‘To maximize the photon beam brightness the focusing of the electron beam must be adjusted such that 6-D phase space is minimized, For this case 7 depends only on g, and dpo.u etc. The optimum matching condition occurs with o,,, = euBu and Boy = eu/Bu when orwore [uu + $0? /eu/Bu+ $02 becomes @ minimum for Or L oe ee oy we Spatial coherence The fraction Neon _ 7 ® Non W6r®orroreoryory defines the fraction of spatially coherent photon flux, Significant spatial coherent radiation is emitted into the forward direction if the beam emittance is reduced to €y < d/(4m). ‘Temporal coherence Particles confined into very small volumes of dimensions < \ can emit spatial and temporal coherent radiation [2]. The electric field from electron m at frequency w = ck has the form Em o et+*Fm), where 7 points from the observer to the charge center and 7 is the vector from the bunch center to the electron mm. ‘The radiation power from all N, electrons is, with Plu) & Enna Emer Pw) = plw)Ne[1+(Ne~1H(A7)] © where p(w) is the radiation power from a single electron, 9(,) = [J eM? y(F)ar | the form fac tor and (7) is the 3-D normalized particle distribution. For a beam with uniform transverse distribution and either a Gaussian z-distribution (rms = ¢) or a uniform 2-distribution (total length = £), a0) = e0(-2%) ao ae) = SGN ay See Fig.2. ‘The duration At and spectral width Av of a ‘wavepacket is connected in the relation AtAv > 183 ry Figure 2: Form factors for Gaussian and uniform particle distribution, 1/4m where At is called the coherence time and the coherence length is derived from this for the ‘general case and undulator radiation, respectively q foon= 2 and teohand =NpA (12) ‘The coherence length can be increased by reducing the spectral width A. in the monochromator. References (1) M. Born, E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, Pergamon (1975) [2] H. Wiedemann, Particle Accelerator Physics, Springer (1993) 3.4.3 Bending Magnet Radiation H. Wiedemann, Stanford U/SSRL Bending radius of charged particle path in homogeneous field B at energy B is 1_ eB B(T] = =o = 0.2998 1 o 6B ace Instantaneous radiation power becomes, with Bi = Be/p, = aE with @ ae -5_m Oy =F aaa = 8800 x 10 GE for electrons. The total energy loss to radiation per 360° deflection is Uo= f Prat = gon, @ where TZ is defined in Sec,3.1.4, For an isomagnetic ring Up = Cy. For a circulating beam ‘current J the total radiation power is eae Peat) = ofS PC I{A] (4)Sec,3.1: SYNCHROTRON RADIATION Figure 1: Functions K/9(€) and Kays(€). The spatial radiation power distribution is (ys = deflection angle, 6 = observation angle with respect to the plane of deflection) OP, Py dp dd” 322m (1+ 926)572 The first term is the c-mode with the electrical field orthogonal to the deffecting field, The second term is the -mode for which the electrical field is in the plane of deflecting field and line of observation. After integration, P, = §P, and Py = }Py, ‘The critical photon energy: ec = hoy /p = hive or (for electrons) ée(keV) 5 pe Mare © © E([Gev]}* ~ elma] 0.665 E[GeV/?B[T] (7) Spatial and spectral photon flux distribution is (1) Ets _ cp Ae OREO) @ dodgy 8 wwe 2/8 i where for electrons, 3a Ca = Fatma 1.3255 x 10%. 2.218 Photons _ (gy srad?GeV?A K,(€) is modified Bessel function (Fig.1), € = 76? Kin(€) FE +776)9, and 1476? wal (10) ‘The two terms in the square bracket are for the ¢- and -mode polarization respectively. See Figs.2 and 3. F(6,0) = (1 +776)? 1+ 184 Figure 2: Spatial and spectral distribution of radiation. Upper: o-mode. Lower: n-mode, Integrating over the nondeflecting plane gives the total photon flux per unit deflection angle, Nx Ae (2 Tp = OWEITS S| 2) ap with 4a Oo = Femek : 9_photons = 3.9614 x 10° To Gev (12) ‘The universal function (Fig.4) is Stuer) = WB f Kysla)dx (13) whe ‘The rms spatial distribution a9 close to the forward direction (@ ~ 0) is, with =O 8) _1 _ 10 = Tr, PRE EB BY F(€) is shown in Fig.5, with € = w/we.Ch.3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS. Figure 3: Relative magnitude of o- and -mode radiation, 10 Soa o 001 0.001 oor 0001 oot 10 ow Re eltay Figure 4: Universal Function S(w/w.). Harmonic representation Synchrotron radiation is emitted at frequencies which are harmon- ies of the revolution frequency up to very high orders determined by the critical photon frequency at harmonic number Ye = we/wy, = $-° where wy = ¢/pis the Larmor frequency, For v > 1 the modified Bessel functions can be approximated by ordinary Bessel functions and the photon flux from a circulating beam current I'is os yah ese as) where the arguments of the Bessel functions are vB c0s8. Shielding Radiation formulae generally hold only in free space. When radiation is emitted within metallic pipes, long wavelength radiation with A pipe dimensions are cut off, For the case of a beam between two infinite metallic plates at a distance d, this shielding effect gives a differential photon flux in the forward direction (8 = 0) [2], aia ga (22) et an Va) ve (16) g0 : i: : eo we wt tah Sw Er alo, Figure 5: Function f(€) = 9B. Jsvds/xp x Dy jain where 2 = /(B)? + Gnp/dy and v > 1. For d ~ 00, it becomes Eq.(15), Shielding is particularly significant for short bunches at frequencies w < we. For a uniform particle distribution of length £, the total coherent radiation power for a circulating beam current I in the absence of shielding is ws Poy = 2() Pay 12 dro Jz(x) Joa) + eee woe and with shielding by two infinite plates at distance d, Vi eee ePa a = et as) The shielding efficiency is PS,/Pa, = V5d/ (239823), References [1] H. Wiedemann, Particle Accelerator Physics 11, Springer (1995) [2] J.S, Nodvick, D.S, Saxon, PR 96 (1954) 180 3.14 Synchrotron Radiation in Storage Rings H. Wiedemann, Stanford U/SSRL 3.1.4.1 Radiation integrals Beam parameters in a storage ring are modified by the emission process of synchrotron radiation. These effects are governed by radiation integrals [1] (note also the numbering scheme and calculation in [2]), = f(2+B) a my Px Py Haale 185Sec.3,1: SYNCHROTRON RADIATION f(r wp) Ts[m~ sai) ={ EBEEIRO Teal! = f im ds 6) Zolm!] = fdas © where k = 52 /(Bp), Dy is the horizontal (u = 2) or vertical (u = y) dispersion function, and Hal8) = Budi? + 20uDu Dy +uD3 andu = a or y. The -signs are for and y, respectively. For an isomagnetic ring, Zz = # and Zz = a. The entries of Eq.(4) are for rings with sector ‘magnets (upper) and rectangular (lower) magnets, respectively. An individual general wedge magnet, ‘contributes to the radiation integral like AZeu Pot +f Fe (+ 20h) as Be M where 0,8 are the entrance and exit angles as measured from a pole face normal to the beam orbit and Duo, Dus the dispersion function at the entrance and exit, respectively, The signs are chosen such that for a symmetric rectangular magnet, 4 and 8, are negative. 3.142 Radiation damping Radiation damping occurs due to average energy Joss into synchrotron radiation. Damping for energy deviation and bunch length derives from:energy dependence of radiation. In the transverse planes damping comes from the loss of transverse ‘momentum with the emission of photons while rf- system replenishes only the longitudinal momentum. Damping decrements Betatron and synchrotron oscillation amplitudes are damped like Ay = Ajoe7t, where i = 2,y,s, With the circumference C, and y= gf ra= Ben @ where C, is defined in Eq.(2), Sec.3.1.3, the damping decrements [3] are ae = Se pets - T10/D) ay = Sen -2y/h) 186 Os Gomera + (ae +Ta)/Z) where Ca = 2113.1 m?/GeV%/s. For a planar ring, the quantity Tz-/Z2 is sometimes designated as D [3], Be(1 + 2pPh)d pate Spel 26Pk)ds da de a0) zy $e ‘Damping partition numbers J; are defined by Ty Je =1- 9, Jy=1— Js =24 tego ay with Robinson's sum rule [4] D4ua4 (2) 7 ‘The damping time 7; is the reciprocal of the damping decrement a. Dependence on rf frequency The electron beam energy in a storage ring can be changed by varying the rf-frequency, 6 = Ap/po (1/a1c)A fet/ fet While displacing the particle orbit transversely. Quadrupoles act now also like bending magnets with 1/p, = +kD,6 where + is used for « and y, respectively. The change in Tau is (5) Alay = 2oud (13) Dependence on synchrotron oscillation Oscil- lating particle energy 6 = Snax 6in wt due to synchrotron oscillation causes a periodic variation of damping decrements by {5] Aay _ Zou Oe Ta where the ¥ sign is for betatron oscillations u = x,y and synchrotron oscillation u = $, respectively. These oscillations result in a “breathing” variation of betatron and synchrotron oscillation amplitudes a, by Agu _ ou Smax8inwst (14) 4 Leu Smax ora we Lp as) 3.1.43 Quantum excitation Emission of photons into synchrotron radiation ‘occurs statistically, leading to quantum fluctuation of beam parameters [3]. The effect of quan- tized emission of photons involves the following quantities:Ch.3; ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS. ‘mean photon energy e) = gps ‘ms photon energy (=e total photon flux N product egheremec?y/|p*| Quantum excitation of beam energy spread along path of length L is B5(he)? fh 483 +f (ea ig) wy Statistical emission of photons causes sudden change in particle orbit at locations where dispersion is finite. This effect leads to statistical increase of betatron oscillations and emittance. In- crease of beam emittance &y (u = 2,y) due to quantum excitation along distance L is S5rehe 4831 wee Ac dew = an lo in 3.144 Equilibrium beam emittances Energy spread and bunch length Equilibrium ‘energy spread is reached when the average quantum excitation rate around the ring (do2/d¢|,). is equal to damping rate (do2,/dt|,). = —2c 02, z I; ete HRT Iett, with 55 he 0 = —s =3: (1! Cy Di me 3.8319 x 107m (19) for electrons. For a planar isomagnetic ring, 2 ob _ Cor? eo a0 a ‘The bunch length is = dale oF on Bo Vine en wo where ws is the synchrotron oscillation frequency and the slip factor 77 = a — 1/7”. 187 ‘Transverse beam —_ emittance Equilib- rium transverse emittance is reached when quantum excitation is equal to damping (deu/dt|a)s = —2aueus P Tou a= Oe where u = @ of y. (See also Eq,(12), Sec. In an ideal, flat accelerator Dy = Di, = therefore cy = 0. In this case, transverse recoil due to photon emission into angle 1/'y cannot be ignored and defines a lower fundamental limit on beam emittance, ey = Cabbabe (1/0) 7 Qdy Woy ‘Due to construction and alignment imperfections both 2- and y-betatron oscillations can become coupled, The degree of emittance coupling depends on the tunes and the coupling coefficient which is for quadrupole coupling c= ii ey BeBeds (24) where V = Ye + muy ~ (ve + mu, +q)2n9/C with Pu(s) the betatron phases, 1, the tunes, m = £1, q an integer, and k, the skew quad strength. In case m = +1, both emittances grow indefinitely if |Ye + Vy — q| < m. Incase m = —1, there isa constant exchange of « and y beam emittances at a frequency 2 = Vx? + A2/2 where A= v,—vy—q. The maximum beam emittances obey the sum rule eat ey = 0 25) where ézo is the uncoupled « emittance. The ratio of the maximum values of the beam emittances is (26) 3.4.4.5 Damping wigglers Wigeler magnets cause additional damping and ‘quantum excitation modifying the equilibrium ‘beam emittance to [5] ew = en 0 where the indices ° and “ indicate that the integral be taken over bending magnets and wiggler magnets separately. A horizontally deflecting wiggler magnet with Np periods and sinusoidal field variation along the electron path in anSec.3.1; SYNCHROTRON RADIATION originally-dispersion-free section of a circular accelerator generates a new equilibrium emittance cow _ 1 HEMP BOL os so 1+ gNp2On where @w = Ap/(2mpw), Po > 0, the bending radius, py > 0 is determined by the wiggler peak field, The resulting beam emittance is reduced if te BAR 7 O% S 1. For very long wiggler magnets (Nw — oo) the emittance approaches 2 Oy be nag2 hh ‘The change of equilibrium energy spread due to damping wigglers is few aby _ 1+T¥/TR a, itB/B Go which approaches (for Nw — 00) oy _, Po _ Bw ea Bae en 3.1.4.6 Quantum lifetimes Particle losses occur for Gaussian particle distributions in 6-D phase space due to finite transverse apertures or energy acceptance. Lifetimes due to these effects are [3, 6, 7] G2) where u = z,y or s, and Ay the limiting half apertures. For the synchrotron dimension, A, might be determined by the rf bucket height (See also Sec.2.1.2.), & Tq ine, with € ep (S) = ater F(@) =2 [Y= 1 - cos™4/a)| References [1] RH. Hetmet al, PAC 73 [2] J. Jowett, AIP Proc. 153 (1985) p.934 [3] M. Sands, Physics with Intersecting Storage Rings, Academic (1971) [4] KW. Robinson, PR 111 (1958) 373 [5] H. Wiedemann, Particle Accelerator Physics, ‘Springer (1993) [6] A.W. Chao, Lect. Notes Phys., V.296, Springer (1988) p51 [7] YH, Chin, DESY 87-062 (1987) 188 3.1.5 Undulator and Wiggler Radiation H, Wiedemann, Stanford U/SSRL Field expansion for sinusoidal field variation By 0 c05(Kp2) along axis [1]: Bz 0 By = Bo coshkgy coskp2 By = —Bo sinhkpy sinkpz where 4p = 2n/kp is the period length. Undula- tor field strength for hybrid magnet design [2] is, for small gap apertures g < p, By ~3.33 exp FE (sar ' wef] @) Equation of motion 8 = mag x B has solutions a) K 2) = TE cos bet) K? 20) = Bets gi —psin(2hpBet) @) with drift velocity B= @ ‘maximum oscillation amplitude a and deflection angle @ with respect to axis x = Bore oF hp Bir and dimensionless strength parameter Ce = Fredy 79 =84BITAgim] ©) A periodic magnetic field device is called an undulator if K S 1 and a wiggler magnet if K > 1. Radiation is emitted at a fundamental wavelength A; and its harmonics i. The wavelength [3] is the result of Lorentz contraction and Doppler shift of the magnetic period p, N= PHU +P e+e) o where 0, are the horizontal and vertical observation angle with respect to the axis. The wavelength for 9 = y = 0 is in practical units for electrons = Apim) (A) = 1305.6: i Biceve +}K?) @) and the corresponding photon energy _ iB|GevP (eV) = 9.4963 mw +1 @)Ch.3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS. ‘The spectral bandwidth of undulator radiation is Av Toe (10) and the polar opening angle 1 | 143K? ow © SiN a) where u = or y. The total energy loss of an electron passing through a Np-period wiggler or undulator magnet of length Ly = NpAp is Brea = }remec??K7kLu _ E|GeV?K? EnaleV] = 0.07257 “TT A circulating beam current J generates a total photon beam power of Aire E*K?NoI Beme® dy E[GeV}P?K2Np TA] ———ta ole] Spectral and spatial photon flux from beam current J into harmonic i and g- and x-mode polarization aNpn(w) ro) (12) ‘La[t0] P= (13) 0.07257, PIWw) = x DP sine(F2 + F2) (15) ai with sin tNpAwi/ur\? EN, Awi/urr 20D) cosip — KE2 1+ 9K? + 762 2651 sing 1+ JK? +76? where Aux = w — wi, and BiG) = SS Sema) Ji-am(0) Sine Fy Fr Za(i) w ore w 28K? 70 cosy wi 1+ 9K? +62 BK? a0 + TK + 770) SP mau) [iam-1(0)-+Jieamaa(v)] 189 o-mode n-mode Figure 1: Spatal undulator radiation distribution for ‘- and x- mode radiation in lowest order harmonics. The angle @ is taken with respect to the beam axis and y is the azimuthal angle counted coun- terclockwise while viewing the source with ip = 0 in the deflection plane (Fig. 1). In forward direction (6 = 0) and at harmonic. frequencies (Aw; = 0) the spatial photon flux dis- ‘tribution for the i-th harmonic is ANpn()| _ gypyadel KAP [II an Pw e+ aKa = 1.7466 x 10 BIGevpr1A] N32 FHC) with (16) Ud = [Jeu@) Jp]? a7 4K? tfc The function f(A) is shown in anda = Fig2. Total spectral photon flux of the harmonic i into forward cone of angle tow is Aw IiK? [JJ] Naw = aN Tie 18) = 1.431 x 107 In, S244) where K? [JJ] i 9) = Fey ooSYNCHROTRON RADIATION ‘Table 1: Tabulation of function fi(). Sec, K_A_f& fs fr fo fu <1 010.000 .000° 000” 000-000 2 038 .000 .000 000.000 4.132 000 000.000 6 238 002 000.000 8 322 O15 000.000 1.0 368 055 004.001 12 381 128 14 371 219 18 320 371 2.0 .290 A3 5.0 071 188 10 019 oa oot 0.001 of 10 100 kK Figure 2: Function f,(K) = See Fig3 shows the line spectrum as a function of K’. For K < 1 only few harmonics are obvious while for K > 1 the line spectrum approaches the con- ‘tinuous synchrotron radiation spectrum of a wiggler or bending magnet. The critical photon energy of wiggler radiation depends on the observation angle in the deflecting plane because of a varying magnetic field, 5 ev) = e(oyfa~(B) oy References (1) H. Wiedemann, Particle Accelerator Physics II, Springer (1995) [2] K. Halbach, J. de Physique, C1, suppl.no 2, Tome 44 (1983) [3] H. Motz, J. Appl. Phys., Vol.22, No. 5 (1951) 527 i90 Keo. Keto fl Koos ke20 o 2 42 0 2 4 Ste OH tn oph Figure 3; Line spectra of wiggleriundulator radiation for increasing strength parameter K.. 3.1.6 Other Radiation Sources R. Carr, SSRL H, Wiedemann, Stanford U/SSRL ‘Accelerated charged particles generate radiation through several other mechanisms; this discussion will concentrate on radiation generated by relativistic electrons and positrons. The mechanisms can be modeled as Weizsticker- Williams transformations of virtual photons comprising the electric field of a charged particle into real photons. Such processes are proportional to the fine structure constant a. [1, 2, 3] 3.1.6.1 Transition radiation Particles of charge e emit transition radiation while traveling from a medium with dielectric constant ¢1 into a medium of dielectric constant, €2. For normal incidence on the boundary plane the emitted radiation energy W per electron into backward direction at an angle 6; with respect to the particle path is (3] 2 cud = ree esate cos"6y # @ where Fa=(a-4) (-#a + Byle—e1sin® Fa = (1— Be cos? 61)(1 + By e2—e1 sin? 1) x (€2.c08 1 + y/€x€2 — ef sin? 6) Radiation energy into forward direction is the ‘same with all indices ; and 2 exchanged and 6 replaced by —G. The frequency spectrum ranges‘Ch.3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS. from microwaves (shielding effect!) to frequen- ties of about wu < yoViR2Wre where Nis the atomic density and Z the atomic number, For transition from vacuum (¢, = 1) into metal (¢ —+ 00) the total spectral and spatial radiation energy per electron is PEW _remec? _B*sin?@ 0) dudQ ~~ xe (1 — 8? cos? 8)? ¢ ‘Maximum emission occurs at @ = 1/(37). Inte- zation over all space gives the spectral radiation ‘energy per electron aw TeMec? 14+8 ae > SSebe [0+ (75) -2| x meee ny for y>1 @ 3.1.6.2 Free electron laser (See Sec.1.6.6,) In low gain approximation particle dynamics can be expressed by the pendulum equation [4] ey roe me aba, ty he wi where [JJ] is defined in mani $003.15, Bot, isthe laser field. Gain is defined as the increase in, laser energy AW, per pass through an undulator +03 sind =0 ® where G= ay = rr KANS Be Few) © and the gain curve (Fig.1, Sec.1.6.7) is é /sinw\? Folu) = (22) o with w = 2nNp2=2, 90 the particle energy at the undulator entrance, the resonance energy = 22(1+4?), and the particle bunch density Ty. 3.1.6.3 Cherenkov radiation Cherenkov radiation [3] is emitted at frequency w if the velocity of a charged particle is higher than the phase velocity of EM fields or v > c/x/ew), where €(w) is the dielectric constant of the medium surrounding the particle. Cherenkov condition 6¢(w) > 1 leads to emission angle 1 BY Kw) cosé = (8) 191 with respect to particle path. Spectral radiation power, when the Cherenkov condition 6«(w) > 1s fulfilled, is aP 2 1 Db = Prem’ = (- zm) eo where z is the charge multiplicity. 3:64 “Short” magnet and edge radiation The source length of synchrotron radiation from Jong uniform magnets is ~ 2p/7 and the upper limit of the spectrum is ~ we = 4rcy8/p. Ifa magnet is shorter than this source length (L < p/7)y the radiation pulse is also shorter and the spectrum extends to higher frequencies of ~ ws © 4ncy?/L. The spatial distribution of the photon flux into a band width du/w is [6,7] ANpw(w) _ 800%? I du 510 eS ETT? a with poll +776)? sin? y + (1 ~ 776)? cos? p a+ pee where the two terms in the denominator indicate the o- and 7- mode polarization respectively, B(w) is the Fourier transform of the magnetic field B(t), In case of a Lorentzian field distribution B(z) = Bo/(1 + 42z?/L?), Eq.(10) becomes aNpn(w) _ meoor? I dus at Oh ay 2y2 x(1-+776")? exp - Be | Radiation with fundamentally different characteristics is being emitted by relativistic electrons at the entrance and exit edge of otherwise uniform bending magnets. If 9 and y are the horizontal and vertical observation angles with respect to the beam axis and horizontal being the deflecting plane we get for the spatial distribution of the photon flux [8]: BBL gf? L(+ 776?) Pa) _ Slt re, + Rey)? where R= F [20 - be) exte) as F, =~ [™ explityds b= Yoav arte -20 [ Beds! + [" 62s!Sec.3.1: SYNCHROTRON RADIATION (Bq = transverse particle velocity, oer Axl6) = 5 Jf He)as +B.(0) 02) with p = —mec?7/(eBo) and f(s) = B(s)/Bo, assuming that the particles oscillate in the deflecting/horizontal plane only. There is no radiation in the forward direction. The intensity of the o-mode increases with @ reaching a maximum at 9 = 1/7, The m-mode radiation peaks at y = 1/7. For very long wave- Tengths the photon flux levels off at apn) [* Bh Nesapteayy? 3.1.6.5 Bremsstrahlung Bremsstrahlung, “braking radiation”, is emitted when a charged particle scatters from nuclei in matter. An electron’s energy decays with depth z into a material of atomic number Z depending on electron Bethe-Heitler screening (9), Ex(at) = ymechew*/%0 a4) where Xo = 1/(ngo(’7)) is the radiation length, 2 apt are i aan 8, 11 % yea ny- §)> 1<1 azut (is) 00(7) is the scattering cross section, and n is the number density of atoms in the target. The differential cross section for bremsstrahlung is [10] do _ aBZ? 4/_7 aw 2(54) a B= 10 for hw < Ee, and B = 0 forhw > Ee. For 7 > 1 the angular distribution has the form BI Lee) + 10) ~ Gye which is shown in Fig.1. Photons with energy hiv > 2mec? that scatter from nuclei can generate e~e* pairs, which then create more bremsstrahlung. For incoming electrons with energy E, the shower maximum of electrons with energy above £9 occurs at a depth in ze -1 Trax Tmax = 1.01. Xo (1 Be ) at which point the shower multiplicity is [9] 0.31 an (1g) a9) 192 10 Toe z 3 fos Zon ° ——a 0 8s 4948 0 as a0 blew Observation Angie in Units of 1/y Figure 1; Relative intensity v5.70. 3.1.6.6 Coherent bremsstrahlung If the medium is crystalline, the periodic lattice may induce coherent addition of scattered radiation, The electron need not travel near a crystal axis. The scattering cross section is modified by a1) oy = ool ent 8nX S |SyP5(E-J) 20) a ‘The first exponential is a Debye-Waller factor that accounts for thermal motions of the N atoms in the crystal of mean square amplitude a2; g = 2n/d is reciprocal lattice spacing. |5q|? is the crystalline structure factor that for the crystal unit cell of volume A and the 5-function selects the directions the radiation momentum f can take with respect to crystalline reciprocal lattice vectors J. Radiation is strongly polarized, and peaks near the axis of the electron beam. 3.1.6.7 Channeling radiation Channeling radiation is generated when charged particles travel through crystals along symmetry axes, Channeling may be axial (around a string of ions) or planar (between atomic planes). Pla- nar channeling of positrons occurs in V(x) = ‘m0? /2 potentials. Axial channeling electrons oscillate through strings in anharmonic potentials like V(z) = —Vosech*(kx), where Vo is the crystal potential, on the order of 10-1000 eV. Par- ticles must be aligned with crystal axes within a small angle Oincnaa = Ve Ec, on the order of a degree [12]. (see also Sec.7.2.1.5.) Channeling is not periodic with the lattice; periodicity depends on the depth of the potential. ‘Channeling radiation is similar to low-A undula-Ch3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS tor radiation, with spectrum ddI 3Iw w? ds hax (-28 +g) (w 1, and reduces to the case of transition radiation. This formula applies in the limit of small scattering angles 0, and where a < Arya. The effect of a finite electron bunch can be added by multiplying with a bunch form factor that includes coherence effects. Intensity peaks at @ = 1/(67), and is always less than that of transition radiation, See [14] for a discussion of diffraction radiation by a slit, 3.1.6.10 Parametric radiation This radiation can be thought of as conversion of the virtual photons that make up the field of an electron into real photons that diffract from the lattice of a crystal through which the electron passes. The diffraction satisfies Brage’s law, and energies are tyically a few 10's of keV. PXR is ‘monochromatic, its intensity and energy are independent of the energy of the electrons. The first theory [3] was for high energy (10’s of MeV), but there are also lower energy effects [15]. For high energy electrons, the photon intensity pattern is av _ My OZ \xn\?(@ cos? 26.rage + %) Derwue SiN” Orage (02 + 03 + 02...) "@) where Z is the effective thickness of the crystal, Ozy = ABrage(B — Boragg)zy are angles within @spot of the Bragg angle 6pragg. Xn is theSec.3.2: IMPEDANCES AND WAKE FUNCTIONS Fourier component of the electric susceptibility, ‘The nominal direction of the exit beam is given by 2dsin Opragg = ABragg Where d lattice vector, as shown in Fig.3. aS ne eng — Sy Sprass Pale Figure 3: Parametric radiation kinematics. 3.16.11 Smith-Purcell radiation This is coherent diffraction radiation generated when an electron beam passes very close to a diffraction grating [16]. The beam should be a distance d < ~BAsp/(4n) above the surface, which is generally a severe requirement. The wavelength of the radiation that appears at angle 6 to the electron beam and diffraction order nis Asp = EAenine (3 e080) 5) For relativistic electrons, the radiation intensity is #1 42 nee Sree ded ~ TMang (= Beosd)® 0) where z is the path length along the grating [17]. Aolative intensity ‘Obsorvation Angle (rad) Figure 4: Relative intensity of Smith-Purcell radiation ‘vs angle of observation. References [1] A. Friedman et al, Rev. Mod. Phys. 60 (1988) 471 [2] VG. Baryshevsky, LD. Feranchuk, NIM 228 (1985) 490 [3] ML. Ter-Mikselian, High-Energy Electromag- netic Processes in Condensed Media, Wiley «g72) [4] W.B. Colson, PL A64 (1977) 190 [5] J.D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, Wiley “975) [6] R.Coisson, PR A20 (1979) 524 (7 R. Bossartet al, NIM 164 (1979) 375, [8] O.V.Chubar, N-VSmolyakov, PAC 93, VoL2, 1626 (9} B. Rossi, High Energy Particles, Prentice Hall (1952) (0) RD. Evans, The Atomic Nucleus, McGraw-Hill (1955) (11] AW. Séenz, H. Uberall, Radiation Effects and Defects in Solids 122 (1991) p. 401 [12] R. Wedel, Phys. Stat, Sol. B99 (1980) 11 (13) P, Sprangle et al, J. Appl. Phys 72 (1992) 5032 (14] LD. Feranchuk, A.V. Ivashin, J, Phys. (Paris) 46 (1985) 1981 (15) H. Nitta, NIM B115 (1996) 401 [16] SJ. Smith, BM. Purcell, PR 92 (1953) 1069 [17] KJ. Woods, J. E. Walsh, PRL 74 (1995) 3808, 3.2. IMPEDANCES AND WAKE FUNC- TIONS 3.24 Definitions and Properties of, Impedances and Wake Functions T Sueuki, KEK Driving current ‘Axially symmetric case [1] {coordinates (r, 9, s)] Charge g, offset r = a, 0 = 0, velocity # in s-direction. p= Sor — 0)5(6)6(s — ut) a) _ Imcosmd = Lae pag HH —0) J = p83, Im =qa™ (m-th moment) General cross-section [2] {coordinates (2, y,8)] da = qv6(z)5(y)6(s — vt) @ (longitudinal monopole) Gs = qvb(y)(6(x — 21) — 6( + a)]4(s — vt) (a1 +0) (transverse dipole) @) 194Ch.3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS Wake potential The wake force F = e(£ + J x B) is integrated over a period L (holding z = 5 ~ ut fixed). The wake potential Fa f” ask 4 ~ -L/2 My is a function of only z = s — vt, and satisfies the Panofsky-Wenzel theorem [3], a WiFi = 5Fi © Here || denotes longitudinal and L denotes transverse. Definition of wake functions Win, Wa» W.., Wi Fy = -elmWmn(z)mr™ x(F.cosmé — 6 sinmé) Fy = -elmWz(2)r™cosm@ (6) Here a prime denotes d/dz. Wr is sometimes called transverse wake function and W/, longitudinal wake function. Similarly, for a general cross-section, W and Wj are defined as Fi = -eg2x,W1(2)@ (transverse dipole) Fy = -eqWj(2) (longitudinal monopole) @ Properties of wake functions [1] Wm(2) = 0, Wi(z) = 0 for z > 0 (causal- ity). * Win(2) $0, Wr(z) 2 O for z > 0-. © Wm(0) = 0 (in most cases, except space charge). © Wra(0) = 2Wy,(0-) (fundamental theorem of beam loading (4). © WE(07) = [Wia(2)] for all 2. © [ooo Whn(z)dz > 0. « Mio) = apr (pipe with inner radius , length L, and infinitely periodic impedance structures, pancake field). Dimensionalities are (Won) = [9s~'m-2+1 Definition of impedances Zymlw) = [ne “oslo (2) Zante) = [Zeal ‘Time dependence of e~** is assumed. Some authors use e*(j = —i). Z+(w) and Zll(w) are 0 for all w ReZim(w) > 0ifw >0, BEG Zho, Zim © sox Zh ‘These are approximate expressions relating Z,, and Z). They are exact for resistive round pipe, b = vacuum chamber radius. References [1] AW. Chao, Physics of Collective Beam Instabili- ties in High Energy Accelerators, Wiley (1993) (2] RL. Gluckstem, J. van Zeijts, B. Zotter, PR E47 (1993) 656 {3] W.K.H. Panofsky, W.A. Wenzel, RSI 27 (1956) 967 [4] PB. Wilson, AIP Proc. 87 (1981) p.450 3.2.2 Impedance Calculation, Frequency Do- main RL, Gluckstern, U. Maryland S.S. Kurennoy, LANL ‘The impedance calculation is reduced to an electrodynamics problem of finding the fields (volt- 195‘Sec.3,2: IMPEDANCES AND WAKE FUNCTIONS ages, forces) produced in the vacuum chamber by a given beam current, Depending upon the way chosen to formulate and solve the problem one may classify the calculation methods (i) by the initial formulation of the problem — in frequency (excitation by a current harmonic with a given frequency) or in time domain (first calou- lating wakes, .and then finding impedances via Fourier transform); (ii) by the method of solution — analytic, semianalytic, or numerical; (iii) by the approach used — electrotechnical (a chamber element is replaced by an equivalent circuit) or electrodynamic (solving the Maxwell equations). The convenience of a method depends on the geometry of a chamber element and on the frequency range of interest. Below we briefly list the main calculation methods in the frequency domain mentioning some applications and limitations. More details can be found in (1, 2, 3}; see also [4, 5, 6, 7]. Some explicit expressions for impedances are given in Secs.3.2.4, 3.2.5. In the electrotechnical approach an clement of the vacuum chamber, typically having a complicated geometry, is replaced by an equivalent Circuit, such as a transmission line or RLC- circuit, with circuit parameters (e.g,, its resonance frequency, Q-value or line length) determined from heuristic considerations. The approach typically allows one to obtain results in a simple form, but is limited to the frequency range (usually low frequencies) in which the replacement is valid. The broad-band resonator model for the impedance of a vacuum chamber can be regarded as an example of this approach [8]. Another example is the calculation of the impedance of strip- line BPMs [9, 10]. Electrodynamic methods listed below solve the Maxwell equations with a given current to find the fields excited in the chamber. While doing so, proper boundary conditions (BCs) are im- posed, In addition to the metal BC on the vacuum chamber walls, other conditions may be necessary to “close” the problem: (i) periodicity conditions; ({i) "closure” conditions — BCs on imaginary surfaces closing the region of interest such as imaginary metal planes in beam pipes far from the cavity to study its impedance at frequencies below the pipe cut-off; (ii) radiation conditions for open nonperiodic structures, such as a cavity coupled to a beam pipe. Eigenfunction method Since a solution of the inhomogeneous Maxwell equation can be represented by a series in eigenfunctions (EFs), the impedance can be expressed as a formal series [11]. The method allows one to evaluate either resonance impedance values for the lowest modes with frequencies below the chamber cut-off whose EFs can be calculated (usually numerically, in the “closed cavity" approximation, e.g. [12], or sometimes analytically [13]), or the low-frequency impedance in the simplest models where all EFs can be found analytically [16]. For a numerical solution one can apply any of the standard frequency-domain eigenvalue solvers, like SUPERFISH [14] or E-module in MAFIA [15]. ‘A modification of the EF-method allows one to calculate resonances also at frequencies above the cutoff, but only for periodic structures [17]. However, it requires computing numerically the structure dispersion characteristics which is rather time-consuming, especially for long periods. Field matching method In structures which can be subdivided into a few simple subdomains such that the wave equations in each of them allow the separation of variables, the field matching (or partial domain) method, is applied. Solu- tions in each subregion are expanded into a complete set of EFs with unknown coefficients. Field matching on the subregion interfaces and BCs lead to an infinite system of linear equations for these coefficients, which usually can be truncated toa finite size. ‘The matching technique was used to calculate the impedance of a cylindrical chamber with an axisymmetric pill-box cavity with fields matched ‘on the pipe radius: for periodic structures [18], or, with added radiation conditions at infinity, for a single cavity [19]. The matrix equation usually allows an analytic solution in the low-frequency limit and gives approximate expressions for res- ‘onances; in a general case, the truncated system of equations is solved numerically, ‘Two codes for periodic pill-box structures are well- known: KN7C [20] for axisymmetric modes, and TRANSYRS [21] for azimuthal ones. The field matching in transverse planes was used to calculate the impedance of an arbitrary axisymmetric structure with a discontinuity approximated by a sequence of stepwise transitions [22]. ‘The technique is applied naturally to collimators [23] and irises [24]. Besides, the approach can be used for an abrupt step between waveguides of different sizes (25). 196Ch.3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS pitch D and depth h (h <8), wh Perturbation methods For small variations of the transverse dimensions of the chamber, perturbation methods are applicable. If the radius of an axisymmetric chamber is r = (2) = bf1-+es(z)], /2b < 1 is asmall parameter, the BC on the (ideal) wall [Bs +¥(2)Erlpane) =0 Q as well as the fields, can be expanded in powers of ¢, Here h is the maximal depth of variations, and b is the mean chamber radius. It leads to a recurrent sequence of equations with BC at r = b, and to the impedance in the form of a se- ties Z = ZO + 22 4 270) +..., where Z() is the impedance of the smooth chamber and 20) = 0, The technique is known in mathe- ‘matics as “transfer of BC to the regular boundary.” It was applied in the lowest order to calculate the low-frequency impedance and resonances [26]; the higher orders in ¢ were considered in 7. ‘The e-expansion works when b(2) isa single- valued function of z and its derivative |¥/(z) | is limited, An additional restriction applies at low frequencies: D > h, where D is the structure period [28]; the method fails for bellows corruga- tions with D ~ h. Matrix method The impedance of a corrugated vacuum chamber can be calculated at low frequencies (28] and in the resonance region [29] by the matrix method. It is applicable to periodic structures with an axial or flat symmetry, when the boundary 6(z) is a single-valued function, | ¥(z) | is limited, but the boundary variation f= max(6(z) — 8] is not necessarily small. Sub- stituting the solution — a series in space harmonics with unknown coefficients — into the BC, and expanding it into a complete set gives an (infinite) matrix equation, For h < b it reduces to the e+ expansion. The matrix equation is solved numerically after truncation, The method is convenient for short-period structures like bellows because truncated matrices as small as 5 x 5 are sufficient: the truncation size required is proportional to the period length [29]. Method of effective boundary conditions The method idea is to impose some effective BCs, usually on some smooth surface, which simplify the solution for the fields, A standard example is “impedance BCs” in a cylindrical waveguide of radius 6 with the rectangular corrugation having E, = iz(1-2) tan “ He, E,=0 Q) at r = 6, where g/D is the filling coefficient [30]. Other effective BCs obtained by conformal mapping of the corrugation cell into a rect- angle [31], replace the corrugated surface by an equivalent smooth one at r = bey having a “dielectric coating” with permittivity depending on z. The high-frequency impedance resonance due to asynchronous wave slowed down by the corru- gations was analytically calculated (31] with this ‘approach. AA variant of the effective BCs approach was applied to the case of small pumping holes in the chamber walls [32, 33] for wavelength > hole size, The method, based on the Bethe theory of diffraction by small holes [34], replaces the hole by effective “magnetic” currents to satisfy BCs. For small holes, the fields radiated by thesé currents are approximated by those due to electric and magnetic dipoles, which allows an analytical evaluation of the impedances. The approach works for all small discontinuities (Sec.3.2.5), and the impedance and parameters of trapped modes (Sec.3.2.8) are expressed in terms of the electric and magnetic polarizabilities of the discontinuity (35]. The polarizabilities have been calculated for holes in a wall of a finite thickness by the variational method (36], for axisymmetric cavities and irises using conformal mapping (37), and for 3-D obstacles protruding into the chamber, like a post or a mask [38]. Integral-equation methods The impedance calculation for a discontinuity on an infinite pipe can be reduced to the solution of an integral equation, For an axisymmetric cavity an integral equation was derived [39, 40}, in which. the unknown function is the field at the cavity-pipe boundary, and the kernel is a series over the cavity EFs, ‘An integral over its solution gives the impedance. ‘When the discontinuity is small, the impedance is expressed in an analytical form [41]. The same is possible for some cavities in the high-frequency limit, The results can also be generalized to several discontinuities and, in the limit, to periodic structures [40]. The impedance can frequently be calculated as a variational expression in the unknown field in the integral equation, Using a truncated series with arbitrary coefficients for the unknown field 197Sec.3.2: IMPEDANCES AND WAKE FUNCTIONS leads to rapidly convergent numerical results for the impedance [24, 36]. Another integral equation was obtained for axisymmetric discontinuities of a rather general shape, with the only limitation that 6(2) is a single-valued function [42]. The impedance is expressed as its solution at a particular point, For simple boundaries the kernel can be evaluated analytically, but in the general case itis a definite integral. A more refined development [43] leads to an integro-algebraic equation, which works better above the pipe cut-off, The impedance calculation for a cylindrical semi-infinite waveguide with perfectly conducting walls was reduced to a solution of a set of two integral equations (44, 45] which, in turn, could be solved by the factorization technique [46]. Diffraction methods Methods of the diffraction theory are used to calculate impedances at high frequencies, wb/e > 1, where b is a typical transverse size of the chamber, following [47]. A paradox between two results on the high-frequency impedance behavior — either ReZ(w) ~ w¥? (47, 16) or ~ w~5/? (48) — existed for a long time. It has been resolved first by the matching technique [49]: for a single pill-box cavity the high-frequency behavior ReZ(w) ~ w7'/? holds, whereas for an infinite periodic structure Re Z(w) ~ w*/2, For a finite number M of cavities there is a transition from w*/2-behavior (which takes place in the frequency range L/b < wb/c < M?/3L/b) to w~'/? when wb/c > ML/b, where L is the distance between elements. The result was confirmed by the diffraction model in [50], as well as in [40], where the asymptotic behavior of Im Z was also studied [1]. Other methods A few methods which solve the Maxwell equations in the frequency domain directly do not fit the above classification. They include analytical calculations of the impedance of a smooth chamber at finite beam energy (the space-charge impedance) [51], the resistive-wall impedance for an axisymmetric chamber [52] or the chamber with an arbitrary cross section [53], and the impedance due to the curvature of a smooth chamber [54, 55]. One should mention here two proofs that impedances of discontinuities asymmetrical in the longitudinal direction are independent of the beam direction (39, 56), 198 ‘The impedance of an arbitrary-shaped cavity with semi-infinite pipes can be calculated using a frequency-domain code for field computations, with the radiation BCs simulated by introducing a medium with a small imaginary permittivity, which fills the smooth pipe [57]. Computations, however, are to be done separately for each frequency. In this respect, direct numerical methods in the time domain have some advantages. References U1] S. Heifets, S. Khelfets, Rev. Mod. Phys. 63 (4991) 631 [2] S.S. Kurennoy, Phys, Part. Nucl. 24 (1993) 380 3] RL. Gluckstern, PAC 93, p.3219 [4] AW. Chao, Physics of Collective Beam Instabil- ities in High Energy Accelerators, Wiley (1993) [5] K-¥.Ng, AIP Proc. 184, 1989, p.472 [6] P, Wilson, AIP Proc, 184, 1989, p.525 [7] L, Palumbo, V.G. Vaccaro, M. Zobov, Proc. CERN Ace, School (1993), CERN 95-06, p.331 [8] A. Hofmann, Proc. 11th Int. Conf, High Energy Acc, (1980) p.540 (9] RE. Shafer, UM-HE 84-1 (1984) p.155 [10] K.-Y. Ng, PA 24 (1988) 93 [11] EWU, Condon, J, Appl. Phys. 12 (1941) 129 [12] K.-¥.Ng, Physics of the Superconducting Super- coltider, Snowmass (1986) p.592 [13] GY, Stupakoy, S.S. Kurennoy, PR E49 (1994) 794 (14) K, Halbach, RF. Holsinger, PA 7 (1976) 213 [15] TT Weiland et al, Proc. Linac Conf., SLAC-303 (1986) p.282 [16] G. Dome, CERN SPS/85-27 (ARF) (1985) [17] S.8. Kurennoy, S.V. Purtov, IHEP 88-11 (1988) [18] E. Keil, B, Zotter, PA 3 (1972) 11 [19] H. Henke, PA 25 (1990) 183 20} E. Keil, NIM 100 (1972) 419 21} K. Bane, B. Zotter, Proc. 11th Int. Conf, on High Energy Acc. (1980) p.581 [22] L. Vos, CERN SPS/86-21(MS) (1986) (23) S. Kheifets, K. Bane, H. Bizek, SLAC-PUB- 4097 (1987) [24] H. Okamoto, S. Jiang, RL. Gluckstern, PR E50 (1994) 1501; S. Tang, R.L. Gluckstern, HE, Okamoto, PA 52 (1996) 179 [25] S. Heifets, S. Kheifets, SLAC-PUB-3965 (1986) [26] S. Krinsky, Proc. 11th Int, Conf. on High Energy ‘Ace. (1980) p.576 [27] S, Krinsky, R, Gluckstern, PAC 81, p.2621 [28] S. Kheifets, B. Zotter, NIM A243 (1986) 13 [29] S.S, Kurennoy, 8.V. Purtoy, PA 34 (1990) 155 (30) B.Z, Katzenclenbaum, High-Frequency Electro- ‘dynamics, Nauka (196)Ch3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS (31) VI. Balbekov, IHEP 85-128 (1985) [32] S.S. Kurennoy, PA 39 (1992) 1 [33] RL. Gluckstern, PR A46 (1992) 1106 [34] HLA. Bethe, PR 66 (1944) 163 [35] S.S. Kurennoy, RL. Gluckstern, G.V, Stupakov, PRES2 (1995) 4354 [36] RL. Gluckstern, JA. Diamond, IEEE Trans. ‘MTT 39 (1991) 274 [37] S.S. Kurennoy, G.Y. Stupakov, PA 45 (1994) 95 [38] S.S. Kurennoy, PR E55 (1997) 3529 [39] RL. Gluckstern, B. Zotter, CERN LEP-Note 613 1988) [40] RL. Gluckstern, PR D39 (1989) 2773; 2780 [41] RL. Gluckstern, F. Neri, PAC 89, p.1271 142] $.S. Kurennoy, S,V. Purtov, PA 36 (1992) 223, {43] RL. Warnock, SLAC-PUB-6038 (1993) [44] S. Heifets, L. Palumbo, V.G. Vaccaro, CERN- LEP-TH/85-23 (1985) [45] S. Heifets, L. Palumbo, CERN LEP-580 (1987) [46] L.A. Vainstein, Diffraction Theory and Factor- ization Method, Golem (1969) (47) J. Lawson, Report RHELIM144 (1968) [48] K. Bane, P, Wilson, Proc, 11th Int, Conf. on High Energy Acc. (1980) p.592 [49] S. Helfets, 8. Kheifets, PR D39 (1989) 960 [50] S.A. Heifets, PR D40 (1989) 3097 [51] CE, Nielsen, A.M. Sessler, KR, Symon, Proc, Int, Conf. on High Energy Acc. (1959), p.239, [52] VK. Neil, AM, Sessler, RSI 36 (1965) 429 [53] RL. Giuckstem, J.BJ. van Zeits, B, Zotter, PR EAT (1993) 656 [54] RL. Warnock, P. Morton, PA 25 (1990) 113 155] K.-Y.Ng, PA 25 (1990) 153 [56] S.A. Heifets, SLAC/AP-79 (1990) [57] RL. Gluckstern, F. Neti, Proc. Int. Conf, on High Energy Acc. (1987) v2, p.170 3.2.3 Impedance Calculation, Time Domain T. Weiland, TU Darmstadt Computation of wake fields in the time domain gives the transient behaviour of the scattered fields (direct method) and the final state of the ‘wake potential (indirect method), The main advantage of the time domain method is the calculation of the short range wake fields without approximate analytic extensions. We first introduce the Finite Integration Theory (FIT) as one approach to compute the wake fields up to high frequencies. ‘The FIT was originally developed for frequency domain applications [2, 3] and was extended to static and transient field computation from the need for solving many different problems in the design of large scale accelerators [4]. 199 Table 1: Maxwell's Grid Equations. Matrix Represen- Integral Form a Sfa-§B da . = hy fa —Dab = CD,e Sloy B-ad=0 SDab=0 Sin (7+ &B)-44 | ByG4 Dew = fog Hd? D,.D;z*b Sop B-dA =p oav | SD,De=4 ‘Figure 1: One cell of the grid G and the dual grid G. Allocations of the electric and magnetic field and flux components are indicated. The basics of the theory and the computer codes are well published (c.g, [6] [9]). We start with Maxwell’s Grid Equations (MGE), a set of matrix equations underlying the FIT, MGE are a one- to-one translation of Maxwell equations to a grid space doublet G— G. MGE on regular coordinate grids is shown in Tab.1. The field vectors are the electric field strength e, the electric flux density d, the current densities i and i, the magnetic field strength h and the magnetic flux density b. All matrices D are diagonal and represent geometrical or material properties. The topological matrices C,C correspond to the curl-operator, S, S to the div-operator and S7, ST to the grad-operator on the grid G or the dual grid G respectively. In this formulation the grids are orthogonalSec.3. IMPEDANCES AND WAKE FUNCTIONS coordinate grids in one of the usual coordinate systems such as (« — y — z),(%—y),(r—$- 2); ("—9), (r—2). It is the basis of existing computer codes solving problems in time domain, frequency domain and in statics (7), but itis also ex- tendable to non-regular grids (8, 9]. The grid fields have analytical, algebraic properties that ensure accurate numerical results and enable an algebraically exact self-testing of numerical results. Using a special numbering scheme for all elements of G, G the following key properties hold [6]: c=CT, sc=0 a Eqs.(1) represent a topological property resulting from the duality of the two grids. The analytical and algebraic properties resulting from these basic equations are [6] c8T=0 sC=0 MGE are a consistent discrete representation of the original field equations in the sense that basic properties of analytical fields are maintained when moving from R? to {G, G}. MGE in time domain Solving MGE in time domain the time axis has to be discretized. We use a leap-frog scheme which samples values of e and b at times separated by half a time step. With f'+1/2 := f(t = (i + 1/2)6t) the MGE can be rewritten as a set of two recursion formula: bHt = blstcelt1/2 e828 = MHD 7(EDz IB 6st 4 curlgrad = 0 8 4 divcurl =0 The bunch current is represented by the vector i. This recursion when applied to regular (« ~ y — 2) coordinate grids is a matrix formulation which extends the local discretization algorithm of Yee 1]. The eigenvalues of the system matrix become. greater than 1 for time steps larger than a critical time step. In practice, the time step limit is in fact, rather stringent. For the estimation of the largest possible time step the Courant criterion can be employed, 7 -1 EE a: ats (« Gata a) @ Itis equivalent to the eigenvalue limit in case of a regular equidistant coordinate grid with homogeneous material only. Eq.(4), shown here for 2-y-z 200 Figure 2: A driving charge q1 travels down a beampipe (radius a, offset r1 to the symmetry axis z, and an arbl- trary angle $y ) and passes a discontinuity (cavity with the gap length g). A witness charge qz follows at a distance # with an offset r2 and an angle do. 5 Figure 3: Three cells of the S-Band-Linear-Collider (SBLC) accelerating structures ‘coordinate grids, must be valid for each cell with the local value for the speed of light to fulfill the stability criterion in the entire mesh region. This ctiterion can be also derived from the grid dispersion equation ese fase Ay 2 Pe ‘BSP ]-[ for 2-y-z of r-z coordinate grids respectively. Re- member the equivalent relation on the continuous space is k? = (w/c) = k2 +k? + k2. The higher the frequency of an EM wave, the slower it moves on the grid. in( Aap) Az Wake field computation We restrict ourselves to the ultrarelativistic case, with » = ¢ through the structure, and ignore feedback on the bunch motion from the wake fields. A Gaussian shaped ‘bunch carrying charge 1 C is described by the line density \(s) of the current A(t) = cA(s = ct), 2) © 20?Ch.3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS Figure 4: The electric field lines of a bunch with o, ‘1mm travelling along the three cell S-Band-Structure. The excited frequency range when it passes an edge can be derived by a Fourier transform, - : MN=en [23 ) | Anestimation of the maximum relevant frequency is aM e Qnoz ® The minimum wavelength which should be re- solvable on the grid is ert = 2nc, if the short range wake effects shall be considered. As a rule of thumb this frequency should be sampled 10 times on the grid, But coming to shorter bunches and longer structures it has turned out that this criterion isn’t strong enough, Assuming an equidistant grid and considering the grid dispersion Eq.(5) leads to the necessity to have a grid step width o _ | ©) with L, the total length for the wake field calculation. Note that the numerical effort depends very strongly on the bunch length, since the number of grid points is proportional to A$ or A? in the 3-D or 2-D case respectively. ‘Wake fields can be calculated in 3-D structures. This means a large number of unknowns is inevitable to describe the whole geometry with a sufficiently high resolution. In many cases a 2- D description using cylindrical symmetry is adequate, To get the whole range of effects sev- ‘eral runs with different azimuthal dependencies are necessary. Direct calculation method This method calculates the wake potential in a specified comoving Sect = 201 wore oo Figure 5: The longitudinal and transverse wake fields of the 3 cell structure derived from an indirect wake calculation. The driving bunch (¢, = Imm) car~ ries the charge 1C. The offset of the witness charge isa = 1 mm, While the longitudinal monopole wake is independent of the radius the dipole wakes depen- dency is ox rp for an fixed radius ry = 1 mm. range, Since the deflecting or decelerating forces are results of the EM fields, itis sufficient to integrate these fields at the positions s, as fixed relative distances to the bunch head, The direct calculation method has several disadvantages. It is sensitive to numerical noise. It is necessary to perform a vacuum correction by first letting the beam pass a beam pipe without any scattering obstacles, and then subtracting the result from original wake field calculation. In general the net momentum change due to wake fields is important. This means an infinite integration range, because the bunch is hit by scattered waves acting back on it from the first contact on, the catch-up distance, up to the very end, where the wave travelling parallel crosses its way. Due to dispersion inside a beam pipe the propagation speed of the waves is not c, but the shorter the bunch, the longer is the interaction range. Asa consequence the calculation time rises, especially if Eq.(9) is considered. On the other hand the direct integration method allows the inquiry of the time dependent wake field development, e.g. that there are transverse kicks in structures with rota- tional symmetry in the monopole case which are compensated later on. Indirect calculation method [5] One requirement of this method is that the beam tube has the same radius rg at the beginning and the end of the discretized structure. It is demanded, that no obstacle reaches inside the tube radius, The driving charge enters the structure at theSec.3.2: IMPEDANCES AND WAKE FUNCTIONS eich ‘wane int Figure 6: The longitudinal monopole and transverse dipole wake fields of the 84-cell tapered SLAC structure, The driving bunch (7, = 1 mm) carries the charge 1C. radius of the beam pipe r1 = a, As a consequence no field will be excited as long as the charge does not reach the beginning of the discontinuity. Now the fields are monitored at r2 = a. The bunch leaves the structure at the surface of the beam pipe. There is no more interaction taking place between the bunch and the excited fields. It is not necessary to discretize longer structures, since there will be no change in the momentum any- more. Thus, . s+z. Wj(a,4, 8) at f at ZEala, na ——=) (10) The transverse wake potential can be derived by means of the Panofsky-Wenzel theorem. The wake function for an arbitrary azimuthal depen- dency tWn(8) follows from Eq.(10), tm(8) = Halevere) ay Due to the known azimuthal (m, 1, 2) and radial (r1, "2) dependencies of the wake potential this method allows the computation of the total 202 wake potential using Wy (ri, 725 $15 $2, 8,m™) = ¥ PrP un(s) cos(m(da~ $3) (2) & Wa(ri,72,$1,$28,m) = > {- Prmrpret Td 7 x [on(!)208(m(63- 60) +omrprge? a3) x [ad tnd) sina — 04) } Finally the loss factor (Sec.3.2.7) is k= ff * dad(s)W(s) aay Frequency domain The FIT is not restricted to time domain calculations of wake potentials. Especially in the calculation of long range wake fields the coupling between several modes inside the accelerating structure and the beam are under investigation, The eigenvalue problem in the continuous space leads to a discrete eigenvalue equation with a symmetric system matrix in the loss free case (material losses can also be considered), proto =f @ BCD ™DCDe = we! including the abbreviations D p76 ;45}, 5 p=p7!p,!Dz?, ¢ = D4p,iDde. Using the derived eigenmodes, the loss parameters can be calculated by performing a path integral along the bunch trajectory paying regard to different phases and relativistic factor 8. References [1] KS. Yee, IEEE, AP-14 (1966) 302 [2] T. Welland, Electronics and Communication (ABO), Vo131 (1977) 116 {3] T. Welland, Electronics and Communication (ABO), Vol.31 (1977) 308 (4) T. Welland, PA 15 (1984) 245 [5] T. Welland, NIM 216 (1983) 31 [6] T. Weiland, PA 17 (1985) 227 (7] The MAFIA collaboration, User's Guide MAFIA Version 4.x, CST GmbH, Lauteschligerstr38, D- 64289 Darmstadt [8] U. van Rienen, T. Weiland, PA 20 (1987) 239 [9] T. Welland, Int. J. of Numerical Modelling, Vol.9 (1996) 295 [10] M, Dohlus, P. Thoma, T. Weiland, IEEE ‘Trans. ‘on Magn., Vol.28, No.2 (1992) 1797Ch,3; ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS 3.24 Special Impedances for Lossy Smooth Pipes A. Piwinski, DESY (See also Sec.6.5.) Displaced beam in a round resistive chamber For a chamber radius r; and a beam position © = Zo, Y = Yo, with to = 1/23 + 3, the longitudinal, horizontal, and vertical impedances per unit length are [1] y _ 1~sen(w)i r+ 4 a © {Zhe Zig} = sgn(w)1 rifrfnrpt4e5, r}—18+408) a/ Bale] (Chr Zo) (= 79) @ with jp = relative permeability, y > 1, {2/(w*r1), r1, r1—ro} > skin depth, The ohmic power loss per unit length of a bunch with current Jy and length 20; is [1] (C = circumference) pra—Temhe__r +13 Wr” Bnoe]te 8 Displaced beam in a flat resistive chamber ‘The chamber is represented by two infinite plates with a separation of h (1]: ant [8 al) 4) gi = -Msen(u)1i)_14(rvo/) tan(ave/h) + VAlwlceT(chrZo) —_fc05*(myo/h) © with 7 > 1, {c?/(w?A), h, h—-2yo} > skin depth. The more general case of an elliptical vac- ‘uum chamber is treated in [1]. A fiat resistive chamber with a thin dielectric coating The impedances per unit length of an oxide layer of thickness Ah on an aluminum chamber [2] are a = — WeZo(ertte 1h fete un(2)] @) weerh h ni Zhai Zo (Erber) Ah 1+(nyo/h)tan(ryo/h) ‘fS cos*(myo/h) o with ¢, = relative dielectric constant, > 1, Ah < {h, Vérppale/w}. A Ah of 1ym or more has a great practical importance, Metallic coating on a ceramic pipe For an infinitely long round pipe, one has (3, 4] A+ tanh(adm) T+ Atanh(adm) Az=(I-Verad, a = (1-sgn(w)i)/de with dem,s = thickness of ceramics, metal coating, skin depth, respectively, ¢- = relative dielectric constant of the ceramics. y > 1, dme < Ti, {(r-1)d2, (1-1er)ride} K 02, Zj(met) is given by Eq.(1), In (5] several approximate formulae for the impedances are given. The ohmic loss of a single bunch is given by Eq.(3) (ro = 0) for diy >> de. For dm < dy one 2 = Zj (mer) ® gets [3] (see also Sec.6.14.2) ZolRCde(e,-1) vi Pla india [V-va Ve" exte(v)] Va te © (6-1) Zoecdmde P’ has a sharp maximum at V = 0.82, which can be much larger than the losses in a metal chamber since the ceramics compresses the fields in the coating. The penetration of the fields through the ‘coating and the ceramics is for dm 2> de [3] Ezout 1 pe 1 Ean” VtFtste\kina “ which means that the penetration begins with a thickness of dm % ders = AB /dg where also the ohmic loss has its maximum. Many fast kickers use ceramic pipes which are coated with thin metal layer. Due to the fact, that these ceramic insertions with coating have often a short length, there are experimental indica- tions that the above infinite-Length Eqs.(8-11) are to be used with caution in these cases (6). qa References [1] A. Piwinskl, DESY 94-068 (1994) [2] A. Piwinski, DESY 84-097 (1984) [3] A. Piwinski, PAC 77, p.1364 [4] XE. Lin, SLAC-PUB-7924 (1998), submitted to IEEE MTT [5] S. Kurennoy, PAC 93, p.3420 [6] F. Caspers, private communications (1998) 3.25 Explicit Expressions of Impedances and ‘Wake Functions KY.Ng, FNAL 203IMPEDANCES AND WAKE FUNCTIONS General Remarks and Notations: "WF, denotes mth azimuthal longitudinal wake function as a function of distance z for z < 0, ‘When'z > 0, Wi,(2)=0 and W/,(0)= lim W/,(2). Similar for transverse wake Wea. - The mth azimuthal longitudinal impedance Zhk(w) = fe~**/*WAA(z)dz/v is related to the transverse impedance of the same azimuthal Z4(w) = fe~#/*Wz(z)idz/(@v) by ZI, = (w/o) Zx (valid when m # 0). In many cases, 6=v/c has been set to 1. ‘Unless otherwise stated, round beam pipe of radius b is assumed, C' = 27 F is the ring circumference and n is the revolution harmonic, Zp ~ 377 Q is the free-space impedance. 0 and jio are the free-space dielectric constant and magnetic permeability. Description Tmpedances Wakes Space-charge: [1] _ Zoek Deam radius a in a os length L of perfectly ZocL conducting beam pipe of radius 6, 1+ 2In— | &(z) [ama] Resistive Wall: [1] pipe length L, wall thickness t, conductivity oc, skin d ae Pt Faaa=y2ofltulZoo), ll dex), x=1/(Zoee) a =e ze ce | Zo _L Fort > bin and 2 e FOAL bao) pe vx Jel 3 ofl > ao Eosenlon a. nOP*L(1+ mo) V 06 [zl oy’. mT bom Roba OFT c Zoe BaP” Sma) V r06 [27> Zate yg ), For t < skin OF very low freq., and b/y >| 28 _ _iZows Zt __idot lal ¢/|w| > vot. L Qnbe’? “L moe ‘A pair of strip-line BPM’s: [2] TengthZ, angle cach subtending to pipe axis do, forming transmission ines of characteristic impedance Z- with | The strip-lines are assumed to terminate wit = 2ee [2] ~ 62420) Wy=82ee = $ sin? a2) |-H¢+2D) BF impedance Z- at the up- pipe. stream end, Heifets inductive im- wl OL a pedance: [3] low freq. Twa ws we [i+ le z/a pure inductance £, Z!) rolls off as w~1/2, Pill-box cavity at low frequencies with length g and depth h, where 9 < h [6]. — ALS(2) 8a 0 204Ch.3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS Description Impedances Pill-box cavity at low peal 2: E freq: length 9, radial “| + Fl Wo= 2a ue +3] 6 (2) depth h, where 6 < g o/b, ae diffraction model al, = 22, Wh= 2evG__ aa applies 1). Tino) eT Optical model: [7] A series oFcavides ofpe- | eZ, = Sekt — tun) + aan ar) riodic length L. Each = cavity has width 9, =m wt 2 yyG(D)_ “ae r high Q resonances of = 3 08 + em |, oF) cos % \. I a oe, rar where Cy = ee 650 Q for 0 and 1650 Q for it m = 1, jm1 is first zero of Bessel function Jm, ¢ = 0.8237. samen v4 wb way GOP RO): FO ea eeae ire! igs” Bova Formulae for compu- 8 2 o tation of W/,, erfe(=) [PteF 0) 008% = wy Fe/e) ~ [du F v) 208 is the complementary | _ = ‘error function. A(z) = if dF (p) cos we = (1 + Aa)e™erfe( VB) — [= Resonator model for 7) mo, the mth azimuthal, | Zl,=———_Pe™_ yy, Ri cur cas/o gig Dee with shunt imp. 1+iQ Ce w/e) Qa, © RE”, resonant freq. | zt = © RS” 1(2Q) pall quality | “" w 1+%Q (w/w — w/w) a factor Q [1]. Res. freq. Wranp/(2n) a re) and shunt impedance oe Sin (Ra)mnp Of a pill- box cavity for mth rax | ge [ eI (14 6) poven dial and pth longitu- [ | Oe Zo dinal modes. Radial op cos? Bove Aon depth A and length g. Be mn is mth zer0 of a Bessel function Jin [8] | Zoe 8 RE x (+ bop) even (Sec.6.6). inp Ji?(a1n) 7940p ) cos? Soe podd 205Sec.3,2: IMPEDANCES AND WAKE FUNCTIONS replace g by 2(d ~ 6). Here, $= d/b. Description Wakes Low-freq, response of % ' Pplicorceneiae 14] Ww Sa nse) length 9, radial depth Zag st=1 ae eee eae ae eel is ee) Effect will be one half for a step in the beam pipe from radius bto radius d, or vice versa, with g replaced by 2(d— 5). Iris of half elliptical woh? oe transition height h. ~y is Euler's constant and is the psi-function [6]. cross section at low | 20 = ~é go, indept. of Wh= a(2) freq. (A < ha): length 2a, max. pro- ga io? me Be ce truding height h [5]. 2 oe Pipe transition at low 2 freq: tapering angle 0, |Z}="——" wat a2 fl [22-2ecote) +3 -v ~Eoao-Z} wo=-|2 (2), Wi=—|z#|cb(2), heoto«> a: da—-20E, th 30" B E and B are electric and magnetic flux density at hole when hole is absent, This is a diffraction solution for a thin-wall pipe. 206Ch.3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS Description “Wakes Small obstacle | (5, ij ‘on beam pipe, si Wm aaa 5(2) pipe radius, freq. below cutoff. ae and Om are electric po- larizability and magnetic susceptibility of the obstacle, Wi = ~ Zoe FE" cos Apéle) Ay is the azimuthal angle between the obstacle and the direction con- cerning Z} and W;. Polarizabilities for various geometry: beam pipe radius is b and wall thickness is t. Ellipticalhole: major and minor radii are a and d. K(m) and E(m) are complete elliptical functions of the first and second kind, with m = 1— my and m; = (d/a)?. For long ellipse beam, major axis a < ’, beam pipe radius, because the curvature of the beam pipe has been neglected here 12), ra*milK (rn) (_xa*m#[K(m)-E(m))] — (xd4{ln(4a/d)—1] | beam am, 4 SC) (EC) — mK (mn) B= 3a da. For higher frequency correction, add to de + Om the extra term, rad [ua || bean “3 [8 long ellipse 2na® | 2uPa? nee circular, 2na®)_—_2w*a" _! 1 beam 3 |5e[in(4a/d) — i] long ellipse agar, Ge + Om = (0.1814 — 0.0344w/L) ta engh Lowi, Ge + Om = w9(0.1334 — 0.0500w/L) ta 2 z with w < d. Oe + Om = rdw —tw(at+d) t2d Cae ela eon aa Oe + Om = 2mahd = ] fhatnaly.and da | 2 =2(2481-%), ‘TemaPi(Iodi fs -f), ifo=d ete Oe + Om = a> fendah IRON ifa=dh=d 207‘Sec,3.2: IMPEDANCES AND WAKE FUNCTIONS Wall roughness [13] ‘T-D axisymmetric bump, A(z) or 2-D bump A(z,@). Valid for _low | ffequency = w/e < one feng or width)~' h € &, pipe radius, and |Vh| <1, 1D: with spectrum 2D: with spectrum fin(8) = Gg of" ao f~ * dz he, emt [ sli(x) [Paes ik) = = ae h(zjeHde shes SS > Caer Lim(s)[Pdes “Heifets and Keifets formulae for tapered steps and tapered cavity at iy frequencies [14]. Taper infromradius hh] oy Zo, hh pp o Zab 1) (yt) ftin tod( "ct, kb>t dtana > oc. All ¢ dan ae ae 1 ( oe formulae here and be- ty = SO( Se low are valid for posi- Cary ter P tna> oo tive k = w/c only. a) . i @®hpog= Zc tana, tana « 75 Pill-box cavity: total (1442 << length g, radial depthh gal 2 Vin % without taper, 0 2 Zo), h > Re Tapering angle a on 9 (gil be 2 a bi both sides, 9>> hi rez =2(2l),.., Rez =2(CH), Jaap as given above References (11) S.S. Kurennoy, PA 39 (1992) 1; PA 50 (1995) [1] A.W. Chao, Physics of Collective Beam Instabil- ities in High Energy Accelerators, Wiley (1993) ch2 [2] KY. Ng, PA 23 (1988) 93 IB] S.A. Heifets, G. Sabbi, SLAC/AP-104 (1996) [4] E. Keil, B. Zotter, PA 3 (1972) 11; K.Y. Ng, Fer- lab Report FN-389 (1981) [5] S.S. Kurennoy, PR E55 (1997) 3529; S.S. Kuren- noy, RL. Gluckstern, ibid (1997) 3533 [6] S.S. Kurennoy, G.V. Stupakov, PA 45 (1994) 95 [7] AM. Sesster, unpublished citation in E, Keil, NIM 100 (1972) 419; L.A. Veinshtein, Sov. Phys. JETP 17 (1963) 709; D. Brandt, B. Zotter, CERN- ISR/TH/82-13 (1982) [8] CC, Johnson, Field and Wave Electrodynamics, MoGraw-Hill, Ch.6 [9] G. Nassibian, F. Sacherer, NIM 59 (1971) 21; G. Nassibian, CERN/PS 84-25 (BR) (1984); 167; RL. Gluckstern, PR A46, 1106, 1110 (1992; $.. Kurennoy, RL. Gluckstern, G.Y, St- pakov, PR B52 (1995) 4354 {12] A. Fedotov, PhD Thesis, U. Maryland (1997) [13] G.V. Stupakov, SLAC-PUB-7908 (1998), sub- ‘mitted to PR Special Topics [14] S.A, Helfets, PR D40 (1989) 3097; S.A. Heitets, S.A. Kheifets, Rev. Mod. Phys. 63 (1990) 631 3.2.6 Effective impedance [1, 2, 3] T. Suzuki, KEK ‘The effective impedance is used to estimate complex coherent tune shifts approximately. Analytic ‘sums are found for a sinusoidal mode [4] and approximately for a Gaussian bunch [5, 6] for a res- ‘onator impedance, Definition fonginadinal Fite heap) CERN 85-68 (BR) (1986) Ze). ere w (10] M, Sands, SLAC note PEP-253 (1977); w Sen g In(wp) HLA. Bethe, PR 66 (1944) 163 poten tte! 208Ch.3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS. ‘Table 1: Spectral densities ftp, (w) for various modes. mode Trl) 1+ 1)" coswr 2 sinusoidal | (m+ 1) Try Gap TR Umes/2(wt/2) Legendre on Hermite (wor) ewe ‘Table 2: Complex longitudinal frequency shifts. w, = 4120, B = 0/0. mode Qin = Mig A im sinusoidal mH x i 12Npe*n ( EO Ce TEB ut Vw Jon 12iT(m +P) Legendre |e m= it * Nee*y (®) (parabolic bunet) | eam ae a ' i T(m+9) — 25 2™(m—1) f Npe*n (2 ) Gaussian bunch) | Eas (ap wo(png + p+ mvs) coupled bunch mode number azimuthal mode number E Zr(up) bray ~ we) Zue = ===—————._ @) Lhe (up — we) pico Wp = wo(pnp+ytvg +m.) n= a= Ug betatron tune g Avg ,Ap = Evpu, ¢=—8/=% we rw ic mae Tab.1 gives the spectral density fm(w) o i(w)[ » Where Xm(w) is the Fourier transform of the line density, 7 is the full bunch length in time, o is the rms bunch length in time. Am is chosen to be dimensionless. See also Tabs.2 & 3. Table 3: Complex transverse frequency shifts for various beam models. wa = yaw. ‘model Qm — Wp — Mids sinusoidal -aE” Gevaretunery | MBE Za) . T Legendre iF Tint) (square bunch) a Bee ae i 1 Hermite - Reto x (Gaussian bunch) ee (Zar)er References [1] AW. Chao, Physics of Collective Beam Instabili- tues in High Energy Accelerators, Wiley (1993) (2) FJ, Sacherer, PAC 77, p.1393 [3] FJ. Sacherer, Proc. 9th Int. Conf, on High Energy ‘Acc., (1974) p.347 [4] B. Zotter, CERN/ISR-TH/78-16 (1978) [5] B. Zotter, CERN/ISR-TH/80-03 (1980) [6] K, Balewski, RD. Kohaupt, DESY 90-152 (1990) 3.2.7 Parasitic Loss P. Wilson, SLAC, B. Zotter, CERN Total loss factor The energy change (parasitic loss) of a bunch of charge q and normalized line density \(t), traversing a structure with longitudinal impedance Z, (Sec.3.2) is AE=—n,7 @ Exact expressions for , exist for special cases [1,2]. Otherwise, one calculates numerically, e.g. by integrating the longitudinal electric field in a frame moving with the bunch (Secs.3.2.2, 3.2.3). If the bunch moves with a constant speed v < c, as.e.g. in a proton linac, x, depends on v. The loss factor ,, usually stated in units VipC = 10! VIC, is ale) = Ef dozy(w)h(w,o) = Eff auner,(u)n(u,2) @ where h(w, o) = \(w)A*(w) is the spectral power density of the bunch of mms length ¢. 209Sec,3.2: IMPEDANCES AND WAKE FUNCTIONS For a line spectrum, the integral becomes an infinite sum, For a single bunch in a circular accelerator, ni(o) = 22 So Z(nus)hlnw,2) ey For short bunches in large machines (4 < 1/0), the sum can be replaced by an integral. In terms of wake function W(t) (Sec.3.2), the loss factor is n= f° adrmatyner = [> ams @ where Wya(r) = f° at; (t)A(7—t) is the wake potential, S(t) = [°° drA(r)A(r—t) is the auto- correlation function of the line density. For a Gaussian bunch with mms o = 0;/fc, A= e-P 20? /(VFr0), hw) =e", 1 50) = 75! Examples of auto-correlation functions for other bunch distributions can be found in [3]. In a resonator with shunt resistance Ry (= Vay /2Prait)» quality factor Q,, and resonant frequency wr, 1 /da2 6) id z [orw(wre) - waw(u20)] = Reforwira)] for Q-24 © where wig = ur/Q[-i/2 + Qt], Qi? Q? - 1/4, and w(z) is the complex error function [4]. The loss factor, normalized by w,Rs/2Q;, is shown in Fig. 1a. Approximate expressions for ‘, are found below, while the relation between 1, and Z,/n is discussed in [1]. Cases i (o) © high-Q cavity mode WrRe puted (Q > or so) 20, short bunches [ ai 2) wo <1 TQ low-@ cavity and Ry Tong bunches Frqaaes ‘The kick factor The transverse loss factor for the dipole (m = 1) mode, also called the kick 210 Longitudinal Loss Factor Wie oo ‘Transverse Loss Factor 03 o ye tot0aHe Figure 1: Normalized (a) longitudinal and (b) transverse loss factors of Gaussian bunch in resonator impedances with various quality factors Q, versus wc. factor, with dimensions V/(pC-m), is defined by To = f * dz, u)h(w,2) ur 2 f dulmZ,(w)h(w, 0) iE atW.(1)S(2) 5 [away in terms of the transverse impedance Z, (w), wake potential W,,(r), and wake function W,(r) (Gec.3.2). For a Gaussian bunch traversing a res- ‘onator the kick factor, normalized by w,R../Qr, is shown in Fig.1b (for Q, > 1/2), oR, (0) M so) = (212) — w(w20)]Ch.3; ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS wR. 20, For short bunches 1, (0) Im [wer)] Jong ones «,(0) » R2—L_, 7 I 2Vmo” The parameters of an equivalent transverse broad-band resonator can be estimated from the dependence of the kick factor on bunch length. In particular, R,/Qy = 2/7 limgoo(wro) K,, and wr = acc/é, where & is the location of the maximum «,(c), and ais a correction factor of order ‘unity [5]. ‘The modal loss factors For the n-th longitudinal mode, the modal loss factor is defined ky, = VaVjt/(4Un), where Va is the induced voltage across the impedance and Ur, the stored energy. For a resonator impedance Z, FL tater m= FE © Behind a point-bunch (r > 0), the wake function is Wn Rn Wylr) = 25" haces (unr) (10) while it vanishes in front of it (r < 0). Fora Gaussian bunch, the total loss factor is (2) = Do knh(wn, 0) = D> ne“ (11) = = For the n-th dipole ‘mode, the modal kick factor is kin = Hath where Vin is the voltage at ns the iris or beam tube radius. The transverse wake function is Ww.) = a Ei gin (v9) For a Gaussian a the aa kick factor is = BE anh dt $(@) sinuyat FeD S2D(me) (13) where D(z) = os 2 (G dtexp (#2) is the Dawson integral [4]. Examples other than resonator impedance For further examples (other vacuum chamber discontinuities, such as tapers and steps), see (2, 6}. Resistive wall For a cylindrical resistive wall with conductivity 7, and pipe radius b, the loss factor per unit length for a Gaussian bunch is a2 (2) rule) __TQ)e_ (Zo\¥? : “L- © a bos? & -) 2u1 T(3/4) = 1.225, Eq.(14) holds also for a beam moving (a) centered between two parallel plates spaced by 2b, and (b) a distance b from a single resistive plate. For an elliptical pipe, «, is minimum when (major axis)/(minor axis)~1.4, and the minumum value is 0.87 of Eq.(14) (7). Collimator For a collimator of aperture‘a in a pipe of radius b, and co < a, K, © Zo in(b/a)/(2n°/20). Very short bunches For very short bunches in alinac structure, *, is not determined by the collective interaction of the beam with the periodic cavity array, but by diffractive losses in the individual cells [6]. In this regime (o < a?/Np, with @ iris aperture radius, p periodic length, NV number of cells in the structure), «,, diverges as o~ 1/2, For a resonant cavity in a storage ring, x, is given by a sum over modes up to the cut-off frequency, plus a high frequency diffraction contribution (diffraction model [8], also Sec.3.2.5) wPG% © anh a where 6 is the vacuum chamber radius, g is the axial length of the cavity. For perfectly conducting walls, Re Z, is zero below the first cavity resonance at wo /¢ = jo1/d, and «, decreases exponentially with ¢, rather than 7 in the resonator model. Structures without cylindrical symmetry For vacium chambers not cylindrically symmetric but with mirror symmetry about two orthogonal planes, intersecting at an axis, the loss factors depend on beam displacement, the kick factor of off-axis beams have finite cross terms and can be- ‘come negative (focusing). For structures with less or no symmetry, no axis is defined, and the loss factors must be computed along straight trajectories, e.g. parallel to the vacuum chamber wall. By References [1] A.W, Chao, Physics of Collective Beam Instabili- ties in High Energy Accelerators, Wiley (1993) [2] B. Zotter, S. Kheifets, impedances and Wakes in High Energy Particle Accelerators, World Scien- tific (1997) [3] R. Bracewell, The Fourier Transform and Its Ap- plications, McGraw-Hill (1965) p.152 [4] M, Abramowitz, I. Stegun, Handbook of Mathe- ‘matical Functions (1965) [5] B. Zotter, CERN Report LEP-TH/87-34 (1987) [6] S.A. Heifets, S.A. Kheifets, PRD 39 (1989) 960Sec.3.3: PARTICLE-MATTER INTERACTION (7] A. Piwinskl, DESY 94.068 (1994) [8] K. Bane, M. Sands, SLAC-PUB-4441 (1987) 3.2.8 ‘Trapped Modes SS. Kurennoy, LANL ‘The term “trapped mode” refers to a mode which can not propagate in the beam pipe. Often this term is reserved only for modes whose frequency is above the pipe cutoff frequency [1], since modes below the pipe cutoff can not propagate in the pipe anyway. An example of the trapped mode is a mode in a long cavity, ¢.g., a multicell cavity oran IR, with the fields concentrated near the cavity center and vanishing toward its ends. Such a mode does not propagate into the pipe due to its very weak coupling to the pipe modes, In other cases the term is expanded by adding the modes with frequencies slightly below the cutoff [2]. The trapped modes usually produce narrow resonance peaks of the coupling impedance. ‘A small discontinuity (e.g. a pillbox or ahole, but not an itis or a post) on a smooth pipe can produce a mode which is localized near the discontinuity and has the frequency slightly below the cutoff frequency for corresponding propagating modes (2]. For a small axisymmetric bulge with the area A in its longitudinal cross section, the frequency shift Awo; down from the cutoff frequency wor = lo1¢/® of the TMo. mode in the cylindrical pipe of the radius b is an (Ane = uit (3) @ where jo; is the first root of the Bessel function Jo(z). The damping rate ‘jo, for the case of a finite, though large, conductivity ¢ of the walls, is ‘or = Wordavin/(28), where Syn is the skin depth. The trapped mode disappears when “jor becomes larger than Awo,, but in the limit of perfectly conducting walls it exists even for a very small perturbation. This trapped mode leads to the resonance of the longitudinal impedance with the shunt impedance Awor @ The results for an enlargement remain valid for a hole if one replaces A —+ ag/(4nb) in Eqs.(1) and (2), where ag is the magnetic susceptibility of the hole (Sec.3.2.5). The resonances due to the trapped modes can be dangerous in large superconducting colliders like the LHC, where the design anticipates the thermal screen 212 iner) with many pumping holes. The effect for many holes has been studied analytically (3), and was confirmed by measurements of the trapped modes in perforated pipes [4]. References [1] S. Heifets, S. Kheifets, Rev. Mod. Phys. 63 (1991) 631 [2] G.V. Stupakov, S.S. Kurennoy, PRE 49 (1994) 794 [3] S.S. Kurennoy, PRE 51 (1995) 2498 [4] F. Caspers and T. Scholz, PA 51 (1995) 251 3.3 PARTICLE-MATTER INTERAC- TION In this section, effects caused by beam-beam collisions and by beam interactions with residual gas and accelerator components are considered. These effects lead to decrease of beam intensity, luminosity deterioration in colliders, and formation of beam halo. Loss of beam particles further leads to (i) beam induced gas desorption; (ii) irradiation of conventional and superconducting components with a possible quench; (ii) increase of background rates in the detectors; (iv) possible radiation damage, overheating or destruction ‘of components; (v) increased prompt and residual radiation fields in the machine and environment. 3.3.1 Basic Formulae [1] M. Tigner, Cornell U. A.W. Chao, SLAC Symbols M incident particle mass, E = yMe incident particle energy, T kinetic energy, ze charge of incident particle, Z,A atomic number and atomic mass of medium, J mean excitation energy, 6 density effect correction to ionization energy loss, hp = /4nNers mec?/a 28.816,/pZ/A [eV] plasma energy (p in g/cm*), Ne electron volume density (m=), K/A 4nNar2m.c?/A, Xo radiation length in g/cm?, E, critical energy in MeV. Single Coulomb scattering of spin-} paticles Neglecting atomic electrons and nuclear form factor effects and assuming scattering nucleus at rest. in lab (3), do _ 2, ae ( ‘mec’ Ap an y 1 apa garg ~ Pisin’ 3) @Ch.3; ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS ‘When screening is included, and for small angles, Eq,(1) reads do 2 1 ‘mec\? a tases () % where Omin @Z/3(mec/p). ‘Thomson cross section | Unpolarized EM radis- tion on free electron or proton [4], we @ etc am = 2 Foes , or = Sr, ® Klein-Nishina cross section For high energies Rudxray > Mee? (4), 2a RE fh 4 Lp (2)) pata ata inet 6) See also Sec.7.6.1. Tonization energy loss Bethe-Bloch equation for mean rate of energy loss (stopping power) for moderately relativistic charged particles other than electrons, dE ZL a = Ke aw © 1, 2m? By? Tinx ao _ 5 ga Here K/A = 4nNar2mec?/A 0.307 MeV cm?g~} for A = 1 g/mol o mec? By? max T+ 2ym./M + (me/M)? is the maximum kinetic energy which can be im- parted to a free electron in a single collision. The units are chosen so that dr is measured in mass per unit area (g cm™), The mean excitation energy [is (101 eV) xZ for elements heavier than oxygen. At very high energies, the density effect correction 6/2 — In(hiwp/T) +1n By ~ 1/2, For pions on various material, see Fig.1. Eq.(6) may be integrated to find the total range R. See Fig.2. Multiple Coulomb scattering through small angles If we define 6) = OTR, = a few GeV [2]. The resulting “beam profile” can be drastically different from Gaussian, Fig.1 shows a transverse profile measured at the 70 GeV proton synchrotron at IHEP (Protvino) and fitted forCh.3; ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS different residual gas pressures P by [2] NG@) =e" 4oIn'P/A)S where is a distance from the beam axis in mm, @ <2 < 40 mm), ¢ = 22 mm, = —4.8 x 104 mm?/Tor, P < 107° Tor, and 10-§ Torr, 10" ° 20 xin) Figure 1; Transverse beam profile in 70 GeV proton synchrotron for several values of residual gas pressure. At high energies elastic and diffractive scat- ‘erings contribute to the beam halo and emittance growth, while inelastic nuclear interactions result in multi-particle production and shower development along one or two magnets. Residual gas is usually amixture of H, C,N and O atoms. Athigh energies, the differential cross-section of proton- hydrogen (antiproton-hydrogen) elastic scattering is well described by a simple exponent do/dt ~~! 2 where t = —p?6? is the 4-momentum transfer squared, p is the proton momentum, in units of (GeV/c)*. At 0.001 < |t| < 0.8 (GeV/c), b increases with energy from 12 (GeV/c)~? at /s = 10 GeV up to 16.4 (GeV/c)? at ./s = 1.8 TeV, where s is the CM collision energy squared [3]. ‘The proton-nucleus elastic differential cross- section on light and medium nuclei (9 < A < 62) at p > 5 GeVic is described as [4] S fomb/ste = 12.5 AMS eta sae] + 17.5. APS e=l0ll @) ‘The corresponding rms angle is 61 = C/p, where 1595A~0-02 + 0.175 For nitrogen C = 0.19 GeV/c. Using Eq.(3), one finds that, e.g. at Tevatron (p = 900 GeV/c), most of elastic (and certainly all inelastic) scatterings force particles to leave the core creating halo and further beam-loss, 6. ~ 0.2 mrad > Poeam = 0.011 mrad ‘where Oocam is rms beam divergence, Summing over species of circumferentially averaged gas densities nz, one gets 12-1 M van Tos ON dt where v = Ac is the proton velocity, and a; is the total proton or antiproton cross-section on species i, Experimental data on the total and elastic cross- sections for pp or pp collisions are presented in Figs.2-3 along with the Regge description [1] rot{mb] = 22 90°79 4 Ys-0-46 ® where Yop = 56.1, Yop = 98.2. Fig.4 shows otal proton-nucleus cross-section calculated in [6] within a multichannel generalization of the Glauber model using opp parameterizations of experimental data and the Woods-Saxon distribution of nucleons in nuclei. The total p-A cross- section remains approximately constant at proton momenta 1 GeV/e < p <50 TeV/c. io CCC p(aevie) Figure 2: Total and elastic pp cross-sections (1]. ‘Summing over the beam tube regions of “constant” pressure and temperatures, one gets at proton momenta 3 GeV/e < p < 5 TeVic, for nitrogen nucleus o ~ 410 mb 1 —Z 870; oe Fol S08 Tee 273 Th 6) 215o (Gove) Figure 3: Total and elastic pf cross-sections (1). i L L i it ie 10 Laboratory beam momentum (GeV) 10 it Figure 4: Total proton-nucleus cross-sections (6. where P, (Tort) is the gas pressure in the pipe of the Ath region of the fraction w, of the total cir- ‘cumference at the temperature T, (K), relative velocity 6 ~ 1. Fora gas mixture one should use the equivalent pressure PR = 0.0861 SP: oky AR? — (a) 7 a where ki is the number of j atoms in ¢ molecule and Ajj is atomic mass of j atom in i molecule. In colliders, all inelastic beam-beam interactions remove particles from each beam. Only a fraction of elastic events at IPhas the same effect. For example, using Eq.(2) for the IP of Tevatron, 64 ~017 mrad, Goeam~ 0.09 mrad (8) and about 40% of elastically scattered protons (anti-protons) remain in the 3¢ core after a bunch- bunch collision at the IP. So, the beam lifetime 216 due to collisions is given by a sum over interaction rates at each of the n IP in the collider, 1 1 o® where np is the number of bunches, Np is the number of particles per bunch, opp is the inelastic plus a fraction of elastic (60% in the Tevatron case, 9 mb) pp or pp cross-section, and Ln is the average luminosity at the nth IP. Emittance lifetime in colliders _assum- ing the identical beams is defined as 1/Tey = (1/ew)den/dt, with ey the normalized beam emittance. Under normal conditions the growth of €yy is the dominant cause of luminosity deterioration [7]. In an “ideal” machine, the growth of emittance is due to beam-gas MCS, ‘beam-beam elastic scattering at the IPs, and the intrabeam scattering. The beam-gas emittance growth over the given time period is proportional to the residual gas pressure and average J- function [8]. Summing again over the beam tube regions of “constant” pressure and temperatures, the emittance growth rate due to MCS, e.g. in a-plane, is (see also Eq.(13), Sec.4.5) 1 deve 1 5y wiSente (10) 7 oe dt ~ where eyyz refers to the rms beam emittance, Here 63, is the rms angle of MCS per time unit in the pipe of the Ath region, and iz, is average (- function in z-plane in the kth region. Summing over species of average gas densities n; in each region, one gets argo 88 = eke Lo mda(Zi + 1) in(a83. 7 ~ Bens 2 "/8) ay where Zi is atomic number of species, and Tp = 1.54 x 10cm. For nitrogen at pressure P (tort), ldey _ 7x 104 en dt” rend where (iy in meters and ey in mm-mrad. For arbitrary mixture of i gases with partial pressures P;, one uses the nitrogen-equivalent 2 wae (12) pressure in each machine region Pg = 2x10? PR (13) x LhutslZy +1) n(183Zz5"*)Ch.3; ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS, In a collider, elastic scattering of the oncoming beam particles at the IP also causes emittance growth. (Intra-beam scattering is discussed in Sec.2.5.9.) Eq.(10) can be applied replacing averaged over the machine regions -functions with 8B" at each IP and using the following expression for the rms scattering angle in one of the beams £ (8) = eae a4) where A" and L are the @-function and luminosity at the IP, 0, is the fraction of the elastic scattering cross-section resulting in the emittance growth, and 641 is the rms projected elastic scattering angle, obtained from Eq.(2). This gives (see also Eq.(14), Sec.4.5) lL den _ 1 foNBY 51 2 wars gm SD) where fo is the revolution frequency. Luminosity lifetime in colliders is a sum of (6), (9), (10) and (15) 1 . a eS go yt TL Toeam, Theam, Tew For example, for the Tevatron collider, en = 230 mm-mrad, ng = 6, Ng = fo = 4.8x 104s“, £ = 2x 10% cm" 69 mb in Eq.(9), oy = 6 mb, Oy = 0.17 mr There are six 50-m long warm straight sections (roughly 5% of circumference, P ~ 10-® Torr, T = 300K). Two of them are the high-luminosity TPs ((8) = 500 m) and four others have (8) = 100 m. The remaining 95% of the ring is cold (8) © 75 m, P = 10"! Tom, T = 4.5K), It gives 72'(s71) = 18x 107° — (two beam Tza4 +2x 107° (two IP rip!) +1.9x 1077 (ew growth due to MCS) +2.9x10-" (ey growth due to two IPs) resulting in 4 x 10-® s~}, i.e., 7¢ © 69 hours for the “ideal” Tevatron collider. In a real accelerator, there is a variety of additional sources, which can reduce this time. For example, in the first years of the Tevatron collider, the other sources of ‘emittance growth were [9] the abort kicker system (dominant source), the low- quadrupole squeeze process, Main Ring Lambertson power supply noise, the main dipole/quadrupole power supply ripple and the ambient ground motion, Fortu- nately, many of these sources can be mitigated through studies and improvements, References U1) AN. Kalinovskii, N.V. Mokhoy, Yu.P, Nikitin, Passage of High-Energy Particles through Matter, AIP (1989) [2] A.A. Asseev et al, Report IHEP 79-91, Protvino 1979) (3) R. Rubinstein, Fermilab-Conf-90/160-E (1990) [4] J. Rant, PA 3 (1972) 129 [5] Review of Particle Properties, PR D54 (1996) [6] S.. Stiganov, Report IHEP 94-14, Protvino (1994) [7] G. Jackson et al, Fermilab-Conf-88/80 (1988) [8] C. Bovet et al, CERN/MPS-SI/Int. DL/70/4 (970) [9] G. Jackson, AIP Proc. 255 (1992) p.105 3.3.2.2 Electrons MS. Zisman, LBNL Symmetric collider If the beam sizes remain constant as the luminosity decreases (not true when beam-beam limit is reached), the time dependence of L(t) is contained entirely in the time dependence of N(t). (See also Sec.4.1.) ‘There are then two distinct processes for luminosity loss: (i) those due to collisions between the ‘two beams, and ({i) single-beam loss processes. The processes in (i) relevant to a high-energy e+e™ collider are Bhabha scattering and radiative Bhabha scattering (Sec.3.3.3). In BS process, a beam particle is lost if its angular deflection is be- ‘yond the rings transverse acceptance; in RBS pro- ‘cess, loss occurs if the beam particles momentum. change is outside the longitudinal acceptance of the ring. For a symmetric collider (two beams have identical sizes and intensity) with a loss cross section o (Sec.3.3.1), the particle loss rate is, Xo -oL(t) =-ckN*(t) (17) where k = Lo/N3 = fe/(4no$o}) with fe the collision frequency, 03, the beam sizes at the IP, and subscript 0 means initial values at t = 0. Solving Eq.(17) yields [2] L NO = No lixecamnl _ eo = tlrrermee 0% The time for the luminosity to decay to a fraction f of its initial value is 1 ty= GLa (F - 1) (19) 217Sec,3.3: PARTICLE-MATTER INTERACTION Asymmetric collider Generalizing to a two- ring asymmetric collider (still assuming constant beam sizes), the particle loss is described by [2] aN, ao =~-04kN,N_ (20) Xo =~0_kN,N_ fo[2m Lo kas NONo where we no longer assume that the loss cross sections for the two beams are identical. The solution to Eq.(20) is [2] Nx() N(t) The time for the luminosity to decay to a fraction f of its initial value is ee ay [a-n? +276 + a-n/a-nrar]} a Other loss processes A full treatment of luminosity lifetime must also take into account the single-beam losses that can independently decrease NV, and N_. These include gas scattering (both elastic and inelastic i.e. gas Bremsstrahlung) and Touschek scattering (Sec.2.5.9). In a simple model [2], the gas scattering rate is independent of beam intensity, leading to asimple exponential decay, 1__1dn Wa 4) where ng = 9.656 x 10nzP[Torr]/T{K] is the mumber density of residual gas atoms, (ic is the beam velocity, nz is the number of atoms per gas molecule, and oj is the cross section, where é denotes either the elastic scattering (el) or Bremsstrahlung (Br) process. The elastic cross section is [3] = ngBeor @5) 218 where A, and f, are the ring limiting acceptance and corresponding transverse -function, respectively, The Bremsstrahlung cross section in terms of the radiation length X (Sec.3.3.1) is [1] + 26) where A is the atomic weight of the scattering mu- cleus, N4 is Avogadro's number, and (Ap/P) tim is the limiting momentum acceptance of the ring (either a longitudinal limit from the rf bucket height, or a transverse limit from scattering in a dispersive section of the ring). Note that, in a typical ring the residual gas pressure, and thus the decay rate, includes a term proportional to the beam. intensity, leading to non-exponential decay. The decay rate for Touschek scattering also depends on the beam intensity [2]. For typical collider parameters, beam-gas Bremsstrahlung is the most important of the single-beam loss mechanisms. References (1) FC. Porter, NIM A302 (1991) 209 [2] MS. Zisman, J. Bisognano, S, Chattopadhyay, PA 23 (1988) 289; M.S. Zisman, J. Bisognano, S. Chattopadhyay, ZAP Users Manual, LBL-21270, ‘UC-28 (1986) [3] J. Le Duff, NIM A239 (1985) 83 [4] Particle Physics Booklet (1994) p.132 3.33. Bhabha Scattering (ete~ — e+e) JE, Spencer, SLAC The clastic scattering of electrons and positrons proceeds via one boson exchange and annihilation Giagrams (the u and t channels for e"e~ — e-e" The differential cross section with one photon. exchange for unpolarized beams in the CM is [1] ep Bie ere eter) a ahi? fitcost$ 2costf 1 2 "os [ante sine * g(t teos? 8) when /8 = (p1 + pa)e > mec? (typically s = 4E}). The large forward cross section is useful for ‘monitoring e* luminosity while the larger angle scattering is used for electroweak measurements cg. using the Z annihilation diagram. Based onCh.3; ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS lepton universality, the e* annihilation diagram corresponds to e%e™ —+ j:*j:~ and more generally, for elementary fermions f of charge Qye, oP hc? fe (0b ‘ig aft)= (1 + cos? 0) QF Q) Integrating gives the (partial) total cross section of the expected luminosity or background rates in annular detectors. For example, for the u-quark with Qy = 2/3 and muons, 4 naire 2 o(e*e” suru") = [ooso-+3 cos*4] 2s o(ete- utr) = Soler" aut) 8) where 4ra?hc? = 261 GeV"nb. ‘Moller scattering The corresponding cross section for e*e* — e*e* is [2] doQ=P ene Born (oot 5 eet) = "Berm (etet sete) = 27 ay x Ltcost§ , 1+sint§ 2 sin? § cost $ sin? cos? ¥ Luminosity monitoring with Bhabha (Moller) scattering BS is used to monitor or calibrate luminosity by selecting events with two oppositely charged tracks with high momentum (small pt elastic) and small acollinearity angle that orig- {inate at the IP. Various contaminations such as ‘muon pairs are statistically subtracted, ‘A quite good approximation for the singles rate (or pair coincidence rate) for an annular detector subtending an angular range 60 (6, to 82) ‘near the IP — ignoring field effects from the detector or beam optics is A 6, Fo Anarc? 3 +4In(sin 2 (68) = ; For small angles, 262 9 4-8 ® (250 GeV G &) aa © If the predicted rate is reasonable, we can then consider the backgrounds predicted in the beam- beam simulations to estimate the signal-to-noise ratio. Increasing 62 is usually not effective. The expected Bhabha rate is then given by Lo(66)|p?. It is fair to ignore the solenoid field if there is no crossing angle between the colliding beams or strong disruption from the beam-beam effects. (60) 4.2 ( 219 However, if backgrounds are important, itis useful to go outside of the solenoid to permit some degree of beam analysis. To account for such conditions including finite beam size and divergence effects there are Monte Carlo codes (e.g. ABLE, BHLUMI and others) that can be used to simulate the beams and their interactions at the IP for use with tracking codes such as MAD or TRANSPORT for optics design and electromagnetic shower codes such as GEANT or EGS4 for detector design and background simulation. A semi-analytical way to use such codes is to transport the generated events (for the assumed conditions and perturbed by the beam-beam interaction, Sec.2,6) outside the primary detector. The resulting rate of scattered pair events and singles is then a function of the effective, disrupted luminosity, the acceptance of the detector and the intervening beam optics. A standard approximation, for the rate in a rectangular detector outside a solenoid, is QED 16a*hc? ¢ ¢ dd ap [fe o = cieathitc? if da/dy! s Jedy @ ty where @ = y/a!? + y?, tang = y'/a!, and a/,y! are the angles in cartesian coordinates, For a transverse point source and dispersion free transport from the IP to the detector, the position of a particle at the detector is rg = Ryoa’ and ya = Regy! where Riz and Rog can be calculated with a tracking code, (Ris = first order transport matrix elements, Sec.2.2.1), Substituting the BS e*e-7) RE = ®) [a a F ¥ a +A free, charged particle radiates when scattered or accelerated: “it never happens that a scattering event is unaccompanied by the emission of quanta” (3]. Pure Bhabha scattering occurs at extremely small and presumably unresolvable angles for leptons. For the RBS photons, 0, ~ (1/7). For the radiating lepton, @) where w = Peri/Pe % Ee /Ep + O(1/7*). The RBS differential cross section in lowest order in ic limit for the outgoing lepton is Be (eter ote) 0) =e 2 sw 1 < (1+ -#) (05 5) ao [4], with y = 1-w = E/E, Tuco ~ eteF) ay 2 [y+ 40-v)] (0 3) where ae = 2.32 mb. Using ae ‘bunch size correction [5], a good approximation expected for the radiated photon power for some bandwidth 6 into a forward detector is = 10n si In i v P= £65 (ord) [2+ ne tay x [v- 2 +4)" a2) where Ac = re/a and @ is the rms beam size, The value Ymin—0 is never required in the above expressions because of cuts or detector resolution. ‘Some conclusions are: + Elastic BS decreases inversely with s = 453. ‘« RBS effects typically increase logarithmi- cally with s/m?, ‘* Photons are emitted within an angle 6, = m/ Ex with the particles. © Their spectrum will run up to ~E} and vary as VE}. 220 ‘¢ Hard scattering corresponds to angles outside the m/B, cone. + Typical beam divergence angles and luminosity monitors are >0,. ‘© Virtually all scattered particles that are detected are hard. ‘ Initial state radiation cannot be explicitly dis- tinguished. + This is true for the final state when the radiative event is untagged. ‘© This implies the outgoing scattered particles are not generally collinear, ‘ Italso implies that the cm and lab systems are no longer the same. © Beam-beam disruption will broaden the collinearity distribution, ‘* Most experiments based on BS need to include radiative effects. Electrodynamics suggests other radiative effects that need to be considered for BS in an external field or non-free environment. A more complete discussion is available (6] including comparisons to data, ranges of applicability of expressions and the importance of such radiative effects. References [1] HJ. Bhabha, Proc. Roy. Soc. 154 (1935) 195 [2] C. Motter, Ann. d, Physik 14 (1932) 568 [3] J. Schwinger, PR 75 (1949) 898 (4] G. Altarelli, F. Bucella, Nuovo Cim, 34 (1964) 1337; G. Altarelli, B, Stella, Lett. Nuovo Cim. 9 (1974) 416 [5] AE, Blinov et al, PL B113 (1982) 423 [6] J.E. Spencer, SLAC-ARDB Rept. (1997) 3.3.4 Compton Scattering (e*y —+ e*7) JE, Spencer, SLAC Compton scattering (CS) [1] is a two-body, elastic process that proceeds, in lowest order, via ak OK, The relativistic cross section for free electrons was given by Klein and Nishina (2). Including helicities, G4 = +1/2,A,,y = #1, in the CM for /3 = (p1 + p2)o>mec* gives doQ=D =e et) aCh.3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS. nt foe =the oa 2 { cos? 4 $s cos? fee Aga = FL CS of polarized laser photons on electron beams is used to measure e-beam polarization and provide higher energy polarized photons (Sec.7.6.1). Classical Compton scattering (e* +w—ve*’+7) CS as a frequency upshifting technique occurs in many ways, ¢.g. in wigglers, undulatofs and FELs where the initial photons are the low frequency, Virtual components of static fields. Single-photon CS (order r2) in the ‘Parent is do _ nnd _y ao [0 Maya a + 2060 dyyFe] + ag tome an! with Fp in terms of relativistic invariants and y y [ 2y wal Fp = ————(2-— 1 — P= Gage OP aH and z and y in terms of 4-vectors p and k 2Qp-k -1=2 2S. P’p s 2B — Bos 6) @ DP S 0.0153 Ey[GeV] wfeV] 6 = 0 defines head-on scattering in the lab and ee eee : D pep = Ee ~ aeose’) = +010") 4nr2 = 1 bam. Integration gives the total cross section ¢¢ = ONP+20e,¢A,,'op where 4 8 1,8 1-4-5) ina +e)4542 ma - wines ©) teat Fetes a2 The arrows ee case z > 1. For an electron at rest in the lab (2 = 2w/m), onp and ap both fall rapidly compared to the Thomson limit for 2 > 1. For 2 < 1, onp = $828.1 — a), the Thomson result, The total cross section typically depends less on the polarization than does the outgoing photon energy distribution. op = 0 for z = 2.5, but for y = 0.7 near 221 ‘Vmax = 2/(1 + 2), the spectrum can differ by a factor of 6. The relation between incoming and outgoing photons is: wn 1 ~ Beos a wn 1 Bcosés + (1 — cos) where 61, 02 and ¢ are the angles between the vectors (0,,k1), (B;,ks), and (F,,k.) and €;=Ey, Fig.1 shows some characteristic distributions. (921.17.2.001.9 af Photana on eyn100 MeV Electrons do°/40, e2/ey Figure 1: Unpolarized Compton distributions for the ‘outgoing photons and electrons in the lab. Multiphoton Compton scattering (e*+nw + ‘v7) Intense laser fields modify the expressions above, Multiphoton effects can appear in many ways ¢.g. with a laser having nA°>1 where ny = I/(chw) is the number density of nearly monochromatic photons. Using J = E?/3772Sec.3.3: PARTICLE-MATTER INTERACTION for 1 eV photons shows that present terawatt tabletop lasers greatly exceed this. One effect is to increase the outgoing photon energy. This regime can be characterized by two dimensionless, classi- ccal and quantal strong-field invariants: T (Beam- strablung parameter, Sec.2.6,2.2) involving a particle’s Compton wavelength and 1) involving the photon’s wavelength, 7 T= ero[leridD Ce 1 me hone, © Ay, is the 4-vector potential of the incident field. Evg is the rms electric field in the electron rest frame. 1=1 (T'=1) corresponds to an energy gain of one electron mass over one photon (Compton) reduced wavelength X (Ac). Ec is called the “critical field” of QED, mic! ai While it is not possible to create static, critical fields in the lab frame, highly relativistic electrons channeling through a crystal or electrons and positrons at the IP of the next-generation linear colliders may experience such fields from. their opposing beams (Sec:2.6.2.2). ‘An electron in the wave field behaves as if it has an effective mass mact = 2 — (pyc)? = m2c4(1 +77) (10) This effect is identifiable by a shift in the kinematic edge for CS and the term 7?m¢c”/2 can be. identified as the “ponderomotive potential” in the ‘equivalent Hamiltonian for the problem. The effective mass of the electron in the strong field is taken into account by replacing p* by the “quasi-momentum” gM (and p/# — q'4), apm? py 2p) The kinematics of the scattering process are given. by g + nk# = q/# + RH, Here nis the number of absorbed photons and E. 13x10 Viem — @) = p+ ay _ 4 eedge(n, 1) = 7 Fintk-g/me (12) The fact that the kinematic edge decreases with increasing n is essential in distinguishing electrons scattered via n. > 1 processes from ordinary n= 1CS, Nonlinear CS has been observed [3]. ‘The transition probability for nonlinear Compton scattering is {4] dw dWr Tee _ Bembl 4, we => = { aut) + (2475 a x [AG + Shea) - 22(2)] \ where: eR tka _ Unilin =u) Oe eg ae ae and ti, = nu. An expansion, for small values of ‘n) shows that the contributions from the n" order multiphoton process scale as 17". Compton scattering on background radiation Feenberg and Primakoff (1948) first considered the scattering of fast electrons on various sources of cosmic radiation, With the discovery of 2.7 K thermal background radiation, others considered how this restricted the range and energy of different particles that are observable in the vicin- ity of the earth. Later, Telnov and Dehning et al. [5} considered how scattering from thermal background photons can limit storage ring lifetimes and increase detector backgrounds. This is a straightforward application of the above formulae and the Planck distribution for the spectral density of thermal photons, (13) dy _ (_* )_ du \n8(ic)3 } er) —1 assumed to be isotropic in space. The number density is n-, = 20:2T* cm-* with average photon energy © = 2.7kpT. The electron energy loss distribution for a beam of N particles over a distance L is do an = wif f Gplt + 6086 )any(u,T) (14) This can also be integrated over ySUimux=0/ (1 + z). Using @ in the expression for x and averaging over incoming angles gives (see also Eq(17), Sec.4.4) dy AN 1 Sr gmLocl@) W 3 (a5)Ch.3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS, References [1] AH, Compton, PR 21 (1923) 715 [2] O. Klein, ¥. Nishina, Z. Physik 52 (1929) 853 [3} C. Bula, et al, PRL 76 (1996) 3116 [4] N.B, Narozhnyi, A. Nikishov, VJ. Ritus, JETP 20 (1965) 622 (5] VL. Telnov, NIM A260 (1987) 304; B. Dehning et al, PL B249 (1990) 145 33.5 Limit of Focusing of Electron Beam due to Synchrotron Radiation K. Oide, KEK Symbols Assume focusing in one plane (y). Tncoming rms invariant emittance ‘yey, focusing strength and length of the final lens K = B'/(Bp), L. Courant-Snyder parameters at the IP Bj, a% = 0. Distance between the FP and the final lens £* > £§. Unperturbed orbit at the IP (ug, 6). Deviation of the orbit at the IP due to radiation Y. Photon energy emitted in the lens, ‘u(s). Expected number of photons per unit length of the lens N(s). Fourier transform of photon spectrum S(P). ‘Minimum rms spot size The rms spot size at the FP is [1] 5/2 x F(VKL,VKe) (#2) @ ‘The second term represents the blow-up due to energy fluctuation caused by synchrotron radiation in the final lens. Dimensionless F(VKL, VKe") depends on the configuration of the focusing Gig.1), F(VEL, VKe*) [vw fsing + VKe cos Q) “[E (snd + VR-ome)*ae], The minimum rms spot size min =f E060)" ) /7 x | PraPWEL, vRey]" ® is achieved when [275 we)? 3 65 = [Sperder VEL, VEC] aren @ 223 FVKLARE) 100 os Figure 1: Function F(VKL, VK’). In [1], the horizontal beam size o%, was ignored. A modified expression including a corree- tion term can be found in [2]. However, the additional contribution from o%, can be made small by decreasing the strength of the horizontally focusing magnet in the final focus lens. Reduction of luminosity Since the resulting distribution of the beam differs from Gaussian (unperturbed core, plus long tails), the luminosity is better than that calculated from Eq.(3). The minimum effective beam size determined by luminosity is typically 40% jain- Luminosity £ is reduced from the value Lo without radiation inthe lens by the factor [3] D=2 ee fF aeeso( 656084) x (Br ORs 8 6) where (27 (F)I)ye 5 18 the Fourier transform of the distribution of Y, averaged over (y, y’g), and 1 bri) ef imeqistr) na © Ne) = hcoteval UVIEPE+ PP 10PV1+ P? _3(VI¥ PF? - Ps 10PV1+ P PWER GH © sin VKs VK M S(P) ®) +£cosVKs (10) as)Sec.3. PARTICLE-MATTER INTERACTION ae) = ff 90s ay Yor Kx [92 is (12) References (1) K. Olde, PRL 61 (1988) 1713 (2) J. Irwin, Eq(11.111), SLAC-474 (1996) [3] K. Hirata, B. Zotter, K. Oide, PL B24 (1989) 437 33.6 Thermal Outgassing and Beam In- duced Desorption AG, Mathewson*, O. Grobner, CERN Thermal Outgassing Rates [5] The thermal ‘outgassing rate Q (Torr 1 s~! cm™*) for a specific gas species can be expressed by Q = Cexp(-E/ksT) a where C depends on the surface coverage of the gas molecules, E is the binding energy of the molecule to the surface. A gas molecule can exist on the surface in more than one binding state (1, 2]. The outgassing rate is a strong function of the cleanliness of the surface and, even after bakeout, isnot a reproducible quantity (3]. The surface coverage of molecules is determined by diffusion from the bulk of the material, a particularly strong effect for hydrogen in most metals (4). For clean, unbaked surfaces the main gas species that desorb thermally are Hy, CH, H20, CO and CO and they may decrease over several orders of magnitude with pumping time at room temperature as the low binding energy states slowly empty. For unbaked chambers HO dominates [6]. Outgassing rates for chemically cleaned, unbaked Cu, Al and stainless steel (SS) ‘vacuum chambers after about 100 hours of pumping are fairly similar, See Tab.1. For chemically cleaned and baked surfaces the main gas species that desorb are Hz, CH, CO and COz and they decrease only slightly with Pumping time after the end of the bakeout. Typi- cal outgassing rates for clean, baked Cu, Al and ‘SS vacuum chambers after about 50 hours of pumping following a 24-hour bakeout (150°C for Cu and Al and 300°C for SS) are dominated by Hy and are given in Tab2. Hz degassing of SS below 10-!° Torr | s~} cm? can be obtained by lowering the Hz concentration in the bulk material by outgassing at 950°C in a vacuum furnace [7]. + Deceased, 1997 224 Table 1: Unbaked outgassing rates Q. Gas | Q (Torr! s~ cm=?) Fh Tx10-? CH, 5 x10718 H20 3 x10-1 co 5 x10-? C02 5 x1078 ‘Table 2: Thermal outgassing rates (in Torr 1s~? cm” for baked, clean Cu, Al and SS after a bakeout fo lowed by 50 hours pumping, Gas Cu Hy | 1 x10-? CH, | 5 x10-5 co } 1x10-4 Oz | 5 x10-¥8 Ai and SS 5 x10-8 5 x10-8 1 x10-14 1 x10-!4 Photon Induced Gas Desorption at Room ‘Tem- perature The quantity of interest in vacuum systems subjected to bombardment by synchrotron radiation is the photon induced gas desorption yield 7 (molecules/photon), = umber of desorbed gas molecules) ‘number of incident photons 17 is a function of the gas species, the photon energy, the photon angle of incidence on the surface, the nature of the surface, its cleanliness, its temperature and whether or not it has been baked. Also, with accumulated exposure to photons (dose) which gives a cleaning effect, 7 decreases at arate which may be different for different gas species. ‘The photon dose is conventionally expressed in photons per meter length of irradiated vacuum chamber rather than per unit area of irradiated surface since in practice the incident photons usually impinge on part of one wall of the vacuum chamber and the rest of the internal surface is only irradiated by scattered and reflected photons and photoelectrons, How the clean-up rate depends on the chamber diameter has yet to be determined but it is expected to vary inversely with the diameter. Gas desorption by photons is generally attributed to a two-step process, whereby first photoelectrons are produced which in turn excite molecules bound in near surface layers [8]. These excited, weakly bound molecules are subsequently released by thermal desorption, For practical reasons the photon beam in experiments which measure 7 is usually collimatedCh.3: ELECTROMAGNETIC AND NUCLEAR INTERACTIONS Tot Figure 1: The photon induced gas desorption yield at 3.75 keV critical energy and 11 mrad grazing angle of incidence for a 150°C, 24-hour bakeout, 9131 mm OFHC Cu chamber as a function of the photon dose. and the vertical collimation in most beam lines results in an attenuation of photons with energies below a certain value, The aim is to let all photons which may contribute to the desorption into the chamber. Data in Figs.1 and 2 were taken with a collimation resulting in attenuation below about 6ev. The closed geometry of the vacuum chamber gives rise to scattering and reflection, so the effects of the angle of incidence of the photons tend to be smeared out and are less than would be expected if the target were a simple flat plate (9). Since most of the existing measurements of mhave been carried out as input data for the de~ sign of high energy e* storage rings, the photons were not monochromatic but consisted of a bending magnet synchrotron radiation spectrum char- acterised by its critical energy. The integral of the spectrum gives the total number of incident photons used in the definition of n. ‘The main gases desorbed from baked vacuum, chamber surfaces by the photons are Hz, CH, CO and COz. However, even from baked chambers HO and to a lesser extent Oz are also desorbed through surface reactions [10]. For clean, baked (150°C for 24 hours) OFHC Cu the initial desorption yields, i.e. for low photon dose, and their decrease with photon dose are given in Fig.1. The curves for baked Al and SS are very similar to that of Cu except that the initial yields for Al are about a factor of 10 higher (11, 12]. For unbaked surfaces the initial desorption 225 Desorption Yield (moleculesfphoton) wo! 10 10 10 Critical Energy (eV) 0! Figure 2: The dependence of the initial desorption yield at 11 mrad grazing angle of incidence on the crit- {cal energy of the photons for Al baked at 150°C for 24 hours. yields are about a factor of 2-3 higher [13] and ‘the clean-up rates are similar, The dependence of the desorption yield on the critical energy of the photons is shown in Fig.2 for baked Al [14]. For baked Cu and SS the form of the yield versus critical energy curves is similar (13]. For the unbaked case the form of the yield versus critical energy curve remains essentially the same but is shifted to higher values by approximately a factor of 3. Photon Induced Gas Desorption at 77 K and 4.2K At77K and 4.2K the same gases are desorbed by synchrotron radiation ie. Hz, CHy,CO and COz. Only a few measurements of desorption yields at cryogenic temperatures have been made ‘but with the advent of the LHC and SSC projects, the interest has increased (15, 16]. The initial desorption yields for low photon dose from an unbaked Cu chamber at 77 K using 50 eV critical energy synchrotron radiation at 10 mrad grazing angle are shown in Tab.3 [16]. Also shown are initial desorption yields from unbaked SS at 77 K using 45.3 eV critical energy synchrotron radiation at normal incidence (17). With increasing exposure to photons the yields from the Cu showed essentially the same form of decrease with dose as shown in Fig.1 at room temperature [16]. At 4.2 K the sensitivity of the equipment in reference [14] was such that the critical energy had to be increased to 284 eV and even then only the desorption of Hz could be detected. Ton Induced Gas Desorption and Vacuum Sta- bility In storage rings with positively charged

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