Optical Mineralogy (3rd Ed) (Paul F. Kerr) McGraw-Hill

OPTICAL MINERALOGY
Paul F. Kerr, Ph.D.

PROFESSOR OF MINERALOGY, COLUMllIA UNIVERSITY
!I
THIRD EDITION
Previous Editions
by Austin F. Rogers
and Palll F. Kerr
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

III
Ncw York
Toronto
1959
London
t
To
the Memory of
LEA McILVAINE LUQUER
1864-1930
\'
OPTICAL MINERALOGY
Copyright
1959 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
Copyright, 1933, 1942, by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Printed in

thc United States of America. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof,
may not be reproduced in any form without pemlission of the publishers.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 58-13880
. 20 21 22 - MAMD - 9 8765
fs nN 07 -O:J~ 21O-r,
Preface
Austin F. Rogers, the senior author of the first two editions of this text
and professor emeritus in mineralogy at Stanford University, passed away
at Berkeley, California, in April, 1957. His wise counsel as a former
professor and his judgment as a mineralogist have been greatly missed
during this revision. On the other hand, many readers, particularly those
most familiar with Professor Rogers and his work, will recognize the
influence of his teaching and will remember portions of the text which
remain unchanged in the third edition.
Sixteen years have elapsed since the second edition of this text
appeared. The fidelity of the readers who have maintained a steady
demand over this period indicates that the general features of the second
edition have been found useful and consequently they are retained.
The first objective in this revision has been concern over the student
who has found difficulty with the phraseology or explanations of previous
editions. Within the limitations of space every effort has been made to
prepare a text which could be used with a minimum of supervision and
a maximum of self-instruction. Optical mineralogy is acquired by the
student with greatest facility with a good set of illustrative material
under competent classroom instruction. On the other hand, experience
has shown that a considerable number, lacking classroom facilities and
desirous of learning the techniques described, have made considerable
progress with representative thin sections and the text alone.
The format of mineral description has been retained. The length of the
tcxt is essentially the same. However, each mineral description has been
reviewed, many have been revised, a few have been added. Descriptions
of opaque minerals have been reduced in order to make space for other
material. Selected references have been added in an attempt to extend
thc scope of the text without undue enlargement.
Th e polarizing microscope has undergone considerable evolution in
n'c('nt years. Ncw illustrations have bcen substituted to call attention to
ill q)l'(lVCd cqu ipmcnt now available. Ph ase microscopy is illustrated. The
(' lla plcr intend cd to g,lide th e stlld ent in thc selection of methods of
'~ I'i lldill g thill sec liolls ha s hcc n rcviscd. A chapter is includ ed to serve as
iO lI olillino ill a(;('pliri ll g a working knowl edge of the universal stage. The
vli
/1
PIlE FACE
1,," 1111" .11 ion tables have been revised in an attempt to make th em more
'1 " I,d III lhe solution of the problem of identifying unknown min crals.
'I'll " I, 'x t is intended primarily for thin-section study, but both thc
"'/I ', llifhU IS and the tables will be found useful for work with min cral
II', JiIl IIl I S. The feldspars have been the subject of considerable rcvision
I I Ill' ligh t of recent studies. Other mineral groups have not b een so
di lll "lv, ly revised, although frequent revision will be noted throu ghout.
'1d'i II pplie's to the pyroxenes, amphiboles, chlorite, serpentine, the clays,
1111 IIVII por i.tes.
' 1'1 11 1 W I ilcr is particularly indebted to colleagues and research assoIII I ( \~ II I Columbia University who have offered suggestions. Profcssors
l in "oldervaart, Brian Mason, and Ralph J. Holmes; Miss P. K. HamilIII , It" s('arch Associate; Mr. Martin Molloy, Mr. William Bassett, and
1,'. ' )!lvis M. Lapham, Graduate Assistants, have all provided assistance
l VII I h)lls ways. The manufacturers of optical equipment have co1>" 1'11",<1 in furnishing a number of illustrations. Mr. E. O. Rowl and,
,II hlll'lIl nl'y Technician, Kings College, London, has advised on thini'(' lioll 1Il('lllods. Numerous conversations with instructors who have used
't"OViOIiS cd ilions have been particularly helpful.
Paul F. Kerr
Contents
Preface.
vii
Abbreviations
xiii
PART ONE. MINERAL OPTICS

Chapter 1. Mineral Preparations for Microscopic Study .
Types of Preparations- Materials for Thin Sections-The Mineral ChipCutting the Chip to a Thin Section-Special Thin Sections.
Chapter 2. The Polarizing Microscope .
11
General Features-Optical System- Parts of the Microscope-Precautions to

Be Observed in the Use of the Microscope-Care of the Instrument- Illuminators- Phase Microscopy- Photomicrographs-Adjustment of the Polarizing
Microscope.
Chapter 3. A Summary of the Properties of Light .
38
Theories of Light- Nomenclature of the Wave Theory- Light Vector- Speed

of Light- Wave Motion- The Color of Light.
Chapter 4. Refraction
46
Snell's Law. The Index of Refraction- Dispersion- Critical Angle- Total

Reflection-Indices of Refraction of Anisotropic Minerals- Measurement of
Indices of Refraction by Refractometers- Index of Refraction by the Prism
Method- The Determination of the Index of Refraction with the Microscope
- Relief.
Chapter 5. Plane Polarized Light in Minerals .
64
Polarized Light- Polarization by Reflection- Polarization by AbsorptionDouble Refraction (Birefringence )- Optical Indicatrix- Nicol Prism- Interference between Crossed Nicols- Phase Difference- Interference ColorsApplication of the Color Chart to the Study of Minerals-Determination of
Hetardation with a Berek Compensator- Determination of Thickness of Section- Direction of the Vibration of Slow or Fast Rays-Extinction-Elongation- Anomalous Interference.
hapter 6. Convergent Polarized Light .
Goneral Statement- Formation of Interference Figures- Uniaxial Interference
Figures-Vibration Dircctions in Uniaxial Crystals- Positive and Negative
Si~ 1l of Unla.xia1 Crystals- 13iilxial Interference Figures- Eccentric Biaxial
1'Igur<ls- OpUclil Dlroctions in Biaxial Mincrals-Index EllipSOid (Optical
b:
86
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Indicatrix) - The Axial Angles 2E and 2V- Variation in Axial Angle-Determination of the Optic Sign of a Biaxial Mineral- The Optic-axis FigureDispersion in Biaxial Intcrference Figures.
'hapter 7. The Universal Stage.
111
Chapter 14. Silicates: Chain Structures (Inosilicates) .
Purpose-Stage Assembly- Graduated Circles- The Stereographic Plot'Adjustment- Orientation with the Universal Stage-Location of the Uniaxial
Optic Axis-Optical Directions in Biaxial Crystals- Illustrative MountsIllustrative Exercises- Stereographic Net.
:hapter 8. General Features: Color, Mode of Aggregation, Cleavage and
Orientation .
124
142
Crushed Fragments-Methods of Mounting-Immersion Method- Index Determinations by Immersion- Form of Mineral Fragments- Immersion Media
- Standardization and Care of Liquids.
~hapter
10. Systematic Identification

Tables-Opaque Minerals (Table 10-1)- Transparent Minerals (Tables 10-2
to 10-10 )-Isotropic Minerals (Table 10-6 )- Birefringent Minerals (Table
10-7 )- Optical Character (Tables 10-8, 10-9, and 10-10 )- Conclusion.
152
302
Pyroxene Group: Enstatite--H ypersthene--Diopside--Augite--Pigeonite-Hedenbergite--Aegirine-augite--Aegirine-J adeite--Spodumene.

Amphibole Group: Anthophyllite- Cummingtonite--Grunerite- TremoliteActinolite--Nephrite--Homblende--Lamprobolite--Riebeckite- Glaucophane.
Epidote Group: Zoisite- Clinozoisite--Epidote-Piedmontite--Allanite.
Chapter 15. Silicates: Single, Multiple, and Ring SiO. Structures (Neso-, Soro-,
and Cyclosilicates ) .
Color and Pleochroism- Form or Aggregation- Natural Crystal Form in Thin

Section- Cleavage, Parting, and Fracture as an Aid in Distinguishing Minerals- Orientation.
;hapter 9. Mineral Fragments .
xi
Scapolite Group.
Zeolites: Analcine-Heulandite-Stilbite- Chabazite- N atrolite--Mesolite-Thomsonite--Scolecite.
344
Single SiO, Structures.

Olivine Group: Forsterite--Olivine--F ayalite- Monticellite.
Humite Group: Chondrodite.
Gamet Group: Pyrope-Almandite- Spessartite--U varovite--GrossulariteAndradite.
Stau rolite--Sphene- Idocrase- Zircon- Axinite- Iddingsite.
Sillimanite Family: Andalusite--Sillimanite- Kyanite--Mullite- DlImortierite
- Topaz.
Multiple SiO. Structures- Sorosilicates.
Lawsonite.
6-unit Ring Strllctures- Cyclosilicates.
Beryl- Tourmaline Group- Cordierite- Wollastonite.
PART TWO. MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS

Chapter 16. Silicates : Sheet Structures and Mineraloids
:ntroduction to Part Two
181
Mineral Groups
:::hapter 11. Elements to Hydroxides
Elements: Graphite.
Sulfides: Sphalerite-Pyrite--Pyrrhotite--Chalcopyrite.
Halides: Halite--Fluorite.
Oxides: Periclase--Corundum- Hematite- Ilmenite--Rutile- Cassiterite.
Multiple Oxides : Spinel- Magnetite-Chromite--Perovskite.
Hydroxides: Diaspore--Brucite--Boehmite--Gibbsite--Cliachite--Limonite.
185
Chapter 12. Carbonates, Sulfates, and Phosphates

Carbonates: Calcite--Dolomite--Magnesite--Siderite- Aragonite.
Sulfates: Barite--Celestite--Anhydrite--Gypsum- Polyhalite--Alunite-Jarosite.
Phosphates: Monazite--Apatite--Dahllite- Collophane--Lazulite .
209
Chapter 13. Silicates: Framework Structures (Tectosilicates ).

Silica Group: Quartz- Chalcedony- Opal-Tridymite--Cristobalite--Lechatelierite--Coesite.
Feldspars : Orthoclase- Adul ari a- Sanidine--Microcline- Anorthoclase- -AI-
236
bito--Oli goclasc-And cs in c~Labradorilc-Bytownitc-Anorth1te .
Foldspath oids: L Cllcilc- Ncphclinc - Cancrinito--Sodalite--I Iuiiyne- .

Molilila .
383
Muscovite Group: Muscovite-Lepidolite-Phlogopite--Biot:it~.

Chlorite Group: Prochlorite- Clinochlore- Penninite--Chamosite.
Brittle Mica Group: Stilpnomelane- Chloritoid.
T alc: Pyrophyllite.
Clay Mineral Group: Kaolinite--Dickite- H alloysite- Montmorillonite- Hy_
dromuscovite--Palygorskite-Sepiolite.
Serpentine Group: Antigorite--Chrysotile.
Prehnite--Glauconite.
Mineraloids.
Volcanic Glass: Palagonite.
Index
427
Abbreviations
SYM BOL S F OR I N DICE S OF R E FRACTION I N G ENERAL USE
Symbols used
in this text
Symbols used
by D ana,
Joha nnsen,
Larsen and
Berma n
Isotropic . .. . . ... .. . . . . .. . . ... . .
Uniaxial
Extraordina ry ray .... . . . . . ..
Ordinary ray . ..... , . . . . . . . . .
n,
nw
Ne
No
Biaxial
Least v alue ........... . . . . .. . .
Interm ediate v alue .. ... .. .... ..
Greatest value . . . .... ... . ... . ..
na
n fJ
noy
a
(3
-y
Np
Nm
Ng
Mineral t ype to which index

symbol applies
Symbols used
by Winchell
n = index of refra ction.

na (alpha ) = t he index of the fast ray in biax ial minerals. The least index of refr action.
nfJ (beta) = t he index of t he ray at right a ngles to n a a nd n oy.
noy(gamma ) = the index of the slow ray in biax ial minerals. The greatest index of
refract ion.
n ,(epsilon) = the m aximum (in positive) a nd the minimum (in negative) index of
refract ion of the extraordinary ray in uniaxial miner als.
nw (omega) = the index of refract ion of the ordinary ray in uniax ial minerals. If
nw < n" the mineral is posit ive. If nw > n" the mineral is negative . nw is
constant in a given uniaxial mineral, whereas the index of the ext raordinary ray
v aries from nw t o n .
n , and n. = the lesser a nd greater indices of refraction of the two rays in a ny crystal
section a t ra ndom orientation.
X = the ax is of greatest ease of vibration . Light vibrating parallel t o X travels
with m ax imum velocity (also indicat ed by a ) .
Z = th e ax is of least ease of vibration. Light vibrating parallel to Z travels with
minimum velocity (also indicated by -y).
Y = t he intermedi ate axis at right angles t o t he plane of X and Z (also indicated
by (3).
e = the ax is of vib ration of the extraordin ary ray .
w = the ax is of vibration of t he ord ina ry ray (in a pla ne a t right angles to .).
r - the d ispen;ioll for red .
II ..
t he di ~ p o l'~ i() II [0 " v iolct.

t ho a xial a ll ~ l o wit hill t ho m ill era l.
:l V -
d ll
ABBREVIATIONS
= the axial angle observed in air.

r. = acute bisectrix.
ro = obtuse bi~ectrix.
~. pI. = the plane of t he optic axes.
= micron, tho usandth of a millimeter (0.001 mm.).
,.. = millimicron, millionth of a millimeter (0.000001 mm.).
= angstrom unit , tenth of a millimicron (0.0000001 mm.).
= retard ation in m,.. (millimicrons).
= thickness of a t hin section. Usually given in hundredths of a millimeter (0 .01
mm.).
b, and c = t he crystallographi c axes.
c<, (3, 'Y = angles between t he crystallographic axes.
" Y - na) = double refraction for biaxial minerals.
'W n,); (n, - nw) = double refraction for uniaxial minerals.
1 = the slow ray of t he Berek compensator.
2 = the fast ray of the Berek compensator.
= the extraordin ary ray.
= the ordinary ray.
~ ngth-fast (or negative elongation) = elongation parallel to the vibration direction
of the fast ray.
~ ngth-sjow (or positive elongation) = elongation parallel to the vibration directio n
of the slow ray .
. = circa (about).
'iJ
PART ONE
Mineral Optics
CHAPTER
Mineral Preparations for Microscopic Study
Types of Preparations. The preparation of minerals for microscopic

study depends largely upon the microscope used. If only surficial features
are to be examined as with a binocular microscope, little preparation is
required. In this case small crystals, mineral grains, or even specimens
several inches across, either opaque or transparent, may be examined
unmounted, under a range of magnifications up to about 100 times .
In other studies the microscope used differs for opaque and transparent
materials. Opaque minerals are often sawed to produce a flat surface,
mounted for convenience in handling, and polished until a brilliantly
reflecting surface is developed. Such surfaces are examined with the
reflecting microscope. Transparent minerals are usually cemented to glass
slides with Canada balsam or a similar transparent mounting material.
Small crystals, grains, or fragments are often scattered over the central
portion of the slide and mounted without further preparation. Sands and
mineral concentrates are particularly suitable for such treatment. When
mounted, the preparations are examined in transmitted light with the
polarizing microscope.
A common form of microscopic examination employed for transparent
materials involves the use of thin sections. This text is mainly concerned
with such study. Thin sections are ordinarily about 0.03 mm thick and
measure about an inch square.
Many mineral materials may be studied to advantage in thin sections
with the polarizing microscope. Probably the most widely employed
application lies in the examination of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The technique, however, is capable of wider application.
W ith suitable impregnation, soils, clays, and many forms of loosely consolid ated materials may be mounted for this form of study. Mineral fragments may also be cem ented into a hriquette and ground thin.
C rystals of min erals or artifi cial chemical compounds are often oriented
II lId sli ced at desired angles in oreler to emphasize certain optical prop('rli( 's . fi'r('( I' I('1l11y rock sprc inwns aI'(' ca reflill y marked with respect to
' hoir posilioll ill Lit o Olll('J'O P wl\('11 il is (](.sir('(l 10 cOIT('bte tho position
:l
MINERAL OPTICS
>f individual crystals in a thin section with the rock mass from which the
ection has been cut.
Materials for Thin Sections. Few students of mineralogy prepare their
'Wll thin sections, but it is desirable for all to know how thin sections
Ire made. With natural manual dexterity and patience students have
earned to make sections equal to those ground by professional section
nakers.l The speed may not equal that of the professional, but with a
ittle care the section cut may b e equally satisfactory.
The technique employed varies with the nature of the material. Grindng sections of compact igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks is
i routine process. Friable or fractured rocks and unconsolidated materials
;hould be firmly cemented with a p enetrating binding substance before
MINERAL PREPARATIONS FOR MICROSCOPIC STUDY
in 6 hours at 50C or in 1 hour at lOOe. Thin sections cut from decomposed granite in which kaolinite has replaced feldspar retain sharp crystal
boundaries with this treatm ent.
The earlier stages in the preparation of an ordinary rock section are
illustrated in Figure 1-1. The first problem involves the choice of material
and a decisiOl~ concerning the direction of the cut. A specimen suitable
for effective study with the microscope is selected. Such a specimen may
contain fine-grained materials not easily studied by the unaided eye,
structures that yield readily to examination with the microscope, or any
one of those numerous minor features so effectively revealed by microscopic examination. The direction in which the section is to be cut should
be clearly marked on the specimen.
Shield
/
Shield
","'-
Copper disc
I
I
?y '
~
... .., ,....
(a)
"
(b)
Abrasive
/'
pan
Abr:asive
//
pan
/'
....",
//'
,---~~=~~-----~/
FIG . 1-2. A mineralogical saw consisting of a hard rolled copper disk used with
carborundum.
\
'.
(e)
1-1. (a) A rock selected for a thin section and sawed to obtain a chip. (b) A
sawed chip of proper dimensions for a thin section (bottom surface smooth). (e)
The chip mounted on a glass slide with Canada b alsam ready for the first stage of
grinding.
FIG.
being mounted on a glass slide. One method involves a preliminary heating with the mineral specimen immersed in Canada balsam either in an
open dish or under a vacuum b ell jar. Methyl methacrylate "lucite" has
been used by Bell (1939) to impregnate friable material under a vacuum.
Exley (1956) has impregnated friable kaolin specimens with a synthetic
resin supplied by Bakelite, Ltd. A friable specimen is cemented with a
mixture of (1) resin, (2) a modifying agent, (3) a catalyst, and (4) an
accelerator. The four materials (with corresponding trade numbers) are
mixed in order as follows: resin, 100 g (SR 17431); modifying agent, 10
to 15 g (Z 17453) ; catalyst, 1 g (Q 17447); and an accelerator, 2 g
(Q 17448). The mixture is said to gel in 2 hours at 25C. It will harden
, The foll owin g list is furnish ed for the convenience of readers who wish the names
of techni cians ITI nkin g thin sec tions:
D. M. Organ ist, Box 176, Ncwa rk , Del.
C " C)"g" ntv , :12<1 S(,\H' nll c rilorll !laB, '11 9 SI. nllcl Amsterclam Ave ., New York
27 . N .Y.
l"' f',1 II n\l! lil H, I:HlO S. MO III ('I "Y 1'1I )s lid ., MO Ili<" 'oy Pilrk, Calif.
A\ "~ I II'''\( ' I' 'I'I1I1I1I1I1 V')V , 0:;11 1I11 '1~" \ AVi '., I.", A\t os, C" ll r.
1I,,"\ ,,\pll V(l il 11, ,,'1" " I\(lri N , MI I,1l 01' A VII " 1'11 '11 1.1.'" 11, ( ;11111.
'\
'
,,'....
The Mineral Chip. The first step in the manufacture of a thin section
involves the preparation of a mineral chip with a smooth smface suitable
for mounting on a glass slide. The chip may be broken from a specimen
and ground flat on one side, or a slice of suitable dimensions may be
sawed directly from a specimen. An ideal chip is about 1 inch square and
Ys inab thick.
Where it is desired to cut chips, several types of saws are available.
In each case, however, the cutting action is actually grinding along a
groove rather than sawing in the ordinary sense of the word. The grinding action is accomplished with an abrasive powder. The saw itself is
usually a metal disk. The abrasive may be fed against the disk in loose
particles, or it may b e imbedded in the outer rim. Abrasives may be
either carborundum or diamond powders.
Figure 1-2 illustrates an ordinary mineralogical saw. It may be a hardrolled copper disk that operates over a trough filled with carborundum
alld sludge. The edge of the rotatin g disk picks up carborundum and
rllhs it against the specimen. If a proper mixture of mud, carborundum,
and water is maintain cd , it is possibl e to grind a n arrow channel comp lvll'ly throll gh all in ch or so lid ;'1'1 ;11' 1:1. in :1 few minnl cs.
MINERAL OPTICS
When a chip is ready, a smooth surface is polished on one side by

utilizing successively 100, FFF, and 600 carborundum and finishing with
3021h American Optical Company's emery. In case the rock is fairly soft,
the first grinding with 100 carborundum is omitted. The 100 carborundum
is coarse and tends to destroy soft material.
The smoothly ground but unpolished surface of the chip is cleaned and
dried. It is then mounted on a glass object slide, employing Canada
balsam or Lakeside 70 as a cementing material. Balsam should be cooked
about 2 minutes at 160a C until a bead is tenacious and solid. The chip
may then be warmed at 120a C for
mounting. Balsam should not be
overcooked, since it then becomes
too brittle and may even turn
::'1 Expansion .cylinder
brown. While the balsam is still
)1 for glycerin,
warm and liquid, the flat surface
of the warmed chip is placed upon
a slide containing a cooked smear
of Canada balsam. On cooling, the
chip will be firmly cemented to the
glass slide. The bond should be an
even layer of balsam unbroken by
air bubbles. If air bubbles are presFIG. 1-3. A hot plate containing a glycerin
ent, the chip should be warmed,
chamber and thermometer well for conremoved,
and remounted. The
trol in cooking Canada balsam. (D evelproblem
of
properly cooking Canoped by Paul H . Bird. )
ada balsam may be solved by using
a hot plate with thermostat control, or a glycerin plate as shown in Figure 1-3. Lakeside 70, heated at 140a C, may be used to cement directly
without cooking. The index of refraction, n = 1.540, is close to but slightly
higher than that for balsam (1.537). Air pockets are less likely to form
between the glass slide and the chip than with balsam.
Cutting the Chip to a Thin Section. Much attention has been devoted
to the problem of producing a thin uniform slice 0.03 mm thick from a
chip several millimeters thick. In general, this may be accomplished in
two ways. In one method the chip is ground in successive stages with
carborundum and emery on laps, in a sequence similar to that used to
produce a smooth surface on the chip. In another, a carefully adjusted
saw is used to cut the chip to about 0.06 mm and it is then completed to
0.03 mm on a lap.
Mechanical grinding of mounted ohips usually takes place on flat metal
laps bccd to a planc Hat surface. The laps should be at least 12 inches
in diaJneter and sholild rotate at a speed of ahout 600 rpm. Bearings
UIIi NI bo shielded al!aillsl 1l1ll'llsiv(! powd er. Th(; lap for fin e grinding
should be made of copper or brass and grooved. A helical groove pattern

is effective. Where precision diamond saws are used to cut initial slices
0.06 to 0.08 mm thick, many sections may be completed by hand on a
glass plate with abrasive powder, or in some instances with abrasive
papers.
Great precautions concerning cleanliness are necessary throughout the
entire process. A single grain of coarse grit rubbed against the slide at
the wrong time will often destroy a thin section.
The exposed side of the mounted chip is ground in turn with medium
carborundum, fine carborundum, and alundum. Alundum is utilized when
the chip has been reduced to a thickness of about 0.1 mm. The specimen
may be ground on a rotating grooved lap or finished by hand on a smooth
glass plate. A fine alundum or emery paste is used for the final grinding.
Water is ordinarily employed to
make the paste, but kerosene or glycol are required for water-soluble
materials. This last stage demands
considerable manual dexterity. The
thin slice should be kept uniform in
thickness during grinding and th e
grinding continued until a thickness I_
45mm
_I
of about 0.03 mm is attained. The F IG. 1-4. A cross sec t'IOn a f the mount e d
thickness of the slide is controlled rock slice (vertical scale exaggerated) .
through the final stage by microscopic observation of the interference colors given by some known mineraI in the section when covered with a film of water. Quartz is frequently present, in which case the resulting interference colors should be
almost entirely white or gray. Some prefer large sections for which the
thickness may be about 0.04 mm. A thin section properly ground shows
a remarkable degree of bansparency.
Small holders are useful for holding the mounted chips during grinding. Such holders keep the opposite surfaces of the slide parallel and
facilitate the process of fine grinding. Holders also permit the operator
to grind several sections at the same time until the final stage is reached.
Three holders form a useful combination. One, holding six slides, may be
used to glind the chip to a thickness of about 0.5 mm; the second, arranged for two slides, to carry the grinding to 0.1 mm; and the third,
holding a single slide, to complete the sections . In case a holder is not
available, a small cork may be connected to the back of the slide with
halsam.
Wh cn th e seclion is ground to the proper thickness, it is washed free
from grinclin g powder and dried . Fresh balsam is then smeared over the
~ \lrFae() or Lh u ~ I leo. H is cookt:d, aud ra c(;d with a COvor glass (thickn~s
MINERAL OPTICS
.bout 0.17 mm or less). The preparation is then cooled, and excess

lalsam around the edge of the cover glass is dissolved with xylol, folowed by a wash with kerosene. The thin section is now covered and
eady for use (Figure 1-4).
In case the slice is composed of substantial and compact material, it
nay be transferred from the glass slide on which it has been ground to
.notller slide free from scratches. To effect the transfer, the slide holding
he slice is smeared with balsam and heated on a hot plate as in covering.
A clean slide smeared with balsam
is placed on the hot plate next to
the ground slide containing the
chip, and the balsam cooked at the
same time.2 When both smears of
balsam are cooked the slice is
worked free from the ground slide
with the aid of a toothpick and
floated to the clean side. It is then
covered with a cover glass in the
usual way.
Rapid and precise cuts may be
made with metal saws which contain diamond powder 3 imbedded
in the metal of the rim (Meyer,
1946) . The smooth chip is cemented to a glass slide with Lake"IG. 1-5. A diamond saw designed to cut side 70 as a cementing material. A
!ices of rocks to about 0.06 mm, by
well-balanced diamond saw then
~.
O. Rowland. (ClItrock Engineering

~o., Ltd., Dollis Mews, Dollis Park,
(inchley, London, N. 3, England.)
cuts the precIsely held chIp to a

thickness of about 0.06 mm in a
single operation. The slice is then
:educed to standard thickness on a finishing lap.
Rowland (1953) has described a saw as shown in Figure 1-5. The saw
s mounted vertically above a platform. The latter is free to move up or
:lown or horizontally with machine precision. A special holder mounted
) l l the platform holds the material to be sectioned. Equipment of this
lOrt has been called a p et1'Otome by Isachsen (1951).
Special Thin Sections. Thin "peeled" lms removed from the smooth
;urface of clays may be mounted in balsam on glass slides and examined
:ts ordin ary thin sections. The mounted films arc for the most part exceed' Precuokcd balsam may be healed lo 100C for mounting.
$ A O-Ili eh bl ado ehll rgcd willi powdered di Hmonds is made by the Consolidated
oil\11 \l/l H,l Tool Corpol'llLi un, Yo nke rs, N,Y,
ingly thin, although coarse particles may be plucked from the clay mass
and will protrude from the balance of the 1m.
A smooth surface is carefully prepared by polishing on dry groundglass plates. While still moist, the surface is covered with amyl acetate
and pyroxylin. After the preparation is dried for from 5 to 6 hours, the
dry 1m formed by the pyroxylin is peeled from the clay surface with a
knife blade. The 1m is then mounted with Canada balsam on a glass
slide and covered with a cover glass.
Special thin sections are occasionally made in which the area of the
section may measure as much as 3 inches by 4 inches although the thickness is usually greater than normal. Such sections may provide a survey
of textural relations which extends beyond the area ordinarily covered
by a thin section. They have also been used in a limited manner for
lantern projection either directly or with polarized light derived from
superimposed polaroid sheets.
Specimens are frequently examined which contain both h'ansparent
and opaque minerals. The technique of polishing metallic minerals and
the methods of examination employed are beyond the scope of this text,
but it should be pointed out that a number of laboratories have found
it advantageous to prepare dual-purpose thin sections. These sections are
not only ground to the conventional thickness, but one surface is polished
to allow examination of metallic constituents in reflected light in addition
to the customary study with transmitted polarized light (Rankama, 1941;
Kennedy, 1945) .
REFERENCES
Bell, James F.: Notes on the Uses of Methyl Methacrylate "Lucite" in a Geological Laboratory, Ecan. Geal., vol. 34, pp. 804-811 , 1939.
Exley, C. S.: A Method of Impregnating Friable Rocks for the Cutting of Thin
Sections, Mineral. Mag. , vol. 31, pp. 347-349, 1956.
Isachsen, Y. William: A Petrotome Modificat ion for Cutting Extremely Thin
Rock Sections, P1'Oc. Penn. Acad. Sci., vol. 25, pp. 109-112, 1951.
Kennedy, George C.: The Preparation of Polished Thin Sections, Ecan. Geal.,
vol. 40, pp . 353-360, 1945.
Keyes, Mary G.: Making Thin Sections of Rocks, Am. J. Sci. , 5th ser. , vol. 10,
pp. 538-550, 1925.
Meyer, Charles: Notes on the Cutting and Polishing of Thin Sections, Ecan.
Geal., vol. 41 , pp. 166-172, 1946.
Rankama, K.: An Improved Technique for the Making of Thinned Polished
Sections, Ecan. Geal. , vol. 36, pp. 561-563, 1941.
Ross, C. S.: Methods of Preparation of Sedimentary Materials for Study, Ecan.
Geal. , vol. 21, pp. 454-468, 1926. See also Am. J. Sci. , 5th ser. , vol. 7,
pp. 483- 485, 1924.
Howland , E. 0 .: A Rapid Method for the Preparation of Thin Rock Sections,
Mi7l eral. Ma g ., vol. 30, pp . 254-258, 1953.
10
MINEHAL OPTICS
Weatherhead, A. V.: A New Method for the Preparation of Thin Sections of

Clays, Mineral. Mag. , vol. 25, pp. 529-533, 1940.
Weymouth, A. Allen: Simple Methods for Making Thin Sections, Ecan. Ceal.,
vol. 23, pp. 323-330, 1928.
Wilson, D. A. P., and V. L. Bosazza: A Rock Cutting Machine for the Preparation of Specimens for Microscopic Examination, Can. Mining ]., vol. 59,
no. 10,pp. 549-550, 1938.
CHAPTER
The Polarizing Microscope
General Features. TIle polarizing microscope is widely employed to

examine transp arent minerals although other types are used for special
forms of mineral work, such as (1) the phase microscope, (2) the reflecting microscope, and (3) the binocular microscope. The phase microscope
is us eful in distinguishing minute obscure particles. The reflecting microscope serves for polished surfaces of metallic minerals. The binocular
microscope is used mainly to observe surface features.
Aside from minor reference to other microscopes the discussion in this
text is confined to, the polarizing microscope since it applies to such a
broad range of study.l It is extensively used to examine mineral fragments, grains, and small crystals, as w ell as thin sections of minerals,
rocks, and other crystals. It is p articularly useful in the determination of
the optical properties of individual crystals or aggregates, and in the
interpretation of textures, patterns, and various relationships of natural
or artificial substances as shO\vn in thin sections. Several polarizing microscopes have been selected for illustration in Figures 2-1 to 2-6 from a
considerable number of models available. These range from serviceable
instruments suitable for most work to more advanced types speCially
designed for research.
The lens system of the polarizing microscope corresponds in many
respects to the lens system of the usual compound microscope, but contains several modifications which greatly increase its range of usefulness
in work with minerals. The most distinctive features are the polarizing
and analyzing devices, both b elow and above the stage. The rotating
stage, the Amici-Bertrand lens, and several accessories such as the mica
1
A list of firm s that manufacturc or distribute polarizing microscopes is given h ere:

Am e ri ca n Op ti cal Company (Sci entifi c In strum cnt Division) , Buffalo 11, N.Y.
Bau sc" allci LO llliJ Opti ca l Co., Hoch cstc r 2, N.Y.
Coo k(" 'i' n) lI g lltol1 a lld Si IlIlIl S, York , 1 ~ lI g l and.
I<:. I." i! t:, I li t'. , I(ill !Coml " Ave., New York 16, N.Y.
1I , i(I" 'I! , \\ ' illi :1I1I I. 11 ;I (' k('l' & Co ., '111('., III 13<-: lv(' r SI. , New York .'5, N.Y.
U ,dtllil' , lI ,d!, '" S(:i('lItifi (' Co " 2()/1 (J 1\ l i l l- St. , l\ostOll , M;l ss.
/ '('i'" Wl ll k, .1 (;,,!! i" g" " ), CII.I / ,(.1", 111('., IIWi " if til Ave ., New York 17, N.Y.
II
l2
MINE RAL OPTICS
)late, the gypsum plate, the quartz wedge, and the compensator are also
Hstinctive.
The polarizing microscope as employed for the examination of minerals
ltilizes both plane-polarized light and light with the polarized planes
~rossed. For ordinmy inspection a lower polarizing device is left in place
)elow the condenser, and the upper polarizing device remains at
one side. For examination between
crossed planes, opposed polarizing
plates, or nicol prisms2 fit in the
optical train at right angles.
A serviceable polalizing microscope for general use equipped
with polmizing plates (polaroid)
is illustrated in Figure 2-1. A rotating stage with spring clamps
holds the thin section. Special
high-quality polarOid used for such
microscopes furnishes sha11), black
extinction and yields well-developed interference figures .
A polarizing microscope with
a deviating prism and inclined
tube for convenient observation is
shovm in Figure 2-2. The names
used for the several pmts are given
at either side of the photograph. A
thin section appears in position on
the stage. The stage not only roFIG. 2-1. A student model polarizing
tates but may be raised and lowmicroscope equipp ed with polarizing ered. The analyzing nicol prism
plates (Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.).
and the Amici-Beltrand lens are
Both the analyzer plate and the AmiciBertrand lens are sealed in the tube and
enclosed in the tube between the
aip in or out of the optical path as the
objective and the eyepiece.
proper knob is turned. The stage may be
Both sectional and complete
rotated and also raised and lowered.
views of a polarizing microscope
with polarizing prisms are shown in Figures 2-3 and 2-4. As illustrated,
the optical train from the mirror upward consists of the polarizer
(Ahrens type ), lower fixed lenses of the condenser, removable upper
lcnses of the con denser, object in position on the stage, objective,
' '1'1,, It'I'II' 1Ii1''' / is 111'1 (' 11 IIsed 10 ill(li (;al"(; Ihe polarizin g devic;c II scd in th e microNt''' lh'. II j , (i t',i VC' d 1'''"11 III(' pr bll' llI'igill ally dl'sigll ud by William Nicol. The prisms
1111 11' 1I ",d " " ' ,I" , I IIII I ' IIS CI" 1I ,,",i1al' "'O''l' l' lli uil' IIL Lypu. Polarizing plates may also
I", I, ClI ".. I,",,,.I.
13
THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE
analyzer (Ahrens type ) , Amici-Bertrand lens, and the eyepiece. In this

alignment the instrument yields conoscopie observation as used for interference figures. With the removal of the Amici-Bertrand lens the instrument yields orthoscopic observation.
Both sectional and complete views of a more elaborate polarizing
microscope of a combined research and operational type are shown in
Figures 2-5 and 2-6. H ere the optical train consists of a polalizer plate,
lower fixed lenses of the condenser, removable upper lenses of the condenser, object in position on the stage, objective, analyzer plate, deviating
Pinhole disc
Openinq for
accessory plates
,.
Objective clutch -
{ris diopllroqm
J:,jaJ!
Objective
Rototinq stoqe
(0150 vertical
motion)
~
Combined
coarse
and fine
adjustment
2-2. A polarizing micro scope with polarizing plates and a deviating prism
(E . Leitz, Inc.) . The features shown are suitable for most microscopic work. The eyepiece tube is inclined to permit observation at a convenient angle, the analyzer and
polarizer are polarizing plates, and either a mirror or substage illuminator may be
employed.
FIG.
prism, and eyepiece. As aligned, the instrument would yield orthoscopic

observation. The deviating prism and inclined tube replace the inclination jOint and tilting alTangement of Figure 2-4, while the stage remains
horizontal at all times. Plates are used for both the polarizer and the
analyzer. The analyzer and the Amici-Berb'and lens are turned in and
out of the train as a substitute for the sliding motion in the previous
instrument.
Optical System. The polarizing microscope may be assembled either
fo r orthoscopic or conoscopic observation. The orthoscopic arrangement
proVides the eye with a realistic virtu al imagc with a Hat field showing
Lh e object on th e rni croseope stage. Min erals may be observed with a
single polarizing dev ice OJ' will, crossed ni cols. Conoscop ic observati on
14
MINERAL OPTICS
eyepiece
"
Coarse focllsing
od/Ilstment ----~-_,
'f Body
Compensating lens
, Micrometeri fine ndilJ<tmpnt~
Protecting plate -~, .
Ahrens analyzing
prism
,1
Protecting plate
~-CampensatinQ
lens
'--Upper iris diaphragm
~Pmfp('tlnfl plates
diaphragm
_~, ~
__'.
___
--,~
,-
2-3. Sectional view of a standard polarizing microscope (American Optical Co.).

The instrument is equipped with nicol prisms (Ahrens type), with a continuous
vertical optical system, and is suitable for either orthoscopic or conoscopic observation.
The names of the different parts are indicated on the two sides.
FIG.
yields interference figures which represent an optical effect caused by the

behavior of light in individucll crystals. The figures are formed in the
back focal plane of the objective, where they may be observed with the eye
alone if the eyepiece and Amici-Berttand lens are removed, or as an
enlarged image with the eyepiece in place, and the Amici-Bertrand lens
inserted. The paths of rays for conoscopic and orthoscopic observation
are compared in the sectional diagrams of Figure 2-7a,b. Aside from
polarizing devices , the optical arrangement in orthoscopic observation
involvcs an illuminating source, a concentrating light system, a substage
;ondclIscr, Lh e object Lo b e ohserved on the stage, the objective with the
oi>j('(' ti vo circle \11 0 eyepiece wi th th e illl:l gO fi eld , :lncllhe eye pi ece circl e.
15
If the best results are to be achieved, regardless of the source of

illumination employed, it is important to regulate the light entering the
microscope with respect to the optical system. In order to accomplish
this result, suitable filters should be available for the source of illumination, the illuminator used should b e equipped with an iris diaphragm,
and the condenser system should
contain a suitable diaphragm. The
field of view in the microscope
should be carefully bounded by
these diaphragms and the proper
filter system employed to reduce
the illumination to suitable intensity. Proper resolution for each
magnification may be secured in
this way.
Three important fields are involved : the image, the object, and
the source. The circular field of
view seen by the observer when he
looks through the microscope is
bounded primarily by the diaphragm of the eyepiece. This diaphragm is fixed and also contains
the crosshairs. The magnified diaphragm image bounds the image
field as seen through the eyepiece.
The object field is a field of view
equal in diameter to the diameter
of the image field divided by the
total magnification. It measures the FIG. 2-4. A polarizing microscope (E.
area of the thin section or other Leitz, Inc. ). Both the stage and the tube
object under observation at a par- may be ad justed vertically. The instrument is equipped with nicol prisms.
ticular instant. The source field is
the field of view at the glass filter of the illuminator (Figure 2-8). The
diameter of the source field is equal to the product of the diameter of
the object field and the reciprocal of the reduction caused by the condenser. In the control of illumination, the area of the light from the illuIllin ator is cut by the condenser to equal the source field. When the light
(' nLering the microscope is limited in this way, only the circle of the objl'ct th at is observed b ecomcs illumin ated, and glare due to the interr(' rCIi CC 01: marginal li ght is elimin ated.
Wh e n th o c(')lItlenscr is in fO CIIS', tile iris di aphragm de termines the used
aporlllro or 111 0 cO lld clIse):. It i!; illiporlllllt tllat I'his aper lure b e fill ed with
MINERAL OPTICS
miform illumination. If the objective is placed in focus and the eye)iece removed, the used aperture of the condenser may be observed by
ooking down the tube of the microscope. This may be termed the conlense1' ci1'cle. It is a bright circular area encircled by a dimly lighted band
Cross Jines plan.
Eyepiece
llIt.
Eyepiece slee ve - - - - ---'
Mill ed ring for od iu, ting th e tube len gth _ __ _
M icroscope tube
~r;::
'.Iilled rin g for the tu be diap hragm
Tube diaphragm
Ami ci-Bertrand lens
----------~
-~
_"i
De viat ing prism

Circul a r dove tail ing
,./
./
1-- - - -- Tube head

An alyzer intermediate tube
Analyze r filter -----~
li mb _ _ __
~ack-ond - p i n i o n
housing
Substag e cond enser

:oorse od iustm ent head
Fine ad justm en t head
Eccentric d omp
Milled ring
Bulb holder
E;lectric cabl e
ring for radiant field .stop
Circular bose
Screw ring for b ulb _ _ -'-_ _ _ _ _ _.J
6V. 15W. bulb - -- - -_ _ __ ---1
FIG. 2-5. Section al view of a research polarizing microscope (Carl Zeiss, Gottingen,
W est Germany). Thc instrument is constructed with an inclined tube, deviating
prism, polarizing pl ates, intern al illumination, and eccentric centerin g objectives.
or rill g. T,he lattcr is somctim es termed the objective circle. The objective
;ircl e is 1I0t hound ed hy a diaphragm hut is limited by the margin of the
O\lj( 'cli vO lellses . In Irll croscopi c adjusLm ent, it has b een found that the
('(llId"IIS('I" (" it'd, ' sll Ottid I)( ) as II Ci\rly C(I1I ,11 Lo Lh e objective circle in
d llllll( l(( II' li S plIss lltl, ', wll lH lliI t'HIi Silt g glUI'll, Tlli ~ is pll rli cul \l rly important _
17
in using objectives yielding high initial magnification with correspondingly high numerical apertures. Oil-immersion objectives usually require
the use of immersion condensers in order to avoid the loss of useful
magnification from glare. Either corrected water or oil-immersion condensers may be used. The numerical aperture of the condenser should be
less than the numerical aperture of the objective by a small amount.
Conoscopic Observation. The arrangement of the image-forming
and illuminating beams in conoscopic observation differs in part
from the orthoscopic assemblage.
The object may be considered as
an originating source for the observation of interference images which
appear in the objective circle. The
light rays which pass through the
condenser diaphragm have passed
through the polarizer and are polarized. The rays are parallel to
each other on emerging from the
condenser front lens, but then become convergent to an extent which
depends on the aperture of the
substage. The convergent rays pene trate the object, which modifies
the light transmitted and develops
unusual optical effects,
The rays diverge above the objective circle and pass through a FIG. 2-6. A polarizing microscope previpolarizing device with a plane at ously illustrated in section (Fig. 2-5)
. I
I
I'
th
(Carl Zeiss, Gottingen, W est Germany) .
rig lt ang es to the po .anzer ( e F eatures of this microscope are pol ariz:llIa Iyzer ). They merge Il1 the plane ing plates, eccentric centered objectives,
(If Lh e fi eld stop in the eyepiece to a rotating nose piece, built-in illuminad
.
f tl
b' r
tion, inclined tube, and vertical as well
pro uce an Image 0
le 0 Jec Ive as horizontal stage adjustment.
:tperLure stop. The field-stop image
is seen in the eyepiece and forms an image on the retina of the eye.
Thc position of the exit pupil dep ends upon the objective employed.
'1' 11(' dis Lance of the image in the fi eld stop from the Bertrand lens will
,!Iso (Iiflcr. Th e position of the eyepiece must be adjusted to permit a
" H'ltS at tI lc neIcl stop.
Th o illla gc of th e ohjcct, which simulates a light source, is brought by
tli n Alltici - Ikrlrancllcns Lo Lh c pla ll e of 110 0 diaphragm in the microscope
Jtli l('. 'I' ll( ' ('y('pi( 't'( , 111( '11 ope rates Lo brill g Lh e ilila ge inLo th e plane of the
MINERAL OPTICS
18
19
orthoscopic
Conoscopic
Eyepiece
source
Bertrand lens
.a
~~
oll'llumination
Lens
to concentrate light
(Light Mter
~
~
?:2
Analyzer
lie'
~ "ource
lield
II
-Objective cire/e
.::::::::::
Objecttve
Sample
Condenser
t:Field diaphragm
Mirror
FIG. 2-8. Diagram showing the relative dimensions of the different fields in the microscope and their relation to the illumination. (After Belling. )
0/_~
Polarizer
Mirror
(al
(bl
FIG. 2-7. A diagram showing the path of light through the microscope. (a) eonoscopic observation, high magnification, Huygenian ocular, Amici-Bertrand lens, polarizing prisms, crossed nicols, and an au xiliary condenser immediately below the object
are illustrated. An optical pattern is obscrved in the eye. (b) Orthoscopic observation, crossed nicols, intermeuiate magnification, Huygenian ocular, and polarizing
prisms are illustrated. A realistic flat picture of the object is formed in the eye.
(American Optical Co.)
exit pupil of the microscope. The pupil of the eye is placed at this level
to observe the interfercnce figure.
Parts of the Microscope. The parts of a polarizing microscope equipped
either with polarizing plates or nicols are indicated in Figures 2-2, 2-3,
and 2-5. The names of the mechanical features are largely self-explanatory, but a number of the optical items will receive further comment.
Oculars. The ocular consists of a tube which fits snugly into the tube
of the microscope, ordinarily with a small sel screw lo hold it in a fixcd
position with cross hairs north-south and east-west in the field of view.
An eye lens is located above and a field lens below. A visual ReId stop
with crosshairs, cross lines, or a ReId micrometer lies above the Reld lens
in the Huygenian ocular (Figure 2-9a). The ReId stop lies below the
ReId lens in the Ramsden-type ocular (Figure 2-9b) . The image plane
and the plane of the crosshairs should coincide.
Oculars used in modem petrographic microscopes are ordinarily of the Huygenian
type or a simple modification. TIlese are
usually used in combination with 40 mm or
16 mm or cOlTesponding objectives. Where
'ombinations giving higher magnifications
are desired, the ocular is similar to the Huy(al
(b)
gcnian ocular but contains a specially cor- FIG. 2-9. Sections of positive
reclcd cyc-Icns arrangement giving a flat and negative oculars. (a) The
field . Such corrcction is particularly impor- Huygenian ocular (a negative
ocular) . ( b ) The Ramsden
lant for photomicrography.
ocular (a positive ocular).
Thc IIuygenian ocular is frequently called
a negative ocular. The eyepiece as a whole has no external focal plane
on the field-lens side. The Ramsden ocular is described as a positive
Deu/m. The foca l plane li es below the field lens and the object image is
form cd by th l) ohjcctive in lhi:; plane.
on'pollsatillg oculars arc cOllstru cted lo accompany apochromatic
objcellv('s, III ol'dor lo securo Ih n h('st I'('s lilts, oClilars magnifying more
MINERAL OPTICS
20
than ten times should b e of this type. Ordinary 5 X and lO X oculars are
satisfactory for most work with the polarizing microscope.
The Filar micrometer eyepiece (Figure 2-10) is designed for accurate
horizontal measurement across the field of view. A small cross line is
moved to and fro. The movement
is recorded on a drum at the side
of the eyepiece. A fine line through
the center of the field parallel to
the screw axis serves as a guide
in orienting the object with reference to the direction of movement
of the crossline. In the lower section of the field, a scale ruled in
0.5 mm with every second interval
numbered serves for counting screw
revolutions.
Micrometer eyepieces are also utiFIG. 2-10. The filar micrometer. The
lized when the dimensions of particudrum records the movement of a crossline which traverses the field of view.
lar objects in the field of view are de(Bausch and Lomb Optical Co.)
sired (Figure 2-11a). The Huygenian
eyepiece contains a scale divided into 0.1 mm movable by means of a
screw at the side. The eye lens is focused on the scale. Such eyepieces are
useful in determining the axial angle of interference figures with the
microscope. The eyepieces should be calibrated with the aid of the stage
21
Micrometer eyepieces of the grating type (Figure 2-11c) are employed

to measure the areas of grains or fragments in the microscope field.
These are also calibrated for different lens combinations with a stage
micrometer.
Objectives. Views of several cut objectives appear in Figure 2-12.
Achromatic objectives are ordinarily used for thin-section or fragment
studies. Manufacturers usually supply as standard equipment 40-, 32-,
16- and 4-mm achromatic objectives, which serve for most purposes. In
the case of achromatic objectives correction of aberrations of the image
becomes more difficult with high eyepiece magnification, and only the
(0)
(b)
(c)
2-12. Sectional views of objectives. (a) Objective lO X, 16 mm, 0.25 N.A.

d ivisible achromatic. ( b ) Achro matic objective 43X, 4 mm, 0.65 N .A. (c)
Ac hrom atic objective 97X, 1.8 mm, 1.25 N.A. oil immersion. (Bau sch and Lomb
O/J/ical Co.)
F IG.
(0)
(b)
(c)
FIG. 2-11. (a) Micrometer ocular; (b) scale in a micrometer ocular; (c) grating
micrometer. (Carl Zeiss, Gottingen, W est Germany.)
micrometers for various objectives. Th e dimensions represented by the

divisions in the micrometer ocuhu- (Fi gure 2-11h) as observed a t the eye
are govern ed by relations b etween th e objec li ve, the eyepi ece, the tube
longl-l l, and hy lh o prese nco or ahSI' I1C'O ill the op li callrain 0 1' th e anal~zer.
hes t achromatic objectives will give satisfactory results with an eyepiece

Iilagnincation of 12 X or greater.
Apochromatic objectives are constructed to prOVide additional color
('o rrection b eyond that usually given by achromatic objectives. In this
objective practically all the images produced by the different colors of
I li e sp ectrum lie in the same plane and are equally sharp. The lenses are
II lade of combin ations of fluorite and glass. The problems of securing
good fluorite and the practical difficulties in their manufacture are consiti nahle; consequ ently the cost is greater than the cost of ordinary
.l1 ,lIr(l!l1atic ohjec tivcs. Th ose objectives are only occasionally used for
II li ('l'os('op ic sl ild y or min erals.
Tll o prillcipal rc~lllII'oS of :1 n objec tive that are of intcrest to the student
," '(\ 11 10 illili nl III:lgllifkalion, the 1I111neri cal aperture, thc focal length,
lit ld 111( \ work ill g disllllll '(' ,
22
MINERAL OPTICS
The optical tube length divided by the focal length equals the initial
magnification. Several manufacturers stamp the initial magnification for
a standard mechanical tube length 3 on the objective. This figure multiplied by the power of the eyepiece gives the magnification for a standard
tube length. This should be corrected , however, when the analyzing
prism is inserted (unless the prism mount contains a correcting lens).
Corrections may b e determined by using stage and eyepiece micrometers .
The working distance is the distance b etween the objective and the top
of the cover glass of the microscope slide when the objective is in focus .
The numerical ap erture (N.A. ) of an objective is a measure of the
largest cone of light th at it covers from an object point at the principal
focus. N.A. equals n sin p., where n is the index of refraction of the
23
THE POLARIZIN G MICROSCOPE
A considerable advantage is also gained by placing a drop of oil b etween

the auxiliary condens er lens and th e microscope slide. The working distance of an oil-immersion objective is very short; the lenses are difficult
t o manufacture and are consequently exp ensive. A good oil-immersion
objective, however, gives a b eautiful field with high magnification. The
objective should be handled carefully, especially in focusing. After use
the oil should b e removed by the use of lens p ap er moistened with xylol
or b enzine.
Magnification. The microscope is primarily an instrument for magnification. It is worthwhile, therefore, to form an idea of the enlargement
of the fi eld of view with the lens systems available. The follo wing table
outlines the magnifications at the eye for diffe rent combinations of objectives with an equivalent focus of 40, 32, 16, 8, 4, and 2 mm (oil immersion) and also oculars magnifying five, ten, and fifteen times, resp ectively.
MAGNIFICAT IONS
T ype of obj ec tive

(0)
(bl
FIG. 2-13. Diagram illustra ting the conve rgence of ligh t by means of cedar oil placed
in front of the lens of an oil-immersion objective. (a) Air alone without ced ar oil;
( b) with cedar oil.
medium b etween the object under examination and the objective 4 and
p. is one-half the angle of the cone of light entering the lens. The numerical aperture furnish es a criterion of the quality of an objective. Other
things b eing equal, at any magnification, the intensity of the image dep ends upon N .A.; th e resolving power is directly proportional to N.A.;
the depth of focus is inversely proportional to N.A. In two objectives
haVing the same focal distance and therefore the same magnification, the
one with the greater N.A. will take a larger cone of light from the object
and will yield a brighter image. In general, with ordinary lighting, the
limit of useful magnification for an average observer lies between 500
and 1000 times the N.A.
Oil-immersion objectives are used for high magnifications where a high
degree of resolving power and correction are required. The oil should
agree in both dispersive power and index of refraction with the front
lens of the objective. The effect of oil immersion on the cone of light entering the front lens of an oil-immersion objective is shown in Figure 2-13.
3 Bau sch and Lomb Op tical Co. and Spencer L ens Co. = 160 mm , L eitz = 170
mm, Zeiss
170 mm.
Air ( n
1) in tho case of a dry objective and speCially prep ared cedar oil
( n = 1.515 ) in un oil -hnll1lJrs ion objective,
Achrom a t ic .. . .. .. .. ..... . .
Ac hromatic ... . ... . .. . .... .
A,hrom a tic .... . . . .. .. .. ...
A po..i1l'om a tic ........ ......
A po(' hromat.ic . .......
A po(' hrom a t ic (oil imm ersion )
EquivaMagnificatio ns
lent
Mag ni fiwit h ocul a rs
cation
focus,
mill inumb er
meters
5X lO X 15X
- --
40
32
16
8
4
2
3. 2
4.3
10
23
46
92
16
22
50
115
230
460
32
48
43
65
100 150
230 345
460 690
920 1380
Workin g d istanee,
m illim eters
N. A.
- --
34.5
27 .0
5.8
0 .85
0 20
0 . 11
0 . 12
0 . 15
0 .25
0 .65
0 .95
1. 32
T tlbe length : 170 m m

Im age d ist a n ce : 250 m m
HOU HCE :
After L eitz .
T hcre are limits to the resolving power of the microscope, even with
Ilu ) hest lens systems available. As long as the increase in magnification
I('s lil ls in b etter vision of an object and more definite separation of detail,
III(' magnification may b e said to be "useful. " When the object merely
IIt 'c'omcs brgcr without aI)Y increase in resolving power, the magnifica110 11 is "empty." So-callcd empty magnifications of great magnitude are
possi blc.
I"or praclical p urp oscs the uppcr limit of "useful" magnification with
111 0 polari zin g microscopc is about 1800 :1. 5 L arger magnifications, as
All 1111 1IIIIII l'I'hinli o hjC'cli ve (Ca rl Zeiss ) p rim a ry mag nifica ti on 120, N .A. 1.3, free
\\ 111ki ll /: .!I , III II ' I) O.OH 111111, i ll ('llI lI hill ll li o ll w ilh a 15 X OCill aI', shou ld yi eld a magnifl1'11 1111 11 111 1111 II I' IKOO : I.
24
MINERAL OPTICS
usually reported, are the result of some form of projection or special

equipment in which the exact limits of useful magnification are not
clearly known. A common form of projection is the enlargement employed in taking photomicrographs. Photomicrographs taken with a
camera having a long bellows may increase the magnification ratio given
by the microscope several times. Thus magnification ratios of 3000 : 1,
4000: 1, or even considerably higher may be obtained. Such increase in
magnification above the magnification of the microscope is essentially
enlargement and does not result in increase in resolution. From the
standpoint of increase in resolution or detail, it is "empty" magnification.
Enlarged photomicrographs of this type, however, may have value for
purposes of demonstration.
The limit of resolution for green light with a lens of N.A. 1.40 is said
to be approximately 0.18",. This might be d escribed as the distance apart
of two object points in the field of view of the microscope whose disk
images would just touch as projected to the eye. It has been shown
mathematically that the limit of resolution equals the wavelength divided
by twice the numerical aperture. From this relationship it is possible to
compute the number of lines per inch that can be separated by different
numerical apertures. Several may be given as follows for blue light wavelength 486:
N.A.
Lines per inch

separated
1.30
0 .85
0 .65
0 .30
136 , 000
89 , 000
68 ,000
31, 000
An accurate check of the magnification of the field of view in the

microscope may be obtained by using a stage micrometer. The stage
micrometer is a glass slide carefully ruled into hundredths of a millimeter
or 0.001 inch. It not only serves as a comparison object for determining
the magnification of the microscope but also may be used to give the
magnification of micro drawings, of micro projections, and of photomicrographs.
Analyzer. The nicol prism or polarizing plate mounted in the tube of
the microscope above the objective is known as the analyzer. The nicol
is carried on a sliding mount (Figure 2-4) while in some models the
plate (Figure 2-1) flips downward into the optical path. Either may b e
inserted or withdrawn from the optical path at will. The plane of vibration is normal to the plane of the polarizer and is usually either p erpendicular or horizontal in the fi eld of view. More elaborate microscop es
t Fi gllJ"c 2-6 ) are fined with a mea ns [or rota tin g; th e analyzer.
25
Pola1'izer. The prism or polaroid plate mounted in the substage system

<Figure 2-14) is known as the polarizer. It may be set at any angle
through 3600 but is usually kept adjusted to a plane at right angles to
the plane of the analyzer. The cross hairs in the eyepiece are set parallel
to the two planes. A polarizing plate mounted in the substage assembly
is shown in Figure 2-5.
Amici-Bertrand L ens. This lens is inserted in the tube of the microscope between the ocular and the analyzer (Figure 2-3). It serves to
1",(:. 2-14. A sectional view showing a prism in position in the substage assembly.
'\ "'<;l ion of a sub stage assembly containing a polarizing plate (filter) is shown in
1,'lg.2-4. (Am erican Optical Co.)
hri ng the image of an interference figure into the focal plane of the
dar. The device was originally used by Amici (1844) and was later
oI d:lptecl by Bertrand (1878).
IlIlerference figures may b e observed without the Amici-Bertrand lens
il lli c ocular is removed. For superior results, an Amici-Bertrand lens with
01 IO(, lI sin g d iaphragm and an auxiliary magnifier to fit over the eyepiece
1)('1
j ',
II St t! .
( ; () IIr/ f' IIS('J' . T llfCO co mpon ents may be present in a condenser system
.. I Ih' Iy pe sel cclcd forillu slrali on. Tn ordin ary examination with low(1"\\/(' 1' oiJjvclivos a lens compon ent with an illuminating ap erture of
,dhli ll 0.22 is Il s('d . III work in g willi hi gh powC'r or in obtainin g inter-
26
MIN ERAL OPTICS
ference figures, another condenser on a movable mounting (Figure 2-15)

swings across the axis. This suffices for all objectives of N.A. up to l.0.
In the case of higher numerical apertures a special lens is inserted in
place of the condenser in the movable mounting. This is more effective
if used with oil immersion.
The arrangement of the condenser, together with the various adjustments for the polarizer, is shown in Figure 2-14.
Iris Diaphragm. The iris diaphragm is attached to the lower side of
the tube that holds the polarizer. It serves to reduce the cone of light,
lessening the illumination of the
\\/1
field of view, and causes objects to
stand out with increased relief. The
diaphragm is useful in the application of various tests when determining indices of refraction with
1/ \ \
I I \\
the microscope.
I I \\
Mirror. The mirror is usually reI
I
\
\
Front lens
Condenser
I I \
versible, with one surface plane
bock lens
I I
\
and the other concave. The plane
I
\
mirror surface is suitable for lowpower microscopic work. Th e concave mirror converges the light
upon the object. It is especially
useful in high-power examination.
It should also be used for low
I I
power when the illuminator proFIG. 2-15. A diagram illustrating the conduces a convergent beam.
struction of the condenser system.
Fine Adjustment. It is advanta(American Optical Co.)
geous to h ave the finest adjustment
graduated so as to permit the measurement of the displacement of the
tube to within 2.5p. (thousandths of a millimeter). The adjustment is
used both for measuring depth and for focusing on objects at high magnifications. Th e relationship b etween a coarse and fine adjustment and
the detail of the fine adjustment for one type of microscope are illustrated in Figure 2-16.
Microscope Accessories. The accessories provided with the microscope
generally include a quartz wedge, gypsum plate, and mica plate. These
are marked with arrows indicating the fast- and slow-ray vibration directions and are mounted in frames to fit the opening in the tube of the
microscope b etween the objective and the analyzer.
The qu artz w edge is ground to produ ce interference colors from the
beginnin g of the first to th e end of the third or fourth ord er. It is marked
and mOl1n ted as shown in F igure 2,-17.
/1 \\
27
The mica plate and gypsum plate (G erman- Glimmer and Gips ), together with a centering pin, are illustrated in Figure 2-18. The slow-ray
directions in both the mica and gypsum plates are indicated.
Berek Compensator. The compensator is designed to fit the
tube slit above the objective in
the same opening used for the
gypsum and the mica plates. It is
employed in the d etermination of
the order of interference colors
bel:\veen crossed nieols.
A calcite plate with the c-axis
vertical is inserted in the accessory slot of the microscope. The
plate forms a window in the compensator and is rotated by turning a graduated drum. T.he compensator (Figure 2-19) is rotated
IIntil the color of the mineral is
neuh'alized (becomes gray) . The
rolation of the compensator nee('S5ary to bring this about is a
Ill('asure of the retardation.
A compensator to measure small
differences in retardation is shown
il\ Figure 2-20. A mica plate with
. 1 re lardation of YaO A red is tilted
II)' lurning a h orizontal graduated
dlllm.
OlJiect Slide. Various lengths
d lid widths of object slides may
hI' Iised, but the thickness is of
,',I( 'a(' 1' importance. Immersion
IOlld( 'nsers are mad e to work to
111", 1 adva ntage with slides from
II l) I() 1.0 m m lhiek. Thus slides
FIG, 2-16, The fine ad justment. ( American
iJ II I 'lI{led for slud y at hi gh mag- Optical Co. )
Ilili(': dions sll olil d con ronn to this
IIIII''' "('SS ir th e mos t sa lisfactory res ul ts are to be secured.
~>1i( h's 2G mm w ide hy 45 111m long arc gencrally used for mounting
Ill ill ."('(' lioIlS or mi ll era l:; and rocks. Sli ch sli des fit easily on the rotating
. 11l1~1l of lil t ' polnri zill g lili eros('ope yeL ;l rc la rge c nough to contain a
1:111111 ,, !z('c1 sli( '(' II l1d II lso II 11 11 )('1 of' sllil ahl e tlill H'lI sions. Lo ng slides
28
MINERAL OPTICS
usually employed in biological investigations may be quite inconvenient

on a rotating stage.
Cover Glass. Objectives usually employed for thin-section work are
corrected by the manufacturers for a cover-glass thickness of from
0.15 to 0.17 mm. It is assumed that the top of the slice is pressed
c;.;.r
~'"
"".
Quartz
/ -3 ard.
~~~,"="1!...C!:>..1
'"',.
The quartz wedge mounted on a glass plate and in a metal frame. The
arrow marks the slow-ray direction. Ordinarily a wedge covers four orders from the
thin edge to the thickest portion. (Am erican Optical Co.)
FIG. 2-17.
Mica
Gypsum
red
0Nr
LN
(0)
1/4
--
Fast
Slow
0L
(b)
IF'"
Slow
(c)
2-18. The gypsum plate (a), mica plate (b), and a centering pin (c). (E .
Leitz, Inc.)
FIG.
directly against the bottom of the cover glass. In case the slide is
poorly mounted and a space intervenes b etween the top of the slice and
the bottom of the cover glass, the extra distance should be considered
as so much additional thickness of cover glass. In order to obtain the
best results with objectives, cover glasses of standard thickness should
b e employed .
Precautions to Be Observed in the Use of the Microscope. Even under
the h es t conditiolls mi crosc(lpe work prodll('('s :I ('('rtain allloHnt of stra in
29
upon the eyes. It is essential, therefore, to employ the best possible conditions of work in order to reduce such strain to a minimum.
The student should assume an erect but not too rigid position. Such
a position with the microscope tube
inclined allows him to work with
maximum comfort.
Both eyes should b e kept open
while looking through the instrument. If it is difficult to do this at
IIrst, a shield should b e placed over
the eye not in use. It is also a good
plan to learn to observe equally
well with either eye and not to de- FIG. 2-19. The Berek Compensator. (E.
.
Leitz Inc.)
vclop the so-called 1nlC1'OSCOpe e y e .
,
.
Care of the Instrument. A polarizing microscope is expensive. Properly
Ilscd, it should last a lifetime. Otherwise, it may become useless with
littlc real service. Most of the precautions to be observed in the use of
the instrument are such as should
be applied to any piece of fine apparatus. A few, however, are of
special nature and should be specially mentioned.
Fine-textured lens paper or, still
better, a camel's-hair brush should
be used for cleaning all optical
parts. This applies to the ocular,
the objectives, the substage system,
the mirror, and the two nicols.
Objectives should be brought
into focus by moving the tube of
the microscope upward rather than
downward. Possibility of contact
between the lower lens of the objective and the thin section is thus
I"..
!2 20. A cOlllpensator to mcaSUl e
llilo ill dili'ercnces in retardation. Mica avoided . High-power or oil-immer1'"111 ', II willdow in the accessory plate.
sion objectives should be cleaned
II !l Illy 1)(' lilted liy lurning the drum.
with
lens paper and xylol or ben11,11 " ,t:t ld atioll is y", red. (E. Leitz,
zinc (not alcohol).
III'
Chemicals should not be used on
lilt' ~ I "I.'t 1111 I('ss sp('ci:11 preca utions are takcn to protect the objective.
(lIl l"" ti v,'s 'lill y Ill' prol('('I ('d hy lit e usc of cover glasses fastened to the
I"\\'~' r 1('ll s. OI'I':l sioll;tlly i lll old objective is reserved for chemical work
d"" Il,
30
MINERAL OPTICS
Illuminators. At ordinary magnifications a good north light with a

broad, clear sky forms an excellent source of illumination for the polarizing microscope.
In case such illumination is not available, artificial daylight lights may
be successfully employed. These consist of various types of electric bulbs
mounted in cases with a speCial blue-glass light filter in the path of the
illumination. Tlu'ee types are illustrated in Figure 2-21a,b,c. A low-voltage bulb with a condensing lens and diaphragm, as illustrated in Figure
2-21c, provides suitable illumination for a wide variety of magnifications.
At high magnifications and for
photomicrographic work a mechanical-feed arc lamp is sometimes used. The beam from the arc
is very warm and should always be
passed through a cooling cell of
water in order to avoid injuring
the cement in the prisms of the
microscope (unless special prisms
are employed).
Phase Microscopy. The technique of phase microscopy has
FIG. 2-21. Various types of artiRcial illufound considerable application in
mination for the microscope: (a) small biological science where specimens
substage Jamp. (Bausch and Lomb Oplacking in contrast may be illumitical Co.)
.
nated 111 such a way that structures become visible without using stains. In the examination of minerals
the technique of late has received some attention. In case the refractive
index of a mineral less than about 10", thick differs but slightly from the
refractive index of the mounting medium, phase microscopy may offer a
significant method of examination.
The theory and application of phase microscopy have been reviewed
at some length by Bennett et al. (1951). Phase differences between light
waves passing through points in the mineral and in the surround
are utilized to bring out contrast at the eye. An annulus at the level of
the condenser diaphragm and a diffraction plate at the back focal plane
of the objective are utilized to produce phase differences (Figure 2-22).
Minerals with extremely low relief in balsam may be made to stand out
more distinctly with this arrangement.
The use of annular diaphragms develops a change in optical path, or
phase relation, in light entering the objective directly from an object and
light diffracted from an object. A phase-shifting element may be mounted
at the rear focal plane of the objective. Such elem~nts may be made by
tho doposition of films of predetermined thickness by high-vacuum ther-
31
mal-evaporation processes. Patterns of annular shape which introduce a

phase shift of one-quarter wavelength of green light have been found
effective . An annular aperture diaphragm is placed at the front focal
plane of the substage condenser. When illuminated it furnishes a light
,~,~w~~_"""",.
FIG.
2-21b. A strong lamp for general utility. (Am erican Optical Co.)
I",, :. 2-2 1c. A low-vollage lamp with V-slots for filters. (B ausch and Lomb Optical
(II )
', 11111'('( : atinRnily with respect to the object plane. The two annuli when
, \d( 'lly t'O Il Ct'lllric and. supcr imposed produ ce a phase difference of one' I" I"I('J' w;lv(' lcll gtll .
Iloll I " <I;[l'k" ( ' (JIII I'us l and "hl'i ght " (,Oll t ra st may he produced by conb'ol
Iii 11111 111111 IIJiv!(III 'SS wiJi<'i I ('() lill'ihIJl \'s In 11,( , pll:ls(' sllii't. Where the
32
M1N!,;RAL Ol'T1CS
directly transmitted light is eltectively accelerated over the diffracted

light, the regions of greater optical path in the specimen will appear
darker than the surrounding background. Where retardation of undiffracted light occurs, regions of greater optical path in the specimen appear bright against a darker background.
In Figure 2-23 photographs taken at
magnifications of 900: 1, 1700: 1, and
2000: 1 show fine particles of clay minerals in phase contrast. The range in
diameter of the kaolinite particles a and
Eyepiece
b is 2 to 6.3/L. The range in diameter of
the halloysite particles c and d is 2 to
'-Focal
point of
6.3/L;
while halloysite particles e and f
eyepiece
are about 2/L in length. Both "bright"
an d "dark" contrast are illustrated.
Photomicrographs. Photographs of thin
sections are frequently desired for purposes of record. These may be obtained
quickly with simple equipment unless
prints of exceptional quality are reqUired. In the latter case a special study
of equipment available on the market is
desirable.
A small camera designed for 35-mm
film may be fastened to a tube above
the microscope (Figure 2-24). A viewing
lens is attached to the side of the
C"d"",
tube. An exposure meter is placed be"
Annular
tween the viewing lens and the camera.
+-- diaphragm
The entire assembly is arranged to fit
Solid lines represent direct rays
the tube of the microscope above the
Dotted lines represent diffracted rays
ocular. The excellence of the photoFIG. 222. Phase contrast arrangemicrographs secured will depend upon
ment with an annular diaphragm
the
quality of the illumination, focus,
in the front focal plane of the sub
stage condenser and an annular
exposure, and the area selected for
phase shifting element in the back
photography.
focal plane of the objective.
Good quality microscope lamps with
(Am erican Optical Co.)
suitable filters will provide a satisfactory
illumination. Focus may be adjusted with the aid of the viewing lens .
The exposure may b e determined with the photometer. Study of photomicrographs in various textbooks and professional journals will serve as
a gllide in selectin g areas slIitahle for phoLography.
Exposllre md( 'rs S ( 't! wil h 1'111 1 mi crost'opn am IlIi('rop holo melers and
wi ll III'I'd 10 hI) ('I !l ill l'lI li'd for tlil l plll'lkll lll l' ('cpr/pllll'''l II v lli llll>k. A s(:
33
ries of trial exposures will first be necessary. The exposure reading for
each exposure, as well as the time, should be recorded, When a satisfactory exposure has been secured, the time and exposure reading should be
noted. For example, suppose the time is 10 seconds and the meter reads
"5" when a good photograph is secured. For another exposure the meter
~\ 1
, I - II--,}
=
.'"
'I ~
I t~JjIIi ,1.~~ ,
#'
' \:.~.~
. >.~ ~ ~.~.
~.J~~,
~,.,
". ' t,'!.,.'
~~"~"'.
:
i::- t
f.:."
''" c. 2-23. Microphotographs of clay minerals by pllase contrast technique. Mounts

( c ) and (d) were immersed in a mixture of butyl carbitol and clove oil (n
1.500);
(e ) and (f) in glycerine (n = 1.463). (Courtesy Dr. H . Piller, Carl Z eiss, Gottingen,
West Germany.)
( a) Kaolinite, Schnaittenbach.- (900: 1 ). Phase contrast, light field, ordinary

polarized light.
(b) Kaolinite, Schnaittenbach.- ( 900: 1). Phase contrast, dark field.
(c) Halloysite, Lawrence Co., Ind.- (l700: 1 ). Phase contrast, light field, ordinary
polarizecl light.
(d) Halloysite, Lawrence Co., Ind.- ( 1700: 1). Phase contrast, dark field.
( e ) Hal1oysite, Lawrence Co. , Ind.- (2000:1). Phase contrast, light field, ordinary
polarized light.
(f) Halloysitc, Lawrence Co., Ind.- ( 2000: 1). Phase contrast, dark field.
r('ads "2.5." Then the required time for the second exposure would be
G scconds.
Where larger photomicrographs are desired cameras equipped for cut
fi lms or plates may be uscd in place of the small camera mentioned
above. rll gcncral , photomicrographs of thin sections are taken with
:1.2X Or 'lO X objeclivcs si nce th e depth of th e scction interfcres with the
I OC Il S at lli gh IlIil gnifi calioll. AI III(' sa mc lime the Lextnrcs ord in arily obs\'rv\,d 01'1( '11 II PP('III' tt) h('tll ' l' II d Vll lllll j.(t ' ti l low\'!' II lilglljfkaliOl1s.
MINERAL OPTICS
34
Adjustment of the Polarizing Microscope. Four separate steps may be

outlined to arrange the polarizing microscope for the examination of thin
sections:
1.
2.
3.
4.
35
Image centered
Centering the stage with the field

Crossing the nicols
Testing the crosshairs
Determining the vibration plane of the lower nicol
1. Centering the Stage with the Field. The stage is centered when the
axis of rotation coincides with the tube axis of the microscope, the tube
axis standing perpendicular to the
center of the field of view. Screws
on the side of either the objective
collar or the stage (Figure 2-25) are
used to align the tube axis and the
stage. A simple procedure is fol, lowed. While looking through the
instrument at the field of view, pick
out an easily recognizable point, and
then rotate the stage. The point
should describe a concentric circle
of rotation about the intersection of
the cross hairs. If it does not, rotate
the stage until the point is farthest
from the intersection of the crosshairs, bring it in halfway by means
of the centering screws, and then
bring it to the center of the stage by
actually moving the slide itself. Rotate the stage, and repeat the operation if the centering has not been
completed the first time.
FIG. 2-24. Photomicrographic camera,
exposure meter, and viewing lens.
2. Crossing the Nicols. The planes
(Courtes y of Paul Rosenthal, 505 Fifth
of
vibration of the hvo prisms
Ave., New York 17, N.Y.)
should be set at right angles to each
other. The plane of vibration of the analyzer is usually fixed by the manufacturer either from left to right or up and down as one observes the
microscopic field. The lower nicol is adjusted at right angles by rotating
it in the substage collar until the field becomes dark, with both nicols in
the path of li ght. The nicols should remain in th e position giving maximllm darkn css. A small pin usually fits into a notch at this position.
3. '/' es(ill {!, (I, c Cmss lwi'l's. The (Toss klirs 'in Ihe oc ular mav h c cithcr
Stage
Stage
FIG. 2-25. Diagram illustrating centering the field of view of the microscope.
the spiderweb type or lines engraved on a glass plate. In either case it is

important that the hair lines be parallel to the planes of vibration of the
two nicols. Ordinarily these are set by the optical firm supplying the
microscope, and the ocular is so arranged that it will not fit the tube
of the microscope in other than the correct position. The adjustment
should be checked occasionally, howcver, and in case the alignment is
inaccurate, the cross hairs should be
rcsct by an experienced technician.
A slide containing small elongated
rcctangular crystals of natrolite (FigII1'C 2-26) is useful to test the setting
of the crosshairs with the planes of
I hc nicols. G The nab'olite becomcs
dark between crossed nicols when
I he edges of the crystals are parallel
10 the vibration directions. A slide
('() lIlaining a small natrolite crystal
IIlay be placed upon the stage be- FIG. 2-26. Testing the adjustm ents of
I w('on crossed nicols and turned until the crosshairs with natrolite fragments.
II becomes dark. If the crosshairs
dl'0 in adju stment, th e web lines should be parallel or at right angles to
111( \ strai ght lin es of the cryst~l. This is true in each of the four positions
01 ('x till ction. I'n 45 intermediate positions the natrolite will show max11 111 1111 illllillinalion .
d. /)1'I1 'l'IIlillill {!, (he Vi l)1'IIlion PI(/n e of th e Lower Nicol. Aftcr the other
oI lijl lslllll'lIl s l"l ve 1)('('11 Iliad e , 111(' vihration direction of thc lower nicol
II 11 11 1, (1 111(\ I ~ liol ",," Hllhl!', li lly (' ryslll tt llh l I1l IlLcrinl w ith slra ighL-lin c edges and
1'01111 11 (,1 n~ I I II ("11) 1I 111 11" Ill' Nllh, IIIIII (;d .
II
,j6
MINERAL OPTICS
can be determined with either fibrous tourmaline fragments or a rock

.5ection containing biotite showing cleavage.
Tourmaline (Figure 2-27a) has maximum absorption when it is
oriented with the c-axis (usually the long direction of a crystal or fragment) in a direction at right angles to the plane of vibration of the
polarizing prism. Biotite (Figure 2-27b), on the other hand, is darkest
when the cleavage is parallel to the vibration direction. Note the positions
of greatest' and least darkness, observing with the upper nicol thrown
(0)
(b)
FIG. 2-27. Determining the vibration plane of the lower nicol : (a) elongated
tourmaline fragments; (b) biotite in thin section.
out from the tube. These indicate either the vibration direction or the
normal to the vibration direction, depending upon whether the slide is
biotite or tourmaline.
REFERENCES
Allen, R M.: "The Microscope," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton,
N.J., 1940.
Amici, G. B.: Ann. chim. et phys., 3d ser., vol. 12, p. 114, 1844.
Beck, Conrad: "The Microscope," R & J. Beck, Ltd., London, 1938.
Belling, John: "The Use of the Microscope," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. ,
New York, 1930.
Bennett, Alva H., Harold Osterberg, Helen Jupnik, and Oscar W. Richards:
"Phase Microscopy," John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , New York, 1951.
Berek, Max: "Anleitung zu optischen Untersuchungen mit dem Polarisationsmikroskop," Verlag Schweitzerbart, Stuttgart, 1953.
Bertrand, E.: Z. Kryst ., vol. 1, p. 69 , 1877.
Bcrtrand, E.: 13I/II. soc. fmm; . min e'm l., vol. 1, pp. 27, 97, 1878.
Bcrtrand, L. , and M. TIOllballlt: "L'cmploi cl\.l Mi croscopc Po1::tris:lllt," Paris ,
I D3fl.
THE! POLARlztNG MICl\OSCOP~
37
Burri, c.: "Das Polarisationsmikroskop," Basel, 1950 .

Chamot, E. M., and C. W. Mason: "Handbook of Chemical Microscopy," vol.
1, John Wily & Sons, Inc. , New York, 1930.
Ehringhaus, A.: "Das Mikroskop," Leipzig, 1943.
Gage, S. H.: "The Microscope," Comstock Publishing Associates, Inc., Ithaca,
N.Y., 1925.
Hallimond, A. F.: "Manual of the Polarizing Microscope," Cooke, Troughton &
Simms, Ltd., York, England, 1953.
Hartshorne, N. R., and A. Stuart: "Crystals and the Polarizing Microscope,"
Edward Arnold & Co., London, 1950.
Johannsen, A.: "Petrographic Methods," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1918.
Marshall, C. R, and H. D . Griffith: "Introduction to the Theory and Use of
the Microscope," Routledge and Kegan Paul, Ltd., London, 1928.
Michel, K.: "Die Grundlagen der Theorie des Mikroskops," Stuttgart, 1950.
Niggli, P.: "Lehrbuch der Mineralogie und Kristallchemie," 3d. ed., vol. 2,
Verlag Gebriider Bomtraeger, Berlin, 1942.
Piller, H.: Die Phasenkontrastmikroskopie als Hilfsmittel zur Bestimmung feinkorniger, speziell dunner, transparenter Minerale, H eidelberger 13eitr.
Mineral. u. Petrog., vol. 3, pp. 307-334, 1952.
Raaz, Fr., and H. Tertsch: "Geometrische Kristallographie und Kristalloptik
und deren Arbeitsmethoden," Vienna, 1939.
Spitta, E. J.: "Microscopy," E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., New York, 1920.
Wahlstrom, Ernest E.: "Optical Crystallography," John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1943.
Zernike, F.: Phase Contrast, a New Method for Microscopic Observation of
Transparent Objects, Physica, no. 9, p. 686, 1949.
A SUMMARY OF THE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
CHAPTER
A Summary of the Properties of Light
Theories of Light. Since light crosses interstellar space, penetrates

transparent solids or liquids, and also travels through a vacuum, a medium
has usually been postulated by which it could be conveyed. The medium
is the ether, which has been assumed to permeate all matter and to pervade all space. Modern studies h ave shown, however, that in order to
account for certain things the ether must be endowed with the most
extraordinary physical properties, and according to some concepts it is
unnecessary. The source of the light and its effect on the eye are apparent, but some explanation must be advanced to account for its transmission.
Several prominent theories have been advanced. According to one, a
beam of light consists of a stream of minute particles, or "corpuscles,"
given off at high velocity by the sun or any luminous body. The corpuscles travel through space in straight lines and eventually reach the
eye. This is generally referred to as the corpuscular theory, a theory that
received much attention because it was supported by the famous physicist
Sir Isaac Newton.
Another theory was Rrst advanced by the D utch scientist Christian
Huygens in the latter part of the seventeenth century. According to
Huygens, the ether is supposed to vibrate, and light is transmitted through
it by the vibration of particle after particle in waves. The phenomena
of light such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference may be
readily explained in accordance with this theory. The theory of Huygens,
however, failed to explain the apparent rectilinear motion of light and
was not accepted by Newton.
A modiRcation of the wave theory was proposed by the Scottish
physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1873), who considered light as made
up of waves but said that the waves were electromagnetic. According to
Maxwell, a wave consists of rapidly alternating elecbic and magnetic
field s normal to each oth cr and normal to the direction of propagation
of li ght. TTcrlz ( 1888 ) succeeded in produ Cin g waves having propcrties
:11-1
39
similar to light waves by electriCity. As a result of the work of Maxwell,

Hertz, and other experimenters, the electromagnetic theory of wave motion was for a time generally accepted.
Toward the end of the last century evidence began to appear that did
not accord with the electromagnetic theory. It was found that the space
around certain metals would become electrically conductive when the
metal was exposed to light. Then the electron was discovered in 1897,
and it was assumed that the photoelectric effect was due to the emission
of electrons as the metal became exposed to light. This was based on
the fact that expulsion means energy, and it was presumed that the
energy in the case of the photoelectric effect would come from light.
However, the energy given by light is so small that it could not account
for the emission of electrons. This led to the assumption that the light
was concentrated in points and not uniformly distributed. At about this
time Planck developed the assumption that radiating oscillators in a
black body radiate energy discontinuously in units called quanta. Einstein
in 1905 suggested that the absorption of light in the photoelectric process
might also be in quantum units. Later experiment demonstrated that the
quanta of Einstein were of the same size as those postulated by Planck.
As a result of these developments the explanation of light seems to rest
upon two apparently contradictory theories, the wave theory being more
appropriate for phenomena such as reflection, refraction, interference,
diffraction, and polarization, whereas the quantum theory is more applicable to the recent discoveries in the ReId of X rays, radiation, and
photoelectricity. Speaking of the two theories, Einstein has stated as
follows :
We have good proof that both waves and particles exist. Our present effort
is to understand how this is, to find a theory that will unify the nature of light.
The composition of a two-point view has not yet been found. It is a quest of
science in which our present methods are imperfect.
Nomenclature of the Wave Theory. The nomenclature of the wave
thcory used in this text is summarized in the follOwing paragraphs.
D isplacement. In wave motion the form of the wave may be described
if pmticles in the medium are assumed to be displaced in sequence. The
fo rm of displacement represents a curve combining movement around a
('i rcle with motion along a straight line.
\1ibTot'ion direction
electric vector
electrical displacement. The
vibra tion direction lies in the wavefront and is perpendicular to the ray
II I iso tropic m edia. In anisotropic crystals it is not perpendicular except
ill limited directi0ns.
W avelength. The distance b etween two successive crests or troughs,
or any corresponding distan ce along the wave (denoted by the Greek
40
MINERAL OPTICS
letter lambda, A). A is usually measured in millionths of a millimeter or

millimicrons (mp.) .
Wavefront . The surface determined at a given instant by all the parts
of a system of waves traveling along the same direction and in the same
phase. In space, in air, or in any other optically isotropic media when
light moves along parallel lines the wavefront is perpendicular to the
direction of transmission. In anisotropic media the wavefront is peI'pendicular only in certain directions.
Wave normal. The direction perpendicular to the wavefront. In isotropic substances the wave norm al and the ray direction are the same.
Frequency. The number of vibrations in a given unit of time. Ordinarily
several trillion per second in the case of light waves.
Phase. The relative position of corresponding points on different waves
moving along the same line. Two points on waves are in the same phase
when they are in the same relative position in regard to the crest or trough
of the wave and are both moving either toward or away from the line of
transmission. Two points are in opposite phase when they are in the
same relative position but when they are moving in opposite directions
with reference to the line of transmission. Other phase differences may
occur.
The phasal difference represents th e portion of a wavelength by which
one wave train fails to match the other.
Amplitude. The maximum displacement of a wave from the line of
transmission.
Period. The time interval necessary for a wave to undergo a complete
oscillation.
Crest. The point of the wave with the maximum upward displacement.
Trough. The point of the wave with the greatest downward displacement.
Beam. A group of light waves following along the same path. A familiar
example is the white beam of a motion-picture projector clearly visible
in the dusty atmosphere of the theater. Beams can be made narrower
and narrower.
Ray. The straight-line path followed by light in moving from one point
to another in a given medium. The ray is perpendicular to the electrical
field and is the direction of propagation of the energy.
Refractive Index. The refractive index is equal to the ratio of the wavenormal velocity in a vacuum to the wave-normal velocity (not the ray
velocity) in the medium, whether isotropic or anisotropic.
Monochromatic Light. Light of a single wavelength. In practical tests
li ght is frequently used coverin g a small range of wavelengths but appearing as one color to th e eye.
41
Light Vector. The action of light may be described as depending upon
the periodi c altern ation of a light vector that lies parallel to the plane
of the wavefront and in isotropic media is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. In anisotropic media the vector is still parallel to the
plane of the wavefront but, aside from certain limited positions, is not
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
In the case of monochromatic light, the light vector follows the laws of
simple harmonic motion, the vibration period T dep ending upon the color
of the monochTOmatic light. The wavelength A- i.e., the distance between
two successive like points on a wave train- is equal to the velocity of
propagation v multiplied by ~he vibration period:
A
= vT
In any transparent mass A is fixed, and v varies with T. The intensity of

light is the average of the intensities in the various light-vector quadrants
and varies with the amplitude.
The light wave is electromagnetic with two vector movements in the
system. In isotropic media these are transverse and perpendicular to each
other, one limited by the magnetic field of force, the other by the electric
field of force. These are connected with two other vectors distinguished
in isotropiC media by their magnitude and in anisotropic media also
through variation in direction. These two vectors may be called the electric vector and the magnetic vector. The first of these measures the
electrical displacement; the second, the magnetic displacement or induction. Maxwell worked out equations applicable to the movement of
these vectors (although the movement had been originally worked out
before vector analysis was introduced). Experimental evidence has shown
that the vibration direction of light corresponds to the electrical displacement (electric vector) in isotropic bodies. In anisotropic bodies it
has been shown to correspond to either the electrical displacement (electric vector) or the electrical field. In the electromagnetic theory light is
assumed to correspond to the electrical displacement (electric vector) ,
an assumption made plausible by the conception of light as an electrolys is.
Speed of Light. Light waves travel along the direction of transmission
at a sp eed of approximately 186,284 miles per second. The same law of
frequency used in the case of sound applies to light and is expressed
by the equation
f = "}.
or
v = fA
12
MINERAL OPTICS
[n this equation the frequency f is obtained by dividing the velocity v

by the wavelength it. In the case of violet light (it = 0.000037 cm) the
velocity (v = 186,284 miles per second) divided by the wavelength gives
a frequency of 800,000,000,000,000 ( eight hunched trillion) vibrations per
second.
Wave Motion. An idea of the behavior of light waves may be gained
by a study of waves generated by simple harmonic motion and uniform
rectilinear motion.
Simple harmonic motion is uniform motion in a circular path as it
would appear projected on the diameter of a circle. If a particle as illusb"ated in Figure 3-1 is assumed to move clockwise around the circumference of a circle, occupying various positions in turn, the projections on
43
goes a change in velOCity. A corresponding change must occur, therefore,
in either the wavelength or the frequency. Since the vibration period remains the same for a given color, the change occurs in the wavelength.
The wavelength will differ even for the same color in different bodies;
(0)
R
,. jL
'\\:
/N--
FIG. 3-1. The harmonic curve produced by movement around a circle combined with
motion along a straight line.
the vertical diameter AB will be at the intersections \vith the horizontal

dotted lines shown in the figure. If observed from the side along the
plane of the circle, the particle will appear to oscillate back and forth
with varying velocity. If, in addition to the harmonic motion, the particle
moves along a straight line MN at a uniform rate (rectilinear motion) ,
it will no longer move in a circular path but will follow a curve of the
type illustrated in the projection. The projection on the vertical diameter
of the circle, however, will still be the same. The curve is a harmonic
curve, which has the form of a sine curve.
Differences in phase produce a number of resultant forms when two
or more waves follow the same line (Figure 3-2). Two sets of waves may
be equal and opposite, thus nullifying each other (Figure 3-2a). Other
sets may be equal in amplitude and wavelength but differ in phase. The
latter sort will produce a resultant R of intermediate crest and increased
amplitude (Figure 3-2b ) .
When two waves are equal in phase, wavelength, and period but differ
in amplitude, a resultant R is produced of the same phase and wavelength
with increased amplitude (Figure 3-2c ).
The Color of Light. The brightness of a ray is determin ed by the amplitude of the wa v~ vibration. Light, on entcrin g vari ous bodies, under-
(b)
(e)
3-2. Combinations of waves produced by several phase differences. (a) The

phase difference is .! A, and the two waves are equal and opposite in phase. (b) The
resultant wave (R) produced by two equal waves of slight p ath difference. (c) The
resultant wave (R) produced by two waves of equal length and identical phase, but
cliffering in amplitude.
F IG.
thus the number of vibrations p er second or the frequency of the waves

reaching the eye determines the color.
Waves of visible light vmy in length, the longest being red and the
shortes t viol et. Thc portion of th e sp ectrum directly visible to the eye
varies he tween relatively narrovv limits. The extreme wavelength of red
ligllt is 0.00007.')9 em, and Lh e rclaLive wavelongth of extreme visible
14
MINERAL OPTICS
!iolet is 0.0000393 cm. In terms of millimicrons (the units commonly em)loyed in dealing with light) , the figures are:
Red light = 759 mM
Violet light = 393 mM
White light, or ordinary light , is a combination of all the different
wavelengths visible to the eye in one simultaneous effect. When only
c>ne wavelength is observed, light is singly colored, or monochromatic.
White light may b e considered composed of seven different colors. These
grade into each other, forming a continuous spectrum. The colors of the
spectrum are frequently represented by arbitrarily chosen wavelengths
representing mean values of the various colors, as follows:
R ed
Ora nge
Y ellow
Green
Blue
Indigo
Violet
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
700 mM
620 mIL
560 mIL
515 mM
470 mIL
440 mIL
410 mM
The elech'omagnetic spectrum (Figure 3-3) extends fa r beyond the

r ange of visible light. The mechanisms by which the different radiations
Blue
Indiqo
1\ A
~Gfileetf;n
Yellow
/,/,;Oronqe
VAt)
x- Ex- Ultro:
roys tremf I violet,:
I
U.
v. './
\~
Visible
spectrum
3,900.00
390. 00
0.39
0.00039
F I G.
A{
Red
,
'.
\
___
-'"
_----
_-/-Infro red
'w"'-7,600.00 10,000.00
760.00
1,000.00
0.7 6
1. 00
0.0 0076
0.001
Au
MfL
fL
mm
3-3. The approximate range of visible spectmm.
are produced, however, must be much different because of the great

difference in frequency.
REFERENCES
Coker, E. G ., and L. N. G . Filon: "A Treatise on Photo-elasticity," Cambridge
Univcrsity Prcss, London , 1931.
Crew, H.: "The Wavc Thcory of Light," Am crica n Rook Compa ny, New York,
1900 .
F:dsn , E .: "Lighl ror SlllCkllls," Macmill a ll & Cn., 1,l d., 1,l)lI doll , 1930.
45
Hardy, A. C., and F. H. Perrin: "The Principles of Optics," McGraw-Hill Book

Company, Inc., New York, 1932.
Heyl, P. R. : The History and Present Status of th e Physicist's Concept of Light,
]. Opt. Soc. Am., vol. 18, pp. 183-192, 1929.
"Huygens' Treatise on Light," trans. by Silvanus P. Thompson, Macmillan &
Co., Ltd., London, 1912.
Newton, Sir Isaac, "Opticks," repr., McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1931.
Pockels, F. : "Lehrbuch der Kristalloptik," B. G. Teubner, Leipzig, 1906.
Saunders, F . A. : "Survey of Physics," H enry Holt and Company, Inc., New
York, 1930.
Webster, D . L. , E. R. Drew, and H . W. Farwell: "General Physics for Colleges," Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc. , New York, 1926.
Whittaker, E. 1'. : "History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity," Longmans, Green & Co., Ltd. , London, 1910.
47
REFRACTION
the trace of the plane normal to the incident beam I strikes the surface at
II, the point 15 is still a considerable distance above the bounding plane.
The positions 12 , l a, and I ., together with corresponding intermediate
CHAPTER
R efraction
Snell's Law. The Index of Refraction. When light p asses obliquely

from one medium to another in which it travels with a different velocity,
it undergoes an abrupt change in direction. This abrupt change in direction is known as refraction. The relationships of the incident and refracted
points, are also above the surface.

Let the beam advance until the ray at 15 has reached R 5. During this
advance the ray at II has penetrated the denser medium and has continued with diminished velocity until it has arrived at the circumference
of a circle with a radius I 1R" which represents the distance traveled
in the denser medium. Similarly, 12 has penetrated to the circumference
R 2 , 1a to Ra, and 14 to R . A tangent common to these circles represents the
new wavefront, and the new beam is p erpendicular to the new wavefront.
The spherical waves sent out from b and other points on the bounding
plane destroy each other except along bc and corresponding directions.
In the above construction, the distances 15R5 and 11Rl may be considered proportional to the relative velocities of light in the two media.
It is apparent from the relationship of the lines of the diagram that
ao
sin i = bo
bo =~
sin i
or
also
be
sin r = bo
be
bo = sin r
or
Air
I,
Rs l\
b\
\
Since bo is common, the equations may be combined, and

ao
- .-
Wafer
\
\
\
or
\
\
R;\
"t
\
\.
rA
\
\
be
. = - .-
sm '!,
sm r
ao
sin i
be = sin r
The index of refraction is determined by the distance light will travel

in a given time interval through a transparent substance as compared
with air. In Figure 4-1 light h'avels the distance ao in air, while it travels
the distance bc in water. It follows , therefore, that the index of refraction
\
FIG.
ao
n = be
4-1. Light b eing refracted on p assing from a rare into a denser medium.
light m ay be illustrated by the adaptation of the construction of Huygens

shown in Figure 4-l.
L et us supposc, for example, that a rare medium- ail- is in contact
wilh a denscr med iu m - walcr. An incid cnt b ca m I strikcs the surfacc
01' Lho wa leI' ohli (I', ely, mak in g all a ll gle i w ith a pe rpc ndi c ula r P. Whc n
1\(1
0 1'
sm '!,
- .smr
It appears from the foregoing equation that for any angle of incidence
the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
MINERAL OPTICS
48
refraction is a constant. It is also true that the respective velocities of

light in the two media bear the same ratio. The relationship between the
sines of the two angles and the velocities is known as Snell's law. It was
discovered by Snell in 1621 but was not made known until after his death.
Let n be the index of refraction of a transparent material referred to
air.l Then V = the velocity in air, and v = the velocity in the transparent
material; also
n = v
If n and n 2 are the indices of refraction of two different materials, then

l
nl
V2
n2
Vl
Thus the indices of refraction of two transparent substances are inversely
proportional to the velocities of light in the two media.
The angles i and r may be measured experimentally for many substances, thus determining n. The index of refraction depends both upon
the substance and upon the kind of light. The indices of isotropic substances or general values are designated by the letter n. The extreme
values for hexagonal or tetragonal minerals are deSignated by ne and nw.
OrthorhombiC, monoclinic, and triclinic crystals h ave their extreme values
designated by n)' (greatest) , n O! (least), and n j3, the value in a direction at
right angles to the two others.2 The following t able gives examples of
values for the indices of refraction of several well-known minerals that
occur throughout the normal range:
Minerals
Fluorite .... .. . . ... . . . ... . .. .
Quartz * . . .. .. ... . . . ... . . '
Calcite * ......... . . . . .. . ... .
Apatite * . . ... . ..... . . . . . . .
Aragonite * . . .. .
Garnet (grossular ite) ..
Sphalerite .. ...... .
(N aD)
Indices of refraction
n = 1. 4338
n, = 1.5533; nw = 1 5442
nw = 1 .6585 ;n, = 1 .4863
nw = 1.6461; n, = 1.6417
na = 1.5301;n~ = 1.6816;ny = 1 6859
(Yellow) n = 1.7714
(Yellow) n = 2.3692
* Quartz,
calcite, and apatite are a nisotropic with a r an ge of values for refractive

indices between n, and n w , the two extremes. Refractive indices of a ragonite vary
between ny and na
1 The refractive index of dry air at 760-mm pressnre referred to a vacuum is only
slightly different from unity (1.000274 at 15 C) ; th ercfore, indices of refraction of
material substances referred to air arc approxim ately equal to th eir indices referred
to a va cllum (lhe hUer :11"e call ed Lhe a/Jso /ltte f efm cNve inrlices ).
' In Ame ricll II k cl1l1i (;:11 jlll lrll ;lls c! t':ll ing wilh op ti cal descri pli ons of min erals, many
Illllil(lrs IIndl II,, ' Idl ('r 'I/. Il lid " ' " liI(' C,.. .. k !vll"rs II', (I, "I , c, OI lid '" alone in reeordi.ng
IlId ll'II' "I' , .,1', 11, '110 ,1 ,,,, 1, 1(\ (1 11/11 1, 01 111111 il ' ~ysl",n ,
49
REFRACTION
Ordinarily, h'ansparent minerals with a high index of refraction (HI or

more ) have the brilliant appearance called adamantine luster, while
minerals with a lower index of refraction have a vitreous luster.
Dispersion. The index of refraction for the violet end of the spectrum
is greater than for the red end of the spectrum and on refraction red
is deviated less than violet. The ordinary refraction of the two is indicated in Figure 4-2.
The difference b etween the index of refraction for red and the index
for violet is often briefly referred to as the dispersion. A cut prism p laced
in the path of a beam of white light produces a beautiful display of
spectrum colors. The difference between the angle d,. and the angle dv
..:;
registers the dispersive power of the
0- '
~
prism (see Figure 4-10) .
?",
<5
Minerals differ widely in their dis~<:-?
persive power. One h aVing the least
Air
dispersion is fluorite; a mineral with
Water
one of the highest values is diamond.
The "fire" or brilliant play of colors of
the cut diamond is due to the high
dispersion from the prismlike faceted
vr
gem stone. Fluorite, on the other
hand, if cut and faceted, appears
correspondingly dull. Because of its FIG. 4~2. Variation in .the angles of
.
. 11 1 fl
.
refractIOn for lIght of dIfferent colors.
1ow dIsperslOn, optica y c ear uonte

is in demand for microscope lenses of high magnification to be corrected
for chromatic variation. Comparative figures for the dispersion of fluorite
and the diamond are given:
Diamond
Fluorite
Illumination
Index of
refraction,
n
Illumination
Index of
refraction,
n
Red K( A') , A = 768.2 ......

Violet H(G'), A = 434.1. .....
1.43095
1.43963
R ed (B line) . ..... . .. . ....

Violet (H line) ... . .. . . . . . .
2.40735
2.46476
Dispersion . .. .... . . . . .. .. . .
0 .00868
Dispersion .. ...... .. . . ...
0 .05741
All min erals have some disp erSive power, but fluorite and diamond
represent approxim ately the two ex tremes.
On aCCOlin t of the d ispersion of min erals , accurate de terminations
of illlli <.; os of l'l'i"r;lclioll a rc mud e w ilh monochromatic light. In
MINERAL OPTICS
50
routine study, however, the highest accuracy is seldom necessary, and

white li~t is generally employed. As a matter of fact, white light as
usually employed in determining mineral indices gives an average
value for practical purposes somewhat comparable to yellow. The
dispersive effect with white light is also extremely useful for several
common tests.
Critical Angle. In the formula n = sin i/sin r the angle of incidence
may vary between 0 and 90 . When i = 0, the incident beam strikes
the bounding surface at right angles . Sin i in this case = 0, and r must
also equal O. Thus an incident beam going from a rarer medium into a
denser one is not refracted to either
side but merely suffers a loss of
velocity.
If i
90, sin i
1, and the
equation becomes n
l/sin r. In
this
case,
since
n
is
a
constant
for
~
a particular substance, the angle
Air,______,...."rl-,,~=_---of refraction also becomes fixed.
Water __ ::::;::. ~ ~ (ff 2 ~ :::: ~
--:r-::::- ~~
~ $':::-::::::~
When i
90, the angle of refrac~o'~ '/ '/
"-:::- ----...~~
rn"O /j,. "
'- ~L\) ~
tion
is
known
as the critical angle.
~.- /"./":
'--........ ... ~
The
critical
angle
is important in
~
//
~
the practical determination of in/~cO/ 'J'r
dices of refraction.
Ongle
Total Reflection. Figure 4-3
FIG. 4-3. The relation b etween refraction
shows light going from water into
of light passing from a denser medium
air (or from a denser medium into
into a rarer medium and reflection bea rarer medium). A ray striking
yond the critical angle.
the surface of the water vertically
from below continues out into air along the same path. If the path deviates from the vertical, the beam is refracted-i.e., bent away- from the
perpendicular at the surface. When an angle of 48 31' with the vertical
is reached (the critical angle), the beam grazes the surface. For any
angle greater than the critical angle, however, li~ht is reflected downward. This phenomenon is known as total reflection.
If the angle with the perpendicular is increased until light travels along
the surface between the air and water or strikes the surface at a grazing
incidence, the beam is turned downward at the critical angle on the opposite side of the perpendicular to the bounding surface.
The same principle applies to all dense substances in contact with air.
In practical determinations with a refractometer <1 glass h emisphere of
high refractive index serves as the dense medium ; lig ht is directed against
the hemisphere by a mirror, and the critical angl e is dctermined with a
measurinl"!; t oloscoI?c .
tt ! /
<,;r
c;.~?!!t ft
REFRACTION
51
Indices of Refraction of Anisotropic Minerals. Minerals b elong to two

optical class es: (1) isotropic and (2) anisotropic.
Mineraloids such as opal and gl ass which lack regular internal
structure and other minerals such as d iamond, garnet, spinel, fluoritc,
etc., crystallizing in the isometric system are isotropic. Minerals crystallizing in the other crystal systems are anisotropic.
Light traveling through anisotropic minerals is doubly refracted. Thus
a b eam of monochromatic light p assing obliquely from air into an anisotropic medium not only is b ent to one side but also is broken into two
beams. At the same time each of the two b eams is polarized- i. e., limited
to a single plane of vibration, as will
be explained in the chapter on polarized light. In addition, each b eam
is differently refracted for different
colors of light.
Double refraction of two rays occurring in anisotropic minerals is
Air
'oJ
illustrated in Figure 4-4. The inci- Ilnisotropic mineral ~
dent beam is broken into nvo sets of
rays, white light prodUCing two dispersed spech'a with opposite directions of vibration. Monochromatic
red light will yield two angles of refraction, and monochromatic violet
light will also yield two different
angles. In each case of monochromatic light and also in the case of FIG. 4-4. A diagram illustrating the variwhite light the directions of vibra- ation uf the an gle of refraction for red
and violet in an anisotropic mineral.
tion are opposed but may not b e
exactly at right angles in the mineral. On emerging into air on the opposite side of a mineral plate, however, the vibration is at right angles .
Measurement of Indiccs of Refraction by Refractometers. Several
types of reh:actometer have b een devised for determining the indices of
refraction of liquids or of solids. A glass hemisphere is utilized in different ways .
Figure 4-5 illusb'ates the determination of the index of refraction by
the method of total reflection. Light is directed against the surface of a
glass h emisphere from b elow at an angle of refraction greater than the
critical angle. The light rays are reflected downward from the upper
surfa ce of th e hemisphere and emerge on th e opposite side. The material
to be dctcrmin ed, cithcr a min cral platc with a polished lower surface
or a liqllid , is pla ced on thc h emi sph erc. Tf the ma leri al is a min eral plate,
a thin flIIH of oil of lli gh rcfr;lc li v(' ill (k x is placed betwcen the he mi-
52
MINERAL OPTICS
sphere and the mineral. The light from the mineral is r eHected through
the hemisphere in part and produces an image in the obs erving telescope
focus ed at 0, as illustrated in the figure . The upper half of the field will
be dark, while the lower half is illuminated (or vice versa if the image
is inverted). If monochromatic light is used and the mineral is isoh'opic,
the boundary between the light and dark areas will b e sharp, marking
the critical angle accurately (Figure 4-5a), O n the other hand, in the case
of white light the colors of the spectrum lie between the light and dark
Images observed
53
REFRACTION
eral from the side and is refracted downward through the hemisphere
as shown in Figure 4-6. In this case the upper half of the fi eld of view
is dark, and the lower h alf is illuminated. Otherwise the same principles
prevail that apply to the oth er method. The conh'ast between the two
fields is more pronounced when the mineral is illuminated by grazing
incidence.
Whether employing total reHection or grazing incidence, the index of
refraction of the glass hemisphere must be accurately known. This is
usually ascertained by determining the index of refraction by total reHection in reference to air with the mineral plate removed, before de-
Mineral plate
./
I
I
Glass
hemisphere
I
I
I
I
I
I
(bl
Isotropic
FIG.
(dl
Anisotropic
( 1
(a 1 Monochromatic
light
C
Isotropic
Anisotropic
4-5. Illumination from below in determining th e critical angle by total reflection.
areas (Figure 4-5b). If the mineral is anisotropic and the observation

occurs with monochromatic light, two boundary lines will be seen spaced
a short distance apart (Figure 4-5c). If an anisotropic mineral is observed with white light, the two boundaries will be marked by spectra
(Figure 4-5d). When the anisoh'opism is not strong, the two spectra
frequently overlap. The light waves of each image from the anisotl'opic
mineral are polarized at right angles to the other.
Instruments operating on this principle are arranged with graduated
scales and verniers for measuring the critical angle. When the critical
angle is known, the index of refraction is computed from Snell's law,
sin i being equal to 1. The w avelength is contl'ollcd at the source by using
monochTomatic li ght.
The method or grazin g in cid ence can b e appl ied with the same glas s
homi splwro Ii sed r<,)r 111(' 1l)('lltod or l ol :il J"( II( cli on. I ,ighl en ters the min -
~:~:(\\\
FIG . 4-6. D etermination of the index of refraction with the incident beam grazing the
surface of the hemisphere.
termining the index of refraction of th e mineral. The index of the liquid

used for mounting the mineral plate can also be determined by total reflection if a few drops are smeared on the upper surface of the hemisphere. The refractive index equation for the d etermination of the mineral
may be stated:
n (mineral) = n (glass) X sin r
where n (mineral) = index of refraction of the mineral
n (glass) = index of refraction of the hemisphere
l' = critical angle for the min eral as read with the refractometer
The glass used in constructing hemispheres has a high index of refraelion, usually about 1.80. The mineral should have a polished surface to
he placed toward the h emisphere, and a liquid with a high index of
rdract ion is p;illccl by capillary attraction between the mineral and the
he misphere. lVfcthylene iodide (n
1.74) is usually preferred for this
p urP()so.
"
54
MINERAL OPTICS
Figure 4-7 is an illustration of one of the standard Abbe (Zeiss) refractometers commonly used in determining the indices of refraction of
liquids (also of minerals and crystals). The refractive index is read off
a graduated sector, and the instrument may be quickly set for reading
directly. A scale is arranged in the image of the eyepiece that gives the
values of indices of refraction for all angles within the range of the instrument, which extends from nD = 1.3 to nn = 1.7.
A refractometer of this type consists essentially of a double prism
that receives the liquid to be tested, a t elescope for viewing the line of
the critical angle, and a scale sector for reading the angle. The double
prism is made up of an illuminating prism F (Figure 4-8) with a
ground-glass surface and a refracting prism P that operates on the
principle of grazing incidence. The
refracting prism takes the place of
the glass hemisphere in other refractom eters. A compensating device is inserted in the telescope to
approximate monochromatic light
(D line of sodium). The refractometer is usually adjusted for use
by testing the instrument with a
glass plate of known index.
Index of Refraction by the Prism
Method. In Figure 4-9 a beam of
FTG. 4-7. The Abbe refractometer. (CaTl
monochromatic light strikes the
Z eiss, Inc . )
prism ABC. At AB the beam R is
bent toward the perpendicular OP.
At BC the beam R' emerges and is bent away from the p e11)endicular
O'P'. R' continues in a straight line from this point, making an angle of
deviation d with the original direction.
When the angle d is the minimum that can be observed when the
prism is turned with respect to the b eam (the angle of minimum deviation) and the angle p of the prism is also known, the index of refraction
of the glass of the prism may be computed. The formula by which the
index is computed is
n
sin Yz (d + p)
= ---'-0::....:.,,.....,..'----"-'-
sin Yz p
p = angle of I he prism
d = fl. ll l-!; le of millimum devirtl,ioll of Lh e hea1U
n = ir~d ex of rdn tetioll of ('11 0 priHI(\
55
REFRACTION
FlG .
4-8. Sectional view of the refractometer. (Carl Z eiss, Inc . )
When the beam of light striking the prism is not monochromatic but
consists of the various wavelengths that combine to produce ordinary
light, a spectrum is produced as shown in Figure 4-10.
The prism formula is paIi:icu!arly useful for determining the inB
d ices of refraction of glass prisms,
lranspaI'ent crystals, and hollow
P-', ,
,--'
,.-/ p '
"
prisms filled with oil. A prism is
'..-1'<',
/,.'/0'
d
,~
adjusted vertically on a one-circle
goniometer and the prism angle
R
Ill eas ured by obtaining reRections
lirs t from one side and then from
A
--0
Ihe other and reading th e an gle on
FIG , 4-9. A bcam of light bent to one
Ill e gradu a tcd circl e. 'W ith th e same side by pass ing throu gh a glass prism.
';('I-Ilp a b eam oJ light is passed
1III"OII gii Lll e prism a nd the an gle of minimum deviation is measured. The
1I 1t\( 'X or wrr;t (;liull is lill'lI (;OIlIPUlccl directly from th e formul a given above,
IIli li zili g III(' 1III g\(o of III(' prislI) a lld lil t! all g lo o\' minimum deviation.
"'--::1
MINERAL OPTICS
56
57
REFRACTION
p arts are b eveled and cemented to a solid glass wedge. If the walls of
the hollow prism are made of glass with p arallel sides, correction for the
glass is not necess ary. It is b est, however, to assume an exaggerated b evel
and mount th e two sides in oppos ed p ositions. Any existing lack of parallelism will be largely corrected in this way. Index of refraction determinations using this method are useful for determining the indices of refraction of liquids b eyond the range of commercial refractometers . The
method is also suitable wh en a refractometer is not available and as a
check when it is available.4
If the same prism is always used, a chart may b e prepared givin g the
index of refraction corresponding to each angle of minimum d eviation
for a given w avelength . If the chart covers the range of indices of refraction from 1.400 to 1.850, it will include all ordinarily determined
values. Indices of refraction may b e determined with the light of a sodium
flame obtained by holdin g an asb estos sh eet previously saturated in salt
in a fan-flame burner. Light from a mercury-vapor arc or white light
transmitted through a standard color RIter is also occasionally employed.
A h elium-gas tube gives an ideal sodium line.5
A convenient method of securing a sodium flame h as been suggested
by F. Lowell Dunn, M.D. , of Omaha, Nebr. H e uses a coarse alundum
RItration crucible filled with salt and susp ends it over a Meker burner .
A molten h emisphere of NaCl form s in the bottom of the crucible, which
gives a sodium flame of extremely high intensity. The burner should b e
p laced under a hood and at a safe dist ance from the microscope.
SpeCial light bulbs giving a strong sodium light h ave b een developed
by the Gen eral Electric Company (Figure 4-12). These require about
20 minutes to acquire the proper color value but after developing the
correct intensity fw-nish an excellent source of illumination.
T he refractive indices of the various types of glass used in optical
equipment are determined to the eighth decimal place with sodium light,
mercury-vapor light, and several other light sources. Such precision is
not employed in examining minerals with the microscope, nor is it possible without a speCial goniometer.
T he D etermination of the Index of Refraction with the Microscope.
T he index of refraction of a mineral is seldom determined completely in
('xamination of thin sections . The slices are mounted in Canada b alsam,
and the usual t est consists in ascertaining whether a given mineral has
3
/\
~
//\
///
d,
d,
~;:""
%:f
~~~~E========-,
~.
'Ii~'\
! JndlqO
Violet
"/p
~F
F IG. 4-10. Diagram illustrating the variation in the angle of minimum deviation of a
prism with the wavelength of light.
Hollow prisms made of specially ground thin glass or plates with

p arallel surfaces or selected glass slides cut and cemented together are
useful for determining the indices of refraction of liquids. F igure 4-11
illustrates a hollow prism made of glass plates of equal thickness and
h aving parallel surfaces. Bakelite
may b e used to cement the glass
plates to a solid prism. In ordinary
I
d etermina tive work, one prism cut
L_- -- -'IA
at 45 is usually sufficient. Two
"' ~"'_
(I"
11Jt1~1
prisms, one cut at 30 for high determinations and one at 60 for
I
1
lower values, may b e employed. Oc1
1
'" l:-:::---:::::.::::::':: casionally microscopic slides will
possess the p arallelism of surfaces
for the prism w alls. Such
required
(b
)
(0 )
FIG. 4-11. Glass prism to be mounted in slides should b e tested by observing
a goniometer for determining the indices the reflection of a h anging window
of refraction of liquids. (Hollow space cord ill-awn taut by a suspended
for liquid in upper portion of wedge beweight or some other suitable
tween the plates.)
straight line from b oth surfaces of
the slide. The slide should b e h eld close to the eye to observe thi s and
turned until the reflections from both the upper and the lower surface
can b e seen at the same time. If the straight lin es arc p arallel and uniformly distant in each im age, th e slid e is sat isfa ctory. It s.h ould also b e
tested in two peqw ncli cillar p ositi ons. vV II (' 11 a go()d slid e is lO lln cl, it
sll( )lIld h o Cllt ili lo I ~v() pi('('('S, () II (' for (';Id l sid(' ()r II I(' prislii. TIl(' Iw('
3 Bakelite resinoid, baked at 70C for 10 hr and followed by baking at 125 for
I() hI', will make a sol id prism. Bakelite vamish containing china oil is affected by
j"d"X li(l' licl s anc! sholl lcl he avoid cd.
Ii ollow prisills of sl've r:11 lypcs have heen developed by Dr. E . S. Larsen of
11 "I'v"I'd tJ niv('I's ity, Dr. C. S. Hoss of Ihe U.S. Ccologieal Survey, and Dr. H. E.
tl'\ , " wi" of Iho (;,,"p hy, il',, 1 I ."hol': ll ory.
n 1 '~ "l p l () yl ' d \" 11 " , 1:t " "t: tI () tl l '~ of II ", U.S. C\'ologica l S," vcy,
I
58
MINERAL OPT ICS
4-12. Sodium laboratory arc furnishing a strong source of sodium light. (N ela
Specialty Division, Lamp Division of General Electric Co.)
FIG.
an index of refraction greater or less than b alsam. The indices of adjacent minerals are also compared with each other.
The indices of refraction of adjacent transparent substances can b e
compared in several ways. The two most useful methods are the method
of central illumina tion and that of oblique illumination.
A method of direct determination with the microscope exists, but unfort unately it is not sufficiently accurate with thin sections.
The M ethod of Central Illllmination . The test is b est made with a
magnification of 80 or grea ter, with th e iris di aphragm p artly closcd . It
is quite scnsitive lo small diffe rcnces in refrac tive indi ces a t sll ch maglIill c: Lli olls. Ir ITIOII ()(' llrO!1):lli (' li ght is ('nlpl oy('d, il is p oss ihle to (Ii s-
REFRACTION
59
tinguish b etween the indices of refraction of two minerals even when

they di ffer by as little as on e in th e third place of decimals.
The test may b e applied to thin sections of transp arent minerals in
comparin g their relative indices of refraction with adj acent minerals or
b alsam. The phenomenon used in making the t est dep ends upon the
total reflection of light incident at more than the clitical angle when
p assing from a mineral of greater to a mineral of lesser index in a thin
section. The test is employed for comparing the indices of refraction of
the various minerals of thin sections with b alsam, for comparing the
minerals with each other when observed in contact, and for comparing
fragments of minerals with various immersion media in which they may
b e mounted. Light enters the section from b elow and is transmitted
through both m edia. At th e bounding edge both reflection and refraction t ake place, and a p ortion of the entering b eam is b ent either to one
side or to the other, dep ending upon the rela tive indices of refraction
of the adjacent media. If the two indices h appen to be the same, no
refraction t akes place. In case the index of refraction of one is greater
than t hat of the other, light will strike an inclined boundary b etween
the two in some place at an angle greater than the critical angle. A
p ortion of the b eam will b e deflected toward the mineral with the greater
index. If the boundary b etween the media is not inclined, grazing incidence may occur, bringing about the same effect. The d eflection results
in a light blur, visible through the microscope just inside the boundary
of the mineral grain of greater index. The blur is more apparent if the
iris diaphragm is p artly closed and if the tube of the microscope is
slightly raised. It forms an irregular white line; and as the tube is raised
still farther, an illusion is produced , the line appearing to move toward
the center of the mineral. If the tub e is lowered , the effect is reversed.
In reference to the mineralogist F. Becke the blur is often called the
Becke line.
Since the index of b alsam is known (approximately 1,537), minerals
may b e quickly divided into two groups, one with indices greater than
halsam, the other with indices less than b alsam. It is convenient to rememb er in making the test that when the tube is mised , the line moves
IowaI'd the medium h aving the higher refractive index. Conversely, when
lhe tube is depressed , th e line moves toward the medium h aving the
/owe1' ind cx (Figure 4-13 ).
Exp7anation of the Wh ite-lin e E ffect. Hotchkiss h as given an explanat ion of lhe rcfraction and reflcction involved in th e m ethod of central
ililimi na li on. T he construction shown in Figure 4-14 is modified from
Il is {'x plan ~lt () r y d iagram .
Two mill (' r:ils, j\ an d 13, a rc :1ss lIm cd to b e in contac t in a thin section
wil li a \1( ' 1'\ i(';1 I lHlllllti ill g pl:ill (', Y7.. ;\ is \h (' mill C'ral w ilh a lesser ind ex
MINERAL OPTICS
30
( n = 1.50), and B has a greater index, 1.70. A cone of light rays enters
the two minerals from the balsam below, divided evenly on both sides
)f the bounding plane. The cone of light may be represented by the rays
1, 2, 3, and 4 with angles of inclination as indicated in the diagram.
The critical angle in mineral B with respect to the bounding plane is
about 62. The rays of light within B (3 and 4) which strike the surface
,
'\2]
--------'
"',
H t
~
Tube raised
FIG.
'.
Tube at focus
Tube lowered
4-13. Central illumination, n
Reflected I and 2 ~
' ... _---,
> balsam.
Totally reflected 3 and 4

~Refracted , and 2
zoneu
ZoneM -Zone L
20
r-45"
-+-
'\,4
FIG. 4-14. A theoretical explanation of the movement of the light line in central
illumination. (Modified from Hotchkiss.)
YZ at an angle greater than the critical angle are totally reflected. The
rays of light within A (1 and 2) are split at the bounding surface, part
being refracted into B and part being reflected back into A. The comparative intensity of the reflected and refracted rays depends upon the character of the boundin g planc. If thc contact smface is highly polished ,
morc li ght is rcncctcd and less rcfractcd. If th c smfacc is rough, as is
IIslially th o case, more' li ghL is rdra CI('<l inLo 13.
61
REFRACTION
A band of light appears within the mineral of higher index at level M.

Within this vertical distance nearly all the light of the cone is concentrated in B. If the plane of focus of the microscope is brought within
this zone, a band of light is visible within the mineral with a higher index.
If the plane of focus is elevated by raising the microscope tube to level
U, the band becomes broader and furnishes the illusion of moving toward the center of B and away from the bounding plane. If the plane of
focus is lowered to level L, on the other hand, a greater concentration
of light is present in r than in s, and the light band will appear to be
within the mineral with a lower refractive index. The circles adjacent
to the braces and indicating the vertical extension of the zones are intended to illustrate the positions of
the white line corresponding to different elevations of the plane of focus .
Oblique Illumi1Ultion. The method
~
of inclined or oblique illumination
~
is more convenient for making the
'"~
Balsam
~
same relative comparisons of refrac'"
""'"
tive indices outlined above, but at a
~
magnification of about 50 or lower.
C5
A larger area of the thin section is
included within this field, and the
method allows the observer qUickly
to compare a large number of mineral FIG. 4-15. Illustrating oblique illumigrains; also, it provides an easier in- nation with the condenser removed.
terpolation of values between 1:\'10 Higher = mineral grain, n > balsam.
Lower = mineral grain, n < balsam.
mounting media.
The effect is best observed without a condenser lens. Oblique illumination may be secured by inserting a card below the stage cutting off
half of the light. This darkens one-half of the field, at the same time
allowing the opposite half to be illuminated largely by oblique rays
(Figure 4-15). A similar effect may be secured by inserting a nalTOW
card in the accessory slot above an objective of moderate power (with
the condenser in the system). This effect may be either the same or reversed, depending upon the focal length of the condenser.
Individual crystals of minerals will be unevenly illuminated by the
method of oblique illumination. One side of the mineral will be dark,
and the opposite side will be light. When the card is inserted below
Lhe objective, thc shadow will appear eith er on the side of a mineral
Lowa rd th e dark half of the field or on the side away from it. When
Lhe shadow appears on the side away from th e dark half, the index of
refraction of Lhc mincr al in qu cs Lion is greater than that of the adjacent
rnedillm ; ir ,)I) Lh o side lI ex t Lo th e clark haU, the ind ex of the mineral
'6
32.
MINERAL OPTICS
~s less. In case the index of refraction of the mineral is about equal to

:he index of the mounting material and white light is employed, one side
will be blue while the other is red. When the card is inserted in the accessory opening, the shadow in the mineral is on the side of the field
next to the dark area if the index of the mineral is greater than balsam. 6
The index of a known mineral should be tried first in making this test
in order to be sure of the set-up in the microscope.
Double Diaphragm Method. Saylor's investigation of the sensitivity of
various methods of matching indices of refraction with the microscope
has led to the proposal of the doublediaphragm method, a modification of
y-Cordboard
: :3:r i diaphragm
the method of inclined illumination.
This is more particularly applicable to
the immersion method, as described in
Objective
Chapter 9. The set-up, with a mineral
fragment mounted in an immersion
Coverliquid of higher index, is shown in FigCrystal
g/ass
ure 4-16. The solid lines show the light
~ I <-~/1d/f rays entering the mineral, and the dash
;"
lines indicate emerging rays.
Relief. Certain minerals stand out
strongly in the field of the microscope,
Celluloid
others are moderately visible, and frediaphragm
quently the mineral is hardly visible at
~
all. This appearance or visibility of outdlt;~ragm line and sUlface is described as relief.
The relief of a mineral mounted in
balsam depends upon the difference beFIG.
4-16. Double. di aphr~gm
tween the index of refraction of the
method of oblique I1lummatIOn.
.
. .
(C. P. Saylor.)
mmeral and balsam. Mmerals WIth low
indices of refraction ( cryolite, n = 1.364)
and high indices of refraction (spinel, n = 1.75) have strong relief. On
the other hand, such a mineral as apophyllite has approximately the same
index of refraction as balsam and consequently is hardly visible in thin
section.
Anisotropic minerals with a wide divergence between the two extremes of refractive indices exhibit a variation in relief as the stage of the
microscope is rotated. Calcite furnishes one of the best illush'ations of
this feature. The ray vibrating parallel to the short diagonal of the
cleavage rhombohedron has nearly the same index as balsam. ~lh en this
63
REFRACTION
direction is parallel to the lower nicol, a calcite cleavage fragment on

the stage of the microscope shows low relief. ' '''hen the cleavage fragment is turn ed at right angles until th e long diagonal is parallel to the
lower nicol, light travels through the mineral with the velocity of the
high er index, and the same grain stands out with high relief. A number
of common minerals vary in relief with direction.
The relief of a mineral may b e estimated as low, moderate, high, or
extremely high. In the tables to follow, such a descriptive term is given
for each mineral.
REFERENCES
Becke, F.: Sit:::;bel'. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Cll , Abt. 1, pp. 358-378, 1893.
Graham, G. W .: Mi11eml. Mag., vol. 15, pp. 341-347, 1910.
Hotchkiss, W . O.: Am. C eol. , vol. 36, pp. 305-308, 1905.
Saylor, C. P.: Accuracy of Microscopical Methods for Determining Refractive
Index by Immersion , Nat. BUT. Sta.ndards, Research Paper 829, vol. 15,
pp. 277-294, 1935.
Wright, F . E.: The Methods of Petrographic-microscopic Research, Carn egie
I11st. Pub. 158, 1911.
" Anolh er sirnple W[lY 10 see\ll'c Ih e ('IT('e l of oh li qii e illuminalion Sii ggcs led by Dr.
If. DOiiiiay ('o"" i , l ~ in shadiii g 11\\; ndd hy partial ly iii M' rting the (nul lQ CO\\-
J. D .
Irlinlng tho
lll\ r dy/' ir( ~
(,(cot
65
PLAN E POLARIZE D LIGH T I N MINERALS
CHAPTER
Plane Polarized Light in Minerals
Polarized Light. In the foregoing it has b een assumed for descriptive

mrposes that light may be considered as wave motion. This condition
lolds for ordinary white light or for monochromatic light of any sort.
t is also assumed that the vibrations take place in all directions around
he line of transmission. Many times, however, the tendency to vibrate
[l all directions around the line of transmission is modified, and the
\Taves b ecome restricted for the most part to a single plane of vibration.
iVhen vibration is thus restricted, light is said to be polarized.
Polarization of light may be demonstrated in several w ays : (1) by relection from a polished surface; (2 ) by repeated refraction at an angle
through several plates of thin glass;
1
( 3 ) by absorption by certain clystals
I
i
1
such as tourmaline or herapathite
5r~57
(polaroid); ( 4) by cleavages or
I
prisms of optical calcite.
I
Polarization by Reflection. Light
reflected obliquely from a polished
n =/. 539
surface, such as a t able top or a mirror, is p artially polarized . If the reflection is examined through a polarFlc . 5- 1. Polariza tion by reRection.
izing sheet, the field of view will
larken when the vibration plane is turned at right angles to the plane of
~flection of the polished surface.
According to Brewster, the polarization with a glass plate is at a maxnum when the directions of reflection and refraction are 90 apart
Figure 5-1). At such an angle r b ecomes the complement of i, and the
::>rmula n = sin i/sin r may be written sin i/cos i = t an i = n. Thus, at
he angle of maximum polarization the tangent of the angle of incidence
quaIs the index of refraction of the reHecting substance. The angular
elationships for a plate n = 1.539 are shown in Figure 5-1.
A sectional vi cw of an old -fashi oncd polariscope is shown in Fig lll"e
-2. Refl ec ti on from glass pl:ilcs yields polarized li ghl which p asses
(iiI
through a nicol prism. The instrument was used before the advent of
the modern polarizing microscope for the study of mineral plates.
Polarization by Absorption. Tourmaline yields polarization by absorption. Light that strikes the clystal vibrating in a variety of planes is
strongly absorbed except along one plane. The rays of light that emerge
limited to this plane of vibration are thus plane-polarized. The crystallographiC axis c (often the long direction
of the clystal) lies parallel to the plane of
vibration.
Observation through another plate of
tourmaline cut in a similar fashion and
superimposed at right angles effectively reveals the polarization. Light transmitted
through the two is eliminated where plates
overlap and the overlapping portion is
dark (Figure 5-3).
Thin clystals of a sh'ongly absorptive
I(%(WR1rJ Miner ai
compound,
iodocinchonidine-sulfate, were
I
described in 1852 by William Bird HeraI
I
path , M.D. (Figure 5-4). Because of their
.I
strong
absorption in one direction corre'1
Jml:wP",m
1
I
I
Ic -axis
M
x'. a
'Ab,m,
l ::... .
mum
tlon
Ic -axis
r:..:...oxis
.fI
Glass plates
F IC . 5-2. Polarization by reRection in a polariscope.
Sin gle tourmaline

Two crystals
crystol
superimp osed
Flc. 5-3. D arkn ess due to absorption
produced by two superimposed tounnaline crystals.
sponding to the behavior of tourmalin e, the clystals were referred to as

"artificial tourmalines." The material was subsequently called herapathite
in honor of the discoverer. Methods now exist for producing thin transparent sh eets containing small crystals of herapathite in parallel orientation embedd ed in a plas tic binder. Two overlappin g sheets of this material arc illu strated in Figure 5-5. I t is possibl e to prepare such polarizing
sheets coyerin g more th an a sf[ll arc Foot in area.
Seyeral or lh l! Illi croscopcs described in thi s tex t arc eqllippeci wi ~h
poh rii'.in g ploi k s. IllslI"Illl\(' I\Ls m ~ lIl1lra(" llIr('d in Lh e United States utilize
plll ll 'S mll rkdl'<I III1<1 l'r Ih (' Initi o 1I 11 11W " Polaro id ." T ho plntes nol only
MINERAL OPTICS
,rovide excellent optical effects, but permit improvements in microscope

esign through a saving in space. Polaroid sheets are useful for optical
demonstration and for supplementary uses, particularly where a wide fi eld of polarized light is
required.
Double Refraction (Birefringence). Light in
passing through a large number of b'ansparent minerals is doubly refracted into hII/o b eams vibrating
along planes that are approximately at right angles
to each other. l Transparent minerals , with the exception of those crystallizing in the isometlic
IG. 5-4. Crystals of
erapathite
showing
( cubic) system, and amorphous minerals are doubly
n area of extinction
refracting
( anisob'opic) .
Ih ere individuals with
A good illustration of double refraction and ac.irections of greatest
b sorption at right
companying polarization by a min eral occurs in
ngles are superimtransparent calcite, or Iceland spar. Objects viewed
losed, (Afte1' H emthrough
a rhombic block of Iceland spar appear
lath, 1853. )
double; if such a cleavage is placed over a dot
vithin a circle marked on a piece of paper, the dot will appear to the
~ye as two dots and the circle as hll/o circles (Figure 5-6). The light
~s;~
PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT IN MINERALS
67
5-7). The hll/o light rays have been differently refracted, and the indices
of refraction are different. The extreme indices of calcite are 1.516 and
1.658 with a difference of 0.142. 1'1, the position indicated the two indices
are far apart.
A large quartz sphere such as the crystal ball more than a foot in
diameter in the United States National Museum in Washington exhibits
easily visible double refraction. H ere the
indices are 1.544 and 1.553 with a difference
of 0,009, To exhibit the same separation of
images shown by calcite, quartz must have
a thickness some 15 times as great. The
calcite of Figure 5-6 is about 4 inches across ,
Even a quartz sphere of museum size does
not show as much separation of images.
No double refraction is noted when crystals such as calcite or quartz are obs erved in
the direction of the principal crystal axis (caxis) which is also the optic axis. The same FIG. 5-6, Double refraction illustrated by a cleavage rhomb
applies for all hexagonal or tetragonal of transp arent calcite or Icecrystals.
land spar,
The direction of the optic axis is one of
isotropy. In any other direction the mineral is anisotropic. In the latter
cases light is polarized into two rays vibrating at right angles to each
other. One vibrates at right angles to the optic axis (the onlinary my),
the other in a plane p arallel to the optic axis (the extraordinary my). In
Iceland spar
r-
o
FIG. 5-5, Two disks of herapathite (Polaroid) mounted on glass pl ates photographed
1111
1
1. 11,1. ,1
ie
~o
QiJ
e
r;/
.0
osQ,
\0(\
\~p,
with the planes of polarization at right angles. (PoZal'izing Instrument Co,)
giving rise to one image will be composed of waves vibrating parallel to

the long diagonal of a rhombic surfacc; that givin g risc to th c othcr will
b e composed of wavcs vibra tin g parallcl to th c short diagonal (Fi gurc
d VIII(lIlslr:ll("(\ 111:11 111(' pr c' (' i ~ (' d('l('l'IlIill alioll or ll1<' an gle belWl','1I II" , Iwo 1"':1 111 ' i, :1 111 :111 " 1' "r (': 11 1' 1111 pll )" i(', d 11 11':" "1 ('"" '" 1. III di ~(; II " ili g
<11)11111 11 1I ,1" 11('li ll ll , II" , 1I 11 " MII" III 1'11 ,1 111 1011 111)11 1 00 w ill 11 111 h,' 1,,1-" 11 illi o 1I(;('(l1l1ll,
11 1111 111<1 Iwo II IYI, will I", ,'oll ', III "II ,d III .,1 1111'1" ["1111 " II ', 1,1 ", "1 II I d l~ 111 11 11)',1(" .
'F. K vVri g hL
iI;, ~
lo J Original
( b ) Dou ble refroction
(e ) Tra ns mitted '
image
in to e and 0 rays
double image
I" ,c , 5-7. Se p:lra lioll of eX lraordin ary ( r ) and ordinary (0) ray images in Iceland spar.
I': dcil( ' 111( ; OI'<iillal'Y ray viiJr:ltes parallcl to th c lon g diagonal of a
, 11() llIiJi (' L, ('(, or 1111: c1(,:l V: l g <' rll()lllhollf'dron as shown in F iglll'c 5-8, Th e
"\ I r:I()l'd i11 :11')' 1':1)' vihl'nl('S ill :1 pl :II1( ' p:lssing lhl'oll gh the oplic axis a nd
pnl':IIld I() 1111' slll)!'1 di ll l ~lI l1 j ll.
MINERAL OPT ICS
68
Optical Indicatrix. The indicatrix serves to illush'ate the optical features of a crystal. It consists essentially of a surface generated around a
point with the indices of refraction serving as radii.
I
The indicatrix for tetragonal and h exaOXIS
gonal crystals (Figures 5-9a,b) is a spheI
raid of rotation, The index for the exh'aordinary ray shows a range in values,
while the index for the ordinary ray remains constant. The index coincides
with the axis of principal symmetry in the
crystal (c-axis) . \ Vhen is greater than
w the spheroid is prolate and the crystal
is optically positive (quartz) . When is
less than w the spheroid is oblate and the
crystal is optically negative (calcite ).
I
The indicatrix for orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic crystals is a triaxial
FIG. 5-8. The extraordinary and
ellipsoid (Figure 6-16) and is related to
ordinary rays in a calcite cleavthe symmetry of crystals in these three
age.
systems. It forms a useful device for explaining the optical properties of biaxial crystals.
The principal section of a uniaxial indicatrix (Figure 5-10) may b e
used to examine the directional features of a wave normal and the corresponding ray where both are inclined to the <L'{es. The section is prolate
Ie'
c-axis
and
optic axis
c-axis
and
optic axis
" _-- ----- 1__ - ~~

,~--w--l~-~~~~~.
_ __ .......~/I
- wLh
_ -1----)/.)-;
~'-....~~
-r--~///!~
~---::::-- .:::- - .-/'/~
::-::::- +- --~./.?
~
(0 )
F I G.
(b)
5-9. Uniaxial indicatrix. ( a) Positi ve. (b) Negative.
with the major ax is LL' cqual to 2 corres ponding to the c-axis of thc
crysLal. T ho m in or axis 55' is ('cli ial Lo 2", a nd li es in a pbn c normal Lo
th o ('-;Ixis or tll O er),s t,al .
69
The direction of an intermediate wave normal is indicated by the line

OD. Along this lin e one set of waves vibrates in the plane of the section,
while the other set vibra tes in a plane p erpendicular to the plane of the
section.
The index of refraction of the set p erpendicular to the plane of the
section is wand the minor semiaxis of the indicatrix corresponds to this
value. The index of refraction of the set in the plan e of the section corresponds to the semiaxis OV (or OW) . Both sets of waves vibrate perpendicular to the wave normal OD.
Along the principal axes of the indicatrix the direction of the wave normal coincides with the direction of the
corresponding ray. E lsewhere the ray
and wave normal differ in direction.
In Figure 5-10 the line OT indicates
the direction of the ray corresponding to the wave normal OD. The position T is the point of tangency on the
ellipse of the line DT p erpendicular to
OD.
The wave velocities may b e obtained
'L'
/
,
/ f'
,
I
from the properties of the ellipse. The
'.t
area of th e p arallelogram (dashed lines FIG. 5-10. Section of a uniaxial
in Figure 5-10) equ als the area of the positive indieatrix.
rectangle (solid lines in Figure 5-10).
The conjugate radii are OT and OV. The area of the parallelogram is
given by 2VR . 20T where VR is normal to ~T.
The velocity of the component of the ray OT which vibrates normal
to the principal section is l /w. The velocity of the component which
vibrates in the principal section is I /VR.
In the direction of the optic axis (LL ' ), the wave normal and ray
directions coincide, there is a constant index h', and the velocity l /w is
also constant.
In the direction p erpendicular to the optic axis, light consists of two
sets of waves, on e vibrating p arallel to th e optic axis, the other Vibrating
at right angles. The rays travel parallel to the wave normal. One ray
component is the extraordinary ray. This vibrates parallel to the optic
axis, has an index and has a velocity proportional to I / L The ordinary
ray vibrates normal to th e optic axis, has an index w, and has a velocity
pro porLional to 1/ ",.
N ico l 1)riSI11. T il e nicol prisms in th e polarizing microscop e utilize the
pri lI ('i pi c of ci Cli lhl (' rC'l'r:lc lion to prod li ce po/;1 ri zec1 1ight. O ptically clear
MINERAL OPTICS
ro
~alcite is used, and a prism is made of two parts cemented together with
Canada b alsam. The two h alves form
a prism of the type illustrated in Figure 5-11. Light entering the base of
the prism is broken into extraordinary
and ordinary rays. The extraordinary
ray has an index of refraction
n = 1.516 at the angle of incidence
for the prism; th e ordinary ray has
an index of refraction n = 1.658. The
index of the extraordinary ray is close
to the index of refraction of b alsam,
n = 1.537. The index of the ordinary
ray, however, is considerably greater.
Both rays strike the cementing plane
of b alsam obliquely. The obliquity of
the ordinary ray exceeds the critical
angle b etween the ordinary ray and
ordinary
ray
b alsam . As a result, it is not refracted
n=t.516
through the b alsam but is reflected
to the side of the prism. Since the
extraordinary ray does not exceed the
critical angle b etween the extraordinary ray and balsam, it passes on
through the prism with little deviation.
The extraordinary ray is polarized
with
one plane of vibration; conse\1<.-22
quently, the light emerging from the
\
'
'--.1
\\V2'- '
prism and made up entirely of the
,
"--- --\\
extraordinary ray is plane-polarized.
Modifications permit an enlarged
\
field (Thompson) and a more com\
e'_
\
--~
pact prism (Ahrens) . In the Ahrens
\
prism (Figure 5-12) the optic axis of
calcite lies at right angles to the path
of light through the microscope.
Interference between Crossed Nic. .
.
oIs. When two nicol prisms arc superFIG. 5-11. Thc polarIZatIOn and devla.
' I 'tl tl " I
. f 'b " r
lion of light in a nicol p risill .
ImpOSeC WI ] len p anes 0 VI 1.1 IOn
at n ght an gles to each oth er, th e
ni cols a rc saicl (:0 'bo crossed. Th e pol:iri zill g rn icrosco pc is norm all y Iised
witll th o prisilis ill tlli, s positio ll . OIl C'C ' ;I<i jll s'd , 111( ' pl ;ill C of each lI icol
\'
71
PLANE POLARIZE D LIGHT IN MINE RALS
remains fixed, but the upper nicol slides in or out of the tube of the microscope. Crossed nicols produce darkness when the stage is unoccupied or
when it holds optically isotropic materials such as glass or opal or crystals
of the isometric system of crystallization. Minerals crystallizing in crystal
systems other than the isometric are anisotropic and in most positions
produce a range of interference colors b etween crossed nicols.
In Figure 5-13 polarized light is shown passing through a mineral plate
after leaving the lower nico!. Light strikes the lower surface of the mineral plate vibrating in one plane. On entering the plate, it is broken into
Uppernico!
Extraordinary ray
Ordinary ray
Optic
axis
--\l<iperO-\
"-
'"
.~
"<
"<
'"~
~
'~
5-12. A block of calcite with squ are

cross section cut to fo rm a polarizing
prism. (After C. D. A hrens. )
F I G.
Lower nieo!
5-13. The vibration directions of
the extraordinary and ordinary rays in
an anisotropic mineral illuminated with
polarized light.
FIG.
two sets of rays. Both sets are polarized, but at right angles, and light
travels at different velocities within the mineral along each plane. As a
result, when the two sets of rays emerge on the upper side of the plate,
one set has traveled farther than the other. Both travel along a straight
line to the analyzer and continue to vibrate at right angles.
Irregular grains of anisotropic minerals on the stage of the microscope
resolve light from the polarizer into the separate extraordinary and ordinary rays for each min eral ( F igure 5-14 ). A wide range in directions may
r(,S IlJ t b ut in cach crys tal the extra ordinary and ordinary rays are at
righ t a ngles.
In Lh c ;In alyzcr, wh c Lh er p ohiro;cl or a ni col prism, the two rays are
I'!'solvc'd 10 ;1 sill g lo pl:111 0 as indi cnlcd in F ig llt'c 5-:15. Thus the two rays
oll\()rgo frolll lho Hll:l ly:t.<.,'I' vi hrul,ill g ill tll O ~':l Il\O pl nno, H owever, the in.i.-
72
MINERAL OPTICS
tial phase separation due to the mineral is retained. As a result, when the
ordinary and extraordinary rays emerge from the analyzer they are in a
position to interfere, and interference colors are observed. An outline of
the mechanism is shown in Figure 5-16. In this relationship the separation
of the e and 0 rays, as determined by the thickness, position, and indices
of the mineral, yield phase differences as waves emerge from the analyzer.
Here resolution of effective components of each takes place into the
plane of the analyzer, as illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 5-15.
As a result of this resolution, two rays emerge from the analyzer.
The interference color produced depends upon the nature of the
light and the amount of retardation of one set of waves with respect
1
1
1
',I
Anolyzerlt e
plone
u- 1
I ,(
/
/
1
/
FIG . 5-14. Irregular mineral grains on

microscope stage above polarizer. Light
is polarized by each grain into ordinary
and extraordinary rays at right angles.
FIG. 5-15. Resolution of extraordinary

and ordinary rays of the mineral into the
plane of polarization of the analyzer.
to that of the other. The retardation can b e determined with a fair degree of precision from the inteIference color and is expressed by the
Greek letter 6.. The value of 6. is expressed in millimicrons (millionths
of a millimeter = mp' ), the same units used to measure the wavelength
of light.
The retardation may be changed through a wide range by (1) varying
the thickness t of the min eral, (2) changing the orientation in such a
way as to change the indices of refraction n 1 and n 2 of the two rays
emerging from the mineral. This relationship may be expressed by the
equation
Do
t(n 2 -
nl)
In the equation, t r epresents the thjckness of the min eral expressed in

millime ters, 1l ~ is the greater ind ex of r efraction , and ntis the lesser indel(
of ruhaclion for
0.
ptll;tic\!lu,r ori on t~~tiorl ,
73
Phase Difference. The two rays emerging from the mineral have
a phase difference P. This difference is equal
to the retardation divided by the wavelength:
p_Do
A
Since it has just b een shown that

Do = t(n 2 - nJ)
it follows t hat p =
t(n 2 -
nl)
When the retardation is some whole multiple

of a wavelength (nl..), the waves emerging
from the upper nicol become equal and opposite in phase. The resultant is then equal to
zero, and the field produced is dark (Figure
1
1
to ~
re$olved
in
onalyzer
5-17).
Midway between, maximum intensity occurs.
Here the r etardation is [( 2n
1) /2]1.., and the
components of the waves in the plane of the
upper nicol are equal and on the same side of
the line of transmission. The resultant wave is
equal to the sum of the two components (Figure 5-18) .
Interference Colors. If the mineral plate lies
with the planes of vibration parallel and p erpendicular to the planes of the polarizing devices, no light passes through the analyzer, and
the mineral is in a position of extinction. On
the other hand, if the plate is rotated to either
side, the field of the analyzer is no longer dark
but becomes illuminated with interference
colors. The interference colors vary with the
lh iekness of the mineral section, the nahlre of
lhe mineral, the way in which the mineral seclion is cut, and the light employed. The exLower I nicol
planation of the relationship of these various
fac lors involves many of th e prin ciples of opti- FIG. 5-16. Sorting of rays
(';1 I min e ralogy. It is des il'ablc for the sake of simby the analyzer when the
p liC' iLy Lo consid er Lh c variables one a t a time. mcob arc crossed.
If HlO Llli ck \\ css of a min e ral p'ictLe h e tween. cross ed nicols is cilanged,
~1 1()\l g ll III(' ol'i( 'llillli(JlI r(' ma ills 111 0 S lllll(', a eh:llI go ill ilil orfc rence color
MINERAL OPTICS
74
75

c:
ensues. One of the best ways to illustrate this phenomenon is by means

of the quartz wedge that accompanies the polarizing microscope.
Figure 5-19 is a diagram illustrating a portion of a quartz wedge cut
along the c-axis and varying in thickness from 0.0 to 0.10 mm. The wedge
is placed between crossed nicols in a position at 45 to the planes of
the nicols. In this position it b ecomes brilliantly illuminated with interference colors. The colors gradually merge into each other and change
>.
""0
L..
Ii
0-
Q)
=>
Q)
.c
.c
3:
Q)
3:
L..
;:
(l)
'0
Q)
'"
>-
""
=>
m
.c
a.
-0
'"
n::
First order
'"=>
m
t--
V>
OJ
OJ
L..
""
.<::
V>
'3:
0
;:
0
~
~
Second order
t i t t
! !
Upper nicol
,0
cQ)
;:
~
1I=0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
810
900mp.
0.10
EO
:t><
0('{' )
Anaif"r
Anolyzer
1
-J
I---===---
n>..
FIG. 5-17. Resolution of waves in analyzer for retardation of whole wavelength
or multiples.
(2n+1l >..
2
FIG. 5-18. Resolution of waves in analyzer fo r retardation of one-half wavelength or multiples.
with increase or decrease in thickness along the wedge. Anyone thickness yields a uniform band of one color across the wed ge. The quartz
wedge should be placed on the stage of the microscope and moved b ack
and forth in order to observe the full range of color due to varying
thickness .
Each portion of the wedge is subject to the equation
/: :,. =
----i>-
t(n2 - nl)
Since the optic axis of the wedge remains parallel to the stage, (n2 - n 1 )
is fixed and equals 0.009, the accepted value for quaTtz. Consequently,
the retardation tl vaTies with the thickness t.
When t is zero, the retardation in any li ght is also zero, and the fi eld
of vi cw is dark. In white light, wh en t in creases, a definite sequence of
;olors OI IS I I( :S. Starli" g wiLh gray and COlltinlling Lhroll gh bluish gray,
wllil. " )'1' lIo w , Orilll g\', ill til(' m<i!"r 11 :1111('11 , LII(' co lors arC' sLrikill g to til"
Quortz
n 2 -n l = 0.0.0.9
o.ptic oxis
I) I11111I
Lower nicol
0.05~
[
)
'-j
FIG. 5-19. Interference colors due to a portion of a quartz wedge between crossed
nicols with white light.
eye. In the thicker portion of the w edge, however, less contrast appears ;
and in w edges several times as thick the colors at the thick end are faint
iridescent tints.
If the source of illumination is monochromatic the effect produced is
illustrated in Figure 5-20. In this case, when the thickness reach es such
a point that the retardation becomes equal to one wavelength, the two
monochromatic waves are equal and opposite in phase and nullify each
other, causing darkness . As a result, dark bands will occur at all points
where th e retardation is a whole multiple of A. Conversely, at odd multiples of ~ A , maximum intensity will occur. Here the two waves are
equal and in th e same phase.
The inLc rference colors du e to white li ght may b e considered as a composiLe of the varioliS wavelengths of Lhe spec trum . The rela tionship of
111 0 ilil("l"l"c l"( 'II C(' co lors Lo Lll e 11101l0cill"OmaLic co mpon ents is illustrated
ill Fi glli'( ' :5-2 1. Th <, r;) ll g(' in ilit er r('I"(' I1('(' colors tllroll gh rom orclers is
Ii
MINERAL OPTICS
..... =2~
..... =).
ll"'O
..... =3).
..... =4).
1111
1IIIIIIIIO"j' 111111111 H' 111111111 O"t' 11111
""
~Optlcoxis
"IG. 5-20. Altern ate dark and light bands produced by monochromatic light with a
luartz wedge between crossed nicols.
1'1
lo:
~
qj
""
..:::
I
'I.>
"
2 nd Order
Order
:;...
~ ~
'I.>
<::
'I
'I.>
Order
<::
'I.>
'I.>
"" ."""'- ""

" ~ :::;: "" !5
~
.-t::>
'I.>
yd
<::
<::
'I.>
lo:
~
~
""
I
" ~
'I.>
<::
'I.>
!5
lo:
". ""<::
Order
<::
'I.>
'I.>
>
""
'I.>
~
:::,
l': 'I.>
~ <::J ct:
41h
<::
J:""
~
I
l':
?>
~~
'I.>
77
shown at the top of the figure. The corresponding cumulative monochromatic wavelcngths are shO\vn below.
The various monochrom atic beams, on p assing tlll'ough a wedge, produce d ark bands at different thicknesses. Likewise, maximum intenSity
occurs at corresponding interm ediate intervals . The difference between the
wavelengths at the opposite ends of the spectrum is such, however, that
the first dark band for violet occurs almost in the first position of maximum intensity for red. For violet the band is approximately 410 m""
and the wavelength for r ed is about 700 m",. At ..... = 410 m", the interference color is elose to orange. The orange is a composite in which the
colors at the red end of the spectrum predominate and colors at the
violet end are minimized. The p er cent of maximum intensity for red
at ..... = 410 m", is about 83. The maximum intenSity for red OCCurs at
y:! A or 350 m",. The p er cent of this maximum at 410 m", would be
~
~
~ ~~ ~
2(Xr - Xv) X 100
= 2(700 .:-= 410) X 100
= 83 p er cent
2000
If the wavelengths are known , it is possible to compute the p er cent Ob

any given monoelu'omatic light present in an interference color of a
given retardation.
Application of the Color Chart to the Study of Minerals. The interferenc e color chmt is constantly employed in the study of minerals by
means of polarized light. The maximum double refraction, or the greatest
difference between n z and n is approximately constant for a given
"
mineral. If this constant is substituted in the equation ..... = t( n _ n ) , a
z
1
sh'aight-line curve is the result. In the case of qUaltz, where
(n 2 - nl)
= 0.009
the relation between thickness and retarda tion is shown in Figure 5-22.
"Vhere n z - n 1 is maximum a normal sequence of colors prevails for
most anisotropic minerals. A few, such as idocrase, with abnormal dispersion fail to follow the normal sequence and must be considered independently. However, the relationship of the chart is adequate to yield
the color of quartz of a given thickness or the thickness of quartz haVing
a given interference color.
5-21. Thc rclalionship betwccn int(!;fcrcncc colors cluc to mono chrom ati c light
and colors cluc to while ligh'.
FIG.
Sim.ilar lin es b ased on the maximum. n z - n Or birefringence, may be

"
drawn for other minerals. The color chart (facing
page 168) gives the
lin es of maximum double refrac tion for the common minerals.
I"n th c color ehmt interfcrcnce col ors with ..... lcss than 550 m", b elong
10 lh e first order. Violel ( ..... --= !550 ) forms II Ie hOllndary of the first
ord er alld is kllOW 11 as s('/I sili ,,(' " ill /d . sill( '(' II slll:JlI c1I :1 l1 gC eithe r way
MINERAL OPTICS
,roduces a decided color difference. From violet t::. = 550 to violet

. = 1128 the colors belong to the second order. From violet t::. = 1128 to
iolet t::. = 1652 they belong to the third order. Above the fourth order
:olors are not easily separated. The colors at the end of the first order
and the b eginning of the second
are the most striking and brilliant.
~
-~ ~'"
At
the end of the fourth order they
~~~
~"O
~ ~
~ ~
0
'c c:: 3:merge
into each other, forming
c::
Q):- 0 0 c:: c:: a..~ OJ
0
o2o-2~ =~ e~"O ~~~~
tints
of
green and pink tending
~roa..:::>--~ooo.sro~l9>0.09
toward grayish white. Care should
be taken to distinguish these colors
from the blue gray, white, and yel0.08
lowish white of the lower first
order.
Uncertainty concerning the order
0.0
of a given color may be eliminated
by using a mica plate. The mica
0.0
plate is cut with such thickness
that it increases or decreases reE
tardation of a section by about Yt >..
E 0.0
c
(sodium light). Such an increase
or decrease in the lower first or
~ 0.0
second orders produces a set of
:
colors markedly different. In higher
orders little visible change occurs.
0.0
For example, in the case of firstorder yellow t::. = 400 m"", an increase in t::. of 175 m"" will result
0.0
in violet t::. = 575 m"", and a decrease of the same amount will
o.
produce white t::. = 225 m"". The
same increase or decrease in retardation above the fourth order
t::.=g2~~8g2~~8g2~
would produce little change per--(\Jr(')r(')o;;;to;;ttOtDwr-,....co
ceptible to the eye.
FIG. 5-22. Variation of retardation with
thickn ess in quartz.
Determination of Retardation
with a Berek Compensator. M.
Berek (1913) described a rotary calcite compensator of simple mechanical construction which may be used to measure retardation (Figure
2-19 ). A calcitc platc 0.1 mm thick, cut normal to th e optic axis , rests on
a rOlalin g axis in a mctal hold cr. Th c fram c may b c inscrtcd in thc
accessory slol of th e mi croscope:. Tlw rolalion of Ih e compensalor plal
is l'( 'g isl( 'I'('c\ Oil II g r ll\ III III( 'd dl'lllll (I [I II( II( ;d 10 lil(' ax is or rol :lliOIi . Th
LLL
Q)Q)QJ
Q\ CJ"I 0'1 Q)
C1I C1I '-
Q)
V'J
OJ
QJ
79
drum is graduated with a vernier reading to tenths and may be calibrated to read degrees.
The plate in the compensator is held in a small ring that may be
easily removed, and a plate of different thickn ess may be substituted.
The range of the plate ordinal'ily employed covers retardations from zero
to the fourth order.
The axis of rotation of the compensator is arranged diagonally to the
polarization planes of the two nicols. If the planes of the nicols are
north and east, the tube slot holding the compensator will be north,
west. The compensator is marked with two arrows: H I, parallel to the
HJY
Hit
--~
H2
(l)
~-->
H2
Cr
VI
VI
HI I
H2
C,
-;C
\,
~4~
\
f0j1
~
!
Plate
!
I
I~
~
~~~
!
5-23. The vibrat ion directions and movement of the color rings in the ReId of
the ocular when using the Berek compensator.
FIG.
axis of rotation or along the access ory slot, is the slow-ray vibration direction; H 2 , at right anglcs to the axis of rotation, indicates the trace of
the projection of the plane containing the inclined c-axis of calcite and
marks the fast-ray vibration direction.
The compensator is first set with the plate horizontal within the frame
and inserted. Between crossed nicols a large dark cross will appear in
the field . When this cross coincides with the crosshairs of the microscope, the compensator is in the zero position (see Figure 5-23) . If the
comp ensator drum is then turned either to the left or to the right, the
variou s orders of interference colors appear in the field in a sequence
corrcs ponding to th e order of th e quartz wedge.
The co mpensalor may bc uscd to determinc thc rctardation ot a
minora l gru.in hotwoo\\ crossed nicols as fo llows : T ho !:.'lain in question
MINERAL OPTICS
; moved to the center of the field and placed in the 45 position with
he slow-ray vibration diJ:ection of the mineral parallel to H 2 of the
!ompensator. The compensator is then inserted and rotated first to the
ight and then to the left, stopping in each case ""hen the interference
:0101' of the mineral has been completely reduced to extinction. The
neasured difference between the opposite readings is divided by two
md the value inserted in a simple formula supplied by the makers of
he instrument. Solution of the formula gives the correct retardation for
he mineral grain.
A view of the Berek compensator is shown in Figure 2-19. Figure 5-23
ndicates the views obtained in the microscope field with the com pen;ator plates horizontal and rotated either to the right or to the left.
The vertical sections in the lower
part of Figure 5-23 indicate the inclination of the c-axis, and the
upper diagrams represent corresponding microscope fields . With
monochromatic light, light and
dark bands are produced on either
side of a central cross. With white
light, the bands on either side of
the dark cross indicating the zero
position are colored.
When the compensator is inserted above a doubly refracting
crystal in a thin section, the dark
J\/V k,!I - A \/11 / 1\--- A
cross disappears. As the plate is
[1 2 3
4
5 6
7
8 9 \
rotated, however, the interference
colors are changed until complete
FIG. 5-24. Determination of thickn ess of
compensation occurs as mentioned
section in quartzite.
above.
Determination of Thickness of Section. Let us suppose that Figure
5-24 represents a thin section containing numerous small quartz grains
in random orientations. Grains 1 to 9 along the horizontal crosshair in
the field of the microscope are oriented with optic axes in the positions
shown in the sectional view. Most are inclined; occasionally a fe~ are
vertical and a few are horizontal. Horizontal axes are in the correct
position to provide a maximum value of (n2 - n , ). All are of uniform
thickness; hence grains with horizontal axes will show the highest order
of interference or maximum rctardation. In a thin scction th e grains with
the hi gh es t order inlerfcrcncc color as ohservec1 hy means o[ ll lO color
churl will b e grain s ill a posilioll to ('xllihil Ih e Ina xillllli1l ("II" - n, ).
In Ih o casu at hllllcl ) ~r:Jill Ij is ill lho corrm;1 posilioll . If grllin tl shollld
h o slnt w yullow. Iho II lick lIess o\' till) I1cclioll us dol('I'll Ii III'd I>y I ho colo)'
81
chart would be 0.03 mm. Other interference colors appear, but only those
with axes in an approximately horizontal position will be as high in the
first order as straw yellow.
In any thin section, if sufficient grains of a known mineral are present
in random orientation and the highest order of interfeTence color can
be determined, it is possible to ascertain the thickness of section by reference to the color chart. It is also possible to reverse the process if the
thickness is known and determine the double refraction of an unknown
mineral. Likewise, in a slide containing hvo or more minerals, one of
which is known, it is possible to determine the thickness of the section
from the known mineral and determine the double refraction of the
unknown minerals from the determined thickness and the observed interference colors.
Direction of the Vibration of Slow or Fast Rays. It is frequently
important to ascertain the planes of vibration of the two rays vibrating
at right angles in an anisoh'opic mineral grain. The two rays have different indices of refraction, the one with the greater index being the
slow ray and the one with the lesser index, the fast ray. The determination of the fast- and slow-ray directions is accomplished between crossed
nicols, the location of the two rays b eing established by observing the
position of extinction. When the mineral b ecomes dark, the vibration
directions of the two rays are parallel to the planes of vibration of the
nicol prisms . Since the planes of vibration of the nicols are parallel to
the crosshairs in the ocular, the vibration planes in the mineral will also
be parallel to the crosshairs when in the extinction position.
A mica plate or gypsum plate is used to tell which of the two rays is
fast and which is slow. When the positions of the vibration directions
of the rays are ascertained, the mineral is turned from extinction to the
position of maximum interference. Next, either the gypsum or the Inica
plate is inserted in the tube of the microscope with the slow-ray vibration
direction parallel to one of the vibration directions of the Inineral. If the
order of color increases, the parallel direction is the slow-ray vibration
direction of the mineral. If it decreases, the direction represents the fast
ray. One direction being known, the other is the opposite. The mica
plate is usually used for minerals with weak double refraction, and the
gypsum plate is employed in the case of stronger double refraction.
When the mineral has very sh'ong double refraction, a quartz wedge
may be us ed. Since the quartz wedge var-ies in retar'dation from zero
to the fourth order, a variety of colors will be produced, the color at
a particular part of the wedge depending upon the thickness. When
the slow ray coin cid es with th e slow-ray direction in the mineral, a corros polloin g reinforcement in relardation will occur. Thus the color of
{li e IIlill(~ral will sllIl (knly cli:lI1 g(: 10 :1 ('olor of hi gh e r ord er, dep endent
IIpOIi 1111 ' porlioll or 111 11 w( d ~( ' S IIJl()'illllll)~ c(l . W III'Ii 1110 slow-ray d i-
"I
I
82
MINERAL OPTICS
rection in the wedge is opposed to the slow-ray direction in the mineral,

subtraction occurs.
Extinction. A doubly refracting crystal, mineral plate, or grain, when
dark between crossed nicols, is in the position of extinction. Frequently,
minerals have prominent cleavage lines or crystal boundaries that enable
one to refer the angle at which extinction occms to a crystallographic
featme. In the absence of a reference feature, the extinction angle becomes indeterminate. Parallel, symmetrical, and inclined extinction are
illustrated in Figme 5-25.
Pamllel Extinction. Frequently minerals have a single plane of cleavage. The traces of the cleavage planes appear in thin sections as irregularly spaced lines. If the mineral becomes dark between crossed
Extinction angle
83
PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT I N MINERALS
reading on the slow-ray vibration direction with the plane of vibration

of the an alyzer is a convenient valu e to determin e. In the case of observation with the microscope, the stage is rotated until the mineral lies
in a position of ex tinction. The upper nicol is then pushed to one side,
and the angle b etween the vertical crosshair (parallel to one of the
nicols) and the cleavage lin e or crystal boundary is determined by readings on the graduated stage of the microscope. The nicols are then
crossed again and the crystal turned to the extinction pOSition, the angle
1
0
':':. :::;::::'
,8... . . . .r
.; -
'5. ,
-- '
-- -'
FIG. 5-26. Diagram illustrating various positions of an elongated mineral with a

maximum extin ction an gle of 51 0 on the slow ray as it might appear in thin section.
III
FIG. 5-25. Relative positions of greatest and least illumination in parallel, inclined,
and symmetrical extinction as observed between crossed nicols.
nicols, with the cleavage parallel to the vibration directions of the two
nicols, the extinction is said to be parallel.
A number of minerals crystallize in such a way that sections are elongated, square, or rectangular. Square or rectangular cleavage patterns
may also be observed. If these minerals become dark between crossed
nicols, with the cleavage directions parallel to the vibration planes of
the nicols, they are said to have parallel extinction.
Inclined or Oblique Extinction. Many minerals extinguish betw'een
crossed nicols when cleavages or crystal boundaries lie at oblique angles
to the planes of vibration of the two nicols. These are said to have inclined extinction,
In this case it is necessary to know the position of either the fast-ray
vibration direction or the slow-ray vibration direction in the mineral
grain. The extinction angle is usually determined in terms of the slower
of the 1:\'10 rays, or the one having the greater index of refraction. The
nature of the two rays is detenn.ined with one of the accessory plates
of th e microscope.
Sove ral difTorenl an ~l o.~ of ox tin ction arc IIsliall y ohs(lrv('d for th e sa mc
millt 'l'iIl ill :I l!:iv (,11 ~ ('(' li()lI , Os iilllslr;iI('d ill l'i l!:"I'1' !)-2(i. Th o ma ximum
FIG. 5-27. Hornblende of F ig. 8-32 in

the pOSition of maximum ex tin ction between crossed n icols. C 1\ Z
_30 0
FIG. 5-28 . IIed cnbergite of Fig. 8-33 between crossed nicols in the position of
_48 0 ,
maximum extinction. C 1\ Z
being measured . Next, the direction of vibration of the slow ray is verified
by using an accessory plate. A serics of readings should be repeated with
different crystals until it seems certain that the largest angle for a particular mineral has been found. When the angle is determined, it is necessary to refer to a description of the optical directions in the crystal in
order to ascertain the proper reference plane for the extinction angle.
The min eral dcscriptions in Part 2 of this text include the angles of
extinction. Th e angle between Z and the c-axis of a crystal is frequently
recorded . Since Z .is a slow-ray direction and prominent cleavages or
crystal bound ari es are ofte n refcrred to the c-axis, it is usually possible
to inle rpre t lh e ex lin Clion from th e orientation diagram. Figures 5-27
antI 5-28 furni sh ill llslralions of' sli ch illtorpretalions.
SYI/III/ e/ri('{t/ K r lil/l'li ol/ . 1\ 111111111('1' of Illillc 'r;ll s fOl'ln cleava ge pattcrns
84
MINERAL OPTICS
or crystals with rhombic cross sections. In many instances these become

dark between crossed nicols when the planes of vibration of the nicals
are parallel to the diagonals af the rhombic patterns. Extinction of this
type is described as symmetrical. Several minerals forming crystals with
square outlines may also yield symmetrical extinction.
Elongation. Occasionally crystal grains develop with an elongated
habit and straight edges. These may have a lathlike shape under the
microscope, may resemble small
needles , may occur in long crystals,
or may show several other shapes
of similar development.
When such crystals are anisotropic, it is possible to determine
the fast- and slow-ray vibration directions with one of the marked
accessory plates. In case the vibration direction of the slow ray of
the crystal is parallel to the long
direction, the mineral is said to
have positive elongation. When the
vibration direction of the slow ray
lies across the crystal in the short
direction, the mineral has negative
elongation. These two terms may
be stated briefly as length-slow and
length-fast, length-slow indicating
that the vibration direction of the
F~G. 5-29. Phutug~aph between cross~d
slow ray is parallel to the length of
mc~ls of equal mte~ference areas 111 the crystal and length-fast indicatstramed bakelIte cut m the form of a
structural T and placed under pressure.
(Courtesy of Photo Elastic Lahomtol'Y,
Depa~tmen~ of. Civil Engineering, Columbw Umv el'szty; photogmph by Raymond D. Mindlin.)
'
ing the parallelism of the vibration

direction of the fast ray.
Anomalous Interference. Occa-
sionally minerals normally assumed

to be isoh'opic become anisotropic
and give intederence effects between crossed nicols. The abnormal production of intederence colors often of a low order is called anomalous.
Figure 8-26 represents a thin section of garnet that exhibits symmctrically
arranged bands of interference colors photographed between crossed
nicols. X-ray studies show that the same garnet is still isomctric in
crystallization, so the colors are truly anomalous.
Interference colors and structural pattcrns may h e produ ced by strain
"in the crysta ls. According to Crookes, the gr('at Oi llin an diamond , measII rin g :llmosl' 1, illc.:iws a("l"oss, ox llil>il (,d proIHlIlll( 'cd nni solropv dll o 1\'
Sll'ltlll .
85
Idocrase in thin section often shows an unusual sequence of intederence colors, Berlin blue predominating. Although this mineral is tetragonal and normally doubly refracting, the interference colors do not
follow the color chart and are anomalous. Clinozoisite, zoisite, brucite,
and some varieties of chlorite furnish other examples of anisotropic minerals that yield anomalous interference colors.
Equal interference areas are frequently produced in isotropic bakelite
through shain. In Figure 5-29 a portion of a small bakelite frame cut
in the form of a T is shown benveen crossed nicols. The T would have
a shape illustrated by the insert, the portion photographed being outlined by the dotted lines. The photograph was obtained by utilizing
monochromatic green (5461 A) in the mercmy spectrum.
REFERENCES
Ahrens, C. D. : New Polarizing Prism, ]. Roy. Microscop. Soc., vol. 9, pp. 397398,1886.
Berek, M.: Zur Messung del' Doppelbrechung hauptsachlich mit Hilfe des
Polarisationsmikroskops, Centro Mineral., Ceol. , pp. 427-435, 1913.
Bouasse, H.: Optique cristalline double refraction polarisation rectiligne et
elliptique, Paris, 1925.
Drude, Paul: "Theory of Optics," trans. by Mann and Millikan, Longmans,
Green & Co. , Inc. , New York, 1925.
Groth, P.: "The Optical Properties of Crystals," trans. by B. H. Jackson, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1910.
Hartshorne, N. H., and A. Stuart: "Crystals and the Polarizing Microscope,"
Edward Arnold & Co., London, 1934.
Johannsen, A.: "Manual of Petrographic Methods ," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. , New York, 1918. A summary of the various types of polarizing
prisms will be found on pp. 158-175.
MacCullagh, James: Crystalline Reflexion and Refraction , Trans. Roy. Irish
Acad., vol. 18, pp. 31-74, 1837.
Miers, H. A.: "Mineralogy," 2d ed., rev. by H. L. Bowman, Macmillan & Co.,
Ltd. , London, 1929.
Schuster, A., and J. W. Nicholson: "Theory of Optics," Edward Arnold & Co.,
London , 1924.
Thompson , S. P.: On a New Polarizing Prism, Rep. Br. Assoc. Advance. Sci. ,
vol. 51, pp. 563-564, 188l.
Tutton, A. E. H.: "Crystallography and Practical Crystal Measurement," 2d
ed., vol. 2, Macmillan & Co., Ltd. , London , 1922.
Weinschenk, E.: "Petrographic Methods," trans. by R. W. Clark, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc. , New York, 1912.
Winchell , A. N.: "Elements of Optical Mineralogy, Part I: Principles and
Mcthods , 5th cd., John Wiley & Sons. , Inc. , New York, 1937.
VI/right, F . E.: Thc Transm iss ion of Light through Transparent Inactive Crystal
Plalcs, clc. , Alii . ]. Sci., 4lh SCI'. , vol. 31, pp. 157-211 , 1911.
Th o slllCl(' liI' is rd"rn 'd It) ('tlm nwnl s hy T lll1('l1 :llId Morc), rcgn rclill g cc rtain
flllld illl" ' lli ld op l!"11 1 PI'OP"l'li" H (1\111 , MIIII'I'(dngls / , VIII. 17, pp . 8G5-:3130, 1(82 ).
CONVERGENT POLARIZED LIGHT
CHAPTER
Convergent Polarized Light
General Statement. A conoscopic lens combination is used in the

microscope to obtain interference figures (see Chapter 2). Such figures
are particularly useful for determining the optical directions in crystals.
Their interpretation involves the principles outlined in the preceding
chapter on polarized light, combined with the use of convergent light.
A large transparent crystal plate may be used to observe an interference figure without a microscope. A sheet of mica between crossed
polaroid sheets, illuminated by a
window and held clos e to the eye,
reveals an excellent biaxial figure.
The eye provides conoscopic vision.
Large quartz plates reveal a uniaxial figure in similar fashion.
In obtaining interference figures
of small crystals the microscope is
necessary. The elements in the opFIG. 6-1. Convergent light produced by
tical train should b e exactly aligned
the front lens of the condenser.
and properly centered. It is best to
use a moderately high magnification, preferably a 4-mm objective, although an 8-mm objective is sometimes satisfactory and may be more easily manipulated. An auxiliary
condenser is inserted across the axis of the microscope below the stage.
The front lens of the condenser throws a concentrated convergent beam
against the mineral plate (Figure 6-1). Some microscopes are also provided with a diaphragm between the polarizer and the lower component
of the condenser. The diaphragm limits the field of view and hclps to
improve the outer portion of the interference figure. A Bertrand Icns is
inserted in the tube of the microscope above thc analyzcr. This Icns
brings the image of the interference fi g urc into focus ill thc ocular. Good
figures of small sizc can b e obtained by removing th e ocular and not
using the Bertrand ,Ions. A hl ack disk w ith n smn.l1 hole in tho center
flO
87
may be used to replace the ocular when an interference figure is obtained

without the Bertrand lens.
Anisotropic minerals yield two types of interference figures: uniaxial
and biaxial. Minerals crystallizing in the hexagonal and tetragonal systems are uniaxial; those crystallizing in the orthorhombic, monoclinic,
and triclinic systems are biaxial. O ccasionally biaxial crystals have such
a small axial angle as to appear uniaxial, and conversely on certain occasions normally uniaxial crystals may become biaxial b ecause of strain.
Such variations should be considered and may indicate structural features of interest. In general, however, crystals follow the normal pattern.
Formation of Interference Figures. Convergent polarized light passing
through an anisohopic crystal plate yields a range in retardation between crossed nicols. The effect is similar in a number of respects to the
retardation obtained with the
tPOlorizer
quartz wedge, as described in the
discussion of parallel polarized
light. The use of a quartz plate instead of a wedge, and convergent
light instead of parallel light, pro1!!.0lyzer
duces interference colors dependent upon the convergence of the
beam. Variation in the angle of
illumination of the oblique rays reaxis
sults in a range of values of n 2 and
111 for a doubly refracting mineral.
Varying values of n 2 and n" in FIG . . 6-2. A uniaxial interfer~nce figure
. g ret ard a t IOn.
lookmg down on an optic aXIs.

tu rn, cause varym
A quartz plate yields a striking interference effect with the optic axis
of the plate at right angles to the microscope stage. A black cross is
superimposed on concentric circles of interference colors. Here the
thickness remains constant, and the retardation ranges from zero at the
ccnter to a maximum in the outermost color circle. The angle of incidcnce on the quartz plate due to the convergent beam employed also
ranges from zero at the center of the field to a maximum on either edge.
As a result, the difference (112 - n,) also changes from zero, at the center
where the incident beam is parallel to the optic axis, to a maximum
vallie at the edge of the field. D arkness occurs at the center and where
Lho vibration directions of the plate are parallel to the vibrationdirecLions of the nicols. The cross marks positions of extinction. Vibration
di rec tions will b e arranged tangentially and radially throughout 360 .
As a res liit or tlds, vibrat ion directions of the extraordinary and ordina ry rays from the platc wi ll hc para ll cl to thc vibration plan es of
tllo ni co ls ill cc rla in dircct iOIi S. T il e two dir('c.:L ions arc di rec tions of
88
MINERAL OPTICS
extinction and in general uniaxial minerals form dark cross arms at 90

(Figure 6-2) . In biaxial minerals the positions of extinction follow a more
complex pattern, and the interference figure is no longer a simple cross
but changes as shown in Figure 6-3. The different orders of color are
concentric with low orders at the center. Where the mineral remains in
the same position the number of color b ands observed in a particular
field is dependent upon the thickness of the plate and the double refraction.
Monochromatic light produces alternate dark and light b ands in interference figures. The dark bands correspond to retardations of n>.., and
the intermediate maximum colored b ands correspond to a retardation of
(2n
1) >../2. The relationship is similar to the result when mono-
89
the cross aJ:ms marks the point of emergence of the optic axis, and its
deviation from the center of the field is a measure of the angle b etween
the optic axis and the axis of the microscope.
Although uniaxial figures are frequently eccentric in position, the cross
arms remain parallel to the planes of vibration of the nicols. Because of
--__
I I
II
----1.....J _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -1 L ______ _
_----.\1------ --i i- - -----
\
\
I:
I
I
--:~ ~:
//\
/
I,
I,
II
II
II
II
, ___ J
II
IIi-~r---l i/
.....
I I
,',
" \\
I'
II
II
90
II
45
II
J L __ 6
l r-- ;
6-3. A biaxial interference figure in 90 and 45 positions.
'I
"-
II
FIG.
---...
L_
\
\
II
II
,
'-'
\
!'II
"
.k'
,I
chromatic light is passed through a quartz wedge. The colors in interference figures produced by white light are a combination of the different monochromatic wavelengths in an analogous manner to the interference color chart where white light may be considered as a
summation of the various monochromatic wavelengths.
Uniaxial Interference Figures. In hexagonal and tetragonal minerals
the optic axis coincides with the c-a;ds of the crystal. Likewise, the center
of the cross in the interference figure marks the optic-axis position. If
the optic axis of the mineral coincides with that of the microscope, the
uniaxial figure will be centered with the two arms crossing at the intersection of the cross hairs in the microscope.
However, if the optic axis is inclined to the axis of the microscope,
the point of intersection of the cross arms will fall away from the intersection of the crosshairs. It frequently falls outside the field of th e microscope. If the center of the axial cross does not coincide with the centcr
of the field, the point of interscction of the arms will move arou nd the
crossh air intcrsection wh c n th e slage is rot.llcd , desc ribin g a circle a nd
r O llll'nin ~ In il s nri ~ innl posilion Ilrll'l' rol:llin g ;1(iOo. '1'11 (' inlCl's('c lioll of
I',I',
\ /~
1'1
I I
, I
-j
//
i
I
,-
/
/
\
\
\
=- --- -, r---- - - -,,- __ _
\
\
II
---
"
6-4. Uniaxial interference figure in eccentric positions. Dotted lines indicate the
movement of the figure around the field of the microscope as the stage is rotated.
F IG .
this fact the arms sweep the field first from one side, then from another
as the stage is rotated. It is important to note whether the arms remain
parallel to th e cross hairs, since anns in certain biaxial figures also cross
the field. Th e la tter are curved or crescent shaped, however, and swing
across th e fi eld rather than sweep parallel to the nicols . Several eccentric
posiliolls of a unia xial fi gure are shOvvn in Figure 6-4.
1'11 0 nlllnhcr or color bancls inlillia xial inle rference figmes varies with
90
MINERAL OPTICS
the thickness of the section and the double refraction of the mineral.
Thick sections may give a number of orders of colors, whereas a thin
section of the same mineral may not yield bands of color above the first
order. If two plates are made of different minerals, both of identical
orientation and having the same thickness, the mineral with the greater
double refraction will develop the greater number of color bands. The
relation between uniaxial figures due to mineral plates of the same thickness but differing in double refraction is shown in Figure 6-5.
Vibration Directions in Uniaxial Crystals. In uniaxial crystals one significant ray vibrates parallel to a plane that includes the c-axis of the
crystal; another vibrates parallel to a plane at right angles. The two ~u:e
Weak double refraction

Strong double refract ion
6-5. The comparative effect of strong and weak double refraction on the color
bands of a uniaxial interference figure.
FIG.
refracted differently and consequently travel different distances in passing through the mineral plate.
When the rays vibrate parallel to thc nicols, resolution is zero, and
darkness occurs- hence the axial cross in the interference figure. At the
45 position the greatest intensity occurs, and the interference colors
are most brilliant.
When two sets of rays are formed by the passage of light through a
uniaxial crystal, one set travels with uniform velocity in all directions
and is known as the ordinary ray; the other varies in velocity with direction and is called the extraordinary ray. If light were to radiate out
from the center of a solid mass of such an anisotropic medium, at a given
instant the wavefront of the ordinary ray would be spherical, whereas
the wavefront of the extraordinary ray would be ellipsoidal. Any section
of the wavefront produced by the ordinary ray would th ereforc he a
circle. One section of the wavefront due to th e extraordinary ray would
be a circle; but others would bc cllipses. Figure 6-6 illu strates scclions
which includ e the optic axis . If the velocily or lh c eX lraorclinary ray "is
greator, th e ellipse li cs oill'sid e lli c circle, :l l1d lli e rnincr:il is optically
91
negative. If the velocity of the ordinary ray is greater, the ellipse lies
within the circle, and the min eral is optically positive. Uniaxial positive
and negative minerals are listed in Ta ble 10-8.
The velocities represented in the diagram Figure 6-6 are the reciprocals of the indices of refraction. The ray velocities have equal values
in the direction of the c-axis, where the circle and ellipse coincide, and
are most unequal in a direction at right angles to the c-axis. The greatest
and least indices of refraction are observed at right angles to the c-axis.
C
FIC ,
C -axis
= optic axis
Negative
Posi t ive
6-6. Sections of ray surfaces for uniaxial minerals.
In these directions (only) the indices of refraction are the reciprocals

of the ray velocities ,
The indices of refraction of the two rays at right angles to the c-axis
are represented by n E and nw. n E is the index of the extraordinary ray,
II", the index of the ordinary ray. In positive minerals ne is greater; in
Ilegative minerals nE is less.
In Figure 6-7 convergent light is shown striking the surface of a mineral
pla te such as quartz, cut normal to the c-axis. The convergent beam is
rd'racted and broken into two rays . The extraordinary ray e is radial in
:II'I'angement, is more refracted, and has the lesser velocity. The ordinary
1':1Y 0 is tangential in arrangement, is less refracted, and has the greater
velocity. Although the diagram is simplified by using two lines to repI('sent the e and 0 rays , actually there aTe many multiples of each of
I he lwo rays. The radial and tangential arrangement, however, obtains
Illro ll ghoLlt.
Posilive and Negative Sign of Un iaxial Crystals. The optic signs of
1l lli :lxial mill cl':ds may h e clclerrninecl from inlerfcrencc figures with the
,liel or lI(;C'(,SSO(Y pl:'l('S. As sll()\vn in Fi ~ "r o 6-7 th e cXlTaordinary ray
vll>nl l\'s ill I I ,, ) 111"11I1'i1)(II Idl/III' plll'lI l1('! lo lil o c-lI xis; lli o orclinaxy ray
92
MINERAL OPTICS
vibrates at right angles. If the r ay vibrating in the principal plane is the

slow ray, the mineral is said to b e positive; if fast, it is negative. In Figur e
6-7 the mineral is positive since the slow ray e vibrates p ar allel to the
c-axis.
An accessory plate may b e used to show the position of the slow ray
with reference to the c-axis. If a mica plate, gypsum plate, or quartz
wedge is inserted in the accessory slot cut in the tube of the microscope,
the color bands of the interference fIgure will change position. The
color bands b ehave differently in alternate quadrants. In one set the
color circles will increas e in diameter
due to increased r etardation; in
\
f
\
/
the alternate set decrease will occur
,-I
I.,
e
e,*/ /1'_,/-_-';1
due to decr eased retardation. When
I
~\
the
slow r ay of the access ory plate
- -/,' "
\ L
\ \ _is p arallel to the slow ray in the in~T-=~) r 0'-'-terference figure an increase in r e- - ...\-'0
\
I \
\)..
/
\
4
/
tardation occurs and vice versa. If
e" . . . . _/++-\ ......... .... .... 'e
th e retardation is increased p arallel
"I
I
\
to
the slow ray of the interference
I
\
figure, the mineral is positive. If decreased, the mineral is n egative. The
e 0
o e
( I
i;
,
\
displacement of the color bands is
I I
1 /
\\
I,
illush'ated
in Figure 6-8. In quadII
i/
"' .I
rants 1 and 3 the color bands move
toward the center; in quadrants 2
and 4 they move away from the cenFIG. 6-7. Vibration directions in a uniter. Quadrants 1 and 3 r epresent inaxial positive interference fi gure. a =
crease in retardation, wher eas quadfast ray (least refracted); e = slow ray
rants 2 and 4 represent decrease in
(most refracted) . Velocity of 0 = lc;
retardation. In the illush'ation the
nw
velocity of e = L
slow ray of the mica plate is parallel
n.
to quadrants 1 and 3.
In Figure 6-9 fast and slow directions for a mica plate are indicated
in four positions around the circular fI eld. The extraordinary and ordinary
rays lie in 45 planes. The interference cross becomes white, the interference for a 14"- mica plate.
The slow-ray direction is marked on each accessory. If a mica plate
is inserted with the slow ray in the (1-3) position, the retardation along
the extraordinary ray in the (1-3) quadrants will in effect b e reinforced.
At the same time, an effect of subtraction will occur in the (2-4) qu adrants. The color bands of the interference fI gl1l'e will b e displaccd by
this s up ~rpos iti on. Wh ero re illrol'c('ment ncc lU'S, tho hinds will move towlI l'd Ih o ('Ollt ('1' or t,iI O (' irell l. 'vVll( ln : sIlhtl'n('[ ioll O('(' III'S, 1110 h:ll1ci s w ill
rnov o ill 1110 0pPllsll O dil'( l( 'll oli .
93
"Yo \
==-f-I
tr
FIG.
6-8. D etermination of the optic sign for a uniaxial positive mineral.
In optically positive minerals subtraction occurs at right angles to the

direction of the slow ray in the accessory. In negative minerals the subtraction is in the quadrants lying along the slow-my direction.
When a mica plate is inserted, decrease in retardation often produces
two black dots in alternate quadrants at the center of an interference
/I
(+)
~
(-)
Positive
6-9. The vibration dircctions in both
acccssory platc and min cral for a uni axial
posi tive figure.
FIG.
6-10. Kcy to uniaxial interference

figures .
F IG.
fi gure. T he direct ion of the two dots forms a plus with the vibration
dil'ecti oll of the slow ray or th e mi ca plate in positive uniaxial minerals
and a minliS whon th e minerals arc n egative. This relationship is empiri cu llilid indi (':llivl ' hili il se rv('s to kee p in mind th e fast- and slow-ray
Vihrnl ion din '('1iOll s ill IIl1 ill Xill l ( rys tll is ( Fi glll'o 0- 1() ).
94
MINERAL OPTICS
If minerals have strong double refraction the gypsum plate may be more
useful for determining the optical character of a uniaxial mineral than is
the mica plate. With the gypsum plate two bright blue areas often form
in opposite quadrants of the interference figures. These stand out particularly in figures given by minerals of moderate or intermediate double
refraction. '''hen the optical character is positive, as in the case of quartz,
the two blue areas occur in opposite quadrants parallel to the slow-ray
vibration direction of the gypsum plate (see Figure 6-11a). When the
optical character is negative, as in the case of calcite, the two blue areas
occur in opposite quadrants at right angles to the slow-ray vibration direction of the gypsum plate (see Figure 6-11h). The blue areas at times
,..
~Q
-\'/,
~~
The 45 Acute Bisectrix Figum. Figure 6-12 indicates the nomenclature

of the parts of an acute bisectrix figure at 45. The different features may
be described as follows:
Isogyres. The two broad black curves, or brushes, which mark the areas
of extinction, are known as isogyres. Strong dispersion produces red and
blue fringes on the margins of the isogyres. By noting the distribution
of the colored fringes in the interference figure one may detennine the
character of the dispersion. In minerals with strong dispersion the curves
()~
of emergence
of optic oxis
\"~ Point
I
I I
/'
Isogyre
Red
--
95
..........
o "\
~.A v~
Acute bisectrix
XorZ
<:>'0/........ \
lsogyre
(0)
(b)
FIG. 6-11. (a) Uniaxial positive. Quartz cut perpendicul ar to th e optic axis as viewed
in the interference figure with a gypsum plate. (b) Uniaxial negative. Calcite cut
perpendicular to the optic axis as viewed in an interference figure with a gypsum
plate.
form dots (second-order blue) , but these should not be confused with
the mica dots (first-order black with a bluish fringe) .
Biaxial Interference Figures. Under normal conditions minerals crystallizing in the orthorhombiC, monoclinic, and triclinic crystal systems give
biaxial interference figures. Rarely, because of crystallization under
strain, hexagonal or tetragonal minerals, normally uniaxial, are anomalous
and produce biaxial figures.
Biaxial interference figures are produced by the same optical arrangement of the microscope employed for uniaxial figures. Unlike uniaxial
figures, curves of biaxial figures assume different relative forms as the
stage is rotated. Double refraction , orientation, and thickness of section
govern the character of biaxial interference figures.
As the stage is rotated a biaxial figure assumes a range of complex
patterns. Figure 6-3 illustrates a symmetrical biaxial interference figure
in two positions at 90 and 45 . The 45 position is the most useful for
ordinary optical determinations aud is often employed in the study of
biaxial minerals . Th~ figure in this position ts Qescribed as &Q qqut
hisectrix flguro at 45.
Point of
emergence
of optic axis
r-- Obtuse bisectrix
ZarX
6-12. The parts of a biaxial interferencc figure pe11)endicular to the acute biscctrix in the 45 position .
FIG .
are not so black or so sharp as in the case of minerals with weak dispersion,
Points of El1tergence of the Optic Axes. The vertices of the two crescontlike curves mark the points of emergence of the optic axes , The
amount of separation of these points differs with different minerals but
is a constant for an individual mineral. The line between the two points
of emergence subtends the optie axial angle.
Johannsen has suggested the word m elatope for the point of emergence,
Plan e of the Optic Axes. The plane of the optic axes, or axial plane, inc/lld es th e lwo points of emergence of th e optie axes, the aeute bisectrix
dil"('cl ioll, nntl tlt o oht nse hi sectri x direction.
Co /O,. Ho"rls. Iliterf('rcil cl' co lor hands roprosentin g positions of equal
I t"illrti lil i011 111'0 di slrii>lilcd ill SY "lIl ll' lri (': d CIII"VCS arolliid lli e points of
"lIlt l r g "II< '( 1 or I/ li l Ilplk II \ ( 'S 11 11<1 II I', ( 'I II/( 'd I,WII" III'() ,,/ol!r' ( ''' ''''('S .
96
MINERAL OPTICS
x,
Y, and Z. The three axes X, Y, and Z are distributed in the interference figure as shown in the diagram. Y is normal to the plane of the
optic axes. If the acute bisectrix is X, the obtuse bisectrix is Z, and vice
versa.
Optic Normal. The direction at right angles to the plane of the optic
axes is referred to as the optic normal. It is the axis Y.
Eccentric Biaxial Figures. Since biaxial minerals as observed in thin
section may be cut at any angle, a variety of modifications of the biaxial
interference figurcs result. A single isogyre may swing across the fi eld
in one figure, another may yield an optic axis, another may show the
Zorr
if",
97
CON VERGENT POLARIZED LIGHT
imum velocity for the mineral lin". Light traveling normal to Z vibrates
parallel to the axis and has the minimum velOcity for the mineral Ilny.
The axis Y lies at right angles to the plane of X and Z. Light traveling
normal to Y vibrates parallel to the axis and has an intermediate velocity
l/nl3.
In a given mineral, light Vibrating parallel to X will form the fast
ray. Light vibrating parallel to Z is the slow ray, and light vibrating
parallel to Y will be intermediate in velocity. Thus, when the direction
of observation lies along the X axis, XZ will indicate the slow ray and
XY the intermediate ray; similarly, when the direction of observation
is the Z axis, ZX will be the fast ray and ZY the intermediate ray. When
the direction of observation is the Y axis, YX will be the fast ray and YZ
the slow ray.
The fast- and slow-ray directions corresponcling to the various directions of observation along the axes may be indicated as shown in the
table below.
Direction of
observation
Two rays
observed
Velocities
F aster ray
Slower ray
l / ntl = interm edi ate ray

l /n y = slowest ray
F aster ray
Slower ray
l /n a = fas test ray

l/ny = slowest ray
F aster ray
Slower ray
l/na = fastest ray

l / n tl = interm edi ate ray
--YorjJ
1
if",
FIG.
Zorr
6-13. Biaxial ray surface.
acute bisectrix, etc. The most useful figures for optical determinations of
mineral properties are either acute bisectrix or optic-axis figures. In opticaxis figures (see Figure 6-24) the convex side of the isogyre in the 45
position indicates the direction of the acute bisectrix.
Optic-axis figures and most acute bisectrix figures are given by mineral
sections showing comparatively low-order colors between crossed nicols
in parallel light. Examination of a number of crystals of miscellaneous
orientation between crossed nicols will often quickly reveal those most
likely to give interference figures of useful orientation in convergent light.
Optical Directions in Biaxial Minerals. In all biaxial min erals the
various optical features may be conveniently oriented by refcrence to
three axes, X, Y, and Z, arranged at right angles to each other (Fi gure
6-13) . X, Y, and Z indicate th e easc of vibration of li ght in the min eral.
Li ght t ravolill g norm;,tl 10 X vihr~tl('s para11 (" 1 l o lh (' ax is and has Lhc ntaX-
Vlhen the direction of observation lies along the X axis, light Vibrating
parallel to the plane XZ will have the greatest index of refraction, and
light Vibrating parallel to the plane XY will have an intermediate index
of refraction. When the direction of observation lies along the Z axis,
light vibrating parallel to the plane ZX will have the least index of refraclion, and light Vibrating parallel to ZY will have an intermediate index of
refraction. Wh en the direction of observation lies along the Y axis, light
Vibrating parallel to the plane YX will have the least index of refraction,
and parallel to YZ will have the greatest index of refraction.
\i\1ithin certain limits, the axes X, Y, and Z have positions in minerals
lhat arc depend ent upon thc system of crystallization. In orthorhombic
lI1 in erals, X, Y, and Z arc flxcd with respect to the crystallographic axes
(f, b, and G. In th e monoclini c systcm on c of the three axes (often Y)
coin cid es wit'lt th e crys t;tllogr:tphi c ax is I) . Tn the lriclinie system there
<l1'1l II() liJrlil ll 1iOlts of posit iOIl Il ('c'ordilt g to t It o crys lall ographi c axes.
MINERAL OPTICS
~8
The optical directions in biaxial minerals may be represented in several

ways. One of the most generally used devices is the ray surface illustrated
in Figure 6-13. Another is the index ellipsoid of Figure 6-16. The ray
surface is developed on X, Y, and Z arranged at right angles to each other.
The index ellipsoid (optical indicatrix) may b e developed on the same
axes, but by convention a, (3, and yare usually used instead of X, Y, and
Z . The accompanying table furnishes a comparison of the two systems
of representation.
COMPARISON OF THE BI AX IAL RAY S URFACE AND THE INDEX ELLIPSOID
D istan ce from center to surface

Compara tive features
Biaxial ray snrface
Index ell ipsoid
Axial directions
"1
z
Least velocity ..
Ci
X
Greatest velocity.
(3
y
At right angles .
n'Y
l/n" and l/n~
M a jor semiax is .....
n~
l/n" and l/n'Y
Intermedi ate semiaxis .. . . .
ncr
l/n'Y and l/n~
Minor semi axis . . ......... .
Prim ary optic axes
Secondary
optic
axes
Optic axes .. ... .....
or binormals
or biradials
Single
Double
Surface . .. . ... . . ..... . . . .
The correlation of the ease-of-vibration directions, whether design ated

by X, Y, and Z or a , (3, and y, with biaxial interference figures of different
sign is shmvn in Figure 6-14.
Let us assume a single crystalline mass of a biaxial crystal of sufficient
size to allow examination of light variation in the system. If light w ere
to radiate out from the center of a solid mass of such an anisotropic
medium, at a given instant the wave front produced would b e a doublesheeted surface with sections as illustrated in Figure 6-13. The optic
axes lie in the plane of X and Z and the acute angle 2V b en;yeen the
optic axes varies between 0 and 90 0
If the axis Z is the bisech'ix of the acute angle b etween th e optic axes,
the mineral is said to be optically positive. If the axis X is the acute bisectrix, the mineral is said to be optically negative.
Two wavefronts appear in each section along the axes- one a circle,
the other an ellipse. The size of each circl e is determin ed by the vclocity
of the light ray Vibrating parallel to th e axis around which it is gcneratcd . Aro nn cl X th c r:1clins or the circle is ] In,,; arouncl Y thc radius is
I Inn; :lncJ :lrolilid Z it is I Ill y. Sill('( ' /I n' is Ih (' lc;lst ill cl('x of refrac lion and
I III .. ill(li('; il cS III(' W<'II I( 'sl v( 'locil ), fot' III(' SYS 'III , tll( ' circic ;11'()1111 Cl X
99
CONVE RGENT POLARIZED LIGHT
is the greatest. Since 1/ n(3 is intermediate in velocity, the circle around Y

will have intermediate size. Since 1/n-y represents the least velocity, the
circle around Z will be smaller than the circles around the two other
axes. Three combinations of ellipses and circles are represented. In the
section perpendicular to Y and in the plane XZ , the circle with radius
1/n(3 intersects an ellipse with major and minor semi-axes l i n" and 1/ny,
resp ectively. In the section perpendicular to Z and in the plane XY,
the smallest circle, radius 1/n-y, lies within the ellipse with major and
minor semiaxes 1/ na and 1/n(3, resp ectively. In the section p erpendicular
to X in the plane XZ the largest circle, radius l i n", lies outside the ellipse
with major and minor semiaxes I /n(3 and I / n-y, respectively.
--'-
"~
ixOs\ (}
o~ o~
-<9
"
,/
/
0<
Zorr
'"
i-.x()~ (} o~~
o
-<9
Bia xia l positive
--'~
~'
0_ <?r......
-<9 "
"
. o{
"
S\o\"
0
X orlX
",
o_J"
-<' ......
-<9
Biaxial negative
F lc . 6-14. Ease-of-vibration directions X, Y, an d Z, or a , {3, and "1, with reference to

biaxial positive and negative interference figures. Corresponding fast- and slow-ray
directions are also indicated.
Light vibrating p arallel to Z will radiate outward from the center in

the plane XY. The w avefront will b e circular, and the velOCity will b e
li lly. Similarly, light vibrating p arallel to X will travel outward in the
plane YZ with a circular wavefront, and the velocity will b e l i n",. Likewise, light vibrating parallel to Y will travel in the plane XZ with a
circular w avefront and a velocity 1/n(3 . In each of these instances n", n(3,
and ny represent, respectively, the least, intermediate, and greatest inclices of refraction of the mineral.
The planes XY , YZ , and XZ are especially significant. Sections along
each of these planes are iIlush'ated in Figure 6-15, a, b, and c.
In the plane XZ the ellipse and circle will cross at foW' points. At these .
fo m points no difference in wave velocity exists. These points of intersec lion mark th e position of the secondarlj optic axes, or biradials. In
most crystals these seco nd ary optic axes lie very near the p1'i-ma1'1j optic
I/.\'('S bllt are not id c nli ca l with thcm.
fndcx E llipsoid (Optical Indicatrix) . Tt is convenient to represent the
opti (':iI rc\:lli()IIS of OrLliorh()1l1h ic, monoclini c, and triclini c crystals by
111( ';! IIS or ll l\' illrll'.\' ellipsoid or OPlic;!i illclica lrix (F igure 6-]6 ). Gc:ometri-
00
MINERAL OPTICS
:tlly the figure is a triaxial ellipsoid. The ongm lies at the center of
1.e ellipsoid, the coordinate axes are the axes of the ellipsoid, and the
oordinate planes are the principal planes.
The semiaxes of the ellipsoid are assigned the values of the indices
f refraction n", n(:1, and ny. The principal sections are any combination
I
:'~y
+r
~!)
f
.x
101
axes, or binoT11wls. These are sometimes called the primmy optic axes
and differ slightly from the secondary optic axes (biradials) of the biaxial "lave surface.
The optical properties of light rays may be determined in any given
directioI'l in a hiaxial ellipsoid as shown in Figure 6-18. The semia;'(es
are ny, n{3, and n it, resp ectively, and S'S represents the direction of propagation of light along a given line. If the direction of S'S is known, the
Opt/c axis _
-1"\
'1
6-15. Sections of biaxial ray surface. (a) Section pCl1)endicular to Z. (b) Secion perpendicular to X. (c) Section perpendicular to Y.
<IG.
Rod/us = np
r orZ
I
f]orY---f]or Y
Diagram showing the

Axial plane
circular sections
FIG. 6-17. The relationship between the two circular sections, the optic axes, and
cllipsui<.lal axes (n. , np, and n., ) in the index cllipsoid.
following three pairs of optical properties become known by construction:

I
r orZ
FIG.
1. The vibration directions of the two rays traveling along S'S.

2. The two corresponding indices of refraction, 11.2 and 11. 1
3. The directions of the two wave normals.
6-16. Index ellipsoid for biaxial crystals.
in which a plane contains hvo axes. These sections are ellipses and have
as major and minor semiaxes any pair of the values 11.'" 11.{3, and llry.
With the exception of the two circular sections, all of the plane sections that are cut tlu-ough the center of the ellipsoid are ellipscs (Figure
6-17) . The two circular sections include thc semiaxcs with lcngth n {3;
thus the kngth of the radins of each circu lar section cqualsn(J. T he direclions perpencl iell ht r to tilt, l wo cirCli htr seelions a r(' ca II eel th e oJ)! in
If the direction of the diameter S' S is known, the position of the planes
tangent to S'S at th e two ends of the diameter also becomes known. It
is then possible to pass a p arallel di ametral plane through the ellipsoid
intersectin g the eenter and equidistant between the two tangent planes.
T ho tliam c tral plano thro ugh the center will cut an elliptical section in
:I II hili Lwo possihl e posilions or 5'S. Th ese two exceptional positions are
1110 oplic ;lX('S, :llId Il('ro tli e secl ions Cll t are circ ular. The elliptical seelioll flll"lIi sll('s 11I('; ISllr( 'IIH"lil s frolil wllicll 111(' op ti cal properLies ca.n b e
,02
MINERAL OPTICS
letermined. The diametral plane will have major and minor a;xes. ThesE'
.xes mark the vibration directions of the two rays traveling along S'S .
['he major and minor radii represent the refractive indices of the waves
lssociated with the two rays, equaling n 2 and n 1 The wave normal coresponding to the ray propagated along S'S and vibrating along the
najor axis lies in a plane through S'S and the major axis and is normal
:0 the axis. Similarly, the wave normal corresponding to the ray prop a~ated along S'S and vibrating along the minor axis lies in a plane tlu"ough
,'S and the minor axis and is normal to the axis.
103
the oblique rays, as illustrated in Figure 6-20. The angle 2E is the angle
in air, while 2V is the internal angle.
Mallm"d's equation (D ' K sin E) may be used to determine the approximate axial angle with th e microscope. In the equation, K is a constant for a palticulm" microscope,
D is one-half the distance b etween
.---2E
the points of emergence, and E is
one-half the axial angle in air.
The computation of the axial
angle in a mineral from the observed axial angle in air depends
upon the formula
sin E
= n f3
sin V
When n sin V is equal to 1, the FIG. 6-20. The relation between the observed angle 2E and the angle 2V in
angle 2E becomes 180, and the biaxial minerals.
axial angle in air cannot be measured. The value of an observed angle may be reduced to measurable
dimensions by immersing the objective in oil of known refractive index.
Large axial angles need to be measured with a rotation device. Such
devices for rotating crystals in a vertical circle may be adapted to the
stage of the microscope; otherwise special apparatus must be employed.
FIG. 6-18. A ray OS in an index ellipsoid

with a conjugate plane through 0 and
parallel to tangent planes at Sand S'.
6-19. Section through an ellipsoid

showing the ray OS together with traces
of tangent and diametral planes.
FIG.
,,
\\
/,'/ /
The section which includes SOS' and n z - nz is shown in Figure 6-19.

A similar section at right angles would include SOS' and n , - n , as may
be visualized from Figure 6-18.
A perpendicular from the intersection of n 2 - n2 with the circumference of the ellipse would be the line P 2 - O 2 The reciprocal 1/P 2 0 2
represents the velocity of the ray propagated along the line SOS' and
vibrating along the axis n 2 - n 2 In a similar manner a reciprocal1/P 1 0 ,
would represent the velocity of the ray propagated along the line SOS'
and vibrating along the axis PIO , (Figure 6-18 p.
The Axial Angles 2E and 2V. The observed axial angle is greater than
the true axial angle within the mineral. This is due to the refraction of
" '"
,,
"
"'''''\
I'"
,,
I
,,
} :'
,, ,,
\
(01
F I G.
(b)
6-21. Comparison of axial an gles.
(a ) Aragonitc
2V
19
'/l y -
The foregoing di scll ssion is largely based IIpo n a paper, T hc Hay Sl\]'fa ce, the
Opt ical Indica trix, ancl T heir Iliterrelation , by D r. C eorge ' TIIIIl'1I ( '"Vll si i. A Clld. Sd.,
vol. 23, p. 235, 193.'3 ).
,,
,, ,
,, ,,
,, ,
11"
= 0.155
(b) Barite
2V = 37 30'
Il y -
11 "
= 0.012
Variation in Axial Angle. Figure 6-21 illustrates two biaxial interforenco figun.l~ 10 tho 45 position. The figure on the left represents
L04
MINERAL OPTICS
llagonite and that on the right represents barite. The sections have each
been cut normal to the -acute bisectrix and are approximately equal in
thickness. Two variables remain to produce differences in the diagram :
variation in the axial angle 2V and variation in the double refraction
n2 - n
The figure on the left represents the approximate position of the two
isogyres in relation to the field of the microscope for 2V = 19 (aragonite). The figure on the right represents barite drawn to the same scale
with 2V = 3730'.
The dotted lines indicate the distribution of the color bands. Aragonite
has a double refraction of 0.155, and barite is 0.012. Aragonite has more
bands for the same thickness of section.
It is worthwhile to record in a notebook the relative positions of the
isogyres for angles in the neighborhood of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30,
35, and 40. Such a record will assist in determining the approximate
axial angle of an unknovm mineral. Charts E, F, and G in Table 10-10
give values for common minerals.
It should be remembered that if the thickness remains the same, the
number of color bands of interference figures will increase or decrease
with increase or decrease in double refraction.
Determination of the Optic Sign of a Biaxial Mineral. The optic sign
is conveniently determined with the mineral in the 45 position with a
quartz wedge. In some cases a mica plate or gypsum plate may be
preferred.
W'hen the direction X is the acute bisech'ix, the mineral is negative.
If Z is the acute bisech'ix, the mineral is optically positive. As stated ,
X, Y, and Z are the axes of ease of vibration. Light traveling through a
clystal normal to X has the maximum velocity for all directions in the
crystal. Light traveling normal to Z has the least velOcity.
A biaxial negative crystal in the acute bisectrix position at 45 may
be used to illush'ate the d etermination of the optic sign (see Figure
6-22). A biaxial figure of this type is first observed carefully in order
to note the position of the color bands, both in the central area and
within the two small areas inclosed by the concave portions of the
isogyres. A quartz wedge is then inserted in the accessOlY slot with the
slow ray parallel to the axial plane. Movement of the color bands takes
place as the wedge is inserted.
The displacement of the color bands in a negative crystal is indicated
by the arrows in Figure 6-22. As the wedge thickness increases the color
bands in the cenh'al area move toward the two "eyes," or melatopes,
of the interference fi gure. At th e same time th e bands on the oppositc
sides of the isogyres within th e two small nrens move away from th c
)1lclalopos. As tho w (',(l f;0 is wilhdrawn , the lI1 ovom(' nt i ~ rov('I's('d . I r a
j
105
positive crystal is substituted, the movement of the color bands is also

reversed .
In the biaxial negative crystal illustrated, Z lies in the axial plane along
the obtuse bisectrix, X is the acute bisectrix, and Y is the optic normal. Two
rays travel along X with vibration directions at right angles to each
other, being parallel, respectively, to Z and Y. The ray vibrating parallel
to Z is the slow ray for the crystal velocity (l/ny); that parallel to Y
is intermediate in velOCity, having the value 1/n{3.
Two rays emerge in the central area of the interference figure at X, a
slow ray, velocity 1/ny, and an intermediate but faster ray, velOCity 1/n{3.
.,.fb
~' (-'I;&'
'l,())
:-.. ~ \t>s~
.0
<ilv oo,e
\,,~e S\O~
{o~
~,4.~
:-. iio,~
q,o,0
~
;..,0 \
\"i"'o~ -\
<i;P
FIG. 6-22. The determin ation of the optic sign with a bhudal negative interference
fig ure.
1 the slow ray of the quartz wedge is parallel to the direction Z, increase
in retardation occurs as the wedge thickness increases. If the quartz
wedge is always ins erted as indicated in Figure 6-22, an acute bisectrix
biaxial negative interference figure in the 45 position will always show
movement of the color bands toward the melatopes in the central area.
Conversely, a biaxial positive figure treated in the same way will show
movement in the opposite direction. Since the slow-ray vibration direction in thc qu artz wcdge is marked, the slow-ray vibration direction in
tho intcrl'crence fi gure is easily determined by comparison. Directions of
movcment for posilive and nega tive bia;d al fl gures in monochromatic
light will i th e slow-ra y viilratio ll direc lion of all accessory plato superim[)()s<'<l (l 1't ! S I IOW Ii ill Figlll'\ ' 023.
06
MINERAL OPTICS
The Optic-axis Figure_ Interference figures produced by sections cut

Lormal or nearly normal to one of the two optic axes of a biaxial mineral
.re useful for determination of optic sign. Such sections yield intererence figures with a single isogyre in the field of view. The melatope,
11' point of emergence, may coincide with the axis of the microscope or
nay be slightly off center.
As the stage is rotated, the isogyre swings around the field, remaining
:entered or nearly centered, depending upon the eccentricity of the secion. The color bands are arranged almost Circularly around the melatope
md vary in retardation with the double refraction of the mineral.
The curvature of the isogyre decreases with an increase in 2V. When
:he axial angle is large-i. e., near 90- the isogyre is straight, and the
lcute bisectrix side of the interference figure becomes indistinguishable
:rom the obtuse bisechix side. When the angle is small, however, the
107
CO NVERGENT P OLAlUZE D LIGHT
Without wedge
6-24. Movement of the color b ands in an optic-axis biaxial positive interference

fig ure as an accessory p late is inserted.
FIG.
Negative
1 to Bxo
Positive
Negative
F IG. 6-23. Positive and negative biaxial crystals ( in dicating th eir appearance with a
mica plate in monochromatic light ).
isogyre is definitely curved in a crescentlike form. The convex side of the

curve in the 45 position points toward the acute bisectrix, and the obtuse
bisectrix is on the concave side.
Optic-axis fi gures showing even slight curvature are useful for determinations of the optic sign. The mica plate, gypsum plate, or quartz
w edge may b e employed, depending upon the double refraction of the
mineral. The effect of the quartz wedge upon a biaxial positive optic-axis
interference figure is shown in Figure 6-24. An optic-axis figure without
the wedge inserted is shown on one side of the diagram, and the movement of the color bands caused by insertion of the wedge is shown on
the opposite side.
Diagrams are shown in Figure 6-25, which should b e of convenience
in determining the signs of interfercnce fi gurcs in th e two most lI seful
positions upon ins cr ti on of th o qu artz wedge. Th e sa me p rin cipl es a ppl."
ill Iitili zi ng mica ;llld gy pSlI1I1 plates.
Positive
1 to optic axis
v
1 to optic axi s
F IG . 6-25. Movem ent of the color b ands to be exp ected as the quartz wedge is inserted in acute bisectrix and op tic-axis interference fi gures of opp osite sign .
Dispersion in Biaxial Interference Figures. The optic angle for light

of on e wavelength is frequently greater or less th an for ligl"t of another
wavelength. In the normal interference fig ure produced by white light
thi s is usually dc tected by a p ecul ia r arran gement of the color b ands or
hy th e cl evelop ment of bllle a nd reel frin ges on th e isogyres.
T ho dispc rsioll record ecl ill rnost tahl es of op ti cal min cralogy is th at
o f 1110 opt ic' a Xt'S, 'T il e two cx t rc rtlt~ wav(I(ll g tII S or lhe spCC lnllTI arc used
MINERAL OPTICS
[)S
) designate the character of the dispersion. Thus, if the axial angle for
~d r is greater than that for violet v, the dispersion is expressed r > v.
n case the reverse is true, the formula is r < v.
In many instances the dispersion can be determined by direct observaion of the biaxial interference figure (Figure 6-26). If the isogyres of
r>v
r <v
Bille extinqllished
red shines throllqh
109
The symmetry of the color distribution in the interference figure is a

reflection of the symmetry of the crystal. It is well to remember that the
symmetry elements of orthorhombic crystals include axes of twofold
symmeh'y, planes of symmeh'y, and the center of symmetry. Here the
common interference figure is symmetrical as shown in Figure 6-26. Less
symmetrical dispersion is possible but not common for the interference
figures of orthorhombic crystals.
Monoclinic crystals exhibit less symmetry. The fringes of the isogyres
for monoclinic crystals exhibit crossed, horizontal, and inclined dispersion
as shown in Figure 6-27.
Triclinic crystals have no plane of symmetry. Dispersion shows asymmetry which may in itself be distinctive.
The various types of dispersion arranged according to crystal system
are as follows:
Orthorhombic crystals:
Dispersion of the optic axes.
Crossed axial plane dispersion.
Monoclinic crystals:
Inclined dispersion (both bisechices).
Horizontal dispersion (acute bisectrix).
Crossed dispersion (obtuse bisectrix).
Triclinic crystals:
Unsymmetrical dispersion.
Bille extinqllished
red shines throllqh
F IG. 6-26. Biaxial interference figures illustrating dispersion r > v and r < v. The
colored fringes as observed in the interference figure are reversed from the axial
angles existing in the crystal due to extinction.
These types are b est distinguished by the use of light of various wavelengths. Red and blue color filters placed in front of the mirror of the
microscope are convenient.
REFERENCES
Inclined
Horizontal
(el
(b)
FIG. 6-27. Dispersion fringes for monoclinic crystals. (a) Crossed dispersion. (b)
Horizontal dispersion. (c) Inclined dispersion.
Crossed
to)
the interference figure (r > v) have a distinct red fringe on the convex
edges, the angle for red is greater than for violet. Both isogyres should
be observed b efore reaching a conclusion. On the concave sidc of thc
isogyre, as illustrated in the figurc, red li ght is extinguish ed , and conseqnently the concave fringe is bIlle in color. Blue is extin gui sh ed on tho
convex side, and I"he f",ill gc is red.
Buchwald, E.: "Einfiihrung in die Kristalloptik," Sammlung Goschen, Berlin,

1912.
Burri, C.: "Das Polarisations Mikroskop," E. Birkhiiuser & Cie . A. G . Basel,
1950.
E vans, J. W.: "The D etermination of Minerals under the Microscope," Thomas
Murby & Co., London, 1928.
F letcher, L.: "Thc Optical Indicatrix," Oxford University Press, London, 1892.
Groth, P .: "The Optical Properties of Crystals," trans. by B. H. Jackson, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. , New York, 1910.
Johannscn, A.: "Manual of Petrographic Methods," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. , Ncw York, ]918.
T IlLton , A. E. .fl.: "C rys lallography and Pract ical Crystal Measurement," vol.
2; "P hysical alld C he ll1ica l," 2d cd. , Ma cmillan & Company, Ltd. , London.
HJ
10
MINERAL OPTICS
Nahlstrom, E. E.: "Optical Crystallography," John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , New
York, 1943.
Ninchell, A. N.: "Elements of Optical Mineralogy, Part I: Principles and
Methods," 5th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1937.
Nright, F . E.: The Index Ellipsoid, Am. ]. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 35, pp. 133-138,
1913.
_ _ : The Formation of Interference Figures : A Study of the Phenomena
Exhibited by Transparent Inactive Crystal Plates in Convergent Polarized
Light, ]. Opt. Soc. Am., vol. 7, pp. 779-817, 1923.
CHAPTER
The Universal Stage
Purpose. The universal stage (Figure 7-1) is designed to tilt the plane
of a thin section at various angles to the plane of a microscope stage. It
contains a series of graduated circles (Figure 7-2) which measure the
angular positions of tilted sections. Such a device aids in the determination of optic orientation, 2V, optic sign, the directions of pleoclu'oism,
FIG. 7-1. A four-axis universal stage showing the upp er hemisphere an d four graduated circles fo r angul ar measuremen t. (E. L eitz, In c. )
dispersion, comparison of refractive indices, and the study of twinning.

W hen temperature control is added (Emmons, 1943) , the stage may be
uscd with liquid mounts in the prccise determination of refractive indices
of min eral fragments. It is also employed in the analysis of crystal orientations in thin scctions [or the interpretation of structure or p etrofabrics.
Stage Assembly. The universal stage is fastened with thumb screws
to tho microscopo stage and the microscope slide rests on a circular glass
III
112
MINERAL OPTICS
THE UNIVERSAL STAGE
113
?late in the center. Two glass hemispheres are provided to make the thi!1
,ection visible at various angles of inclination. One is fastened beneath
the glass plate and the other above the thin section. Special objectives
are inserted in the microscope to obtain images from the curved surface
of the upper hemisphere. Cedar oil or glycerin is used to make optical
contact above and below the thin section, also behveen the lower hemisphere and the glass plate. The polarizing microscope employed must
provide a large working distance between stage and objective and the
Upright
orc (4)
:UI
e}-3
00
-a.
. r2
3
N
INS
I
-u.--- I
Upright
orc (4)
Outer vertical
circle (2)
Outer circle (1)
c/1'
Inner upright
circle (4)
7-2. Diagram of a four- axis universal stage. Four graduated circles are indicated.
Axes OV and IV arc perp endicular to circles (l) and (3), while axes NS and EW
lie in the planes of the inner and outer circles.
FIG.
area for horizontal rotation must be broad. Usually only research microscopes are adequate.
Graduated Circles. In the ordinary four-axis universal stage, measurements are made on four graduated circles, with the stage of the microscope providing a fifth circle. The axis of the microscope remains in the
same vertical position at all times and may be deSignated as Am.
The four movable axes lie respectively normal to the four graduated
circles (Figure 7-3) and may be deSignated as OV (vertical to outer
circle) , IV (vertical to inner circle) , EW (normal to circular drum), and
NS (normal to Wright arcs). When the stage is set with each circle at
zero, OV and IV are vertical, EW is horizontal east-west, and NS is hOlizontal north-south.
The outer circle of the universal stage rotates around OV and lies in
a horizontal plane in the zero position. An inner circlc holds thc slide
and hemispheres. It lies in a horizontal plane in th e zero position and
rotates around IV.
Thc outer circle is ,not o lll y frec to roLate nrOl llld th n OV axis, bu t il
1
I
FIG.
7-3. The graduated circles of a four-axis universal stage.
Axis of microscope
Am
I
I
--A 2
"
F lc. 7-tl. Diag ra m of a ri ve-ax is universal stage ( a[[er Emmons). Axes AI, A and
"
1\, :Iro pc rpClldicld ar to Ihe planes or th c circles 1,3, and 5 . The planes of the circles
tl ru ti lted IIrol ll, d HA('S A" A" Hlle! A".
114
MINERAL OPTICS
may be tilted from the horizontal in either direction about the EW axis .
The angles of tilt are measured on the vertical drum at the side of the
stage.
The inner circle measures angles around the IV axis. This circle may
be tilted around the NS axis . Angles of tilt are meas ured on the two
graduated Wright arcs which curve upward from the outer circle.
The five-axis universal stage contains a
\le re of pro/eel'.'
third inner circle as illustrated in Figure
5P~o-?
7-4. This circle holds the slide. Emmons
( 1943) recommends a five-axis stage and
points out that the additional motion provided by an inner fifth circle is actually a
simplification.
The Stereographic Plot. The angular
relations of a universal stage may b e conveniently plotted by means of a stereographic projection. Here the crystal is
imagined
to lie at the center of a sphere.
Stereographic construction
The principal axis of the crystal coincides with the nOlth-south polar axis of the
~o.v.,o\Or~/'>6'
sphere, The equatorial plane cuts the crystal and also the spherical system into upper
and lower halves. In such a projection the
points of intersection of radii with the
.-- --....-, ;--N
,
8
A
spherical surface are projected on to the
equatorial plane (Figure 7-5) , thus reducing a large variety of angular measurements to a circular, two-dimensional plot.
Projection of a crystal face to the equaPlone of stereographic projection
torial plane is accomplished in two operaFIG. 7-5. The projection of tions, A radius normal to a crystal face is
crystal faces A and B to A' and
extended to the surface of the sphere,
B' in the plane of stereo graphic
projection . Faces parallel to the
Then a chord is drawn to the opposite pole
vertical axis are projected to
from the intersection of the normal with
the circumference.
the spherical surface. The intersection of
the chord with the equatorial plane is the point of spherical projection.
Where faces are parallel to the north-south polar axis, the radii lie
within the equatorial circle, and face positions are plotted on the circumference. V\There a face radius coincides with the principal axis and
lies along the north-south pole, the face is proj ected as a point at the
center of the equatorial plan e.
In order lo pial opli cal posilions, opl ic ax('s lYl;l Y h(' Ir('atccl as race
radii 1I()1'lYlal I() ilnn g illary eryslal fll ('('s . TIlliS 111<')' wi ll a pp< 'ar ; IS pOilll s
Oil Iho S loJ'C ;o~rllplri( ' !,rojl '!' l!o" . !\I'( '~ ()r ('il'(,II's l'OPII 'SI'ldill g lI 11g"llIJ' posi.
115
THE UNIVERSAL STAGE
tions are drawn on the projection forming a so-called stereo graphic net,
Where the angular relationships are known from measmements with a
universal stage, various positions may b e plotted directly on the stereographic net essentially as latitude and longitude may b e located on a
map. It is convenient to plot positions on a transparent overlay placed
on the net.
Positions are recorded in terms of (phi) and p (rho) angles (Figme
7-6), The angle is measured clockwise in the horizontal plane from the
Crys ta l a ngles
Brookite
Ellenville, N.Y.
'"
Forms
cOOl
b OlO
a 100
1140
m 120
y 01 2
x 011
t 20 1
e III
n 22 1
z 122
o 121
(rho)
000'
9000'
9000'
9000'
9000'
(p hi)
000'
9 000'
2249)'i '
4005'
000'
000'
9000'
5917'
59 17'
4005'
4005 '
1 540 ~~'
29 18'
6200'
4 7 4 1 ~ '
6531)1,'
3615).2 '
5543'
(Frondel, 1944)
o
o
'
001,
b!
Oil
C, 012
o o
o
010
I, ~O~l10 1220121
t 201 \ 221
a
100
~O.
//~
/
b
FIG. 7-6, A crystal drawing of brookite with a corresponding stereo graphic projection
based on phi and rho angles.
east-west axes. The angle p is measured along a vertical plane from the
north pole of the stereo graphic net.
Brookite furnishes one of the most remarkable examples of disperSion
observed among mincrals and m ay be used to illustrate a stereographic
net. The optic plane lies along (100) for violet while the optic plane for
red is (001) . The optic directions as shown in Figure 7-7 may be compa red with tho gco melTie relalions of tll e crystal (Figmc 7-6) by means
of L.hc storeogJ'llpiti c rrojecLion. The re la tive posilions of the optical di
1'('(' lions rnllv flo flll/ sln li nd wi llt 111 0 I/lliV(IJ'Sfd SI'IlKO,
116
MINERAL OPTICS
Adjustment. A modern, well-constructed universal stage ordinarily requires little adjustment. Nevertheless, attention should be directed to
centering both horizontally and vertically. The Rrst step is to center the
microscope stage with the objective, using a dust particle on the glass
plate of the universal stage as a reference point. Next, the microscope
stage is locked and the outer circle of the universal stage is rotated, the
center of rotation being brought into coincidence with the crosshairs. A
small amount of horizontal leeway permits adjus tment on the screws
which fasten the universal stage to the microscop e.
Vertical adjustment is largely Rxed by the construction of the stage.
Vertical deviation from the center of rotation may b e detected by the
"""
............
"
"""
->0-.
///
""
:
,. _ _
" I
" ,/c=',
YorX '-,-
,,"
//
/' ~ // a,<.\
"I"
C::::;...
c:J
Q)
f\.;::
.+
I..c)
9--
--<
,,,
'-"
1\
.-<
~~
>' =555.5
b=Zj
,-'
', ' - ,
/'"
-<
''-'':;~
0=
XorY
FIG. 7-7. The range in the optic plane and 2E for brookitc with the wavelength of
light as plotted on a stereographic projection. All variations are with refercnce to the
crystallographic axes (I, b, and c.
drift of particles along the crosshairs of the microscope Reld as a plane

of the stage is tilted.
Illumination is one of the most critical factors. A strong, w ell-centered
source of artiRcial illumination is essential. Some prefer an arc light. A
substage diaphragm is desirable.
Cedar oil or glycerin is applied in three places for optical contact:
between the lower hemisphere and the glass plate, b etween the thin
section and the glass plate, and between the cover glass and the upper
hemisphere.
Orientation with the Universal Stage. Extinction is the optical fcature
most frequently employed. Vibration directions sho",m by cxtinction in
turn reveal the planes of optic symmetry. Thc planes of optic sym mctry
are adjusted to the crosshairs by oscillating the clystal tl) and from
extinction.
11(' fi xed in position on Il l( ' IIlIi v<'rsal slage in sil dl
A thin soction
mar
~\
/ //
I
~
a way that the relative inclinations of the optic axes of several crystals
may be shown on the same stereographic net. When the planes of the
usual polarizing microscope are in alignment with the universal stage,
the east-west crosshair will ordinarily mark the plane of the analyzer
and the north-south crosshair the plane of the polarizer. The inclination
of each optic axis as Rnally measured will furnish angular readings on
the graduated circles which may be simpliRed to cp and p to plot on
a stereographic net (Figure 7-8).
Location of the Uniaxial Optic Axis. The angular inclinations of optic
axes in uniaxial crystals can be measured as truncated by the plane of
~~--1t~
I'
117
THE UNIVERSAL STAGE
(0)
(b)
(c)
7-8. Stereographic projections showing steps in the orientation of the optic axis
of a uniaxial crystal. u. Op tic axis inclined at random to th e plane of a thin section .
b. Rotated about the outcr graduated circle to extinction. c. Tilted by the drum to
coincide with the axis of the microscope. The crosshairs mark the planes of the nicols.
FIG.
the thin section (Figure 7-9). The measurement of cp and p for a single
optic axis is accomplished in two operations, each depending on extinction.
First, the axis is to be rotated until it lies along the east-west extinction plane of the microscope. Th e various circles of the universal stage
and the microscope stage are set in initial position. The inner horizontal
circle of the universal stage is rotated until the crystal under observation
is in the extinction position. The optic axis will then lie within either the
north-south vertical plane or the east-west vertical plane.
Second, the a;xis is to b e tilted until it is vertical and in coincidence
with the axis of the microscope. It will be assumed that the optic axis
lics in the north-south plane. In this case it may be tilted to the vertical
position by turning the drum on the side of the universal stage. The
vcrtical position is recognized by a simple maneuver. As the drum is
lllrll cd , thc microscope stagc is oscillated slightly to right and left until
;t point is nolcd at whi.ch extinction p ersi sts on either side notwithstandiii I-.>; th e rolalion . Su ch a point is lh c optic-axis position . If rotation of the
dn lll1 cause's Lhe cryslal lo leave eX lin ction , thc optic axis lics within the
('lIs l-wesl ve rti cal plane. hi this casc the inn cr horizontal circle is rotated
00 , '1'11 0 oplic IIx is w ill lhell li o Itloll g th e norlh -~o ulh planc. Tho pro-
118
MINERAL OPTICS
cedure outlined above is then followed to locate the optic-axis position.

The position of the optic axis can then be located on a stereographic net.
The angles cf> (from the inner horizontal circle) and p (from the drum)
may be plotted (Figure 7-9). By convention the poles in petrofabric work
are ordinarily plotted in projection of the lower hemisphere. Occasionally
the optic <Lxis of a crystal lies too close to the plane of the thin section
to permit tilting to a vertical position within the limits of rotation of the
universal stage. In this case the angulm' position may b e determined
through the combined use of interference colors and extinction.
[J
~
- ~ -~
"'-----1
(a)
(b)
(el
7-9. Manipulation of a si ngle optic axis to coincide with the microscope axis.
(a) The uniaxial axis is shown in inclined position on the thin section (above) and
on the stereo graphic projection (below). (b) The crystal is rotated to the extinction
position about the vertical inner axis of the universal stage. (c) The axis is tilted to
coincide with the crosshairs by turning the dnIm on the east-west axis.
FIG.
The crystal is first rotated to a position of extinction by turning the

inner horizontal circle. The optic axis will then lie in an inclined position
either along the east-west or the north-south vertical planes. If the crystal
remains in extinction as the drum is rotated, the <Lxis lies along the northsouth vertical plane. If it remains in extinction as the crystal is tilted by
moving the circle along the 'Wright arcs, the <Lxis lies in the east-west
vertical plane.
.
When the plane is known the stage of the microscope is rotated 45
and the axis of the universal stage normal to the pla.ne rotated until the
crystal shows m<Lximum interference. The angle b elw een the plane of
the section and the positi.on of maximum inlerference then measures the
inclination of th e opti,c ax is from lil o horizonlal (or D()O (l) .
THE UNIVERSAL STAGE
119
The sign of a uniaxial crystal is determined with the mica plate, gypsum plate, or the quartz wedge. When the direction of the optie axis in
an individual crystal is known, the crystal may be tilted in the 45 position to observe interference colors along the axis. If the slow ray is
normal to the axis the mineral is positive and, conversely, if the fast ray
is normal to the axis the mineral is negative.
Optical Directions in Biaxial Crystals. The main objectives are to detennine X, Y, and Z in terms of east, west, and vertical; to determine
2V; and to determine the sign. These may be accomplished by observing
maximum interference and extinction.
The circles are set at zero. The inner circle is then rotated to extinction.
The vertical drum is next rotated. Extinction may possibly remain whieh
indicates that the coincidence of X, Y, or Z with the east-west <Lxis has
already b een accomplished. If extinction does not remain the drum is
turned to the position of maximum illumination. The inner circle is then
tilted along the Wright arcs to the right or left to minimum illumination.
The drum is then returned to zero. Extinction should be complete, indicating a coincidence of X, Y, or Z with the east-west axis. If extinction
is not complete estimates of m<Lximum and minimum illumination should
be repeated. When satisfactory extinction is obtained the cf> and p angles
can be indicated on a stereographic net. The next problem is to determine
which of the three-X, Y, or Z- coincides with the east-west axis.
If Y coincides, the optic axes will lie along the vertical plane at right
angles to the east-west axis. In this case, if the drum is turned, a position
of minimum illumination will identify an optic axis. The axis position
may be verified by rotating the microscope stage. The crystal will remain
dark between crossed nicols during rotation. When verified, the position
of the optic axis should be recorded on the stereographie net.
If either X or Z coincide with the EW axis, rotation of the drum with
the microscope stage hu-ned at 45 will cause an increase in interference.
T hen the drum is returned to zero and an accessory plate used to note
whether the optical direction parallel to the EW axis is X or Z.
The final operation is the measurement of the second plane of optical
symmetry. The microscope stage is returned to zero. The tilt on the
YVright arcs is returned to zero. Then the inner circle is rotated 90 to
lhe second extinction position. The manipulations indicated above are
then rep eated in order to determine which of the remaining two optical
d ircc tions lies at 90 0 to the EW axis as already identified.
Illus trative Mounts. Special thin sections are convenient to illustrate
lho initial opera tion of a universal stage. A section cut at random from
illl irrcglllarly oriented clilstcr of small, well-d eveloped , h exagonal qualtz
(rys lals provid('s a II sefll l exa mple of a uniaxial positive mi.n eral. The
I IOX III!;()J 111 I olillill( \S I"lII"lIi sll ~(' ()Il)('lri('[l l g lli(les lo ass ist in visualizing the
120
MINERAL OPTICS
position of the optical indicatrix for individual crystals as the axes of

the stage are rotated. The variation of the interference colors with orientation is well shown.
An individual optic axis steeply inclined to the plane of the section
may be readily maneuvered into position in which it coincides with the
axis of the microscope. The outer circle is rotated until the crystal b ecomes dark between crossed nicols. The principal optic planes then lie
parallel to the planes of the nicols as shown by the crosshairs. As this
move is made the microscope stage is oscillated at intervals. 'W hen the
oscillation shows extinction on rotation from the plane of tilt as well
as on the plane, the optic-axis position is indicated. The </> and p angles may then be measured.
A section cut from a plastic
brickette of topaz crystals in disarray, but each with rhombic outlines, serves to illustrate biaxial
orientation. The orientation for
topaz may b e simplified by tilting
the universal stage until a crystal
with rhombic outline is oriented
-----,.with the crystallographic axes a, b,
and
c in coincidence with the exFIG. 7-10. Diagram of an illustrative
biaxial exercise. A cleavage of muscovite
tinction planes. With the crystal
is shown beneath the hemisphere of the
outlines as a preliminary guide, the
universal stage. The acute bisectrix lies
procedure
for crystals lacking fa beneath the crosshairs and the axial
plane is normal to the EW-axis. Either
cial boundaries is more readily unisogyre may be made to move to the
dmstood.
crosshairs by rotating the drum.
Illustrative slides worthy of mention are brookite, showing dispersion of optic axes; piedmontite, which
exhibits strong pleochroic color variation with direction; muscovite, with
cleavage for the determination of 2V; vein quartz, with nearly parallel
crystal axes to plot inclined axes; and coarsely twinned plagioclase, to
indicate the orientation of twin individuals. Some slide manufacturers
supply special sections of minerals suitable for exercises with the universal stage.
Illustrative E xercises. A simple illustration to introduce the use of the
universal stage is to measure 2E for muscovite (Figure 7-10) . A cleavage
of muscovite about 1 cm square and about the thickness of a shcct of
textbook paper is mounted on a glass slidc using Canada balsam a nd a
ClOver glass. The slide is then ob served with conve rgent polari/'.ecl li ght
on tho mi croscope st\lgc (wi lllOlll lit e II II iv('\'sa I stage). Tlt o direc l iOIl oj'
~S~
121
THE UNIVERSAL STAGE
the plane of the optic axes is marked with ink on the slide- or b etter,
with a line drawn with a diamond point.
The universal stage is then set in position and centered. With circles
and stage in initial position the muscovite slide is mounted b etween the
hemispheres with the line indicating
------ .... . . .
the axial plane parallel to the NS Outer
..... /:-~Tf - . . , ",
clrcle
.
.
.
.
.
~I"
"\ \
7
axis. A large sheet of a single muscovite crystal will yield an observable
/
\ \ \\
I ,
I I
gOO-type biaxial interference figure
I I
~ ~
"" EW
in this position. The stage of the
f f
Arc f ~. uxfs--~
j I !:}
0
microscope is n ext set at 45 to the
' \
,
I
first position. The crosshairs will

\ \
/
'/'0
then indicate the acute bis ectrix for Inner \ \
/~
roO
the 45-type interference figure. The circle
c ee
" ' - - --- - o9
axial plane is normal to the EW
tv\iCfO\\oq
(0)
axis. If the drum on the outer vertical circle is turned , either isogyre
may b e made to appear b eneath the
Outer
crosshairs. The angle between may
.....,- ..be measured directly. If n /3 for mus"<~
CirCle
.'
covite and n for the glass hemisphere
/
o~~
I I
are known, 2V for muscovite may b e
I I
I f
computed from the angle measured .
I I
I I
A second illustrative exercise may
I \
\ \
be attempted as shown by the dia\ \
gram in Figure 7-11. A thin section
of a single crystal of aragonite of the
..... _--lype frequently present in sets of
thin sections will serve. These are
(b )
usually cut approximately normal to
FIG . 7-11. Diagrams shOWing the adthe acute bisectrix.
justment of a large biaxial crystal on
The thin section is mounted on the universal stage. ( a ) The crystal
the universal stage and maneuvered is set to rotate in two vertical planes
with apparent movement along the
with the NS axis and the inner circle crosshairs. (b) The stage is in the 45
into the position of most complete position and either isogyre may be
ex tinction. At this position an inter- moved to the intersection of the crosshairs by turning the drum which rotates
ference figure is attempted . 'W ith on the EW-axis.
l he comparatively large crystals in
I\l Ost se ts a fi gure is obtainable. The fi gure .i n the 90 0 position (Figure
- II a) is sec m cd first. It should b e centered with th e inner circle and
lly lillin g Oil til(' "Vrigh t arcs unlil it ca n he rotated either way along
1': IC'l1 :11'11\ or 111( ' (,I'IlSS wilholll dc's lro), in g Ihe symme try of the cross. In
Illis posilillll , ro lll lill g Oil IIII' 1'; Wll xis :\IIeI O il 111(' NS axis will move the
/"
Y'" "-_l'. _--"" . . '
~I~
"
125
GENERAL FEATURES
man hornblende, for instance, light vibrating parallel to Z usually shows

the most absorption, Y is less absorbed, and X is the least. This is recorded by means of the absorption formula
X<Y<Z
CHAPTER
General Features: Color, Mode of Aggregation,

Cleavage, and Orientation
Color and Pleochroism. Many minerals are colorless, but color when
present is a distinctive feature. Deeply colored minerals are more likely
to be colored in thin sections than minerals with pale tints.
Minerals showing nahlral color are listed in Table lO-2. Among these,
isotropic minerals yield no color change as the mineral is rotated in planepolarized light. Anisotropic minerals exhibit a change in color in varying
degrees as the stage is rotated. The change in color produced is known
as pleochroism. Natural mineral color in thin sections is observed with
the polarizer alone.
Hexagonal or tetragonal colored minerals are dichroic- i.e., the pleochroic coloring of minerals in these two systems as exhibited with the
polarizer is twofold.
Orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic minerals, when colored in thin
section, exhibit tluee diHerent colors and are trichroic.
The pleochroic colors are normally oriented with the axes X, Y, and Z
of the crystal. In addition to the conventional colors of Table 10-2, white
or neutral may represent a pleocluoic change. Since X, Y, and Z are the
vibration axes, color distribution is related to ncr, n/3, and ny and also the
optic axes. The correlation of the relationships is best accomplished by
reference to the interference figure in order to determine the directions
of the axes. As soon as the acute bisectrix Z (if the mineral is positive )
or X (if the mineral is negative) is knmVI1, the Bertrand lens and analyzer
may be removed from the microscope tube and the corresponding nahual
color ascertained. The color produced by light vibrating in a plane at
right angles to the axial plane is Y. The third color will b e due to light
Vibrating parallel to the direction of the obtuse bisectrix. This will b e X
if the mineral is positive or Z if thc mineral is ncgative.
In pleochroic lmiaxial minerals, li ght Vibratin g parallel to th c optic
ax is is on c color, whercas li ghl at righl ~ lIl gks is anolil cr.
Bia xial milll' rais ('xllihil v;lI"y ili g clC'gn 'c's of ah ~ ()rpl iOIl of color. In ('om12/1
It is customary to record the absorption in terms of vibration parallel to

the ease of vibration axes.
Form or Aggregation. A considerable number of the deSigns produced
by groups of crystals observed in thin sections and cross sections of individual minerals are so unusual that the pattern exhibited aids in identification (Table 10-3).
FIC . 8-1.
F IC . 8-2.
FIG. 8-1. ( X 33 ) Incipient crystals of rodlike aggrega tes in a groundmass of volcanic
glass.
FIC. 8-2. ( X 33 ) Shatter cracks in halloysite (crossed nieols ).
Many minerals assum e a peculiar development with surprising can

sistency. Such a tendency in thc case of individual crystals may b e described as habit. Aggregation refers to the grouping of either a fevv or
numerous small crystals. The pattern that a min eral group assumes may
be described as its mode of aggregation. Both form and aggregation arc
much used features in mineral study.
Incipient Crys!allizal'ion. Natural glass frequently forms from a viscous
liquor that upon solidifying lacks crystalliza tion and is isotropic. Th c
matcrial, however, contains constitu ents capal1lc of producing a numbcr
of difFercnt min crals. D evelopm cnt of th ese min cral s is hind crcd by th c
viscosity of the inclosin g liqllor dmin g th e pcriod of crys lallization ,
largely h ccall sc of rapid coolin g. Crys tals 111ay not dcvclop, hill instea d
ncedlelike aggregates, fernlike growths , a nc! va riou s odc! cl es igns form ,
r oprcsclltill g lh e slldd en arrcs l of crys lalliza tion. Cryst (f77it f's, 1I1(fl"{!,(ffit es,
tri(;hifes, lHicrofU es, g7obll fit es, alld f(J1/ gll.7iles nrc nam cs appli ed to vari Ous forms or in cip ient crys talli zati on ( F igure 8-1). Tri chitcs lI ro cllrvod
126
MINERAL OPTICS
streaks of embryonic crystals in glass. Margarites are long streaks of

globular forms resembling portions of strings of seed pearls in curved or
straight lines. Longulites are small rodlike forms composed of groups of
globulites. Crystallites m'e minute nuclei of crystallization suspended in
glass. Microlites are small needlelike, almost crystalline forms.
Non-crystalline Isotropic Minerals. Minerals lacking directional qualities yielding double refraction are dark between crossed nicols. Such
minerals are chiefly identiRed by means of their structure in thin section,
combined with a determination of their indices of refraction.
Glass, opal, cliachite (bauxite) , and collophane appear non-crystalline
or microscopically amorphous. 1 In addition to incipient crystals, glass
FIG. 8-3.
FIG. 8-4.
FIG. 8-3. ( X 33) Rounded sections of pisolitic bauxite made up of the mineral
cliachite. Interstices ( around holes in the section) contain gibb site.
FIG. 8-4. (X 33) Cellular structure of wood preserved in opal.
frequently exhibits flow lines, cracks, or concentric fractures. Opal is usually banded and may exhibit a play of colors. Shatter cracks are distinctive features in minerals of colloidal origin (Figure 8-2).
Cliachite, the amorphous mineral found in bauxite, occurs in pisolitic
forms frequently cracked and fractured at random. Interstices between
pisolites may be RIled with gibbSite forming aRne-grained gray-andwhite mosaic of small crystals (Figure 8-3).
The rounded, more or less spherical forms assumed by amorphous and
metacolloidal minerals in open spaces are frequently described as colloform.
Materials of OrganiC Origin. In the study of thin sections, structures
are occasionally encountered that are residual from organic life. Diatomaceous, radiolarian, or foraminiferal organisms have distinctive structures frequently preserved in minerals. Fossil diatoms and othcr micro1 The term micl'o(l /H ol'pholl s is lI scd bco[\ lIs0 X-my slll <i i('s hllvc shown 111('se materiab to have direclioll ul pr()p o rli c~ sC II ~ il iva In sllorl WIIVC I('lI gl li s.
GENERAL FEATURES
127
scopic remains are usually opal and have the optical properties of that
mineral. The original structures of the microorganisms, however, are
on many occasions well preserved (Figure 8-7). Foraminifera are apt
to yield calcite, usually Rnely crystalline in nature, and difficult to distinguish from aragonite unless the structure is suffiCiently coarse to permit the rhombohedral cleavage to d evelop (Figure 8-8).
Fragments of former vegetable matter preserved as carbonaceous
material- lignite, etc.- are usually black or brown in thin section. Cellular structures of wood as preserved in lignite are quite distinctive in
thin section. Opal formed by the replacement of wood frequently exhibits cellular structure (Figure 8-4).
FIG. 8-5.
FIG. 8-6.
FIG. 8-5. (x 33) Chalcedony between crossed nicols showing both radial aggregates
and ban ded structure.

FIG. 8-6 ( X 33) A flamboyant radial aggregate of sillimanite between crossed nicols.
Collophane, the mineral constituent of fossil bone, frequ ently retains

the structure of the bone that has b een replaced.
Fine Aggregates. Minerals frequently form Rne aggregates of distinctive p attern. Aggregate structure is emphasized bep-veen crossed
nicols either by radial groups or by aRne-grained mosaiclike groundmass of small crystals (Figure 8-9) .
In radial groups the small cITstals converge like the spokes of a wheel.
Radial uniformity of orientation produces with crossed nicols a da.rk
cross parallel to the positions of extinction (Figure 8-5). This cross
should not b e confused with the axial cross of a uniaxial interfercnce
Rgure.
An illustration of a mineral aggregate is funlished at times by sillimanite (Figure 8-6) . Thc n ccdlcs of sillimanite, howevcr, are not so
rcgularly arra ngcd as is thc casc of chalccdony.
Crosscs cluc Lo rael ial arran gemc nt of fin e crysta l gro llps in po'i:trizec1
li ght aro frequently form ed ill microfossils replaced by calcite ( F il!lIr"
H- IO).
GENERAL FEATURES
.~,
''''
,'.~"~ V' .-:-~~

, ". "
0
. -'t'
10
,. t ~ _
';... .r-'" -."

~.
It'
'e . ,
'"
....
'\
..-
",
.. ,,~
!\ ,.,. '
, - "'" 7, '" . ..:.1

4 ~'"\. ~
.,
~
. >
."",
FIC.
8-7.
FIC.
8-8.
FIC.
8-9.
FIC.
8-10.
Fic. 8-11.
FIC. 8-12.
8-7. ( X 33) The fine microorganic structures preserved in opal-forming fossil
di atoms. Diatomaceous earth from Lompoc, California.
FIG. 8-8. \ X33 ) Calcite in sections of fo ssil foraminifera scattered tluough carbonaceous shale.
FIG. 8-9. ( X 33 ) Mosaic structure in chalcedony. A "salt and pepper" aggregate of
small crystals photograph ed between cru ssed ni eols.
FI G, 8- 10. ( X33 ) A pulariza tion cross ill fo ss il ror:llllill irL' ra of c:il c il o arra llgcd in
CO Il C(' III, ie.; hand s or ntdiu l ri lwrlih' c' ysl:ds.
1'10. H- II. ( X :3:1) N", .ll,li k., (,yst!ds "I' , illiIlIlIlJiI,' ill '1"1"1 / .
1" 0 . Ii 12, ( ":\:l) I':,dll ,d' id 1" y' llIJ.. III 111111'1" , ('11111 101,,1. '/" 1"" III ',il lIl 'l III g lll'.s.
. 1 ~1l
FIG.
129
Spherulitic crystallization in glassy flow rocks is strikingly illustrated

behveen crossed nicols. Figure 16-43d represents a thin section containing spherulites photographed between crossed nicols. Spherulites of the
feldspars or oth er minerals are often fOlmd suspended in volcanic glass
of one form or another.
Parallel orientation of fibrous aggregates is illustrated by a thin section
of chrysotile in serpentine (Figure 8-13). Veinlets of cross fibers arranged in parallel fashion perpendiculcU' to the walls of th e vein are
common in serpentine. The fibers aTe moderately anisotropic, whereas
the serpentine is almost dark b etween crossed nicols.
Inclusions. During crystallization small aTeas of foreign substances
may be caught within what are otherwise clear crystals. In leu cite, for
example, small areas of volcanic glass are often distributed symmetrically as small isolated spheres suspended in the crystal (Figure 8-12).
Hypersthene (Figure 8-15) may contain areas of brown, fl akelike inclusions frequently accompanied by a fin e transverse system of lines
usually described as schiller st1'llcture .
Small vermicular growths of quartz occur as inclusions in stauroli te
( Figure 8-29). Carbonaceous matter forms symmetrical inclusions in
andalusite (Figme 8-24). Occasionally substances retain ed may be
radioactive and during geologic time will continue to give off emanations
until they finally lose their strength. Such inclusions, when trapped in
oolored min erals such as biotite, produce dark brown circular patches,
frequently pleochroic. Figure 8-16 illustrates halos produced by radioactivity in biotite from western Connecticut.
Needlelike Crystals. A few minerals form fine, h airlike masses of
crystals, usually penetrating some other mineral, such as mica or quartz.
Sillimanjte often occurs in minute needles p enetrating qumtz (Figure
8-11 ) . Dumortierite occurs in a similar mann er. DumOltierite is often
pink and may impart to the hand sp ecimen a color resembling rosC
qumtz, although deeper in color. Rutile forms red or brown needles that
may peneh-ate either quartz or mica. Tourmaline may also occur in similar fashion. The radiating crystals of tommaline in qum-tz illustrated in
Figure 8-14 m'e ch aracteristic of luxullianite, a rock.
Although these occurrences are quite striking when observed , it should
be remembered that the same minerals may occur in large crystals having an entirely different habit.
B7aded Crysta7s. Crystal groups may b e composed of largcr, coarscr
individuals causing lathlike sections tmder the microscope. Also, intcrmedi a te sizcs of different form an d developm ent may OCC Ilr. One il Illslra tion of a co::m;e-hlad cd type of dcvelopm cnt is furn ish cd hy kyanil c,
as iIlnslral ec1in F ig lll'c 8-1?
Twin Cryst{/Is. Th e feld spars pro v id e :in Ol:( sl :lndin g illl lslr:llioll of
MINERAL OPTICS
130
GENERAL FEATURES
131
lamellar twinning, particularly between crossed nicols. The twinning is

for the most part polysynthetic, comprising multitudinous lathlike individuals (Figure 13-54). Orthoclase provides illustrations of coarser
penetration and contact twinning. Microline provides an illustration of
two types of lamellar twinning superimposed (Figure 13-41).
Numerous minerals provide illustrations of hvinning. Calcite nearly
always twins parallel to the long diagonal of the cleavage rhombohedron,
and dolomite hvins parallel to both the long and the short diagonal of
the cleavage rhombohedron. Cassiterite, corundum, pyroxene, aragonite,
amphibole, lazulite, and gibbsite are frequently found in twin crystals,
FIG.
FIG.
FIC.
FIG.
FIG.
FIG .
8-13.
8-14.
8-15.
8-16.
8-17.
8-18.
F IG.
8-13.
FIC .
8-15.
FIG.
8-16.
FIC. 8-17.
FIG. 8-18.
( X33 ) Bands of asbestos fi bers in serpentine (crossed nieols) .
( X33) Needl elike crystals of tourm aline arranged in radial groups.
( X33 ) Schiller structure in hypersthene.
( X33 ) Pleochroic halos in biotite.
( X33 ) Bladed crystals of kya llitc.
( x33 ) Sphene twinn ed parallel to th e lell gth or th e , (clion.
FIG.
F IC.
8-20.
FIG . 8-19.
8-19. ( X33) Anh edral crystals of hornbl ende associated with qu artz.
8-20. ( X 33) Subhedral garnet in quartz.
the twinning b eing easily recognized by the different extinction of the

various twin individuals between crossed nicols. The crystal of sphe ne
in Figure 8-18 is twinned into individuals sep arated by a plane parall el
to the length of the crystal.
Natural Crystal Form in Thin Section. There is a pronounced tend e ncy
among crystallized minerals of a given species to repeat habit of growth .
Outlines viewed in thin section, due to natmal crystal form , are significant.
Apatite, for example, frequently appears in small , la thlikc, elongated
crystals with h exagonal cross sections (Figure 8-22).
Corundum in mica schist may form skeleton crysta ls charac terized h y
rounded elon ga te ol ltlin es (Figure 8-23) .
Pyrite is often fOllnd in squa re areas, althou gh trian gltlar and ot her
shapes also OCCllr.
vvell -d eveloped crys lals with geoml'trical hOIJl1c!arit'S are culled ( ' 11 -
MINERAL OPTICS
132
hedral,2 Crystals with rounded or irregular boundaries are anhedral.

Partially developed crystals may b e called subhedral.
Anhedral, subhedral, and euhedral crystals are illustrated in Figmes
8-19, 8-20, and 8-21, respectively. Subhedral garnet (Figure 8-20) should
be compared with euhedral garnet (Figure 15-9).
GENERAL FEATURES
133
Occasionally isometric crystals are twinned, and in some cases weak

anisotropism exists, althou gh isometric minerals are normally isotropic.
Pseudoisomeb:ic minerals such as leucite exhibit low first-order interfercnce colors . Garnet from contact-metamorphic deposits in limestone
may b e strongly anisotropic (Figure 8-26).
T etragonal Crystals. Small tetragonal crystals h aving euh edral development are not numerous. Cross sections are usually the normal sections
to be exp ected from a tetragonal prism terminated with a bipyramid, as
in zircon, or a combination of two prisms and two bipyramids, as in
idocrase. The crystals are uniaxial, and sections cut normal to the c-axis
give optic-axis interference figures. Twinning and eleavage accord with
FIG. 8-21.
FIG. 8-22.
FIG. 8-21. ( X33) Euhedral hornblende associated with biotite in thin section.
FIG. 8-22. ( X 33) Apatite crystals in thin section ( crossed nicols) .
FIG. 8-26.
FIG . 8-25.
FIG. 8-25. ( x 33) A euhedral crystal of analcime.
FIG. 8-26. ( X 33) Isometric crystals of garnet showin g anomalous aniso tropism and
banding b etween crossed nicols.
FIG. 8-23.
FIG. 8-23. ( X 33 ) Skeleton crystals of corundum in mica shist.
FIG. 8-24. ( X33 ) Andalusite containing symmetrically arranged carbonaceous inclusions.
Isometric C1ystals. Euhedral crystals may exhibit cross sections of such

common isometric forms as the cube, octah edron, dodecah edron, and
trapezohedron.
L eucite and analcime are illustrated in Figures 8-12 and 8-25. The
outlines of both follow the trapezohedron.
2
Also called icZio mol'phic or automorphic.

Also called allotriomol'pll ic or ~e n ol1lO rJ1hic.
tetragonal symmetry. Crystals extinguish p arallel to the crystallographic

axes.
H exagonal Crystals. A number of common minerals encountered in
thin section are hexagonal in crystallization. Quartz, tourmalin e, apatile,
beryl, and nepheline are frequently encountered hexagonal crystals. The
sections of those minerals may b e hexagonal or triangular if normal t
the c-axis, and rect angular or modified rectangular where cut along
the c-axis. The crystals are frequently elongated p arallel to tho
c-u,"<is and exhibit parallel extinction with positive or nega tivc elongation, dcpending upon the sign of the mineral. The hexagonal scctions
are cithcr nearly or completely isotropic and yield uniaxial inte rfcre nce
flg llres. Ncphelin c (Figure 8-27) frcq uently cxh.ibits both h exagonal alld
rectangu lar seclions. Apatite (Fi gll1'e 8-22) furni shes both hexagonal alld
e1on galed , so mewh at rollncl cd, reclclll g lllar secLion s.
Hh ollihoheclral crysr. t1 s illthld tl lll(' ~ J'()JJp or r1lolliholl cdr:t1 c: lrbollilles,
alld :dll'o ll /.!; II Ilil's\' 11Iillt' r:ds iII' (' ol'di ll ar il y fOlilld ill II l:1 ll \'d n1I1SSes of
MINERAL OPTICS
134
anhedral crystals, occasionally euhedral crystals occur. The euhedral

crystals are rhombic in section and frequently exhibit cleavage lines
parallel to th e sid es. The section of the rhombohedron normal to the
c-axis may appear hexagonal.
Orthorhombic Crystals. A number of orthorhombic minerals encountered in thin sections exhibit euhedral crystals. Olivine, natrolite, barite,
zoisite, andalusite, dumortierite, and topaz are among the most common.
Euhedral olivine crystals (Figure 8-28) are frequently seen in thin sections of basic igneous rocks. The crystals are symmetrical "vith resp ect
to the crystallographic axes and b ecome extinct when the axes are
parallel to the planes of vibration of the nicols. Lathlike crystals of
natrolite with excellent parallel extinction mentioned in the discussion
FIG . 8-28.
8-27.
8-27. ( X33) Nepheline crystals showing both hexagonal and rectangular outFIG .
FIG.
lines.
FIG. 8-28. ( X 33) A euhed ral crystal of olivine.
of the adjustments of the microscope are occasionally found in thin sections. Barite crystals may be square, rectangular, or elongated, with
parallel or symmetrical extinction. Staurolite crystals (Figure 8-29) are
often rectangular or rhombic. Andalusite forms symmetrical rhombic
crystals (Figure 8-24) .
Monoclinic C1ystals. The pyroxenes, amphiboles, monoclinic feldspars,
sphene, mica, epidote, and a number of other less common monoclinic
minerals are frequently found in euhedral crystals in thin sections. The
crystals exhibit inclined extinction when sections are cut either p arallel
to or near the plane of the a- and c-axis. Certain sections, however, may
be so orient ed as to furnish either symmeb'ical or p arallel extinction.
Each monoclinic crystal is an individual problem in optical orientation
and should be considered by itself.
Figures 8-21 and 8-30 furnish comparative examples of euhedral amphibole and euhedral pyroxene. The views demonsb'ate both crystal
boundaries and cleavap;e.
GENERAL FEATURES
135
Triclinic Crystals. The plagioclase group, microcline, kyanite, and

rhodonite, constitute the ordinary triclinic minerals found in thin section.
The extinction is ordinarily inclined in all sections, and the extinction
angles may be high.
Cleavage, Parting, and Fracture as an Aid in Distinguishing Minerals.
Cleavage may b e denned as the ever-present ability of a mineral to separate into smaller and smaller p articles bounded by smooth surfaces
parallel to the directions of faces of possible crystal forms. Cleavage is
frequently of assistance in distinguishing minerals (Table 10-4) . Unfortu,
nately, many minerals show little or no cleavage. If cleavage is well developed, however, a mineral may be identined at times by this property
FIG . 8-29.
FIG. 8-30.
8-29. ( X33) Euhedral staurolite crystals in a gro und mass of mLlscovilc a il e!
other minerals.
FIG . 8-30. ( X 33 ) Euhedral crystals of pyroxene.
F IG.
alone. In grinding thin sections cleavage planes often develop which appear in the nnished section as lines or b ands of varying width.
Some minerals separate only occasionally or break along planes of
twinning. This may be called parting. It is not always present and may
not continue to nner and nner particles. In an individual sp ecim en, in so
far as the effect produced is concerned, cleavage may b e indi sting lli shable from parting.
Cleavage is a crystallographic feature and may b e discussed in terms
of direction. Cleavages in one, two, or three direc tion s arc freq uent;
Huorite and diamond cleave in four directions, while sphalerite cleaves ill
six directions.
In the app ended tables for identifyin g common min erals enco llnterod
ill thin sections, cleavage planes, fra cture planes, or th e tC' llcJ ell cy to break
p:l l':dkl to cerlain cknnite dil'c('[iol1 s is incii calcd ror each of Lhc IIlill C'l'nls
ill c\lI(kd .
e /m'mgt' i ll 01/ (' I)ir('('/ ill // . 1\ 1111111\ )(' 1' or IlIill( 'rllls hnvo :I sill gk plall (1
of u!(;\V:I).!;( ', 11I1 1 ~ ( ()vill ' 11 11<\ lOp ll '/. 1)( ' iI' ~~ ( '~II I11pl\ ~ ( I'ig lll'i' H :l l ) . III tldll
136
MINERAL OPTICS
section, crystals showing one direction of cleavage usually exhibit systems of parallel lines. Occasionally, a cleavage plane may be almost
parallel to the section, in which instance practically no cleavage lines will
appear.
In the case of fragments , minerals with one direction of cleavage
usually lie flat upon the microscope slide and h ave irregular boundaries.
The interference color is nearly always uniform for the area of the fragment except on the outer edge, where a number of color b ands will b e
observed, forming color contours of minerals having strong double refraction. Frequently, similar orientation of interference figures occurs
in such fragments since m any lie in the same position.
GENERAL FEATURES
137
stricted to the isometric system, where both sections and fragments are
eaSily confirmed by the isotropic character of the material.
Rectangular cleavage resembles cubic cleavage in its appearance in
both thin sections and fragm ents (Figure 8-35) . Minerals haVing r ectangular cleavage, however, may be easily distinguished owing to their
anisotropism b etween crossed nicols.
FIG. 8-33.
FlG. 8-34.
8-33. Euhedral pyroxcne crystals shOWing two directions of cleavage ill a groundmass of feldspar.
FIG. 8-34. Andalusite with cleavage in two dil-ections at about 90 0 , cut by veilliets
of nne muscovite with cleavage in one direction.
FIG.
FIG. 8-31.
FIG . 8-32.
8-31. Anhcdral topaz crystals with broadly spaced cleavage in onc direction with
penetrating muscovite having closely spaced clcavage in one direction.
0
0
F IG . 8-32. Anhedral hornblende with cleavage at 56 an d 124 in a groundmass of
feldsp ar.
FIG.
Cleavage in Two Directions. Several common min erals develop prominent cleavage in 1:\'1 0 directions. The pyroxenes, amphiboles, and feldspars are outstanding illustrations.
Common hornblende of the amphibole group is distin guished from
pyroxene by a difference in cleavage angle. The cleavage of hornblende
(Figure 8-32) parallel to the rhombic prism {ll O} is in wo directions
at 56 and 124 . The cleavage of the rhombic prism in the case of
pyroxene (Figure 8-33) is approximately 87 and 93 .
The two directions of cleavage may b e at 90 in orthorhombic or tetragonal minerals. Figure 8-34 illustrates andalusite (orthorhombic), with
wo directions of cleavage at about 90 (89 12').
Cleavage in Three Directions. The types produced due to cleavage in
three directions vary considerably. One of the simplest types is th at produced by cleavage p ar allel to the faces of the cube. In thin scctions
cleavage of this type produces square or triangular p atterns . In fragments
the boundaries tend to b e square or rectangular. Cubic cleavage is re-
8-35. Anhydritc (rcctangular cleavage) and fluorite (octahcdral clcavagc ) in.

th e same thin section. The octahedral cleavage of fluorite produccs a trian gular
pattcrn.
FIG.
Rhombohcdral cleavagc is on e of the most common types found within

minerals, both in thi n scctions and in fragments. The common carbona le
min erals h ave cleavage of thjs type. The pattern produced in lhin seclion is crisscross in deS ig n, and the crys lals usually show incli llcd cleavage
plan es p ene lra lin g th e secl ion. rn addilion , lhe re is f're(j ll enLly a sel of
lwin lin es p:lrall e l lo th e IOll g di:lgO II:iI or lli e ril OJrlhohcclrO Il . OccasioJla lly Iwi lllJill g m:ly :l Plw: lr !lan dl ('ll o hoUI III(' IOll g li nd til e sll o!"1 di llgf)1I111,
as ill 111 11 ( 'II S C' or dnl(lJlJilc . III Il'iI /', llle 'III S, IlJlIJ(' nds wil li !"ilolldHl ll('drlll
138
MINERAL OPTICS
cleavage are usually Rat lying, with a fairly well-developed rhombic section, and vary in relief with direction. The edges usually show wedgelike
or inclined swface boundaries.
Cleavage in three directions is frequ ently produced by breaking parallel
to various directions in crystals of the orthorhombic, monoclinic, and
triclinic systems. In most instances, the part of the mineral under examination presents a special case. As a rule, however, cleavage of this
type produces a crisscross of almost rectangular pattern in thin section,
and in fragments the boundaries either are almost rectangular or may
be Rat lying, with wedgelike edges.
Cleavage in Four Directions. One common Inineral, RUOlite, has cleavage in four directions parallel to the faces of an octahedron (Figure
8-35). Cleavages of Ruorite in thin section tend to develop triangular or
rhombic patterns. In fragments the outlines of individual fragments are
triangular or in-egular with pointed edges. These are easily detected between crossed nicols on account of the isotropic character of the mineral.
OccaSionally spinel is found with an octahedral parting imperfectly developed but somewhat resembling octahedral cleavage. The diamond has
octahedral cleavage but, needless to say, is not common in thin sections.
Cleavage in Six Directions. Sphalerite is one of the few minerals with
cleavage parallel to the six different directions of a dodecahedron. The
outlines of this figure may occasionally b e detected in pieces of sphalerite
within sections due to the intersections of inclined cleavage planes. In
fragm ents sometimes almost perfect dodecahedrons may b e observed.
Tendency to Break in Elongate Directions. Some minerals exhibit a
decided fibrous structure, being made up of numerous small needles
visible as parallel crystals b eneath the microscope. These may vary in
size from small elongated blades to minute capillary fibers . Coarser minerals of this sort change from fibrous to bladed shapes.
Orientation_ The optical orientation of a mineral involves the correlation of the optical directions with crystallographic directions. In biaxial
minerals the problem usually involves locating the position of the acute
bisectrix, optic normal, and axial plane with respect to the axes a, b,
and c of a crystal. The orientation of uniaxial Ininerals concerns the relation of the optical system to the c-axis.
In the following discussion it is assumed that the reader is faIniliar with
the simple rules of description of crystals in the various systems and the
conventions of orientation; othelwise a text on geometrical crystallography should be consulted.
Isometric System. Optical orientation in isometric crystals is eliIninated
since isometric crystals are isotropic, hence becoming non-directional as
far as light is concerned.
TetragofUll and I-Jexagorw-Z Systems. The optic axes of uniaxial minerals
are parallel to the c-axos of tetragonal or hexagonal min enlls. The clirc:c-
GENERAL FEATURES
139
tion may agree with either the fast or the slow ray of the mineral, depending upon the optic sign.
Orthorhombic System. The crystallographic axes a, b, and c of orthorhombic minerals correspond with the vibration axes X, Y, and Z but
not necessarily in the order named. The crystallographic axis a, for instance, may be X, Y, or Z, and the same substitutions are possible for
crystallographic axes band c. If two vibration axes are fixed, however,
the third becomes known. It is also evident that X and Z define the position of the axial plane; thus, if a = Z and c = X, the axial plane includes
a and c. The axial angle 2V may vary in amount within the axial plane.
Orthorhombic crystals are indicated in several ways. The extinction is
parallel to a, b, or c. Thus if a, b, and c can be ascertained from some
FIG.
8-36. Thin-section and orientation diagram s of barite.
prominent cleavage or crystal outline, the nature of the extinction becomes known. Recognizable cleavage and crystal faces aid in examination. Good dispersion is useful.
When the positions of a, b, and c are once ascertained, the interference
figure will furnish criteria for the relative fixation of X, Y, and Z. The
position of the optic axes will also be ascertained at the same time. In
practice each mineral presents a special problem in orientation, and da ta
for the common minerals are included with the mineral description s in
Part 2.
Barite furni sh es a useful illustration of the probl em involved in th e
optical orientation of an orthorhombic min eral. An idealized cleavage
of barite is shown in Fig m e 8-36, togeth cr with a diagram of a thin section and three orie nted cross s('('lions. In thin scction tho harito grai ll s
(~xhihil cimv;l ge in lllr('(' dir('ct iolls, II I(' ('lc-av~l ge p;lrnllelto (001) I>~'illg
lI1oro proIIOIIlIC'('d , TIl(' grll ill Ill ll l'k. 'd II ill III(' lhill s( 'dioll hllpp( 'ns In /)\ '
i ll II posilioll ill ""'Iic'l 111 0 1 1I' 1~ 1 j\.'1 cd c1. 'I IVllgO II I( IIi SII 1'0 7H o22' , Tltl~ {;-Llxis
140
MINERAL OPTICS
is perpendicular to this section. The planes {1l0} and {llO} are parallel
to the c-axis. In this grain the a-axis would bisect the obtus e angle or
cleavage, and the b-axis would bisect the acute angle of cleavage. Between crossed nicols the extinction will b e parallel to a and b, or symmetrical with respect to the cleavage. Grain S would have parallel extinction but might be normal to the b-axis and not in a position to give
an interference figure of the acute bisectrix type. An interference figure
is oriented with respect to the cleavage as shown in grain Q. A test with
the quartz wedge will confirm the fact that the mineral is positive; hence
Bx" Z. The optic normal is Y, and Bxo X. If one refers again to the
Ie
(0101
Ie
/0
~I
__
~p=y ___~r~i
~(0101
. ",,0\
{]
----
Hornblende furnishes a good illustration of the problem of orientation

of a monoclinic crystal. The mineral has two prominent directions of
cleavage parallel to the rhombic prism {1l0}. The c-axis is parallel to
the edge between the cleavages, and the b-axis bisects the angle between (100) and (110) (Figure 8-37). In thin sections either one or
two sets of cleavage lines appear, depending upon the orientation. Grains
with two cleavage directions are symmetrical in extinction and yield
biaxial negative interference figures. The axial plane bisects the obtuse
angle of the cleavage, and Y bisects the acute angle. The position of Z
may be obtained from a section parallel to the plane of the axes a and c.
Light vibrating parallel to Z is the slow ray; the angle of maximum extinction for the slow ray may be determined with the mica plate. The
maximum extinction angle for the single cleavage h'ace is the angle between Z and the c-axis. In hornblende this angle is about 25 0 . When Z is
determincd, the angle of X is known since it lies at 90 0 to Z. Y is p erpendicular to the plane of Z and X.
Triclinic System. Each tIiclinic crystal constitutes an individual case
in optical Olientation. The center of the optical system must coincide with
the center of the crystallographic system; otherwise there is no agrer'ment.
REFERENCES
'("\
\1
I
FIG.
141
GENERAL FEATURES
8-37. Thin-section and orientation diagrams of hornblende.
figures illustrating the cleavage form, the following orientation is apparent:
a = Z
b = Y
c = X
The angle 2V as estimated with the microscope is approximately equal to
the recorded angle 37 0 30'. Therefore the optic axes make an angle of
18 0 45' with the a-axis.
The orientation in the case of orthorhombic crystals is not always
so simple as in the case of barite. The principles and procedure, however,
are essentially the same, and it is always fundamental to be able to fix
the position of X, Y, and Z with respect to a, b, and c.
Monoclinic System . In monoclinic crystals, X, Y, or Z corrcspond to
the b-axis. If Y corresponds to b, which is oftcn the case, X and Z w:ill
occupy any position at 90 0 to each othcr in thc plan e of (f and c.
Grout, F. F,: "Petrography and Petrology," McGraw-Hill Rook Company, In c.,

New York, 1932.
Harker, A.: "Petrology for Students," 7th ed. , Cambridge University Press ,
London , 1935.
Heinrich, E. W.: "Microscopic Petrography," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1956.
Johannsen, A.: "Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections," John Wiley & SOilS ,
Inc. , New York, 1908.
Kraus , E. H., W. F. Hunt, and L. S. Ramsdell: "Mineralogy," 3d ed. , McG ra w
Hill Book Company, Inc. , New York, 1936,
Larsen, E. S. , and H. Berman: Microscopic Determination of Non-opaqu e Mill
erals, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 848, 1934,
Luquer, L. M.: "Minerals in Rock Sections ," 4th ed " D, Van Nostrand ~ , ()"I
pany, Inc. , Princeton, N.J., 1913.
Rogers, A. F.: "Introduction to the Study of Minerals," 3d cd. , McGraw.'lli"
Book Compan y, Inc. , New York, 1937.
Wcinschenck, E.: "Petrographic Methods," trans. by R. W. Cla rk, McCr:lwHill Book Company, Inc. , New York, 1912.
Williams, H. , F. J. Turn er, and C. M. Gilbcrt: "Petrography," V\!. n . Fr('('mn ll
& Co. , San Francisco, 1954.
Winchell , A. N.: "Eleme llts of OpLical Mincralogy. Part TT : Desc ripliolls ot
Mincrals," John Wiley & SOli S, IIIC., Ncw York, 1927.
143
MINERAL FRAGMENTS
CHAPTER
Mineral Fragments
Crushed Fragments. The principles of microscopic observation with

polarized light apply equally whcther minerals are studied in thin sections or in crushed fragments. However, differences in mounting, cleavage development, or the dish'ibution and orientation of the minerals in
the mount enable the student to make optical determinations more accurately and conveniently with fragments than with thin sections. As a
result, supplementary studies of fragments are often advisable.
A small amount of material suffices for a complete examination of
crushed fragments ; no preliminary grinding is necessary; a minimum of
equipment is used (polarizing microscope and set of index liquids) ;
cleavage fragm ents break according to form and assist greatly in establishing orientation; and individual crystals may be isolated for independent examination. Nevertheless, in spite of the utility of fragment
methods, it should be kept in mind that this type of examination fails to
yield the splendid exhibit of mineral association and texture observable
in thin sections.
The practical utilization of crushed fragments in mineral identincation
was nrst attempted by Maschke in 1872, although it was not until years
later that the method was sufficiently developed to be widely used. In
1898, Schroeder van del' Kolk assembled a list of fluids suitable for use
as immersion liquids ; in 1906, his publication of a list giving a more extensive series of liquids, together with the refractive indices of 300
minerals determined by comparison with these liquids, was a great step
forward. A. F. Rogers , E. S. Larsen, H. E. Merwin, C. S. Ross , F. E.
Wright, H. Berman, and others have accumulated data that have greatly
increased the application of the method. Perhaps the greatest stimulus
was brought about by Larsen's "Microscopic D etermination of the Nonopaque Minerals."
Methods of Mounting. Permanent mounts are prepared with Canada
balsam. In the preparation, fragments are sprinkled on a slidc and
covered with balsam; then the balsam is cookcd by plaCing the slid e on
a hot plate, and the mount is covered with a cover glass. This may b
142
done in a few minutes, and the slide may be marked for purposes of
Rling.
Temporary mounts are made by utilizing the various inert liqUids used
for determining the indices of refraction. Screened fragments are preferable for routine work. If screens are not available, fragments of suitable
size may be obtained by plaCing small lumps of a mineral between two
glass slides and rubbing the slides together until the glass surfaces slide
smoothly over each other on the mineral powder. On a clean glass slide,
place about as many fragments as can be pickcd up on the tip of a small
knife blade. By tapping the edge of the slide with the knife, distribute
the fragments evenly over an area approximately 14 inch in diameter.
Then place a cover glass over the grains. With a small glass rod, apply
a drop of oil at the edge of the
cover glass. The oil will flow in and
around the grains by capillary action
(Figure 9-1). If one drop of oil is
not sufficient, a second and a third
may be applied until the fragments
are completely immersed. Care
should be taken, however, not to
apply an excess of oil for this may
cause the grains to float, thus hin- FIG. 9-1. Immersion of mineral grains.
dering observations and measurements. With sufficient care, two or three mounts may be made on a
single slide. After use, the glass slides may be cleaned with alcohol,
followed by rinsing in water and drying.
Temporary mounts are by no means restricted to nne powders . Small,
well-formed crystals, deh'ital grains, coarse fragments, and oriented
cleavages or sections are representative of materials that may be examined in a variety of positions under the microscope. A slight movement of the cover glass on a temporary mount frequently suffices to tum
a fragment. This is somewhat easier if powdered glass slightly eoarscr
than the fragments being studied is mixed with the sample. The glass
fragments being free from cleavage lie in random positions and are easily
turned , moving the fragments of the sample at the same time. Th e glass
is easily distinguish ed by its isotropic character and index of refraction .
A binoculru: microscope of low power is extremely useful for th c purpose of isolating small crys tals or min cral grain s (Fi gure 9-2 ). Whil e
lookin g throu gh tlH' hinocular small crys tals may he pricd loosv from a
sp ecim en w ilh a needle anc1 these form ic1 e;)1 samp'les for ('xanlill :llioll
w illi til t: po'l:iri z in l,!; mi croscope, ill c illl(' r I C' lIlporary or P('rI1l :III (' 1I1 IIIOlllll s.
111ll1lCrsiol\ Melhod. In imm ersion , nlill c r:i1 fra glll('lIl s a)'(' plil ('('<I 1111<1 0 1'
III/l IlIi ('ro~ ( '()jl\ l ill It li(l' dd (If kllow " illdi ' ~ , alld Ilit l 1'\ ,1'1'111'11011
Ii g;1I I
or
MINERAL OPTICS
144
observed at the edges of the fragments may be utilized in index comparison.

The fragments examined may range widely in size. Ordinarily, fragments that pass through a standard 100-mesh screen and are caught on
a 120-mesh screen me satisfactory. Refractive index determinations of
minerals follow a routine procedure. Since the index of refraction of the
liquid is known, the method of central illumination or that of oblique
illumination may be used to compare the indices of refraction of the
FIG.
9-2. A binocular microscope. (Cotlltes!J of American Optical Co.)
mineral fragments with the index of refraction of the liquid. As soon as

the index of the mineral is determined to b e greater or less than the
liquid, the slide is placed in a cleaning jar, and another mount is prepared, using a liquid with a different index. By utilizing a number of
liquids and making repeated comparisons the indices of refraction of a
mineral may be ascertained within reasonably narrow limits. In case the
mineral is isotropic, having only one index of refraction, it is customary
to determine the index of the mineral to within two or thrce in the third
place of decimals. When minerals are anisotropic, havin g indices of refraction that vary with direction, equal accuracy is possible, but more
comparisons OIre necessary to determinc differc nt valn cs . It is customary
MINERAL FRAGMENTS
145
to prepare a set of liquids with indices of refraction of 1.450, 1.455, 1.460,

1.465 . . . etc., up to a limit of 1.740. A considerable number of bottles
are required for such a group of liquids. These are usually kept in a dark
place and are painted black on the outside to keep out the light. A less
elaborate set of liquids with values 1.50, 1.51, 1.52, 1.53 . . . etc., is
frequently used. Such a set requires half the number of bottles, is more
qUickly standardized, and with careful mixing of drops on a slide will
vield results accurate to 0.003.
It is not always advisable to place the cover glass over dry fragments
and allow the liquid to be drmVI1 around each grain by capillary attraction, as explained above. To cite a speCific instance, it may be desired to
find the index of refraction of a mineral with a value between two liquids
such as 1.555 and 1.560. In this case a drop of liquid 1.555 is placed upon
a slide, and a drop of liquid 1.560 of the same size is placed near by but
not quite touching the first drop. The mineral powder is then sprinkled
between the drops, and both the drops and the powder are mixed with
a needle, small wire, or small stirring rod. A small cover glass is th en
placed over the mixture, pressed down to remove air globules, and th e
mount is ready for microscopic examination. The index of the mixed
liquid should be about 1.5575.
Index Determinations by Immersion. For hexagonal or tetragonal
minerals n e and nw are determined; for orthorhombic, monoclinic, or tri clinic minerals n", n{3 , and ny. In thcse d eterminations it should b e remembered that each mineral grain in the field of the microscope is doubly
refracting with values n2 and n 1 . Furthermore, when a crystal is in th e
position of extinction, the planes of vibration of n 2 and n 1 are parallel to
the vibration planes of the nicols.
The determination of n e and n w , or n" and ny, usually resolves ilseH
into a search with successive liqUids until both the upper and lower
limits of n 2 and n.l for a given mineral are located. The diITerence hetween the two values equals the maximum double refraction of lh e
mineral. It should be remembered, however, that cleavage or struelllr('
may limit the positions in which min erals will come to rest on th e slick
In such cases the two extremes may not be obtained unless fragm enls
are turned by movin g the cover glass or interference figures arc used 10
check th e orientalion .
Th e dcle rmi nalion or 111l in biaxial min crals may be carried Ollt ill Iwo
ways. H illtcrfcre nc(' I1 gm es on or ncar a bisectrix or an oplic axis call
he oh lain ed for se veral grains in different li rplids, th c dclcrmillalioll of
1I (l is s impl e. Tllis is elll(' lo 111(' r;lel lh al Lil(' index of lll(' ray vihra lill ~ OIl
ri ght <lilgh's \0 \11 (' ;lxi;Ji pl;1I1( is 11 11. II is ;liso ("o ll vC'ni<' liI 10 ')"('ill(' lllI )('r
dIldo lill y gll ill ill n p (l ~ ili()n to l~ i Vl' 1111 optic : I \ i ~ ri gllr\' y icl <h rnys wil li
1110 illd( ,,< 1/ /1 ill nil dir,( 1i() II ~ . II /.,11 ,11 illl\-ri( I"'III", 1i l',111'(s lin ' 1101 ol ll :dll-
146
MINERAL OPTICS
able, and specific information concerning the position of n/3 in fragments

is not known, the value can still be determined by a process of elimination as explained below.
For each fragm ent shown in the field of the microscope, somewhere
between n 2 and 111 is the value 11/3 . In certain fragments either 112 or n 1
may equal n/3, but from the consideration of biaxial crystals it can be
shown that both 112 and n 1 will approach but never pass b eyond the
value of n/3 in the same fragment. Thus 11/3 may be located by varying
the liquids and observing both n2 and n 1 in a number of fragments. In
Figure 9-3 assume the vertical lines are the refractive indices of
a certain mineral. The horizontal lines cover the range in indices of refraction for different grains having different values of n 2 and n 1 It will
rI
I
nt
n2
:
I
I
nt
I
~
I
I
1.670
1.675
1.680
___~ -
'0
I
I
np 7 t.680
1.665
FIG.
nIX =1.662
(\
Hornblende
II
n1----rn2
nt I
n2
I
I
g
~
Augite
I
I
I
Iny
I
I
I
I~
I
I
I n2
nlli
Form of minerals in crushed fragments is probably most frequently

related to the cleavage. Since cleavage is the ability of a mineral to break
into smaller and smaller particles with smooth surfaces th at are parallel
to possible crystal faces, it follows that tillS characteristic will be as evi-
I
ntl
II
1.660
I
Iny
147
MINERAL FRAGMENTS
ny=!.699
1.685
1.690
1.695
1.700
9-3. The detennination of n in irregular non-oriented fragments.
be observed that all lines cross or meet 1.680, this being the value of n/3 ;
also, that no lines exceed 1.699, which is the value of 1Vy; and that no
lines are less than 1.662, which is the value of 11" . If fragments with weak
double refractions are tried in successive liquids, testing both n2 and n 1
in each case, the value of n/3 can soon be approximated within narrow
limits.
It is convenient as a confirmation of the determination of optic sign to
remember that when (n/3 - n,, ) is decidedly greater than ( 1Vy - n/3 ), the
mineral is optically negative. If on the other hand, (n/3 - n,,) is deCidedly less than (IVy - n/3 ), the mineral is positive.
Form of Mineral Fragments. Mineral fragments often exhibit distinctive forms under the microscope that are extremely useful in their identification. Such forms may be due to cleavage of the crystals of the mineral
or may be due to a characteristic growth that causes peculiar fragments,
or the crystals may be so small that they appear as individuals beneath
the microscope.
Natrolite
~~
[CIC. 9-4. Cleavage and fracture fragm ents. (a) One direction- irregular plates (Il l}
iiiu strated). (b) Two direction s- orthoclase, augite, and hombl end e. ( c) Thr<>
directions- kyanite, anhydrite (rectangular) , calci te (rhombohedral). (d) FO ll r d,'
reclions- flllorile (octahedral). ( e) Prismatic sillimanite. (f) Aciclllar- natrolite.
dent in fra gments as in a hand specimen. Minerals may exhibit cleavag!Y

in one, two, three, or even four and six dircctions (Fi gure 9-1) . T h('
iden.(ificalion of cleavage planes in mineral fragme nts is aided by til('
fact that Lhe fragmonls norrn:dly mi('ll t lhe msclves with ono of the okavago SlIrfHCOS ptlrnlicl 10 Iho slI rfll(,o of II\( slid o. Thlls, if ;) millornl hll.~
148
MINERAL OPTICS
one direction of prominent cleavage, it will normally yield flat-lying

fragments, with ragged or b roken edges . Under crossed nicols , if the
mineral is anisotropic, the flat surface may exhibit a single interference
color, and the narrow ed ges will show color bands. H the mineral has
two directions of cleavage, one direction will probably be the surface on
which it lies, and the other direction will show as either inclined or
vertical parallel edges. H the cleavage is developed at right angles, the
edge may be vertical. H, however, the cleavage develops at an inclined
angle, the edge will appear beveled.
The influence of cleavage or other directional separation along smooth
planes is shown in Figure 9-4. The diagrams showing the cleavage fragments are idealized. In a field containing many broken fragments, a few
will usually be found unmistakably representing the idealized shape.
The majority, however, show only portions of the maximum cleavage
development. Even minerals kno\'m to possess excellent cleavage are
likely to yield a considerable number of irregular fragments when broken.
In addition to the flat-lying, inclined , or vertical planes of cleavage
that modify mineral fragments, sh apes due to origin al characteristics of
crystallization may be observed. Asb estos, for example, produces threadlike fibers. Acicular or needlelike mineral structures will frequently yield
fragments made up of bundles of elongated, thin, parallel crystals. Fine
mica flakes may exhibit both flat-lying flakes and needlelike form s when
the flakes are on edge. When the flakes are inelastic, wavy or curved
plates are likely to result.
Knowledge of cleavage in fragments is necessary in using the immersion method for determining refractive indices.
Immersion Media. Liquids for use as immersion media should be colorless, as odorless as possible, chemically stable, and miscible in all proportions with each other. They should h ave low dispersion, low volatility,
and moderat e viscosity. Liquids should b e inert and not react with or
dissolve the substances to b e t ested.
Although many different liquids h ave b een suggested as satisfactory
immersion media, it has b een found that a few well-chosen liquids are
preferable to a wide range of complicated compounds. 1
Common liquids for immersion media are as shown in the table on
page 149.
In the prep aration of the liquids, isoamyl isovalerate and keros ene may
he mixed to fOlm liquids up to 1.466 in indices of refraction. Kcrosene
and h alowax oil may be used for mixtures betwcen 1.466 and 1.63. Halowax oil and methylene iodid e may be mixed to form liquids with indi ces
1 Liquids
suit'able far inclex re rra cl"i oll dd('l'1 l1 in :l ti () n ~ hy the imme rsion me th od
may be seellTed fro m n. P. Cn rgillC' L; "J<l I'lI I Clri(' ~, rll(., 1 17 Liberly St. , New York,
N. Y.
149
ML'l"ERAL F RAGMENTS
Liquid
Approximate index
of ref raction
1 .333
Water ..... . . ........... . . .. .. .. ...... .. . .. ... .
1 .428
I soamyl isovalerate 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
1.466
. . . . . . . . . . .
K crasene 2 .
P etrol eum oil .
. . ... . . . . . . ... . ... . ...... ... . . 1 .475
1 .658
a -m onobromnaph thalene 3 . . . . . . . . .
Meth ylene iodide'. . .. . ... .. . .
. .......... . .. . . 1 .740
1.794
Solution of meth ylene iodide and sulfu r up to.
1 Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester , N. Y .
2 A clear, high ly refined product, call ed government oil, having t he v alue give n
above is sold by Leeds & Northrup Co.
3 Mo nochlorna ph thalene, or "halowax oil " (n = 1.63), has been fo und by a numbe r
of workers to be eq ually satisfactory and more eco nomical. It is sold by t he B ak eli te
Corp.
Edcan Laboratories, 12 Pine St ., South N orwalk, Co nn.
of refraction between 1.63 and 1.74. For indices b elow 1.43, some diffi culty has been encountered in findin g suitable liquids. With more th an
forty minerals and many inorganic substances having indices below 1.43,
liquids in this range are desirable. 'Vater and the alcohols are impractical
because of their solvent action. E xperiments with peb'oleum distillates
have shown that fractionation of two ligroins, gasolene, and kerosene
between narrow boiling-point limits results in stable liquids with indices
between 1.3548 and 1.4593 at 22C.
It has b een found also that ethyl propionate and mesitylene arc
miscible in all proportions to form satisfactory index media b etween
1.385 and 1.43.
Satisfactory liquids with indices of refraction above 1.74 constitute a
problem. Methylene iodide containin g diss olved sulfur has b een used
for the range from 1.74 to 1.78. Phenyldiodoarsine (n = 1.84) mixcd with
methylene iodide has been used for the range from 1.78 to 1.84. A set
of high-index liquids made up of phosphorus, sulfur, and methylene
iodide covering the range 1.78-2.06 has b een described by C. D . W cst.
These liquids are practically stable, inexpensive, and safe to use with th e
proper precautions.
A set of high-index liquids, composed of arsenic bromide-arsenic
sulfide-methylene iodide, has been described by L. H. Borgs bom. Th eso
liqu ids h ave a range from 1.78 to 1.95.
Mixed melts of sulfur and selenium (2.05 t o 2.72) or piperin e and
arseni c and antim ony b'iiodid es (1.68 to 2.10) are used for hi gll -in ckx
determina tions. Th e melts arc prepared in advance and arra nged in :1
series of mixtll rcs . T he valu es of t11 (" indi ces of th e mixtllres :11'(' d<,Innni ned h y th e p rism metlH)(l. A slll;dl prism or th e tr;l nSp ;lJ'('nt II II'll is
Ili ado a lld ll1() lIlll ('d Oil Ilu' Slllgl' or II go ni ome ler. n n th Ih e II n g ] (' 01' 111( 1
pris lll 1I1i d I h(} 11 l1 glo of Illillillllllli <i( lvinl iO Il unl 1l1.)IIS II J'('d . T lln i lld ox of
150
MINERAL OPTICS
refraction is then computed as previously explained for the prism method.

The melt is molded into the form of a prism by using two cover glasses
placed at an angle of 30 to each other. The melt is poured into the
space between and allowed to cool. When cold, the cover glasses will
break away, leaving a prism with smooth surfaces. Great care must be
used not to overheat, or the indices of the piperine mixtures will vary
greatly. When the index of the melt has been determined, the material
is placed in a sealed tube and flIed for future use. When applied, the
ground-up material is melted around fragments of minerals, and the indices are compared by the method of central illumination.
Extensive investigation of high-index media suitable for work with
minerals has been conducted by Larsen and Meyrowitz. Precipitated
sulfur in arsenic tribromide has been used with methylene iodide in
various proportions to form a series of high-index immersion liquids in
the range 1.74 to 1.81. The liquids are stable and reasonably durable. The
mixing curve is not a strai~ht line but may be utilized. In the range 1.82
to 2.00 solutions have been prepared with end members as follows : (1)
precipitated sulfur, 10 per cent, in arsenic tribromide, (2) precipitated
sulfur, 20 per cent, and arsenic disulfide in arsenic tribromide, 60 per
cent. The mixing curve is a straight line.
Standardization and Care of Liquids. Indices of refraction of standard
liquids are determined according to the methods of refractive-index determination already mentioned. Standard refractometers are suitable for
indices to 1.7; the goniometer and prism may be used for the entire range,
including melts. Liquids should be standardized for the temperature at
which they are to be used, since changes in the index of a liquid occur
with temperature variations. Generally, increase in temperature lowers
the index of a liquid. This change is approximately 0.0004 per degree
centigrade for liquids with indices below 1.658, but for methylene iodide,
it amounts to as much as 0.007 for each degree.
In preparing a liquid of a desired index by mixing hvo liquids of known
indices, the following formula is convenient:
Vlnl
+ V 2n2
= V xn x
where V represents volume, n the index, and V"n" the volume and index
desired. To illustrate, let the volume of n l = Vl and the volume of
n 2 = V 2 , n l = 1.4, n 2 = 1.65 and V "n" = 20 cm3 of index 1.5. Two equations may be written as follows:
1.4V I
+ 1.65V2 =
VI + V =
2
and, by solving,
30
20
V2 = 8
V l = 12
l~l
MINERAL FRAGMENTS
Therefore, 8 cm 3 of index liquid 1.65 and 12 cm 3 of liquid 1.4 will make

20 cm3 of a liquid with an index of 1.5. For methylene iodide mixtures,
it has been found that slightly more methylene iodide may be required
than the formula indicates.
For accurate work it is important to protect liquids from light and
evaporation. Black bottles (from 15 to 20 cm 3 ) with glass applicator
stoppers and glass caps are preferable for storage. A wooden box, fitted
with a block recessed with round holes into which the bottles fit securely,
makes a convenient and safe container for a complete set. While the
liquids are in use, care should be taken to keep the bottles stoppered
except when the applicator is actually being used.
REFERENCES
Borgstrom, L. H.: Contribution to the Development of the Immersion Method ,
Bull. comm. geol. Finlande 87, pp. 58-63, 1929.
Glass, J. J.: Standardization of Index Liquids, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 19, pp.
459-465, 1934.
Kaiser, E. P. , and W. Parrish: Preparation of Immersion Liquids, Ind . Eng .
Chem., anal. ed., vol. 11, pp. 560-562, 1939.
Larsen, E. S., and H. Berman: The Microscopic D etermination of the Nonopaque Minerals, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 848, 1934.
Larsen, Esper S., Jr., and Robert Meyrowitz: Immersion Liquids of High Hcfractive Index, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 36, pp. 746-750, 1951.
Maschke, 0.: Dber Abscheidung krystallisirter Kieselsaure aus wassrigc n
Losungen, Fogg. Ann., 5th ser. , vol. 25, pp. 549-578, 1872.
Merwin, H. E.: Media of High Hefraction, etc. , Am. ]. Sci ., vol. 34, pp. 42- 47,
1912.
- - - : Media of Lower Refraction , ]. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 3, pp . 35-40,
1913.
Meyrowitz, Robert: A Compilation and Classification of Immersion Media of
High Index of Refraction , Am. Mineralogist, vol. 40, pp. 398-409, 1955.
- --: A New Series of Immersion Liquids, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 37, pp.
853-856, 1952.
- --: Solvents and Solutes for the Preparation of Immersion Liqnids or
High Index of Refraction, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 41 , pp. 49-59 , 1956.
Rogers, A. F.: The D etermination of Minerals in Crushed Fragments by Mellns
of the Polarizing Microscope, Quart. , Columbia School Mines, vol. 27, pp .
340-359, 1906.
Schroeder van del' Kolk, J. L. C .: "Tabellen zur mikroskipisehen Bestimmlln g
der Mineralien naeh ihrem Brec11l1ngsindex ," Wiesbaden, 1906.
Switzer, George: Butyl "earbitol" as an Immersion Liqu id, Am. M 'i ll emlog i.l'/,
vol. 29, pp. 389-391 , 1944.
W est, C. D.: Imm ersion Liquids of High ncfraelive Tndex, Alii . Mi ll (im /IJg is/,
vol. 2], pp. 245- 2t19 , 1936.
Wright, F . F..: T he M cl hods of Pnl rogmphic-ll1ieroseop ie n()S()llrcli, CUl'l lflgilJ
TI1.~t . /',,11. 158, J Oll.
SYSTEMATIC IDENTIFICATION
CHAPTER
10
Systematic Identification
Tables. The identification of mineral species involves procedures which

must be repeated many times in the examination of even a few thin sections. Much wasted effort may be avoided if a systematic procedure is
adopted. Tables 10-1 to 10-10 are arranged in a progressive sequence
which requires simple observations first and more involved manipulations
later. An outline follows:
KEY TO MINERAL TABLES

Mineral to be identified
Opaque
Table 10-1
Transparent
Colored
Shape or form
Cleavage
Index of refraction Tobie /0-5
Isotropic
Table 10-6
{ Chart A
Anisotropic
Birefringence Table /0-7
Uniaxial
Biaxial
(+) {Table 10-8

(-) Chart 8
(+) Table 10-9 (- )Table 10-/0

Charts C. 0
Axial angle CliortsE,F,G
FIG.
10-1.
Opaque Minerals (Table 10-1) . As a first step, it is desirable to observe

whether a mineral is opaque or transparent. Occasionally, areas of opaque
minerals are found. These should b e illuminated from above the stage
and may be identified by reference to Table 10-1. Hovvever, for opaque
minerals, recourse must frequently be had to conventional min eralogical
methods bcyond the scope of this t cxt.
I S2
153
Transparent Minerals (Tables 10-2 to 1010). The tables are designed

primarily for h'ansparent minerals in thin section. With two exceptions
(Tables 10-1 and 10-3) the tables also will b e found suitable in most instances for mineral fragments as well as thin sections.
A systematic order of observation for each transparent mineral is (1)
color, (2) shape or form, (3) cleavage, (4) index refraction; and (5)
anisotropism. Should any of these features appear signmcant the appropriate table should be consulted.
If the mineral is colored, note also whether it is pleochroic or nonpleochroic; if pleochroic, note the colors of pleochroism. Should the
mineral occur in some significant shape it should be compared with forms
and shapes listed. Elongated crystals may b e tested for positive or negative elongation. The presence of cleavage should lead to comparison with
the cleavage types listed in the tables. If some knowledge of orientation
may be gained from the cleavage, it should be applied.
Isotropic Minerals (Table 106). The group of isotropic minerals is
small, and p erhaps the mineral may b e recognized directly if color, cleavage, and the relative index of refraction are taken into account.
Birefringent Minerals (Table 107). Anisotropic minerals range in
double refraction through wide limits. In general, however, the order of
the highest obs erved interference color for an unknovm mineral in thin
section can b e of considerable assistance in determining a mineral. Since
properly ground thin sections are about 0.03 to 0.035 mm in thickn ess,
the double refraction may be estimated from the interference colors and
reference to the interference color chart (see page 168).
Optical Character (Tables 108, 109, and 1010). As a final stage in
systematic identmcation, an attempt should b e made to determin e whether
a mineral is uniaxial or biaxial, positive or negative. Interference fi gurcs
aid in this identification. If a mineral proves to b e biaxial, it is desirable
to ascertain the axial angle and if possible the nature of the disp ersion .
T hese features are summarized in Tables 10-8, 10-9, and 10-10 and Charts
B, C, D, E, F, and C.
Conclusion. The identification on the basis of optical properties will
depend upon the possibilities suggested by each of th e tables consulted.
Frequently several possibilities remain after the criteria covered by th o
lablcs h ave b een considered. These may be investigated further by refercnce to th e min eral descriptions in Part 2 where more complete cbta
;\I'e availahlc. Mineral fragments may b e used for refra ctive incl ex cleI('rmin:llions as describcd in Ch ap ler 9 and the data ap plied to T"hl(
10-5. MiliCI'''] assoc iations and environment as described nl1ckr oC<'IIr!'i'II( '(' :11'< ' of Ien \1 clpf,d .
IO:x p( 'I'i( 'II ('( ' 11 ;ls SII() WII Ill al lil( ' lah l( 's :11'(' a<1('<I" :II(' for I'OIItinc id( 'Jllin.
('a lioll (II' III Osl ( ' 0111111011 JlliJl" n " ~ "II( '()I"II( 'J'('d ill Ihi" s('( lioJl:; . As IL
MINERAL OPTICS
further aid in systematic identification, an outline procedure suggested

for anisotropic transparent minerals is included.
TABLE
154
155
10-1.
Color with
re flected light
O PAQUE MINERALS
Mineral
Comment
OUTLINE FOR IDENTIFICATION
(Transparent Minerals
Mineral de scription
Color.
Shape . . .
Cleavage.
(> )
Black.
Graphite, C
Frequently occurs in thin

Hakes or scattered specks
with micaceous cleavage.
Ca rbonaceous matter may
occur as fine black inclusions.
Brass yellow.
Pyrite, FeS2
Euhedral crystals are common with square, triangular, or rectangular sections.

Cleavage indistinct or absent. High relief due to
hardness.
P leochroic colors ...
Elongation ... . . . . .. . . . . . . .. ......... ...... .

Extinction.
Index of refraction
R elief in balsam .
+ or - balsam .
Compared to other minC'rals
Birefringence.
in the section .
Mineral possibilities as suggested by T ables 10-2, 10-3, 10-4, 10-5, a nd 10-7
10-2.
10-3.
10-4.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-7 .
10-5. .
Optical character
E stimated 2V . .
Biaxial +
Uniaxial + .. ..
Dispersion.
Optical orientation data .
. .............. .
Mineral identification as suggested by T ables 10-8, 10-9, and Charts B, C, D, E,
F, and G.
Associated minerals .
Conclusion (verifi ed by refer ence to mineral descriptions in P a rt 2) .... . . . . .... . . . .
Bronze to copper red 1 Pyrrhotite, FeS(S)
Found in masses or bladed

crystals. Basal parting II to
100011. Darker color than
pyrite.
Strong brass yellow .. 1 Chalcopyrite, CuFeS2
Found in masses a nd oocasionally in euhedral crystals.

Deeper yellow t han pyrite
and lower relief.
Steel blue, red, or

blac k .
Hematite, Fe 20 3
Blood red on translucon t

edges. Occasionally shows
parting. Found in euhedral
crystals a nd masses .
Violet black .
Ilmenite, FeTi03
More violet or purple than

hematite. Basal parting and
fl akelike crystals common .
Often found with m agnetite.
Steel blue black
M agnetite Fe"Fe21l 'O.
Oct ahedral (occasionally dodecahedral) crystals a rc co mmon. T he mineral may have

oct a hedral parting. Frequently a prima ry mineral.
.. Opaque minerals may be identified by reference to Table 10-1.
rroll hl ack to brown- I Chromite (Fe,Mg)(C r,AI,F e)2o .i Us ually brown on th in edgell.
is ll black.
Frequently fou nd with 110 1'pe ntine.
YC' lI olV brown ..
While
Limolli te, II , F e 2 0 .. (Il 2 0 ).
. . . . . . . . . . , LOll GUXC lle, TiO " elc.
Colloform, pisoli t ic, POl'O Il A,

a nd massive agg regates COrYlmono Thin, tmnspflrentcdgc8
a re cla rk betweo n orOfleud
ni co ls .
A white, fin e-gmi ll ori OplL(jll fl
a ltcmt ion prod uct of priIll l"'y tilall ium Illillcnd ll.
156
MINERAL OPTICS
TABLE
10-2,
157
COL
ORED MINERALS
Red
--- - -
Pink rose
Orange
Brown
Sphalerite
'0
os. g :E
Sphalerite
Fluorite
S pinel
Collophane
Clia chite
P erovs kite
G a rn et
Fluorit e
a'"
Spinel
Cliachite
Perovs kite
,g~
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Gray
Black
Sodalit e
'"o Q'"'
'"'
Perovs kite
P erovskit e
Garnet
---
Sodalit e
Spha lerite
Fluo rite
Spinel
Collophane
Sodalite
Soda li te
Fluorite
Spinel
Fluorite
Spinel
Fluorite
Spinel
P erolJskit e
Garnet
Garn et
Cliachite
Perovskit e
P erovskite
Garn et
La zuri te
Zircon
C ass iter ite
Rutile
OJ
'>l~
'a
Rutile
Zircon
Cassiterite
Rutile
Rutile
[Chlo ritoid]
[Chlorite]
[Chl oritoid]
[Biotit e]
Dra vite
Stilpnomela n e
I
T ourmaline
Corundum
Tourma line
[Biotite]
Dra vite
Stilpnom ela ne
Schorlite
Tourmaline
Stilpnomelane
Schorli te
Tourmaline
Apatite
J a rosite
Piedmontite
Titanite
Staurolite
Piedm ontite
Titanite
Piedrnonti te
Tita nite
Staurolite
Mona zite
Mona zite
StaUr1"olite
Clinochlor e
P erovs kite
P erovs kite
Aegirin e-augite
Chondrodite
P erovs kite
P erovs kite
Iddingsite
R util e
Schorlite
Schorlite
Schorli t e
Corundum
Apatite
Corundum
[Bi otit e]
Apatit e
Piedmontite
Rutile
[C hloritoid]
[Chlorite]
Zircon
Cassiterite
Rutile
Schorlito
Apa t it e
Piedmontite
Sph en e
Chloritoid
Clin ochlo re
Aegirine-a u gite
Chondrodite
Chloritoid
Chlorite
Aegirine-a ugite
Sph en e
Chloritoid
P erovskit e
Iddingsite
I
I
I
P ero vskit e _ _ I
Crocidolite
Crocidolite
Chlori te
Ri ebeckite
C hlorite
Ri ebeck ite
S1)h c1t6
P ero !)skite
Crocidolite
..'" ,-..
u -u
o 0
+I
,~
_.<l
o u
'a'"
.!:l
OJ
'>l
iXi"
Biotite
-< '"
Allanite
,
('
Hypersthene
Alla nite
Phlogopi te
Bas altic
Hornblende
A egirine
Hypersthen e
Biotite
Epidote
Glaucophan e
Allanite
Phlogopite
Actinolite
Glauconite
Biotite
E pidote
Epidote
Gla ucop ha n e
--
Glaucophane
G la uco p ha n e
L fl m pro holi to
Aeg irin e
H y pers t he ne
Ao tin oli te
A"(Jid n
G la li ou llitl'
Andalus ite
Dumortierite
O f (J.u {' (I",i l
1)1I111(n' t i critc
Hornblende
1 - ---1-
D lllll o l' ti l' ri to
Il o t'lIhl (l lid o
Co /'( l if' /'1;(,iJ
I.n l'. 1I1 i l 1l
Note: Ita lios indicate lesser examples ; bra ckets , occasional examples , C o lo red m inera ls,
a l t h o ll ~ h
i IH t' llIlIlI .v p L I1 (H I I ~ 1 Hi t), HIlL Y f Ilii I II Vll l y I II Ij o l lll' \v l ~ll l'II I , I ~ Uu n
qUai,'
fl l(l) l , pl lo li i d Il i rO il Il l1ti,' lIHh'i1,
158
MINERAL OPTICS
TABLE
cc
10-3.
FORM'
TABLE
Minerals Found in Euhedral Crystals

rr
r
rare
c
common
very common
Pyrite c
Fluorite r
Spinel r
Magnetite c
Perovski te c
Leuoite cc
Sodalite c
HaUyne c
Garnet cc
Analcime T
Tetragonal
Rutile c
C assi t eri te c
M elilite c
Idocrase c
Zircon c
Scapolite r
H exagonal
very rare
Quartz c
Corundum c
Calcite r
Dolomite r
Jarosite rr
Aluni te rr
Apatite cc
D a hllite c
C a ncrini te r
Tourmaline r
Cha b azite c
N epheline r
Monoclinic
Orthorhombic
C elestite r
Forsterite c
Olivine c
F ayalite c
Monticellite c
Topaz r
Anda lusite r
Zoisite r
Staurolite c
Lawsonite r
Dumortierite r
Gibbsite r
l\1onazite r
Laz uli te rr
Ort hoclase c
Sanidine cc
Adula ri a c
Aegirine-augite c
Spodumene c
J a d eite rr
La mp r obolite cc
Sph en e c
E pidote c
Pyroxene c
Amphibole c
Triclinic
l\1icrocline r
Plagioclase c
Form of Individual Crystals
~o
:'.-0
C5
V-
Equant grains
Fluorite
Quartz
Periclase
Rutile
Cassiterite
Spinel
Magnetite
Chromite
Anhydrite
Apatite
Leucite
Sodalite
Haiiyne
Melilite
Forsterite
Olivine
Fayalite
Chondrodite
Garnet
Zircon
Topaz
Andalusite
Axinite
Allanite
Cordierite
Sphene
Lawsonite
Glauconite
Analcime
I
'~-i;l~
/ /('I~ ./Acicular
Lathlike
Rutile
Aragonite
Sillimanite
Dumortierite
Tourmaline
Stilbite
Natrolite
Ilmenite
Aragonite
Barite
Celestite
Gypsum
Aegirine
Mullite
Dumortierite
Tourmaline
Epidote
Piedmontite
Prehnite
Pyrophyllite
Kyanite
Columnar
Quartz
Corundum
Orthoclase
Sa nidine
Microcline
Anorthoclase
Plagioclase
Nepheline
Cancrinite
Pyroxene
Spodumene
Wollastonite
Amphibole
Glaucophane
Beryl
Sca polite
Idocrase
Topaz
Kyanite
Zoisite
Clinozoisite
Staurolite
Micas
Chlorites
Barite
_II
Granular
Quartz
Chalcedony
Gibbsite
Calcite
Dolomite
M agnesite
Siderite
Barite
Celestite
Anhydrite
Gypsum
Polyhalite
Alunite
Jarosite
Dahllite
Olivine
Epidote
Kaolinite
Halloysite
Montmorillonite
Analcime
_...L______ _ _ ....l-- _ _
~~
FORM
(Continued)
_ _ __ ' _
"
Fibrous
Acicular
Brucite
Gypsum
Polyhalite
J adeite
Wollastonite
Anthophyllite
Tremoliteactinolite
Cummingto nite
Grune-rite
Nephrite
Riebeckite
Sillimanite
Prehnite
Sepiolite
Antigorite
Chrysotile
M esolite
Pyrophyllite
Aragonite
Dumortierite
Tourmaline
Stilbite
Natrolite
Thomsonite
Scolecite
Radia t ed
Spherulitic
Dahllite
Cllmmingtonite
Schorlite
(Tourm aline)
Prochlorite
Pyrophyllite
Natrolite
Chltlcedo ny
Gibbsite
T llum son iLe
Chalcedony
Cristoba lite
Calcite
Siderite
D ahllite
Orthuclase
Preh ni te
fl t,ilbi Lo
Dllm ol"li (' rit,o
~
"/
:.~>:~:,-
II
<2D.:.
i\ra~o nit, c
Aa observed in thin section.
10-3.
Forms of Crystal Aggregates
isometric
159
Cemented
Gibbsite
Ant igorite
'
::~.
La thlike
Feldspar
Hedenbergite
J adeite
Wollastonite
Tremoliteactinolite
Grunerite
Glaucophane
Beryl
Scapolite
Topaz
Andalusite
Tourmaline
Zoisite
Clinozoisite
Epidote
Piedmontite
Staurolite
Biotite
Thomsonite
Scolecite
Idocrase
Scapolite
Dumortierite
Aragonite
/~
J~
Foliated
Graphite
Hematite
Brucite
Muscovite
Biotite
Stilpnomelane
Phlogopite
Lepidolite
Prochlorite
Clinochlore
Pennine
Chloritoid
Anthophyllite
Iddingsite
Talc
Pyrophyllite
Kaolinite
Montmorillon ite
Dickite
Hydromuscovite
"'~I
,,"
~
I
Graphic intergrowths IIncipient crystaln

Cristobali te in
Quartz-feldspa r
glass
Quartz-staurolite
Qua rtz-actinoli te
Nepheline-feldspa r
Corundurn-ltnd aillsite
Glass-leucite
MINERAL OPTICS
160
TABLE
10-3.
(Concluded )
FORM
TABLE
Structures
r'E:;yl
I~~ I l ltJ))J~1
Shatter cracks I
Shards
(~~(:
I Perlitic cracks I Lithophysae
F low (with
phenocrysts)
I Tridymite
Montmorillonite
;)\
Low
Lechatelicri te
Glass
V
~
-Low
'(ffD~$ ...
.' I~'
'>;h.' ::'".",'
m
~
Banded
I Glass
:.~
. '
Colloform
..
'
Oolitic
Pisolitic
0;;
Cliachite
Limonite
Bone (a) :
Colloph ane
Cellular (b):
Chalcedony
Opal
Quartz
"0
-0
Cordierite (OIO)D
Gibbsite (OOI)D
Alunite (OOOI)D
Brucite (0001)1'
Polyhalite (100)D
Prehnite (OO I)D
Pyrophyllite (OOI)P
Talc (OOI)P
Muscovite (001)1'
Lepidolite (OOI)P
Cancrinite (IOIO) D
Low
M esolite (110)p(1IO)p
Scolecite (llO)D
Orthoclase (OOI)l'(OIO) D
Sanidine (OO!)P(OIO)D
Anorthoclase (OOI)P(O IO)D
Microcli ne (OOI)l'(OIO) D
Albite (OOI)P(OIO)D
Low
P lagioclase (OOI)l'(OlO) D
0;;
.D
Opal
Calcite
Aragonite
Dolomite
Collopha ne
Glauconite
Chalcedony
Pblogopite (OOI)P
Biotite (OO I)P
Stilpnomclane (OO!)l'
Chondrodite (OOI)l'
Epidote (OOI)P
Piedmontite D
Jarosite (OOOI)D
Monazite (001) (purting)
Prehnite (OOI)D
Glauconite (OOI)P
Sillima nite (IOO)P
Mullite (100)D
Dumortierite (IOO)D
Minerals with Cleavage in Two Directions
Microfossil
replace ment
Topaz (OOI)P
Zoisite (OIO)P
Clinozoisitc (001)1'
Sta urolite (OIO)D
Chloritoid (OOI)P
Corundum (0001) parting
;)\
-----~ -, ------
K ao linite (OOI)D
Dick ite (OOI)D
Chlorite (001)1'
Montmorillonite (OOI) D
:.a
Limonite
CalCIte
Siderite
Collophane
Chamosite
Palagonite
Double refraction
0.03 or greater
/\
bJ)
Opal
Siderite
Collophane
H alloysite
Double refraction
0.01- 0.03
.D
Organic structures
.D
Lechatelierite
Dahllite
Chalcedony
Opal
Calcite
Aragonite
Barite
Fluorite
Stilbite (OIO)P
Heulandite (OIO)P
Thomsonite (OIO)D
Gyps um (OIO)P
Low to
moderate
~",///, - .~"
. .. . . ...... ,
CLEAVAGE
-S.D
I Glass
10-4.
perfect
D = distinct
Minerals with Cleavage in One Direction
Double refraction
0.01 or less
Index Relief
0;;
Glass
Halloysite
Opal
161
V
~
--
.D
.:'1
-"
.D
1\
'"
~
"~
E n. tatite (IIO)P
Andalu. it. (1 10) D
Ilic bce kitc (!lO)l'
"8
~
N atrolite (IIO)P
Scapolite (1I0)D
Tremoli te-a ctinolite (1I0)l'
Anthophyllite (110)
Glaucopha n e ( 1I0)l'
W ollas tonite (lOO)P(OOl)D DioP8id e (IIO) }>
H ornblende (110)1'
Grunerito (110) / '
CUlI1m ingto ni to (llO)P
Pigeonito ( 110) / '
I ndeite (IIO)P
Aeg irine (I IO)P
Il ed c nberg it c (110)1'
Llt lll probolito ( 110)/'
Au~it e (110) 1'
ltut il o (IIO)D
E lI 8t. lltito ( I 10) I '
f;p holl u (J)(\I'tI IlU)
" Ylwrkt hollo ( 110) /'
A n~ti liIl U UIIJliitt , ( 110) / '
Hplldlllllfllli l ( 11 0 ) / 1
-'--- - ' - -
- -
MINERAL OPTICS
162
T ABLE
10-4.
CLEAVAGE
T ABLE
(Concluded)
Index Relief
Double refraction
0.01 or less
Double refr action

0.01- 0.03
Double refraction
0.03 or greater
Three direct i ons (mi scellan eous t ypes )
I Low
Halite (lOO)P (isotro pic)
relief
C a n crinite (101O)D
Scapolite (JOO)P(llO)D
Ext. parallel or sym.
'C elestite (OOl)P(llO)D
Anhydrite (001) (010) (100)1'

E xt. p arallel
.!l
.d
:a'"
';;j
.d
Jl
""
""~'"
Axinite (001)(130)(01O)D
Inclined Ext.
Corund um (1011) (pa rtin g)
Barite (001)(110)P
Ext. parall el or sym .
Lawsonite (OlO)1'(llO)D
I<ya nite (110) (010)P(001)
pariing; Inclined ext.
Diaspore (010)(210)P
Ext. parallel or s ym.
Iddingsite (lOO)(OIO)(OOI)D
Ext. parallel
Extreme
relief
Rutile (100)(1l0) D
Ext. p a r a llel or sym .
Periclase (100)P(isotropic)
Perovskite (100)1'(isotropic)
Three directio ns (rhombohedral carbonates)
Calcite
Dolomite
Magnesite
Siderite
All minerals in this group exhibit the followin g : Variation in relief

with direction moderate to high. Very hig h double refraction.
0.172 (ca lcite)- 0.234 (siderite). Usually twinned . Uniaxial negative. Cleavage rhombohedral.
Specia l cases
's,
< balsam
> balsam
!:
~
-0's,
0
!l
0
'a
-<
Fluorite (111) octahedral

Gypsu m (OIO)1'(lOO)D(lll)D
Spinel (Ill) octah edral parting
Sphale rite (110)1' dod ecahedral cleavage
a
~
-i.d
""
Relief low
N epheline (IOIO) D
(hexagonal)
10-5.
The indices of refraction n, n a ,
Minerals with Cleavage in Three or More Directions
----
163
Index
INDICES O F REFRACTION
n~,
n" a nd nUl are abbreviated n, a,
Mineral
Index
7,
f,
a nd w.
Mineral
-
1. 40-1. 46
1.434
1.458-1.462
1.469
1. 47-1. 63
1. 473-1.480
1.473
1. 478-1. 485
1. 48-1. 61
1.480-1.490
1. 483-1.487
1. 484
1 . 485-1 . 493
1.486
1 .487
1.487
1 . 490- 1.506
1 . 492
1 . 493--1 . 546
1 . 494-1 . 500
1. 496-1. 499
1. 496- 1. 500
1. 496-1. 510
1. 500- 1. 508
1. 500- 1. 526
1.50-1.57
1. 501- 1. 505
1.505
1. 505-1. 526
1.506
1.507-1.524
1.508
1.509
l. 509- 1 .527
l.510
1 . 512
1. 512- 1. 530
l. 513
l . 517- 1.520
1 . 517- 1 . 557
1. 5 18
1. 518 1.;;22
1. 5 18 1.!i4:.!
n
n
n
a
n
a
7
n
7
n
a
7
f
n
7
a
a
a
a
a
f
n
7
f
n
l'
a
l'
w
a
7
f
a
a
a
l'
a
7
Ci
C<
l'
I . fil\l
1. 6:.!0
1. 1i:.!:.! I liau
1. 1I:.!'1 1, II1!II
"
"
')'
Opal
Fluorite
Lechatelierite
Tridymite
P a lagonite
Natrolite
Tridymite
Chabazite
Volca nic glass
Chabaz ite
Sodalite
Cristobalitc
Natroli te
Calcite
Analcime
Cristobalite
Sepiolitc
Montmorillonite
Chrysotile
Stilbite
Heulandite
Cancrinite
Haiiyne
Stilbite
Dolomitc
Antigorite (Serpophitc)
Heulandite
Mesolite
Sepiolite
Mesolite
Cancrinite
Leucite
Leucite
M agnesite
Palygorskite
Scolecite
Thomsonite
Montmorillon itc
Sanid inc
Chrysot il c
Orthoc lase
Mil"rol'ii ll l'
'i'illlll' HOIl il l'
N.. "I. ,,il. ,
C:YPHIlIl.
IIllort lI odllH'"
1-\1l,llidi11 11
1. 525- 1. 530
1.525- 1.532
1.526
1.527- 1.543
1.527- 1.541
1.529
1.530
1.530- 1.547
1. 531
1.532- 1.545
1.532-1.552
1.533
1.535- 1.570
1.536- 1.541
1.538- 1.545
1.539
1 . 539- 1.570
1. 540- 1. 571
1.541- 1.552
1.541-1.579
1.544
1.5442
1 .545- 1 .555
1.548
1.549- 1.561
1.550- 1.607
1. 551- 1. 562
1.552
1. 552- 1. 562
1.5533
1.554- 1.567
1. 555- 1. 563
1.555- 1 . 564
l. 556- 1. 570
1 . 560
1.560
J .561
1. 562- 1 .571
1.562- 1.573
1.56 :~ - 1 . 571
I . 5r.'1- 1 . 5!)0
I . ;;G;; l . tiO;;
1. 5(;(;
1. ;;I;(i
I fi lili
I fi tl7
1
I)UR
1 (,H/{
a
7
f
7
7
a
w
a
a
a
7
a
7
a
7
l'
f
n
w
a
a
n
w
a
a
l'
f
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
l'
7
Ci
<
7
w
7
'Y
')
I"
Microcline
Albite
Orthoclase
Nepheline
Anorthoclase
Gypsum
Aragonite
Nepheline
Chalcedony
Oligoclase
Cordierite
Palygorskite
Hydromuscovite
Albite
Talc
Chalcedony
Cordierite
Sca polite
Oligoclase
Biotite
Halite
Quartz
Andesine
Polyhalite
H a lloysite
Scapolite
Phlogopite
Pyrophyllitc
Andesine
Quartz
Gibbsitc
Labradori tc
Antigorite
M uscovitc
Lepidolitc
Dicki te
K a olinit e
Labrador ite
Ant igor ite
Bytow lli te
Urryl
I I yd r"""I R<" .vito
Ill'lll'il,'
I)i('lcit (.
1(llolilliLo
1'1l1 'y il alil,' l
111l1,,)d
MINERAL OPTICS
164
TABLE
10-5.
INDICES OF REFRACTION
Index
ex
1.570
n
1.57- 1.61
n
1.57-1. 62
1.571-1.575 ex
1. 571-1. 582 I'
1. 571-1. 588 ex
w
1.572
1. 574-1. 638 I'
1.575-1.582 ex
1.575-1.590 I'
1.576-1.583 I'
1.576-1.589 I'
1. 576-1. 597 I'
1. 582-1. 588 I'
E
1.585
1. 588-1. 658 ex
1. 590-1. 612 ex
E
1.592
1. 592-1. 643 ex
1. 593-1. 611 I'
1. 596-1. 633 E
1. 598-1. 606 I'
1. 598-1. 652 a
1.599-1.667 I'
1.600
I'
1. 600-1. 628 ex
1. 600-1. 628 ex
1. 603-1. 604 ex
1.605
I'
1.607-1.629 ex
1. 610-1. 644 I'
1. 612- 1. 634 ex
1.613-1.628 E
1.614
I'
1.614-1.675 ex
1.615- 1.629 E
1.615-1.635 ex
1.617-1.638 I'
1. 619-1. 626 E
ex
1.620
1.621-1.655 ex
1.621-1.670 I'
ex
1.622
1.623- 1.635 w
1. 623- 1. 676 I'
1 625- 1 . 655 I'
1 . 625- 1 . 655 I'
1. 626- 1 . 629 E
Mineral
Anhydrite
Cliachite
Collophane
Anorthite
Bytownite
Clinochlore
Alunite
Biotite
P ennine
Talc
Pennine
Gibbsite
Clinochlore
Anorthite
Brucite
Prochlorite
Glauconite
Alunite
Chondrodite
Muscovite
Siderite
Phlogopite
Anthophyllite
Prochlorite
Pyrophyllite
Nephrite
Tremolite-a ctinolite
Lazulite
Lepidolite
Topaz
Glauconite
Stilpnomela ne
Dravite (Tou rm aline)
Anhydrite
Hornblende
Elbaite (Tourmaline)
Prehnite
Topaz
Dahllite
Woll astonite
Glaucophane
Chondrodite
Celestite
D ahllite
Anthoph yllite
Nephri te
Tremol iLe-aeLinol iLe
MeliliLe
(Continued)
Index
1. 628- 1. 658 E
1.629- 1.640 ex
1 630- 1. 651 E
1. 631
I'
1. 632- 1. 634 w
1. 632- 1. 655 w
1 . 633- 1.655 w
1.633- 1 .701 I'
1.634
I'
n
1 635
1. 635- 1. 640 ex
1. 635- 1. 655 w
ex
1 .636
1. 639- 1. 642 I'
1. 639-1. 647 I'
1. 639- 1. 657 ex
1. 639- 1. 668 I'
1 64- 1. 77
ex
1. 641-1. 651 ex
ex
1.642
1. 645- 1. 665 I'
1.648
I'
1 650- 1. 665 ex
1 650- 1.698 ex
1.651- 1.668 ex
1.651- 1681 ex
1.652-1.698 w
1.654
I'
1. 655- 1. 666 ex
1 655- 1. 669 I'
1.657- 1.661 ex
1 657- 1 663 ex
w
1.658
1. 658- 1. 674 I'
1.659- 1678 ex
1 66- 1. 80
I'
1. 664- 1. 686 I'
ex
1 665
1. 667-1. 688 I'
1. 670- 1. 680 I'
1 670- 1.692 ex
1.673- 1.715 ex
1. 674- 1. 730 ex
1 677- 1.681 I'
1. 677- 1 . 68L~ I'
1. 678- 1. 681 ex
1. 680 - 1. 7 1(; w
1. 08U 1. 7 18 lX
Mineral
Schorlite (Tourmaline)
Andalusite
Apa tite
Celestite
Melilite
Dravite (Tourmaline)
Apa t ite
Hornblende
Wollastonite
Chamosite
Forsterite
E lbaite (Tourmaline)
Barite
Lazulite
Andalusite
Cummingtonite
Glaucophane
Alla nite
Monticellite
Mullite
Prehnite
Barite
Enstatite
Diopside
Spodumene
Olivine
Schorlite (Tourmaline3
Mullite
J adeite
Monticellite
Sillim anit e
Grunerite
Calcite
Enstatite
Dumortierite
Allanite
Cummingtonite
Lawsonite
J adeite
Forsterite
La mprobolitf'
Hypersthene
Iddingsite
Spod um ene
Si llim a nite
Axinil c
Dolomit e
l'i~eo "iLo
165
TABLE
-----
INDICES OF REFRACTION
i\Iinera l
Index
1. 680- 1. 745
1. 681- 1. 727
1.683- 1.731
1.684
: .686
1. 686- 1. 692
1 . 688- 1.696
1. 688- 1. 712
1. 689- 1. 718
1.693
1.693-1.760
1696- 1. 700
1.697
1. 699- 1. 717
1 .700- 1.726
1. 700- 1. 745
1.701- 1.726
1.702
1. 702- 1. 718
1.705-1.732
1 .709-1.782
1. 710-1. 723
1. 712
1. 713-1. 737
1.715
1.715-1.724
1.718- 1.768
1. 719-1. 734
1. 719- 1. 744
1. 72- 1. 78
1.720- 1.734
1.728
1 .731- 1.737
1.732- 1 .739
1 .734- 1.779
1. 736- 1. 747
10-5.
ex
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
I'
ex
I'
ex
I'
Cl
I'
I'
w
I'
E
Cl
I'
w
I'
Cl
Cl
I'
E
Cl
I'
I'
I'
n
Cl
I'
I'
Cl
l'
Cl
Aeg irin e-augite

Diopside
Hypersthe ne
Lawsonite
Aragonite
Dumol'tierite
Ax ini te
Augite
Olivine
Riebeckite
La mpl'obolite
Zoisite
Riebeckite
Gl'unerite
Magnesite
Stilpnomelane
Idocrase
Diaspore
Zoisite
Idocrase
Aegirin e-augite
Clino zoisite
Ky anite
Augite
J arosite
Chloritoid
Iddingsite
Clinozoisite
Pigeonite
Spinel
Epidote
Kyanite
Chlori toid
H edcnbergite
Epidote
Staurolite
Index
(Concluded)
Mineral
1 .736- 1. 763 1 n Grossul arite

1.738- 1.760 n Periclase
1. 741- 1. 760 n Pyrope
1.745- 1 .758 ex Piedmontite
1. 745- 1777 ex Aegirine
1 . 746- 1.762 I' Staurolite
Diaspore
1 . 750
I'
1. 751- 1. 757 I' H edenb ergite
l. 759- 1. 763 E Corundum
1. 767-1772 w Corundum
1.778- 1.815 n Almandite
1 .782- 1. 836 I' Aegirine
1.786- 1800 Cl Monazite
1.792- 1 . 820 n Spessartite
1. 805- 1. 835 Cl Fayalite
1. 806- 1. 832 I' Piedmontite
1 . 820
w J a rosite
1.830-1.875 w Siderite
1837- 1.849 I' Monazite
1. 838- 1. 870 n Uvarovite
1.847- 1. 886 I' Fayalite
1.857- 1.887 n Andradite
1.887- 1.913 Cl Sphene
1.925- 1.931 w Zircon
1.979- 2.054 'Y Sphene
1.985- 1.993 E Zircon
1 . 996
w Cassiterite
2.00- 2.10
n Limonite
207- 2.16
n Chromite
E
Cassiterite
2.093
234- 2.38
n Perovskit.f'
2.37- 2.47
n Sphalerite
2 . 603- 2.616 w Rutile
2 .889- 2 . 903 E Ru t ile
E
H em at ite
2.94
3.22
w Hematite
- ----
MINERAL OPTICS
166
TABLE
10-6.
TABLE
ISOTROPIC MINERALS
R elief
Moderate
relief
Mineral
Low
relief
Moderate
to strong
relief
Very
high
relief
1.40 - 1.46
1 .434
1 .458- 1.462
1. 483- 1. 487
1 .487
1.496- 1.510
Opal
Fluorite
Lechatelierite
Sodalite
Analcime
H a iiyne
B alsam
Index
1 .537
Halite
H alloysite
Antigorite (Serpophite)
Cliachite
Collophane
1.544
1 .549- 1.561
1.50 - 1.57
1.57 - 1.61
1 .57 - 1.62
P erielase
Grossularite
Pyrope
Almandite Garnet grou p
Spessart ite
Uvarovite
1
Andradite
1 .738- 1.760
1 736- 1. 763
1. 741- 1.760
1. 778- 1. 815
1 .792- 1.820
1.838- 1870
1.857- 1.887
Limonite
Spinel
Chromite
Perovskite
Sphalerite
2 .00
1.72
2.07
2.34
2 .37
Vol canic glass (mineraloid)

P alagonite (mineraloid)
1.48 - 1. 61
1.47 - 1.63
- 2 . 10
- 1.78
- 2 . 16
- 2.38
- 2.47
167
Birefringence
10-7.
BIREFRINGENCE
Mineral
Birefringen ce
Analcim e (possibly)
P erovskit e
Antigori te (Serpophite)
Haiiyne (occas.)
Leucite
Mesolite
H alloysite
P ennine
Prochlorite
Chabaz ite
Cristob alite
Apatite
N epheline
Tridymite
Riebeckite
Idocrase
Beryl
D ahllite
Clinochlore
Collophane
K aolinite
Melilite
Anortho clase
Clinozoisite
Dickite
Stilbite
Thomsonite
Zoisite
Sanidine
H euland ite
And esine
Scolecite
Micro cline
Chamosite
Labradorite
Antigorite
Oligoclase
And alusite
Cordierite
Ca ncrillite
Chalcedony
Ort ho clase
Corundum
Enstati te
Bytownite
Celes tite
Gypsum
0 .009
0 .009- 0.010
0009- 0.011
0 .010- 0 .012
0010- 0.015
0 .010- 0 .016
0.01- 0.03
0 .010- 0.036
0 .011- 0 .013
0 .011- 0 .014
0.011- 0.020
0012
0 .012
0.012- 0013
0.012- 0 .023
0 .013- 0.016
0 .013- 0 .018
0 .013- 0.027
0.014
0 .014- 0.018
0014- 0 .045
0.015- 0.020
0.015- 0.023
0.016
0 .016- 0.025
0 .018- 0 .019
0.019
0.019
0.019
0.019- 0.025
0.019- 0 .026
0.020
0 .020- 0.023
0 .020- 0.032
0.020- 0.033
0.021
0 .021- 0 .025
0 .021- 0.033
0 .022
0 .022- 0 .027
0 .022- 0 .027
0 .022- 0 .040
0.023
0 .025- 0 .02U
0 .026- 0 .072
0 .027- 0 .035
0 .029- 0 .0:n
Mineral
.
0 .00 - 0.002
0 .00 - 0.002
0.00 - 0.003
0.00 - 0.004
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001- 0 .004
0.001- 0 .011
0.002- 0.010
0 .003
0 .003- 0.004
0.003- 0 .004
0.004
0.004
0 .004- 0.006
0 .004--:0 .008
0.004- 0.009
0.004- 0.011
0 .005
0.005
0.005- 0 .006
0.005- 0.007
0.005- 0 .011
0 .006
0.006- 0.008
0.006- 0 .012
0 .006- 0.018
0 . 007
0.007
0.007
0.007
0 .007
0 .007- 0.008
0.007- 0 .008
0.007- 0.009
0 .007- 0 .009
0 .007- 0 . 011
0 .007- 0.011
0 .007- 0 .028
0 .008
0 .008
0 .008- 0 .000
0 .008- 0 .009
0 .008- 0 .011
0 .009
0 .009
Quartz
Topa z
Albite
Axinite
Sta urolite
Hypersthene
Alla nite
Sca polite
Anorthite
Chrysotile
Dumortierite
B arite
Mullite
Natrolite
J adeite
Chloritoid
Glaucophane
Spodum ene
Wollastonite
Monticellite
Epidote
Sepiolite
E lbaite (Tourmaline)
Kyanite
Anthophyllite
H edenb ergite
Brucite
L awsonite
Polyhalite
Dravite (Tourm aline)
Hornblende
Alunite
Sillim a nite
Glauconite
Prehnite
Montmorillonite
Augite
Pigeonite
Gibbsite
N ephrite
Tremoli Le-act. inol it,e
Schorlitc (Tollrm aline)
P iL ly gor~ kit,c
OumIII in gt.ollit,(
Lft mprobolitn
Choudrodito
Diopaido
_.
168
MINERAL OP TICS
TABLE
10-7.
BIRE FHINGENCE
(Concluded)
Birefrin gence
0 .029- 0 .037
0 .030- 0.035
0 .030- 0 .050
0 .030-0 . 119
0.033- 0.059
0.035- 0 .040
0 .036- 0 .038
0 .037- 0.041
0 .037- 0 .041
0 .037- 0 .059
0.038- 0 .044
0.042- 0 .05 1
0.042- 0 .054
0 .044
0 .044- 0 .047
Mineral
Aegirine-augite
H ydrom usco vite
T alc
Stil pnomelane
Biotite
F orsterite
L azulite
Olivine
M uscovite
Aegirine
I ddingsite
F ayalite
Grunerite
Anhyd rite
Phlogopite
Birefringence
0 .045
0 .048
0 .048
0 .049- 0.051
0 .060- 0 .062
0 .061- 0.082
0 .092- 0 . 141
0.097
0 . 105
0 .156
0 .172
0 . 180-0 .190
0 . 191- 0. 199
0 .234- 0 .242
0 .286- 0 .287
M ineral
."!E
'"
FERENCE COLOR CHART
"'0
:
FOR
.COMMON MINERALS
:='u
0_
"' c
::;:<1
Lepidolite
Diaspo re
Pyrophyllite
Monazite
Zircon
P iedmontite
Sphene
Cassiterite
J arosit e
Aragon ite
Calcite
D olomite
Mag nesite
Siderite
Rutile
(/)
-l
'"
<I
0:
Z
::;;:
Cl.
.~
2!
"U;(l,)
'"
>.;:
.~
~
Ou
:==>
0",
I-l
8>
~
::;:
MINERALS
Iddingsite
Anhydrite
{ PhloQopite
Lepidolite
Monozite
Pyrophyllite Diaspore
Aegirine
Talc
0.05
(/)
0:
W
f-
w
::;;:
-l
-l
Piedmontite
{ Zircon
::;;:
Z
Gibbsite
Basaltic hornblende
Z
0
i=
~ 0.0 3
(f)
z
:r:
f-
Cassiterite
Jarosite
Sphene (Titanite)
ll..
0
(/) .
~ 0.0 2
Aroganite
u
:r:
""
Calcite
f-
Dolomite
Magnesite
0.01
Siderite
Rutile
a
Hill
2. 100
?,?OO
~
iD
::0
;;:
a
~.
.0
...- ...."
-,
(f)
...a:
co
0
~
g;
CD
0
0
-,
~.
::s
~
o
1>
...
~
a
C'D
;:
:J_.c;;eD ,
~g;.
(J)c...(")
"000
THICKNESS OF THIN
0J
...a."
cr
"
ii)
~. =+'
0 ...
wc>
go:
e.g-
...
:!
03
"0
, 'co'
00.
NlJ
---.
.l'>
SECTION I N MILLIMETER S
...-,
"0
..
~~~~.~.~.
:J ~.o~ 5'
~:g 2~a.1O
(') '9.0
---.
<1
l>-u;;:rlJl>Ci:
_ct)'<o('t) ::t":::lQ.
U1
;;:
(I)
::t!
(TO
0
(J)
Boehmite
Mullite
Muscovite
Olivine
Biatite
Epidote
Chondrod ite
Stilpnomelane
Prehnite
Aeg irine-augite
Diapside
Tremolite
Hornblende
Palygorskite
{ Allanite
Augite
Montmorillonite
{ Lawsonite
Bruci te
Alunite
Hedenbergite
Wollastonite
Sepiolite
Kyanite
{ Antigorite
Chloritoid
c adeite
Barite
Stauro lite
Chrysotile
Collophane
C>
ITI
;;: 0
(I)
::t!
fTI
_::t!
:0
-I
l>
:::c
(")
0
:0
C>
:z
ITI
0
z....,
ITI
:0
"
:0
;;:
;;:
C')
ITI
Z
-I
Glouconite
Scapalite
Anthophyllite
Sillimanite
Po ly hol ite
Glaucophane
Zoisite
Anorthite
Natrolite
Thomsonite
Scolecite
Dahllite
Clinozoisite
Oligoclase
Laomdorite
Chlorite
Cordierite
Topaz
Enstat ite
Albite
Andalusite
Beryl
Melilite
Tridymite .
Idocrase (Vesuvianitel
Chabazite
Sonidine
{ Dick ite
Anorthoclase
Stilbi te
{ Andesine
Orthoclase
Heulandite
{ Microclin e
Chalcedony
Corundum
{ Quartz
Gypsu m
Celestite
{ Bytownite
Hypersthene Axinite
{Riebeckite
Nepheline
Apatite
Kaolinite
Cristobalite
MINERALS
{H OIl OYSite
Mesolite
Leucite
Perovskite
Ana lcime
169
TABLE
10-8.
U N I AX I AL ~ [ INEHALS
I
Mineral
Calcite
Cancrinite
Dolomite
Magnesite
Nepheline
Scapolite
Beryl
Siderite
Stilpnomelane
Dravite (Tourmaline)
E lbaite (Tourm aline)
D ahllite
Melilite
Schorlite (Tourmaline)
Apatite
Idocrase
J arosite
Corundum
H ematite
Mineral
Quartz
Brucite
Alunite
Zircon
Cassiterite
Rutile
n,
nw
Sign
Birefringence
1.486
1 .496- 1 .500
1 .500- 1.526
1 .509- 1.527
1. 527- 1. 543
1.540- 1.571
1 . 564- 1 . 590
1 . 596- 1 .633
1 612- 1.634
1. 613- 1. 628
1.615- 1.629
1 .619- 1.626
1 . 626- 1.629
1. 628- 1. 658
1.630- 1.651
1. 701- 1. 726
1. 715
1.759- 1.763
2.94
1 658
1. 507- 1. 524
1. 680- 1. 716
1.700- 1 .726
1..530- 1547
1.550- 1.607
1.568- 1 .598
1. 830- 1. 875
1. 700- 1. 745
1. 632- 1. 655
1. 635- 1. 655
1. 623- 1. 635
1. 632- 1. 634
1. 652- 1. 698
1. 633- 1. 655
1. 705- 1 .732
1.820
1. 767- 1. 772
3.22
0.172
0 .007- 0.028
0 .180- 0.190
0 . 191- 0.199
0 .003- 0 .004
0 .010- 0 .036
0 .004- 0 .008
0 .234- 0 .242
0 .030- 0 . 119
0 .019- 0 .025
0.015- 0 .023
0 .004- 0 .009
0 .005- 0 .006
0.022- 0 .040
0 .003- 0.004
0 .004- 0.006
0 . 105
0 .008- 0 .009
nw
1.5442
1 .566
1.572
1.925- 1.931
1.996
2.603- 2.616
n,
1.5533
1.585
1.592
1. 985- 1. 993
2.093
2 . 889- 2.903
Sign
Birefringence
+
+
+
+
+
+
0 .009
0 .019
0.020
0.060- 0.062
0.097
0.286- 0.287
--
MINERAL OPTICS
170
TABLE
Mineral
10-9.
TABLE
BIAXIAL POSITIVE MINERALS
na
Tridymite. . .. .. .. . . 1.469
1 . 473- 1 . 480
Natrolite ..
1. 478- 1. 485
Chabazite ..
1 .493- 1.546
Chrysotile .
1 .496- 1 . 499
Heula ndite .
1 . 505
Mesolite ..
1512- 1. 530
Thomsonite . .
1.520
Gypsum . .
Albite ...
. ..... . . . 1. 525- 1. 532
1 . 532- 1 .545
Oligoclase ...
Cordierite . . . . .. . .. . 1.532- 1.552
1. 545- 1. 555
Andesine . . . .
1.554- 1.567
Gibbsite .. . . .
1. 555- 1. 563
Labradorite.
1 . 560
Dickite ...
Anhydrite ....... . . . . 1 . 570
1. 571- 1. 588
Clinochlore .
1. 575- 1. 582
Pennine . . .. . .
1. 588- 1 . 658
Prochlorite .. ... .
1. 592- 1 . 643
Chondrodite ..
1.598- 1 . 652
Anthophyllite.
1 . 607- 1 . 629
Topaz ..
1. 615- 1. 635
Prehnite.
1.622
Celestite.
1.635- 1 . 640
Forst erite
1 . 636
Barite ... . . .
1. 639- 1. 657
Cummingtonite ..
1 . 642
Mullite ..
1. 650- 1. 665
Enstatite . . . .
1. 650- 1. 698
Diopside . . .
1. 651- 1. 668
Spodumene .
1. 651- 1. 681
Olivine . . .
1 . 655- 1 . 666
Jadeite . . . '
1.657- 1.661
Sillimanite ..
1 . 665
Lawsonite . ..
1.674- 1.730
Iddingsite .
1. 680- 1. 745
Aegirine-augite ..
1 . 680- 1 . 718
Pigeonite.
1. 688- 1. 712
Augite .. . .
1. 696- 1. 700
Zoisite . . . .
1 .702
Diaspore .
1.710- 1.723
Clinozoisite .
1 .715- 1 .724
Chloritoid . .
1.732- 1.739
Hedenbergite ..
1. 736- 1. 747
Staurolite .
Piedmontite . . . . . .. . . . 1. 745- 1. 758
1. 786- 1. 800
Monazite ..
Sphene . . .. ..... .. . . . 1.887- 1.913
n~
n{3
1 . 469
1. 476- 1. 482
1 . 504- 1 . 550
1. 497- 1. 501
1 . 505
1.513- 1.532
1 . 522
1. 529- 1. 536
1. 536- 1. 548
1. 536- 1. 562
1. 548- 1. 558
1 . 554-1 . 567
1. 558- 1. 567
1.562
1 . 576
1. 571- 1. 588
1. 576- 1. 582
1 . 589- 1 . 667
1. 602- 1. 655
1. 615- 1. 662
1. 610- 1. 631
1. 624-1. 642
1 . 624
1. 651- 1. 660
1 . 637
1. 645- 1. 669
1 . 644
1. 653- 1. 670
1.657- 1706
1. 665- 1. 675
1.670- 1.706
1 . 659- 1 . 674
1 . 658- 1 . 670
1674
1715- 1. 763
1.687- 1770
1.698- 1 .725
1. 701- 1. 717
1.696-1703
1.722
1.715- 1.729
1. 719- 1. 726
1737- 1. 745
1. 741- 1. 754
1764- 1. 789
1.788- 1.801
1.894- 1 . 921
Biref ringence
1 .473
0 . 004
1 . 485- 1 . 493 0 .012- 0.013
1. 480- 1. 490 0 .002- 0 .010
1 . 517- 1 . 557 0.011- 0 .014
1.501- 1.505 0 . 007
1 . 506
0 .001
1 . 518- 1 . 542 0 .006- 0 . 012
1 . 529
0.009
1. 536- 1. 541 0 .009- 0.011
1 . 541- 1 . 552 0 .007- 0.009
1.539- 1 . 570 0.007- 0.011
1. 552- 1. 562 0 . 007
1. 576- 1. 589 0 .022
1 . 562- 1 . 571 0.007- 0 . 008
1 . 566
0 .006
1.614
0 .044
1.576- 1.597 0 . 004- 0 .011
1 . 576- 1.583 0.001-0 . 004
1.599- 1. 667 0 .001-0 .011
1 . 621- 1 . 670 0 .027- 0 .035
1.623-1.676 0 .016-0 .025
1 . 617- 1 .6380 . 009- 0 .010
1 . 645- 1 665 0 . 020- 0 . 033
1 . 631
0.009
1.670- 1.680 0.035-0 .040
1.648
0 .012
1 . 664-1 . 686 0 .025- 0.029
1.654
0.012
1 . 658- 1 . 674 0.008- 0.009
1 . 681- 1 .727 0 .029- 0 .031
1.677- 1.681 0.013- 0 .027
1.689- 1.718 0.037- 0.041
1. 667- 1. 688 0 .012- 0.023
1.677- 1.684 0 .020- 0 . 023
1 .684
0.019
1.718- 1768 0 .038- 0.044
1 .709- 1 .782 0 .029- 0 .037
1 .719- 1.744 0 .021- 0 .033
1 . 713-1.737 0.021- 0.025
1 .702- 1.718 0 . 006- 0 .018
1 .750
0.048
1719- 1734 0 .005- 0 .011
1.731- 1 .737 0.013- 0 .016
1 .751- 1 .757 0 .018- 0 .019
1.746- 1 . 762 0 .010- 0 .015
1.806- 1.832 0 .061- 0082
1 .837- 1 .849 0 .049- 0 .051
1 .979- 2 .05 4 I 0 . 0~2 -0.1 4 1
______________~---------~--------~I-
171
Mineral
Sepiolite.
Montmorillonite.
Stilbite .
Scolecite.
Sanidine .. .
Ort hoclase.
Microcline.
Anorthoclase .
Aragonite.
Oligoclase ..
Cordieri te.
Hydromuscovi te.
T alc . .
. . .. . . . .
Biot ite.
Andesine. . ...... . .
Poly halite.
Phlogopite .. .. .... . . .
Pyrophyllite.
Ant igorite.
Muscovite .. .. . . . . . . .
Lepidolite ..
K aolinite ...
Bytownite .
Anorthite .
Pennin e .
Glauconite.
Tremolite-actinolite.
Nephrite.
La zulite . ..
Hornblende.
Wollastonite.
Cha mosite ..... . .... .
Gla ucophane.
And alusite ...... .... .
Alla nite.
Monticellite.
Olivine.
. ..... . . .
Grunerite.
Dumort ierite.
La m probc!ite.
H y persthene.
Idclingsite ..
Axinite ..
Riebecki te .
K yanite.
Epido te .
A<'I-( irill c .
F aYlI.lit (' ..
10-10.
BIAXIAL N E GATIVE MINERALS
na
1 .490- 1 506
1 .492
1. 494- 1 500
1512
1.517- 1.520
1. 518
1 .518- 1 522
1. 522- 1536
1 .530
1 . 532- 1. 545
1 . 532- 1 .552
1.535- 1570
1. 538- 1. 545
1.541- 1.579
1 . 545- 1 . 555
1 . 548
1. 551- 1. 562
1.552
1.555- 1.564
1.556- 1.570
1.560
1. 561
1.563-1 . 571
1.571- 1.575
1. 575- 1. 582
1 .590- 1 . 612
1. 600- 1. 628
1 .600- 1 . 628
1603- 1. 604
1 . 61 4- 1 . 675
1 . 620
1 621- 1 655
1 629- 1 640
1 640- 1 770
1 641- 1 . 651
1 651- 1. 681
1 657- 1663
1 659- 1.678
1 670- 1.692
1.673- 1.715
1. 674-1730
1.678-1.684
1 . 6g3
1. 712
J . 720- 1 . 7:{/t
1.71\5- ] .77
I . XO.') I . X:\.')
n~
Birefringen ce
1 . 505- 1 526
1 .513
1. 500- 1. 508
1. 519
1. 524-1. 526
1 . 526
1 . 525- 1.530
1.527- 1.541
1.686
1.541- 1.552
1. 539- 1. 570
1565- 1. 605
1.575-1.590
1. 574-1. 638
1 . 552- 1.562
1.567
1. 598- 1. 606
1 . 600
1. 562- l. 573
1 . 593-1 . 611
1 . 605
1 . 566
1.571- 1 . 582
1. 582- l. 588
1.576- 1.583
1. 610- 1. 644
1 . 625- 1 . 655
1. 625- 1. 655
1. 639- 1. 642
1.633- 1.701
1 . 634
0 .015- 0.020
0 .021
0 . 006- 0.00&
0.007
0.007
0 .008
0 .007
0 .005- 0 .007
0.156
0 .007- 0 .001)
0 . 007- 0 .011
o . 030- 0 . O ~~.')
0.030- 0 . 050
0 .033- 0 .051)
0.007
0 . 019
0 . 044- 0 .047
0.048
0 . 007- 0 .00\)
0037- 00,11
0 .045
0 . 005
0008- 0011
0 .011- 0 .01 :\
0 .001 0 .001\
o.020- 0. O : \ ~
0 .022- 0 .027
0 . 022- 0 .02
o.O:'\G- O. 0:\8
n {3
1. 513
1 498- 1 . 504
1. 519
1 . 523- 1 525
1 . 524
1 . 522- 1 . 526
1526- 1.539
1 . 682
1. 536- 1. 548
1. 536- 1. 562
1 575- 1590
1 574- 1. 638
1.548- 1.558
1 . 562
1. 598- 1. 606
1 . 588
1 . 562-1 . 573
1.587- 1.607
1 .598
1.565
1 . 567- 1 577
1. 577- 1.')83
1. 576- 1. 582
1. 609- 1. 643
1 . 613- 1 . 644
1. 613- 1. 644
1. 632- 1. 633
1. 618- 1. 691
1 . 632
1 . 635
1. 638-1. 664
1. 633- 1. 644
1 . 650- 1 . 770
1 . 646- 1 . 662
1. 670- 1. 706
1 . 684- 1.6g7
1. 684- 1. 6g 1
1. 683- 1. 730
1 . 678- 1 . 728
1. 715- 1. 763
1. 685- 1. 6g2
1 695
.720
. 721 I . 7 li:\
1. 770 1.82:\
I . X:IX I . X
1. 639- 1. 668
1.639- 1.647
1.660- 1 800
1 . 655- 1 . 66g
1. 689- l. 718
1. 699- 1717
1. 686- 1. 692
1 . 6g3- 1 .760
1. 683- 1. 7:31
1 . 71 8- 1 . 768
1 . 688- 1 . 6gG
l . liD
1. 728
l . n 1 1.77 \)
I . 7i12 I . iI:1ti
I . R'17 I . RX(i
O.Ol\)- O.O:,W
0 . 01 4
0.007- 0 . 00il
0.013- 0 . 01 8
0 .007- 0 . 0 11
0 . 010- 0 .0:30
0 .014- 0 .01 8
0 .0:17- 0 . 011
o.0 /12- 0 . 0.') /1

O.OII - O. O:'W
O.02G- 0 . O
0 . 010 0 . 01( \
o.0:38
() . 0 /1/1
0 . 010
0 .00'1
0 .01(;
O . OI ~
n . UI /I O. Otll)
O. fl:I 7 0 Ofill
() . ()I ~
"---
OOfi l
'"
.....
to
~
~
~
MI NERAL
Opal
Fluori te
Lecha telierite
Pa laganite
Volcanic Glass
Sodoli te
Anolcime
Houy ne
Ser pophi te
Le uc ite
Ha lit e
Holloysite
Cliochite
Co llopha ne
Spi nel
Peri close
Grossulori te
Pyrope
lD
rt;
0
..::
""
~
co
...r:
'"
I,()
lD
'"
lD
"W
<0
~
t.D
r--:
'~
"
<:;;t
0)
co
'"
(j)
lD
(j)
""
o
N
co
0
'"
lD
N N
co
'"
"
'". '"N N'" '"N '"N N""
lD
<t
<t
co
'"
lD
'"
<t
~
"N '"N N'"
Almand ite
Andradite
Limonite
Ch romit e
Perovsk ite
Sp hale rite
CHART
g,
MINERA L
en
a:>OruVIOCO
ON
~~U""?~~~~t!:!
A. Range of Refractive Indices-Isotropic Minerals.
co
~
1.0
0)
co
Concrinite
Colcite
Oolom ite
"'oqnesite
I';ephel ine
Sc-cpolite
Q_artl
3uy l
Bruci te
t. !u nite
:S
+
+
+
Sider it e
Stil pnom elone
Drav it e (Tou rma line)
Elbo ite (Tou rmal ine)
Dohll it e
Melili te
Schorl ite (Tourmaline)
Apat ite
idocros e
Ja rosite
Corundu m
Zircon
+
Cossiterite
+
Rutil e
+
Hematite
CHART
B. Range of Refractive Indices-Anisotropic Uniaxial Minerals.
OJ
o
o
N
0
000
c.o co 0
N N N N N
r..-i
rri
MINERAL OPTICS
174
g.
MINERAL
Tridymite
, Natralite
Chabazite
Cristobalite
Sepiolite
Montmorillonite
Chrysotile
Stilbite
Heulandite
Mesolite
Scolecite
Thomsonite
Sanidine
Orthaclase
Micro cline
Gypsum
Anorthoclase
Albite
Aragonite
Cholcedony
Oligoclase
Cordierite
Hydromuscovite
Talc
Biotite
Andesine
Polyholite
Phlogopite
Pyrophyllite
Gibbsite
Labrodorite
Ant igorite
Vi
...'"
...
a
'" '" '" '" '"'"
N
...w
'"
'"w
a~
N
~
I
~
ft
Muscovite
Lepidolite
Dickite
1+
Bytownite
Anhydrite
Anorthite
Clinochlore
1+
Kaolinite
Pennine
Prochlorite
Glauconite
Chondrodite
Anthophyllite
Tremolite-actinolite
Nephrite
Lazulite
1+
Topoz
Chamosite
CHAnT C ,
MINERAL
Hornblende
Prehnite
Wollastonite
Range of Refractive Indices-Anisotropic Biaxial Minerals.
e
en
Vi
N
~
V
~
W
~
00
~
0
~
N
~
W
~
00
~
0
~
N
~
V
~
W
~
00
~
w
a
lt~~~~;;,, lilllBllllllllllllllllllllll1
Mulli te
Ensta t ite
Diopside
Spodumene
Oliv ine
Jadeite
Sillimanite
Dumartierite
Grunerlte
Lawson ite
Lamprobolite
Hypersthene
Iddingsite
Axinite
Aeoirini
1+
175
Pigeonite
Augite
Riebecki te
Zoislte
Diaspore
Clinozoisite
Kyan ite
Chloritoid
Epidote
Allanite
Hedenberg ite
Staurolite
Piedmontite
Aegirine
Monazite
Fayalite
Sphene
C HART
'+
'+
'+
+
+
1+
+
'+
'+
+
1+
+
+
l
D. Range of Refractive Indices- Anisotropic Biaxial Minerals.
176
MINERAL OPTICS
MINERAL
Phlagapi te
Son idine
Biotite
Talc
Montmorilloni te
Glauconite
Aragonite
Ant igari te
MINERAL
Proch lo rite
Ch obozite
Gibbsite
Pigeon ite
Heu landite
Chry sotile
Clin ochlore
Monozite
Mullite
Sillimanite
Sphene
Zoisite
Tridymite
Borite
Chlor i to id
Anhydrite
Thom sonite
Topaz
Celestite
Dick ite
Spodumene
Piedmontite
Gypsum
Dum ortierite
Muscovite
Stilbite
Sca leci te
Wollastonite
Lepidolite
Sepioli t e
Glaucophone
An orthoclase
Foyol ite
Hornblende
Py rophyll ite
Aegirine
Hyper sthene
Lomprob ol ite
Lazulite
Epidote
Orthoclo se
Polyhalite
Axini te
Monticellite
Anorthite
~:1.';g:,O;"
Bytown ite
C HART
jj~~;:~;: 1/
Microcli ne
Jodelte
Anth op yllite
Ch ondrodite
Lobrodorite
Albite
Mesolite
Stourolite
Lawson ite
Diospore
Fors t eri te
Prehnite
Tremoliteoctinoli t ,
Nephr ite
Grun erite
Kyanite
Ando lusite
Hydromu scovite
Chomosi le
Allanite
Riebeckite
Kaolinite
117
Axial angle (2V)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Sma ll
Sma ll
Lorge
Lor e
Variable
E. Range of Axial Angles- Biaxial Negative 'Minerals.
C HART
II/II W
I til
) ; 1
I I I I I I I I Vonab le
F . Range of Axial Angles-Biaxial Positive Minerals.

Ax iol Ang le (2V)
CUAlrr
rt:~I[;~ mm I'm rri'(ll
G. Range of Axial Angles-Biaxial Positive/Negative Mineral s.
f-'
f-'
~
p..
i%)
.~
.....
.,.,a
G
i'"
i%)
~
Q
......,
~
.,..
~
.....~
.....
Introduction to Part Two
Approximately 1700 mineral species are recognized. Rock-forming constituents ordinarily found in thin sections constitute a comparatively
small proportion of the total. In the following pages descriptions of individual minerals, min eraloids, and mineral groups are given. The species
listed include practically all the important transparent minerals found
in igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, together with the common vein minerals. Minerals other than those listed occasionally are encountered; th en the larger reference books should b e consulted.
For convenience, the microscopic and optical characteristics of the
minerals are given under a uniform sequence of headings. Color refers
to the color of the mineral in thin section. T.he term neutral is used for
very p ale colors of indeterminate hue. Pleochroism and absorption are
included along with color, for ordinarily the polarizer is in place during
the entire examination of the slide. Relief refers to ordinary thin sections
mounted in Canada b alsam or to fragments in immersion media of corresponding index. The interference colors listed are usually the maximum
colors for thin sections of about O.03-mm. thickness. If sections are thicker
or thinner than this value, allowance must b e made. The thickness may
be determined fairly accurately if a known mineral such as quartz or
plagioclase is present in the slide. Extinction angles measured clockwise
are considered positive; and counterclockwise, negative. Orientation refers esp ecially to the position of the faster and slower rays in characteristic sections. The complete optical orientation is given in the tabulation
just b elow the name of the mineral. The size of the axial angle for biaxial
crystals is indicated in a general way in the text. Exact values of this angle
are given in the tabulation just mentioned. Approximate measurements
of the axial angle can b e made in favorable cases by the use of a micrometer ocular that h as b een calibrated by means of several biaxial crystals
of known axial angles. The universal stage is useful for accurate determin ations. Un der thc heading Distinguishing Features resemblances
to, a nel clirl"erences fro m, simil ar min erals are pOinted out as an aid in the
determination . Rel(ft ed iVfill era/s arc th e min erals simil ar in appearance
and prope rl it's 10 lh e one IInd e-r c1iscnss ion.
Or i('nl il lioll diagrums for 11 ('111'1 ), :t Il th e hia xial min erals are given, and
1111
182
MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS
for most of the monoclinic minerals plans combined with side views
are inserted in order to facilitate an understanding of their optical
properties. Photomicrographs of thin sections are included to aid in
identification.
MINERAL GROUPS
This text is devoted primarily to the examination of transparent minerals and p articularly common minerals encountered in thin sections.
Thus practical considerations cause a number of deviations from accepted
classified mineral lists. The mineral groups listed for the chapters of Part
2 conform essentially to normal usage. However, examination of chapter
headings in Part 2 r eveals a pronounced inequality in mineral distribution among the groups named.
The non-silicate minerals from elements to phosphates are covered
in two chapters, while five chapters are r equired for the silicates. This
reflects the importance of the silicates among rock-forming minerals.
The classification of the silicates is primarily shuctural. However, all
structures are not known with equal assurance. Also, a number of silicates apparently are amorphous when examined with the microscope,
although they may exhibit evidence of crystallinity in X-ray diffraction
patterns. These species are termed mineraloids. In the classification they
are placed close to chemically related minerals.
The silicates may be divided into six groups which depend upon the
structural arrangement of Si0 1 tetrahedra. A single Si0 4 group consists
of four larger oxygen atoms each at the corner of the tetrahedron with
one smaller silicon atom at the center. The structural groups arranged to
emphaSize natural OCcurrence provide the skeleton of a useful silicate
classification.
183
INTRODUCTION TO PART TWO
6. Sheet structures- phyllosilicates

Micas, Chlorites, Clay minerals, Talc, Pyrophyllite, Serpentine
group
Group names follow the usage of Bragg (1930). The group order
selected favors occurrence.
Isomorphous groups are common among minerals. Several species that
crystallize in the same way may at the same time form a group that will
exhibit a range in chemical composition. The chemical formulas of the
group are analogous although each species will represent some chemical
substitution. The calcite group is an example, with calcite CaCO;], m agnesite MgCO a, siderite F eC0 3 and other carbonates alike in hexagonal
crystallization but differing in the substitution of Ca, Mg, Fe and other
cations in the chemical formulas .
Polymorphism is also frequently recognized among minerals. The sarno
chemical substance as found in nature may crystallize in two or mora
ways. This applies to CaC0 3 , which crystallizes in the hexagonal system
to form calcite and in the orthorhombic system to form aragonite. Botll
minerals also b elong to isomorphous groups, the calcite group as just i lldicated and the aragonite group, which in addition to aragonitc incllld cs
witherite BaCO" strontianite SrC0 3 , and cerussite PbC0 3
The oxide Ti0 2 is found in three types of crystallization which also
illustrate polymorphism. Rutile and anatase are tetragonal but witll
different structural dimensions, while brookite is orthorhombic.
Both isomorphism and polymorphism will be encountered rcpca tccll y
among the minerals des cribed in this text. Among isomorphou s grollps
particular attention should b e devoted to the range in optical propc rti es
exhibited by group members.
REFERENCES
Silicate Groups
1. Framework complexes- tectosilicates
Silica minerals, F eldspars, Feldspathoids, Sodalite group, Zeolites

2. Chain structures- inosilicates
Pyroxenes, Amphiboles, Epidote group
3. Single tetrahedral groups- nesosilicates
Olivine group, Garnet group, Zircon, Humite group, Sillimanite
group, Idocrase, Axinite
4. Multiple tetrahedral groups- sorosilicates
Lawsonite
5. Ring groups with six units cyclosili cat cs
Beryl, Tourmaline, Cordicr.i te, Wollastonite
Bragg, W. L.: The Structure of Silicates, Z . F. K1'ist ., vol. 74 , pp . 237- :m r; ,

1930.
Chudoba , K.: " Mikroskopische Charakteristik der gestc insbildclldc n Mi nc rali( 'II ,"
H erder u. Co. , Freiburg, 1932.
- - -: "Die Feldsp ~ite und ihl'e praktische Bestimmung," Schwe ize rbart V(\)'
lag, Stuttgart, 1932.
Freund, H.: Mikroskopie del' Silikate, "Handbnch del' Mikroskop iC' ill <l tlr
Teehnik," vol. 4, Umschau Verlag, Frankfurt, 1955.
Hatch , F. II ., and A. K . W ells: "The Petrology of thc 19ncoli s lIoc ks ," 9t h (d.,
George Alle n & U nwin , Ltd. , Lo ndon , ] 937.
[ddings, J. P.: "HOCK Minc rals ," 2d eel. , John Wiley & So ns, 111 ('. , N('w York ,
J911.
Ill gersoll , I~ . : Me illflii s :l lIci I'rohlc'IIIS or Ceolog ie 'J'11(,1'I1101lI e try, I ';(() II. C(,II/.,
50LlI HIIII . voL, pp . :\ /11 Ii 10, IIl SS.
184
Johannsen , A.: "Essentials for the Microscopical Determination ot Rockforming Minerals and Rocks in Thin Sections ," 2d ed ., University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, 1928.
Kennedy, G. C.: Charts for Correlation of Optical Properties with Chemical
Composition of Some Common Rock-forming Minerals, Am. Mineralogist,
vol. 32, pp. 561-573, 1947.
Larsen, E. S. , and H . Berman: The Microscopic D etermination of the Nonopaque Minerals, U.S. C eol. Survey Bull. 848, Washington , D .C. , 1934.
Mason, Brian: "Principles of Geochemistry," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1951.
Milner, H. B.: "Sedimentary Petrography," 3d ed. , Thomas Murby & Co.,
London, 1940.
Rosenbusch , H .: "Mikroskopische Physiographie del' petrographisch wichtigen
Mineralien," rev. by O. Mligge, 5th ed., vol. 1, part 2, Schweizerbart
Verlag, Stuttgart, 1927.
TickeII, F. G .: "The Examination of Fragmental Rocks," 2d ed. , Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif., 1940.
W ahlstrom, E. E.: "Petrographic Mineralogy," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1955.
W einschenk, E.: "Petrographic Methods ," trans . by R. W. Clark, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc. , New York, 1912.
Williams, H. , F. J. Turner, and C. M. Gilbert: "Petrography," W. H . Freeman
& Co. , San Francisco, 1954.
Winchell , A. N.: "Elements of Optical Mineralogy," 4th ed. , part 2, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1951.
CHAPTER
11
Elements to Hydroxides
MULTIPLE OXIDES
ELEMENTS
Spinel Group
Spinel
Magnetite'"
Chromite'"
P erovskite
Graphite'"
SULF IDES
Sphalerite '"
Pyrite'"
Pyrrhotite"
Chalcopyrite ()
HYDROXIDES
Brucite
Diaspore
Bauxite Minerals
Boehmitc
Gibbsite
Cliachite
Limonite'"
HALIDES
H alite
Fluorite
OXIDES
P ericlase
Corundum
H em a tite '"
Ilmenite'"
Rutile
Cassiterite
Opaque Minerals. In the list of minerals included in C h art('\' II II

number are either opa qu e or semitranslu eent. Th ese m ay b e ex,llllill( 'd
11y directin g a strong b eam of li ght on the upper surface of ll w lilill
section or b y transferring th e slide to a binoc ular microscop c. TIl(' 1( '11
opaque min erals llsted are fre qu ently found assoc iated wilh tr<lll sp;IJ'( '1I1
rock-formin g min erals. Since these are a mon g th e most common lllilll 'n ii s
k novm th e appearan ce of th e min eral in r eflected li ght lI sll<llly is sldli
c ic nt for ,. n approx im ate ide ntification.
ELEMENTS
As id e 1'1'0111 g r;lpllil( ', (' 1('IIH 'lIl s <Ire 1101 ordill ;lrily ('II ('Olllil (' re d il l li lill s('(' li o ll ('~ <l lIl ill ; il ioll . A p os~ ild, ' ('\('(' plioll is sldl'lII', w lli!'11 i ~ rOlil HI ill sil il
\1 01111 ' (,li p l'<H' k 11 1111 is d l' pll ,'~ iI, ' d ,Irnlilid 1'1I111 :lrn ll's .
" MI 'h', " I'1 11 1I11 " ' " "JI" tj" (I '" 11(I "d 1' " " "1"" 1',,1 1" '" IIi" I" 1' li d" wl'l l"",I,
1111.
186
GRAPHITE
Opaque
Hexagonal
Graphite is black with a metallic luster in reflected light and often

occurs in thin flakes or disseminated scales. The crystals are tabular.
187
ELEMENTS TO HYDROXIDES
Sphalerite ordinarily occurs in irregular masses and anhedral crystals.

It is gray to yellow or brown in thin sections but may not b e uniform.
Cleavage occurs in six directions (dodecahedral) forming an intricate
pattern. The relief is very high and the mineral shows an adamantine
luster in reflected light. Transparent crystals are isotropic.
Sphalerite is a common and widely distributed mineral in veins and
replacement deposits. The usual associates are pyrite, galena, marcasite,
'"
",.
f,
FIG.
tt,
11-1. ( X20) Graphite (black) showing elonga te sections cut normal to fl akes.
The mineral is characteristic of metamorphic rocks such as schists,

gneiss es, slates, and metamorphic limestones. The gray color of many
metamorphic limestones may be attributed to graphite. In some occurrences it is the only mineral present in addition to calcite.
Carbonaceous Matter. In some rocks it is
common to find finely divided opaque particles in which carbon is a major constituent
but crystallization to a definite mineral has
not occurred. Such carbonaceous matter has
not b een subjected to a temperature high
enough to form graphite.
FIG.
11-2. ( X 15) Small
crystals of graphite (black )
dissemin ated through metamorphic limestone.
SULFIDES
Aside from sphalerite the few sulfides ordinarily observed in thin sections are opaque.
Often these may be examined more effcctively on polished surfaces with
reHected light.
SPHALERITE
(Zn,Fe)S
Opaque to Tra ll ::i pa rent

n = 2.:37 Lo 2.47
(n in crcm;!)H wi Lh 1"0)
FIG.
11-3. ( X20) Sphalerite partly translucen t with complex dodecahedral clc;)vll!-;c.
and the gangue minerals: quartz, chalcedony, calcite, dolomite, and

siderite.
PYRITE
FeS 2
I sometric:
Pyrite is the most common sulfide mineral. It is brass yellow witl l 11

metallic luster in reflected light. In thin section it may b e distin glli sll('d
from chalcopyrite, which is darker yellow, and pyrrhotite, which is a dnrk
bronze. In thin section pyrite m ay resemble marcasite in color and SIlPplementary methods may b e required to distinguish th e two.
Pyrite is common in euhedral crystals. These are often cubes wlli ell
yield squ are, rectangular, triangular, or even hexagonal outlin cs. Lt nl so
occurs in irregular grains, masses, and veinl ets .
Pyrite is an unusually common and widely distribu tcd !TIi ncral. It
occurs in many rock types, in veins, and in rcplacemcnt dcposits. When !
oxidation has b een present pyrite may b e altercd to limonite.
PYHHHOTlTE
F c ,_xS
TsomcLrie
Opaque
Opaq ue
Il oxngoll l\1
Pyrrllolil c is hrOI1'1.(' wH h 11 me talli c 1(l5t(' r ill r(' (kClcd li g llt,. It lJS1I[dly

()('('llrs ill Wll ins lI lid irrl "~ 111 111' 1I 1l1 S~ ( ~~ , Pllrlin g pon dJd to (O()() I ) is fll id y
'OUI mOil ,
188
The mineral occurs in igneous rocks as a late magmatic mineral. It is

also found in veins, and in some m etamorphic rocks. It forms at higher
temperatures than pyrite.
CHALCOPYRITE
CuFeS2
Opaque
Tetragonal
Chalcopyrite is one of the most widely distributed copper minerals. It

is deep brass yellow with a metallic luster in refl ected light. It is found
189
and other salts. The great basin of northern Germany and the basin
which covers adjacent portions of New Mexico , Texas, Kansas , and Oklahoma are outstanding examples . Among the basins recognized arc
isolated marine remnants, shallow basins with intermittent oceanic connections, and isolated d esert basins.
As sea water evaporates in isolated basins such as th e Caspian Sea, tlw
concenh'ation of salts increases and eventually NaCl, KCl, CaSO"
CaS0 4 .2H zO, and complex salts which contain Mg, Ca, K, and Na an :
precipitated as minerals. Fluctuations in salinity due to intermitlcllt
streams have often occurred with the result that salts have b ecn (kposited in layers whieh are rhythmically repeated. The accumulatioll 01'
evaporites in enclosed basins may exceed the saline content of Lll(
original marine body.
COMMON EVAPORITE MINERALS
Minera l
FIG.
11-4. ( X 60) Chalcopyrite (black) surrounding quartz and muscovite.
in anhedral grains and vein lets but only occasionally in euhedral

crystals.
The min eral is common in veins and ore d eposits with several metals.
It is occasionally found in igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks.
HALIDES
The study of the halides and related species is a special problem.
Halite and fluorite are included in this text. Halite is an evaporite mineral. Fluorite is a vein mineral and an accessory in many rock types.
Evaporite minerals are numerous and worthy of more attention than
is possible in an introductory text. They include carbonates, sulfates, and
borates in addition to halides. It seems appropriate to call attention to
this group in connection with the halides.
Evaporite Minerals. At p eriods in geologic timc sedim entary basins
have accumulated large bodi cs of halite, gypsnm , dolomito, an hyd riLe,
Syl vite
Ha litet
Carnalli te
Kainite
La ng beinite
Poly ha litet
Thena rdite
Anhydritet
Gypsumt
Kieserite
Calcite t
Aragoni tet
D olomi tet
Kerni te
Borax
U lex itc
Col e lll a ni te
System a nd co mposition
I
I
0
M
I
T
M
111
H
0
H
l\[
111
T
1M
KCI
N aC I
K1I1 gCI. 6H,O
K1I1 g(SO.)C1.3H,O
K , 1I1 g,(SO.J,
l(,Ca,1I1 g(SO. ) . 2H,O
N a,SO.
CaSO.
CuSO . 2H , O
M gSO d {,O
CaCO .
CaC O ,
Ca CM g. Fc ) (CO .)'
Na, B . 0 7.4H, O
Na , B. 0 7. 10]-[, 0
N"C" B ,O .8 1-['O
Ca, B ,O " .r. rr, o
Index of refraction
n",
n-y
nil
In ter fe rence
fi g ure
= 1.4903*
n = 1. 5443*
C lf'flVn.KO
. 4665
.494
n
. 54 7
1 . 464
1 .5698
. 5207
1 .520
1. 4753 1.4937*
1 . 505
1. 5 16
= 1 . 5347*
0 .5(;0
1 .567
1 .474
.485
1. 5754 1. 6 13H*
1 .5299
.5230 *
1 .533
. 584
n, = 1.4863 nw =
1 . 5300 1. 68 10
n, = 1 . 500 llw
] . 4:'4
1 .172
. 44(;(;
. W87
. 1;0,1
. 49 1
. [,020
1 .58(;:1
1.6583*
. H854*
I . G79
. 488
. 4717 *
. ,,20
GHO*
B%
B%
B% B%
13%
13x
Bx
+
+
+
+
U
Bx
U
Bx Bx -
BI +
B%+
1100 1
1100 1
indis till ct
1001 1
no ne'
11011
10 10 1,/ 101 1,/ 111111
1010 1,1 100 1, /00 11
10 10 1,1 100 1,1 1111 1
/1101 , /111}' 1 i II I,
110 11,1 0 11 1
1101 1 I
/0101 ,/ 1111 1, 111111
I I()II I
/ 100 1,1 11111 1

/ IIIO }.I III i}
1010 }.1 110 1, 1111I 1

101 01,1 (1111 1
* (Na- li g ht) .
t Sec text des cr iptio ns .
Partly isolated basins may contain ahundant anhydrite and do l()lIJiII '
but are de fi cicnt in soluble salts. D escrL ba sin s y ie ld borales and less ('x
tensive acc nrnlllali ons of sol llhl c salls .
Th in secLions of evaporites ma)' h e m ~lcl (' hy g ri ll clill ~ in ~ I )'('o l , s /llil i, 'S
or th e lexllircs alld r(' i;lli oll sliips or tli ese 1ll<lt (' ri ;Jis 1i ;lv(' 1)( ' ( ' 11 111 : 111" I,
Stewart ( H).\9 ) , Sbll( 'r ; 111(1 11( 'II<i( ' I'SOIl ( 1!):12) , iJlld olli('l's, ( ;0 111111011
uVllporllll' IlIilll 'rnls il l'( ' Il ~ I, d . 1\11 01'(' ('() lIlpll'lI' d~'s l' l'ipli () lI S will \)\' I'o lllld
ill Ih " n ' I (' I( ' II (' ( '~ III 11]( ( 11](1 ,iI III I' (' 11 11I ) le ' l' ,
..
'
190
HALITE
NaCI
I sometric
n = 1.544
Color. Colorless but may contain inclusions.
Form. Halite is not found in thin sections prepared in the ordinary
way, but the sections may be ground in glycol. The halite usually appears
in anhedral crystals (Fig. 11-5).
Cleavage. Perfect cubic.
Relief. Very low, n b eing about the same as balsam or clove oil.
191
outline, but it is usually anhedral and often fills the spaces b etween other
minerals.
Cleavage. Perfect octahedral {Ill}. The cleavage usually appears as
two intersecting lines at oblique angles of 70 and 110, occasionally at
three intersecting lines of 60 and 120 (Figure 8-35).
Relief. Fairly high, n < b alsam. According to Merwin, the index of
refraction is remarkably constant (1.4338 for sodium light). Dispersion
of fluorite is very low; h ence the use of fluorite for apochromatic objectives.
FIG. ll-S. ( X 60) Halite with cubic outlines accen tuated by silty inclusions along
crystal boundaries.
F1G. 11-6. ( X 18) F luorite showing zonal structure.
Birefringence. Nil. Dark between crossed nicols. H alite from the highly
compressed salt of salt domes may b e anisotropic in thick sections.
Distinguishing Features. The very low relief, cubic cleavage, and
solubility are characteristic. About the only mineral that is likely to be
mistaken for halite is sylvite, but the latter h as appreciable relief and an
index less than balsam (for sylvite n = 1.490) .
Occurrence. Halite occurs in sedimentary b eds of rock salt that are
often accompanied by anhydrite and gypsum. Sylvite and polyhalite are
characteristic associates.
Birefringence. Nil. Dark b etween cross ed nicols.

Distinguishing Features. The rather high relief, perfect cleava g<', 11 11(1
isotropic character distinguish fluorite from practically all other mi l1 ('rIl IH
The purple spots or bands ( see Figure 11-6) are very ch aracteri sli e.
Occurrence. Fluorite is a common vein mineral, but it is ratl ler 1'1 11 11
in rocks in general. It is found in some granites, occasionally ill sillld
ston es, limestones, and phosphorites. In the wes tern U lliled Sl:llt's I1 l1d
in W est Germany, radioactivc black fluorite is associaled willi lIr:lllil1ll1 .
Fluorite
CaF 2
I sometric
= 1.434
Color. Colorless or purple in bands or spots.

Form. F lu ori te is some tim es found in ellhedr:" crysta ls with square
OXIDES
At least six simpl e oxid es are frequ ently cneo nn tc rccl ill II,ill s('('1i()IIH.
1'1 mOil iI.c, 1I<'II1:1li\.(', :llId :II. times rutilo are \.ralls'llI c('1I1 or Op:lqll <l. 0111( '1"
w iso Iho oxi(l( s y illid di sl illdi vc opli.cal propcrl iI'S .
192
193
PERICLASE
CORUNDUM
I sometric
MgO
n
Hexagonal
AbOa
= 1.738 t o 1.760
(Rhombohedral subsystem )
n, = 1.759 to 1.763
Periclase is a rare but widely distributed mineral.

Color. Colorless in thin sections.
Form. Pet'iclase occurs in small crystals or anhedral crystal aggregates.
Individual anhedra may be recognized
by cleavage traces.
Cleavage. Cubic. Parting, dodecah edral.
Relief. High, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Nil. D ark between
crossed nicols.
Distinguishing Features. The cubic
cleavage, high relief, and isotropic character taken together are distinctive.
FIC. 11-7. ( X IO) Core of pcriclase
Alteration. Periclase is usually altered
surrounded by brucite in metato
brucite which, in turn, may be altered
morphic limestone.
to hydromagnesite.
Occurrence. The most common occurrence of p ericlase is in metamorphic limestones. It is found as cores within brucite spots that are
formed by hydration of the peticlase.
n",
= 1.767 to 1.772
Opt. ( -)
FIC. 11-9. (X40)

lyenite.
Corundum crystal with rhombohedral parting in co rulldlllll
FIc. 11-8. ( X 60) Periclase in brucite-bearin g rock showin g cubic cleavage.
Artificial Periclase. Artificial p ericlase, now prcparcd on a commercial

scale from selcctcd magn csite, is more familiar th an th e n atural mineral.
It is used as a high-grade el ectri cal insul a tor.
1"11 :, 11 . 10. ( )o' r,O) C'" II II.l 1I 1I 1 " ' >,~ 1 1I 1 wi ll. w, ,11 d'IV"llIp"d p , "I I II I ~'
194
Color. Usually colorless, sometimes with blue or pink areas that are
not uniformly colored. Zoned crystals are not uncommon. In thick sections corundum may be pleochroic.
Fonn. Euhedral crystals are common. The habit varies from tabular
to prismatic; cross sections are six-sided and may show zonal structure.
Skeleton crystals are often encountered.
Cleavage. Parting often parallel to the unit rhombohedron {lOil} or
the pinacoid {0001} or both.
Relief. Very high, n > b alsam.
Birefringence. W eak, nw - fi e = 0.008-0.009. Sections are usually
thicker than normal on account of the exh'eme hardness of the corundum.
For this reason the maximum interference color of most thin sections runs
up into the second order.
Extinction. P arallel to the crystal outlines or symmetrical to the
rhombohedral parting.
Orientation. Sections of tabular crystals are length-slow, and sections
of prismatic crystals are length-fast since the optic sign of the mineral
is negative.
Twinning. Twinning lamellae or twin seams with {lOll } as the twinplane are rather common.
Interference Figure. The figure obtain ed in basal sections is uniaxial
negative usually with one ring. Some figures are biaxial with 2V as high
as 30 .
Distinguishing Features. The combination of very high relief with
weak birefringence, partin g, and tw'inning lamellae is distinctive.
195
Occurrence. Corundum is especially characteristic of corundum syenites, contact-metamorphic limestones, and metamorphosed shales. It
may also be found in schists and as a sporadiC deh'ital mineral. It is one
of the principal constituents of emery, which is probably a metamorphosed bauxite or laterite. In igneous rocks it never occurs with original
quartz.
H EMATITE
Fe 20 3
Opaque to translucent
Hexagonal
(Rhombohedral subsystem)
n. = 2.94
= 3.22
n",
Opt. (-)
Steel-gray black with metallic luster in rcflected light, with a tendency
to a marginal red. Some occurrences are red and translucent.
11-12. ( X 20) Hematite (black) fillin g the interstices between quartz veins and
following fractures in a quartzite.
F IG.
Hematite occurs in anhedral crystals, grains, masses and occasionally

in minute scales. Pseudocubic rhombohedral parting may be obscrved .
The mineral occurs as the main constitu cnt of hcmatite schist. It is a
secondary mineral in many rock types. Hematite is rare as an origill:d
constituent of igneous rocks.
ILMENITE
(i'cTi0 3
FIG. 11-1l. ( X 60) Small corundum crystals disseminated throu gh fluartz and inte.!'spcrsed with biotite.
Oparp lC
Tf() X H ~ () ll ld
(1l I1oll lill ll ,, 'd,,"1 HltlIHYHII 'III )
1I11l('lIit c: is hhw-gl'il y !lllll'k wi tll IIl('t :dli (' IlI stl 'r ill rdl(TI('d li g ll!. It.
s ho w II w llil ( ' 01' v(,!l o wl ,11 !JII I'II( ' I' I dl( ' I'I II inl l t o 1( ' III 'O X( ' I1( \
Illay
196
The mineral occurs in disseminated tabular crystals which may be

cut into elongate sections. Skeleton crystals frequently occur. It is also
found in irregular grains and masses.
Ilmenite is a widely distributed mineral in some types of igneous
rocks, more especially diabases and dolerites. It is an important constituent of titanium-bearing sands. It is often associated with magnetite in
iron ore.
Leucnxene. An opaque white substance called leucoxene is common as
an alteration product of titanium minerals in various rocks . It occurs on
ELEME:NTS
'to
191
HYDROXIDES
characteristic. Capillary crystals are common, especially in quartz.

Cleavage. Parallel to the length of the crystals {1l0}.
Relief. Very high, n > balsam. Adamantine luster by reRected light.
0.286-0.287; interference colors are
Birefringence. Extreme, n e - nw
very high but do not show well on account of total reRection.
Extinction. Parallel.
Twinning. Common (see Form).
Distinguishing Features. The mineral most likely to be mistaken for
rutile is probably baddeleyite (Zr02) , which sometimes occurs in conmdum syenites. The color, together with very high relief, is distinctive.
Related Minerals. Two polymorphs of rutile, anatase (also tetragonal) ,
and brookite (orthorhombic) are of importance as detrital minerals.
Occurrence. Rutile is a rather widely distributed accessory mineral in
varwus metamorphic rocks. It occasionally occurs in igneous rocks such
as the albitite of Kragera, Norway. Rutile also occurs as a detrital
mineral. Sphene is a common associate.
CASSITERITE
Sn02
TetragomLl
nw = 1.996
n, = 2.093
Opt. (+)
FIG.
Color. Colorless to gray, yellowish, reddish, or brown in thin sections.

It often shows zones of varying color.
11-13. ( x 18) Skeleton crystal of ilmenite.
the surface and around the borders of ilmenite and is also disseminated
through various rocks and is probably the result of hydrothermal alteration. Leucoxene has sometimes been identified with sphene. Leucoxene
in a detrital deposit in Oklahoma is amorphous hydrous titanium dioxide,
according to Coil.
RUTILE
Tetragon al
Ti0 2
nw = 2.603 t o 2.616
n , = 2.889 t o 2.903
Opt. (+ )
Color. Yellowish to reddish brown in thin sections. In reRected light

it shows adamantine luster.
Form. Rutile usually occurs in small prismatic to acicular crystals
and in grains. Knee-shaped twins with {101} as the twin -plane arc
e ll I
r10111
II
198
MINERAL DESCRI1'TIONS
199
Form. Cassiterite is usually found in subhedral crystals. Veinlets are

rather common.
Cleavage. Prismatic, parallel to the length.
Relief. Very high, n > balsam. Adamantine luster in reflected light.
Birefringence. Extreme, ne - nw = 0.097; the interference colors are
high order but are usually masked by the color of the mineral.
Extinction. Parallel to the cleavage, oblique to the twin-plane.
Twinning. Twinned crystals are common; th e twin-plane is {10l}.
Distinguishing FeatUl'es. Cassiterite resembles sphalerite, but the latter
is isotropic. From rutile it is distinguished by lower birefringence.
Occurrence. Cassiterite occurs in granite pegmatites, in greisen, and in
high-temperature veins. The usu al associates are qumtz, muscovite, schorlite, and topaz. The wood-tin variety occurs in rhyolites.
MULTIPLE OXIDES
The spinel group and perovskite have b een selected as th e members

of this division most likely to b e encountered in thin-section study.
The Spinel Group
The spinels are aluminates, ferrites , and chromites of dyad metals
magnesium and iron. They occur in isomehic crystals, usually octahedrons, and are optically isotropic.
In addition to the common spinels described here-spinel, magnetite,
and chromite- there are h ercynite (FeALO,\), magnesioferrite,
(MgFe 2 0 . ), galaxite (MnA1 2 0 4 ) , franklinite [(Zn,Mn)Fe 2 0 . L and
gahnite (ZnAI 2 0 . ).
SPINEL
'. I sometric
(Mg,Fe) (Al,Cr) 20 4
n
1.72 to 1.78
b
Color. Colorless to green (pleonaste), olive green, or brown (picotite)

in thin sections.
Form. Spinel practically always occurs in euhedral or subhedral
crystals or in equant grains. Crystals are octahedra, and the most common sections are rhombic in outline.
Cleavage. Imperfect octahedral, but it may not show.
Birefringence. It is one of the few isometric minerals that is invariably
isotropic.
Twinning. Twinning according to the spinel law with {HI} as twinplane is rather common, but it docs not uSll ally show in the slide.
11-15. ( X20) Two views of a spinel section. (a) Ordinary illuminalion s h ()w i" l~
spinel in dolomite. (h) T he same crystals between crossed ni eols. (Slreaks a,,<1
patches of birefrin ge nce in th e spinel arc caused by alteratio n. )
FIG.
Distinguishing Features. Pleonaste, iron-bearing variety of spin el, is

much like hercynite.
Spinel is distinguished from garn et by its octahcdral form.
Related M inerals. A related min eral, h erey nitc FeAI ~ O" is a prOlllill ('111
constitu ent or: certain lypes or e mcry. Pi cotilo is inle rill ed iale 1)(' lw('( '"
spin el Lind ehrOl11iLe. II' f'( 'SC' IIll )lc's cllrornil c hil t is 1I10J'( ' Ir:IIlsp:rrt'1I1.
::rl;r xilO is III : IIl g: II)( '~;() spill.'1 wil li lil o rOl'lllill u M II AI. O,. II O( '(, III'S wi lh
ullcgl' ll il y ilu.
200
Occurrence. Spinel occurs in metamorphic limestone with phlogopite
and chondrodite, in other metamorphic rocks, and also in various igneous
rocks. It is rare as a detrital mineral.
Picotite is common in peridotites, dunites, and derived serpentines.
MAGNETITE
FeIlFe~II04
Opaque
Isometric
Black with a metallic luster in reflected light. If present in abundance

the thin section is magnetic. Crystals may b e octahedra which yield
triangular, square, or rhombic sections. A triangular pattern due to octahedral parting may be present.
201
E LEMENTS TO HYDROXIDES
Black with a submetallic luster in reRected light. The mineral is often

translucent and brown on thin ed ges. It occms in subh edral crystals,
grains, or aggregates. Minute octahedra occasionally are found .
The chromite of meteorites approaches the composition F eCr20'l, but
terrestrial chromite always contains appreciable amounts of magnesium
and aluminum.
Chromite occurs for the most part in peridotites, pyroxenites, dunites,
and derived serp entines. It is at times a late magmatic mineral. In most
serpentines it is a reli ct mineral but at times it may be formed during
serpentinization at the exp ense of picotite.
PEHOVSKITE
P seudoi sometric
CaTi0 3
n = 2.34 to 2.38
FIG.
11-16. (x7) Euhedral to anhedral magnetite (black) in norite.
Magnetite is common in nearly all igneous and metamorphic rocks . In

igneous rocks it is a 'late magmatic mineral. It is a common deh'ital
mineral in sands accumulated along modern or ancient strand lines.
CHROMITE
(Fe,Mg) (Cr,AI ,Fe) 20 4
Opaque to translucent
n = 2.07 t o 2.16
I sometric
Color. Yellow to brown in thin sections.

Form. Perovskite is usually found in minute cubic crystals.
Cleavage. Cubic, noticed only in the larger crystals.
Relief. Very high , n > balsam. It is difficult to make the Becke test on
accolmt of total reflection. In reflected light it shows adaman tine lu ster.
Birefringence. Nil to 0.002. Minute crystals are dark between cross ed
nicols; larger crystals show very weak birefringence.
Twinning. The larger crystals show complicated polysynthetic twinning.
Distinguishing Features. Perovskite resembles melanite (garnct) and
picotite (spinel) , but it has a much higher refractive indcx than eithe r
of these.
Occurrence. Perovskite is a rare, but widely distributed, min eral ill
basic igneous rocks, esp eCially melilite basalts and p eridotites. Tt is a Iso
found in chlorite and talc schists and in some metamorphic limes tones.
HYDROXIDES
All members of this group lose wa ter on ignition . Thus the t erril
hydrous oxide has b een frequently applied.
DJASl'ORE
AIO (OH)
Ort.h orh om\)i'

n" = 1.702
11 1l
1.722
1.7:;0
XIO; ()pt.. ( I- )
'Il y
')\1
I/,
FIG.
11-17. ( x 20)
,), Clr ;l,, 11
I Cl i' l' , /'
IV
01'
.Y
202
Color. Colorless to pale blue in thin sections. Sometimes pleochroic in

thick sections.
Form. Diaspore occurs in tabular crystals
c
to {OlO}. The crystals may be rather
parallel
I,
large to very minute. The mineral also occurs
in minute aggregates.
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {0l0}.
Birefringence. Strong, ny - n a = 0.048; so
the
maximum interference color is about upper
y
third order.
Orientation. The crystals are length-fast.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial
positive with a very large axial angle. The axial
.X
plane is {OlO}. Dispersion, l' < lJ weak.
I
FIG.
11-18. Orientation
Distinguishing Features. Diaspore associated
diagram of diaspore. Secwith
Hint clay resembles clay particles in dition parallel to (lOO).
mensions but has stronger birefringence. More
coarsely crystalline diaspore may resemble anhydrite but has higher
relief and only one cleavage direction.
Related Minerals. Boehmite is dimorphous with diaspore.
203
BRUCITE
Mg(OHh
Hexagonal
nw = 1.566
n, = 1.585
Opt. (+)
Form. Brucite usually occurs in plates or scaly aggregates that appear
fibrous in sections.
.....
.;.;32::::
FIG.
11-19. ( X 20) Interlocking laths of diaspore.
Occurrence. Diaspore occurs in metamorphic rocks such as schists

and emery. It occurs in a few altered igneous rocks associated with
alunite. It is also a prominent constituent of the highly aluminous flint
clays.
/)
1"'\:. II -!W. ( X 2() ) 111I J('ili \ 1,1 l 'I< ,I,'" '"'l' ld (' l i ll, \, IIIII('. (II) "Viti, o,dlll ll ' V 111,,111111 11110 11 . ( /1) iI"I IV, " " "11" ,,, ,01 1I 1(,1I1 ~,
......
204
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {0001} but may not show in thin
sections.
Relief. Fair, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, ne - nw = 0.019. Some of the interference
colors are anomalous; a peculiar reddish brown hue takes the place of
the yellow and orange of the first order. If the section is too thin, the
anomalous colors do not show.
Orientation. The scaly aggregates, which are apparently fibrous , are
length-fast.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is uniccdal positive with
the first ring anomalous (see Birefringence ). At times the figure may be
biaxial with a small axial angle.
Distinguishing Features. It resembles alunite but has b etter cleavage
and anomalous interference colors.
Alteration. Brucite is often altered to hydromagn esite, Mg,, (OH) 2-
(C0 3 )a,3H 2 0.
Occurrence. The most common occurrence of brucite is in metamorphic calcite-brucite rocks as an alteration of periclase, MgO. It is sometimes found in serpentine.
205
Birefringence. Moderate, 11ry - n" = 0.013.
Distinguishing Features. Closely resembles gibbsite in thin section,
but the refractive indices are higher and the birefringence is less.
Occurrence. Widely distributed in bauxite where at times it may be
the main mineral.
GIBBSITE
AI(OHh
(Hydrargillite)
Monoclinic
= 8529'
L(3
n a = 1.554 to 1.567
n fJ = 1.554 t o 1.567
n-y = 1.576 t o 1.589
2 V = 0 t o 40; Opt. (+ )
b = IX or X, a 1\ 'Y or Z = 26
Color. Colorless to p ale brown in thin sections.

Form. Gibbsite (called hydrargillite by European mineralogists) occurs in minute pseudoh exagonal euhedral crystals in cavities and in fin c
Bauxite Minerals
The term bauxite is widely used for aluminum ore. It was originally
applied (Betthier, 1821) to aluminous material b elieved at that time to
b e a single mineral but since shown to contain at least two constituents.
Bau xite is properly a generic term for rocks rich in hydrous aluminum
oxides. Such rocks are frequently formed by weathering in warm, humid
regions where organic acids derived from heavy vegetation are abundant.
The process is frequ ently called lateritization. The product laterite, often
both ferruginous and aluminous, is a widespread intermediate stage in
the formation of bauxite. Aluminum minerals common in bauxite are
gibbsite, boehmite, and cliachite.
BOEHMITE
AIO(OH)
Ort horhombic
a =
n a = 1.638
n fJ = 1.645
n-y = ] .651
2V = moderate; Opt. (-)?
IX or X; b = 'Y or Z; c = (3 or Y
Form. Crystals arc minute and tabular.

Cleava ge. Tn onc dircction parallclto {OlO}.
FIG. 11-21. Orientation diagram of gibbsite. Section parallel to (010).
crystalline aggregates that are often pseudomorphous after feldsp ars.

Reticulate structure is common.
Cleavage. In one direction parallel to {OOl }, but it may b e diffi cult lo
see.
Relief. Moderate, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, 11ry - n" = 0.022. The maximum intcrfercnce
colors are bright upper first-order or lower second-order colors.
Extinction. Oblique extinction angles, up to a maximum of 260 for
a 1\ y or Z in sections p arallel to {O1O}.
Orientation. Since the crystals are tabular p arall cl to {OOl }, clong:tlc
sections with twinning are length-slow.
Twinning. Pol)'s)'nthctic twinning with {OOl } as twinplanc is orleJl
sharp and wcll dcfln cd.
Inlcrfcrence 'Figure. 'I'll(' l'I')'s Lds :l rc II sll"lI), too srn:i11 to g ive :Ill ill rrc rc ncc fi g lll'{'. III III()sl ( ' I'.\'~ I : ds Ill c' :lxi:t1 pl:lI1(' is norlll:l l 10 ( 010 ), hili
in SO IlI(' il is jllll': t1ld 10 ( 010 ),
......
206
Distinguishing Features. On account of the aggregate sbucture gibbsite resembles chalcedony, but thc relief is higher and the birefringence
much sbonger. It also resembles dahllite, but the latter mineral has weak
birefringence.
207
shrinkage of the original spherOidal gel-form frequently appear in thin
sections.
FIG. 11-23. ( X 20) Bauxite showing a segment of a pisolite. The dark area is
cliachite. Contraction cracks are filled with gibbSite.
.. ....
FIG. 11-22. (X25) ( X nicols) Gibbsite surrounds and penetrates pisolites and
broken areas of cliachite (black).
Occurrence. Cliachite is the main constituent of many bauxites. Common associates are gibbsite and siderite. There may also be relict min erals such as ilmenite and sphene, for in some cases bauxites are derivcd
from nepheline syenites.
LIMONITE
Occurrence. Some bauxites (bauxite is used as a rock name) are made

IIp largely of gibbSite, others largely of amorphous cliachite with crysUlline gibbsite in cavities.
CLIACHITE
.-\i 20 3 (H 20):t
(B auxite in pa rt)
n = 1.57 to 1.61
Mineraloid
Color. Colorless to deep brown or red in thin sections. Translucent to

nearly opaque.
Form. Cliachite is pisolitic or massive without any indication of crystalline structure.
Relief. Moderate, n > balsam. It is difficult to test the relief and refractive index unless the mineral is powdered.
Birefringence. Nil. In favorable spots or in a powdered form the mineral is isotropic.
Distinguishing Features. The pisolitic sb'ucture (Figure 8-3) and
association with gibbSite arc distinctivc. Contraction cracks dllc to
H2Fe2()4(H 2()):t
()paque to translucent
n = 2. 0 to 2.1
Mincraloid
Limonite is brown in reflected light. It may be translucent in som c

masses and on thin edges. It frequently forms a stain or a border around
other minerals, particularly thos e with a high iron content.
FIc. J :1 -24. ( X 9) Lilll()n il l' l'l' llIl'lllin g deLrilal i'ra g lll(': lIls of <i" :II ' l z .
Th e mincr,il is Il sl l:t1l y isolropi c IlIll I1lay sllow irrcg ltlar hircl'rill g(" ll'('
cluo Lo slrai l' . Co('ll lil(' is slillil " r 10 liIlHlIli[() hill is tlisliflclly cryslnl/ill
witll I'"rallo'l ('xl JIIl 'I iOIl ,
.......
MINERAL DESCRiPTIONS
208
Limonite is a secondary mineral product ordinarily the result of oxida
tion or weathering. It may form a cement for sand grains. It is often present on the weathered surface of rocks. It occasionally forms pseudomorphs after other minerals especially pyrite.
CHAPTER
12
REFERENCES
Carbonates, Sulfates, and Phosphates
Evaporites
Schaller, W. T. , and E. P. Henderson: Mineralogy of drill cores from the
potash field of New Mexico and Texas, U.S. C eol. Survey Bull. 833 ,
p. 124, 1932.
Stewart, F. H.: The Petrology of the Evaporites of tl1e Eskdale No .2 Boring,
East Yorkshire, Mineral. Mag. , vol. 28, pp. 621-675, 1949.
Bauxite
"Problems of Clay and Laterite Genesis: A Symposium ," pp. 1-244, AIME,
New York, 1952.
CARBONATES
SULFATES
PHOSPHATES
Calcite Group
Calcite
Dolomite
Magnesite
Siderite
Aragonite Group
Aragonite
Barite
Celestite
Anhydrite
Gypsum
Polyhalite
Alunite
Jarosite
Monazite
Apatite
Dahllite
Collophane
Lazulite
The minerals of Chapter 12 contain sevcral isomo11)hous groups wh er

the range in optical properties may provide inadequate criteria for positive identification b etween members. This applies particularly to several
carbonate and sulfate groups. The texhlral information revealed by th e
thin sections will b e found particularly useful but it may b e necessary to
resort to chemical and X-ray diffraction methods for precise identifI cation.
The Calcite Group
The calcite group of rhombohedral carbonates consists of th e min c rals
listed below, together with rhodochrosite (MnC0 3 ) and smithsonil('
C ALCITE GROUP
M incral
Chemi cal
com posiLion
n,
nw
nw - n ,
Calcite ....... ....

Dolomite .........
Mltf,!; ncs iLo . .......
f;ic\rl'iLc .. ... . ....
CaCO ,
Ca(M f,!;,Fe) (CO ,h
Mf,!;CC)"
l"cCO,
1 . 48G
1 . 500- 1 . 52G
1 . 500- 1.527
1 . 5%- 1. n:{3
] . G58
1. G80- 1. 7 1(i
1 . 700- 1. 72(;
J . 8:{0- J. 875
0 . 172
O. 180- 0 . I DO
o . lnl O. I\)!)
0 .2: I 'H) .2 /1 ~
( Zn CO:, ). Til ey al'O lH'xli /.';( lIlId ( rllollll)()ll ('drlll slIhsyS II 'II1 ) "villi per/'cci
rholl il )()lwdrlll (II ': IVII/.';( li lld II <"11 ' 11VII/-(I , all gk of' 7:1" 10 7f) o, T,II('Y ti l'( '
'. ( 1)
210
CARBONATES, SULFATES, AND PHOSPHATES
211
uniaxial and optically negative. All show change of relief when rotated;
the higher relief is obtained when the long diagonal of the rhomb is
parallel to the vibration plane of the lower nicol. The birefringence is extreme, and the maximum interference colors are high-order white.
Dolomite and magnesite may contain ferrous carbonate in isomorphous
mixture, and this increases the value of the refractive indices.
Another member of the calcite group is rhodochrosite, MnCO a. It is
very similar to the other minerals in its optical properties. Rhodochrosite
occurs in veins but is very rare as a rock-forming mineral. Still another
member of the group is smithsonite. It usually occurs in the oxidized
zone and is sometimes pseudomorphou s after calcite and dolomite.
CALCITE
Hexagonal
CaC0 3
(Rho mbohedral subsystem)
Fic. 12-1. ( X20) Anhedral calcite crystals shOWing rhombohedral cleavage.
n, = 1.486
= 1.658
Opt. ( - )
n",
Color. Colorless in thin sections, but it is often cloudy.

Form. Fine to coarse aggregates, usually anhedral. Euhedral crystals in
rock sections are rare. Calcite often shows organic structure of some kind.
It is frequently oolitic or spherulitie.
Cleavage. Perfect rhombohedral {lOll} , usually shows at two interseeling lines at oblique angles (75 0 if section is cut normal to the cleavage traces). In fine aggregates the cleavage may not show. There is sometimes parting parallel to {0112} which is due to twin-gliding.
Relief. Varies with the direction. It is high when the long diagonal of
the rhomb is parallel to the vibration plane of the lower nicol and low
when the short diagonal is in this position. Occasional sections parallel
to {0001 } h ave high relief in all positions.
Birefringence. Extreme, nw - n f = 0.172. The maximum interference
color is pearl gray or white of the higher orders. Thin edges of the slide
usually show bright colors of the fo urth and fifth orders and tints of
higher orders. Thin films and twin lamellae of calcite usually show bright
interference colors.
Extinction. Symmeh"ical to the cleavage traces. When a section is in
one of the extinction positions, fine birefringent calcite dust formed by
grinding is prominent.
Orientation. Is difficult to determine on account of the extreme birefringence.
Twinning. Polysyntlletic twinning with {0l12} as twin-plane is very
common , espccially in th e calcite of metamorphic lim cs tone. 1110 twin
lamellac arc mostly parallel to the long diagonal, but they also inl('rs('('1
at oblique angles dep ending upon how the section is cut. The lwill
lamellae ill'e usually so thin that they show first-order interference colors.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is uniaxial negative witll
many rings. Cleavage 1lakes give a very cceenh"ic fi gm c. OccaS ionally
calcile gives a biaxial fi gure with a small axial angle.
Dislinguishing Fealures, Dolomite, magn csite, a nd siderite may all 1>0
IIlislakell for c; dcile. Do loillilc' is Il slially subheclral to euhecl ral and oflell
II :lS lwill 1<1 111( ' 11 ;1(' pan dlvl 10 II I(' sll()rl dia gonal as well as 10 the IOll g
dl agoll:d. Sid( 'I'ilo IISIIII II ), III IS "'Oil SllIills :lrolllHllll(l hOf"{]l'rs of Iho grllins.
212
213
DOLOMITE
CaCM g,Fe) (C0 3) 2
(inc. Ankerite)
Hexagonal
n,
n ",
= 1.680 to 1.716
1.500 to 1.526
Opt. (-)
FIC . 12-3. ( X 60) Finely crystalline calcite containing coarser quartz. (X nicols. )
FIC. 12-5. ( X20) A portion of a single anhedral crystal of dolomite showing rholllbohedral cleavage.
Flc. 12-4. ( X 25) Calcite forming casts of foraminifera distributed through carbonaceous shale.
and the relief is not low in any position. Since there is no distinctive feature for magnesite, it may be necessary to make microchemical tests.
Aragonite is also similar to calcite but lacks the rhombohedral cleavage,
and in no section is the refractive index distinctly less than that of balsam.
Aragonite is also biaxial.
Alteration. Calcite is often replaced by quartz. This feature is often
observed in quartz veins.
Occurrence. Calcite is the principal constituent of both sedimentary
and metamorphic limestones, but it is found in many other rock types.
It is a very common secondary min eral in cavities of igneous rocks, where
it is often associated with zeolites. It is also it dellte-ri e mineral in som
i!!neolls rocks. Next to (l' t:lrlz, ('aicilt' is Ih e most C ClJIIII IO II ve in ntineral.
Color. Colorless to gray.

Form. Fine to coarse grain ed and usually subhedral. Euhedral crystals
of the unit rhombohedron {lOll } are rather common and the crystals <He
often curved. Zonal sh'ucture is frequent; this is due to variation in the
iron content.
Cleavage. Perfect rhombohedral parallel to {lOll}, which usually
shows as two inters ecting sets of lines at oblique angles . There also may
be parting parallel to {0221}.
Relief. Vmies with the direction. It is high when the long diagonal of
the rhomb is pm'allel to the vibration plane of the lower nkol ancl Jow
when the short di agonal is in this position. An occasional section parallel
to {OOOI} has high relief in all positions.
Birefringence. E xtreme, n w - n c = 0.180 to 0.190; interference colors
arc p earl gray or whitc of the hi gh order. Bather bright colors of th"
fomth and fifth ord ers may show on the cdge of the sucle.
Extinclion. S)' lI1l1lclri cal 10 ollllin cs of crys lals and to th e c1eavag<:
Ira ('es. (; lIrv(,d ('I'),s l;t1s sll ow W; IV)' (''( Iill clion .
Twillllill g . T ll o (\ol oill il(' 01' 1lll'l il lll orplli (' rocks Ilsll ;dly shows Jlolys), l1Ilu 'li c Iwililtill g w itll (022 11 11 ~ Iwi ll p lnll (. 'I'll(' [wi nllill g InIlI I' II II(' llro
p ll I'll 11(11 10 110111 ,~ lloll II l1d 1011 /', 11I 1 1 /'.' IJ II " ~ of' III( ' J'l1(lllIhs. I\ s ill ( '( iI( 'it( " (.il!
.-.
214
twin lamellae are usually so thin that they show first-order interference
colors.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is uniaxial negative with
many rings.
Distinguishing Features. Dolomite closely resembles calcite, but in
many cases it may be distinguished by its t endency to euhedral crystals,
by zonal structure, and by twinning lamellae parallel to the short diagonal. It is even more like magnesite, and thus it may be necessary to rely
on chemical or microchemical tests.
Occurrence. Dolomite is a very common mineral. It occurs in veins and
replacement deposits, in sedimentary dolomite rocks and limestones, and
in metamorphic dolomite rocks.
MAGNESITE
Hexagonal
MgC0 3
(Rhombohed ral subsystem)
n , = 1.509 to 1.527
nw = 1. 700 t o 1. 726
215
Relief. Changes on rotation like calcite and dolomite. It has high relief
when the lon g diagonal of the rhomb is p arallel to the vibration plane of
the lower nicol and low relief when the short diagonal is in this position.
An occasion al scction parallel to {000l} has high relief in all positions.
Birefringence. Extreme, nw - n8 = 0.191 to 0.199; intederence colors
are pearl gray (white of the high order ).
Extinction. Symmeh'ical with rcsp ect to cleavage traces.
Twinning. Absent as far as known.
Intederence Figure. The interfercnce figure is uniaxial negative with
many rings.
Distinguishing Features. Magnesite is very similar to dolomite and
calcite and has no distinctive optical properties of its own aside from
indices of refraction. For this reason chemical or microchemical tests may
be necessary to distinguish it.
Occurrence. Metamorphic magnesite rocks are found in Stevens
County, W ashington. Magnesite is a common mineral in serpentine in
both coarsely crystalline and microcrystalline varieties.
SIDERITE
Opt. (-)
Hexagol1lt[
FeC0 3
(Rhomboh edral subsys t (' Ill )
n, = 1.596 t o 1.G33
nw = ] .830 to 1.875
Opt. (-)
12-6. ( X20) Bancleu magn esite with a

quartz vein cuts the magneSite.
FIG.
crystal pattern. A thin
Color. Colorless.
Form. Magnesite usually occurs in anhedral to su bhedral crystal aggregates. The porcelain-like microcrystalline variety has a grain size on
the order of l iL. Euhedral crystals are exceedingly rare.
Cleavage. Perfect rhombohedral {lOll } as in calcite, dolomite, and
siderite except in the microcrystalline variety.
CO IOI', III Il li ll s('d i() lI s il is ('o lor l(ss 10 g r :ly lI lid III:ly
browlI ill sp()l s
Oil
III(' I 'd g,'s , ' 1'11< 1 III'()W II spol s
llro
1)(' y t I\() wi sll III'
dill ' I() Idl (l'II lioli .
....
216
Form. Siderite occurs in fine to coarse aggregates of anhedral to euhedral crystals and sometimes shows oolitic, spherulitic, or colloform
structure.
Cleavage. Perfect rhombohedral {lOll} as in calcite, dolomite, and
magnesite.
Relief. Varies somewhat on rotation. The relief is high when the long
diagonal is parallel to the vibration plane of the lower nicol and moderate
when the short diagonal is in this position. In both positions the index of
refraction is greater than balsam.
Birefringence. Exh'eme, nUl - n = 0.234 to 0.242. Interference colors
are pearl gray (white of high order). Blighter colors may show on the
edge of the slide.
Extinction. Symmetrical to cleavage traces.
Twinning. Twin lamellae parallel to the long diagonal [twin-plane =
{0112}] are occaSionally observed.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is uniaxial negative with
numerous rings.
Distinguishing Features. Siderite very much resembles the other
rhombohedral carbonates but may often be distinguished by the brown
stain around the borders of the grains and along cleavage cracks. The
index of refraction in all positions is greater than that of balsam; in calcite, dolomite, and magnesite the index of refraction n e is less than that
of balsam.
Occurrence. The chief occurrence of siderite is in veins or replacement
deposits with quartz as a common associate. Siderite also is a prominent
mineral in some bauxites. It is the principal mineral of septarian clay
ironstone concretions. Siderite is a prominent mineral in the oolitic ironstones of England as an associate of chamosite. It is a secondary mineral
in the cavities of some basalts.
217
'y
1
1
/'
II
'1[1 ' 1
I II
~c-x(
-1
I I 010. - - ,
IIIXo
a
FIG. 12-8. Orientation diagram of aragon ite. Section parallel to (001).

Form. Aragonite usually shows a columnar or fibrous structure. Cross
sections are six-sided.
Cleavage. Imperfect parallel to the length of the crystals (010 facc).
Relief. Varies with the direction; the relief is low when the columns or
fibers are parallel to the vibration plane of the lower nicol and high whcli
these are normal to this direction. Basal sections show no change of relief
since n/3 is about the same as ny.
Aragonite Group
Orthorhombic carbonates of Ca, Ba, Sr, and Pb form an isomorphous
group containing the minerals aragonite, witherite, strontianite, and
cerussite.
ARAGONITE
Orthorhombic
CaC0 3
(Pseudo hexagonal)
n",
FIG. 12-9. ( X 22 ) Euhedral ara gonile wilh j101ysy nlh cli (; lwinning. ( X ni co ls. )
= 1.530
nf3
= 1.682
n)'
= 1.686
2 V = 18; Opt. ( -)
a = f3 or Y , b = 'Y or Z, c = a or X
II " - 0. 156. Ililnkrc li ce co lors pen d

Birefringence. Ex trc lIl C, lIy
gray (\V l lil( ' or [II(' lli g h ord('r ); hri g lil('r colors 1I"'y sll()w Oil thill td g(s
:llId :doll g ('r:l('ks.
.I ~x tilll: tioll. PlIl'ldl( '1 10 ( ' I vs l ll is (II ' ( "IIIIIIII S.
218
Twinning. Fairly common [twin-plane = {IlO}] both as twin lamellae

and as contact and peneh'ation twins.
Interference Figure. Basal fOOl} sections of aragonite give a negative
biaxial interference figure with a small axial angle. The axial plane is
{lOO}, Dispersion, l' < v weak.
Distinguishing Features. Aragonite greatly resembles calcite but lacks
the rhombohedral cleavage. It is biaxial, whereas calcite is uniaxial.
Alteration. Aragonite alters easily to calcite, which is the stable form of
calcium carbonate.
219
CARBONATES, SULFATES: AN D PHOSPHATES

C
/ IftfB'o'lJ I I *t+t
. ) --b
O
FIG. 12-11. Orientation diagram of barite. See tiun parall el to (100).

Form. Usually in granular aggregates, but the individual crystals may
be elongate,
Cleavage. In three directions, p arallel to fOOl} and {IlO} and therefore at angles of 90 0 and 78 0 .
Relief. Fairly high, n> balsam,
Birefringence. Rather weak, n-y - na = 0.012, slightly greater than
that of quartz. The maximum interference color is rarely above first-ord cr
yellow or orange. The interference colors are frequently mottled .
FIG.
12-10. ( X20) A portion of a radial aggregate of aragonite crystals. ( X nieols.)
Occurrence. The most common occurrence of aragonite is probably

as a secondary mineral in cavities of basalts and andesites. It also occurs
in seams of limestones, sandstones, and occasionally in veinlets. It was
probably a widespread original constituent of sediments but has since
been altered to calcite. It is also found in some metamorphic rocks.
SULFATES
About 150 sulfate compounds are found in nature. Among these a few
common species have been selected for optical description. Descriptions
of sulfates of less common occurrence should be sought in reference
books,
BARITE
Ort horhombic
BaS04
na
n~
= 1.G:n
= 1.648
n 1'
2V
(t
1.636
= 36 to 373-2 ; Opt. (+ )
b = (:J or Y, r; = (~ or X
'Y or 7"
Flc . 12-12. ( X 45 ) Barite (bladed) with calcite in Iimc slull c.
Extinction, Parallel to thc bcs t clcavagc {001 }. Th e cxtin ction in {OOi I

sections is symmctrical.
Orientalion. Th e direclioll or lh e b cs L clea va ge is th e slower ray .
Twinnillg. Po lysy "lht'li c Iwilillili g wiL h {I IO} as Lil(:: Lwill -pia llt: is
(l('casioll:tlly fOl lll d .
11111'1'('('1'('11('(' I'iglll'('. S"I 'I i llll ~ ('III pIll'ldl ('1 lo (IOO} g i vI' II positivo bi II xilll illlor('( II'OII('O li g lll'() IVl tll II 11111111 '1'111 0 II xlll l II l1g ll ' (Fl g ll1'O 8-30) ,
220
221
CARBONATES, SULFATES, AND PHOSPHATE S
Cleavage plates parallel to fOOl} give an obtuse bisectrix figure. The

axial plane is {010 } . Dispersion, l' < v weak.
\
'"
FIG. 12-15. ( X20) Interlocking crystals of celestite. ( X nicols.)
FlG. 12-13. ( x 20 ) Plumose pattern of barite crystals. ( X nicols. )
Distinguishing Features. Barite greatly resembles celestite, but the

axial angle is smaller. It may b e necessary to determine refractive indices
carefully or to make chemical tests in order to distinguish them.
Occurrence. Barite is a prominent vein mineral; the common associates
are quartz and calcite. It also occurs in limes tones and sandston es and is
prominent in some concretions, but it is rare as a strictly rock-forming
mineral.
CELESTITE
8r80 4
Orthorhombic
n" = 1.622
n~ = 1.624
n oy = 1.631
2V = 51; Op t. (+)
a = l' or Z, b = (3 or Y, C = a or X

Form. Euhedral to anhedral crystals, sometimes fin e granular. Euhcdra l
crystals are mostly tabular parallel to fOOl } and elongated in th e dir N ' tion of the b-axis [010] .
Cleavage. Perfect p arallel to fOOl }, imperfect p arallel to {UO}.
Relief. Fair, 11, > b alsam.
Birefringence. Ra th er weak, 11,)' - 11,a = 0.009, the same as that of
quartz, so that the high est interference color is white or straw yell ow.
Extinction. Parallel to th e outlines and to th e cleavage.
Orientation. The elongation of tabular crystals is parallel to th e slow('r
ray.
Interference Figure. Sections cut p arallel to {100} give a positive hiaxial interference fi gure with moderate axial angle. Clcavage' plaks
p arallel to fOOl} give an obtuse bisectrix figure. The axial plane is (0 10) .
Dispersion, l' < v.
Distinguishing Features. Celestite very much resembles h arite, hil i
the axial angle is larger.
Occurrence. Celes tite usually occurs in sedim entary lim es ton es, wlH'J'C
it is probably more common than b arite.
A NII YDIUTE
010
~-=.1~
CnS O~
O rth orh Olllhlu
-- b
'11 "
I.mo
II Ii
l .fi76
/l oy
J.(i
1"
:~ I '
FIc. 12-14. Orientatiun diagmm of celestite. Section panillcl to (100) .
(I,
01 '
U O; Opl. . ( I )
'h , II
rJ (II' l' , (;
II'
or .'I
222
223
I
010
':l:=
I) - b
x
I
FIG.
12-16. Orienta tion diagram of anhydrite . Section parallel to (loa).

Form. Usually fine to medium-grained aggregates or anhedral to subhedral crystals, which are sometimes elongate. Euhedral crystals are rare.
It also occurs as inclusions in halite.
Cleavage. In three directions at right angles parallel to {100}, {010},
and {ool}. It may also show parting parallel to {101 } which is due to
twinning.
Relief. Moderate, n > balsam. Some sections show a slight change ot
relief when the stage is rotated.
Birefringence. Strong, ny - n IX = 0.044. The interference colors range
up to about third-order green.
Extinction. Parallel to the cleavage traces.
Twinning. Polysynthetic t",rinning with {101 } as twin-plane is common.
The twinning lamellae show best on the (010) face and make an angle
of 42 0 and 48 0 with the cleavage traces. There may be two sets of twin
lamellae (101 ) and (101) intersecting at angles of 83 Y2 0 and 96 Yz o.
Interference Figure. Cleavage fragments and sections parallel to {100}
give a biaxial positive interference figure with a moderate axial angle.
The axial plane is {01O} . Dispersion, f < v.
Distinguishing Features. Anhydrite is distinguished from gypsum by
higher relief and sh'onger birefringence. The rectangular pseudocubic
cleavage is distinctive.
Alteration. Between grains and along vein lets anhydrite is often altered
to gypsum, and anhydrite may be found as remn ants within gypsum.
Occurrence. Anhydrite occurs in sedimentary beds. It is often encountered in deep drilling but near the surface is usually altered to
gypsum. It often occurs with halite an d is common in salt mines. In salt
domes it is often found as cap rock. Metamorphic anhydrite rock is
found at the Nevada-Douglas mine, Lyon County, Nevada. It is occ~
sioRally encountered in veins formed at depth.
b
FIG. 12-17 a,". ( X 20) A crystalline aggregate of anhydrite with rcduli gul ar C I C llVIII ~("
(a) Ordinary illu mina tion. (b) X nicols.
GYPSUM
CaS0 4. 2II 2 0
MOll oe liu iu
(3 =- ~ O O /I ')/
na = 1. 520
1l ~ = 1.522
II .., 1.!i2!J
~ I'
Ii
(J
i ll '
GHo; Op l..(I- )
) ', ( ' /\
f1'
01' .\'
;i7 ~H'
_I
224
225
CARBONATES, SULFATES, A ND PHOSPHATES
Orientation. Cleavage b'aces are parallel to both slower and faster rays
since b = (3 or Y.
Twinning. The polysynthetic twinning often found in thin sections of
gypsum is produced by heating the section.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial positive with a
moderate axial angle. The axial plane is {01O} . Dispersion, l' > v. Sections parallel to (010) give a "flash figure."
Distinguishing Features. Gypsum is easily distinguished from anhydrite by lower relief and weaker birefringence.
Occurrence. Gypsum is the chief constituent of gypsum rock, which
in most cases has been form ed by the hydration of anhydrite. Anhydrite
may occur in the gypsum as a relict mineral. Gypsum occurs in veinlets
and between grains of anhydrite. Other commonly associated minerals are
calcite, dolomite, and halite.
POLYHALlTE
Triclinic
K 2MgCa2(S04) 4.2H 20
FIG. 12-18. Orientation diagram of gypsum. Section parallel to (010).
La
= 9220'
Lf3
L'Y
1234'
8821'
= 1.548
= 1.562
n'Y = 1.567
na
n fj
2V = ca. 70; Opt . (-)

(Optical orientat ion unknown)
FIG. 12-19. ( X 18) Gypsum in gyp sum rock. ( X nicols.)

Form. Gypsum usually occurs in anhedral to subhedral aggregates and
is often uneven grain ed. It sometimes shows a fibrous structure.
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {OlO}, imperfect parallel to {100}
and {Ill} . (100) 1\ (101) = 6610'.
Relief. Low, n slightly < balsam.
Birefringence. Rather weak, 11.)' - no: = 0.009 (the same as that of
quartz) . The highest interference color is white or straw ycllow. Sections
with the highest interference color do not usually show any cleavage.
Extinction. Pa.rallel to th e b est cleavage in sections normal to (010).
F,c. 12-20. ( X 15) Poiyh:1 i ill' si l()willg jloi y'y "Ij,('li c Lwi lilling ~ nd v: lli :,Lioil ill pig1111'111. ( X IIitok)
Color. Co lori( 'sS to 1'('(ldisl, ill Il l i" s('('(io ll s. '('li e I'cdJisl1 ('0101' is dll o
11('111 : 11
10
il i(' l'i g lll ('1I1.
l'Ol'lli. I 'o ly il l ti i i( ' ,~ IIII W"
1', i" ill"I ," '
III '
I l hl'O II ~
S IIII('IIII'( '.
..
226
227
CARBONATES, SULFATES, A ND PHOSPHATES
Cleavage. Parallel to (100) and parting parallel to (010).

Relief. Low, n > b alsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, ny - ncr = 0.019. The intederence colors
range up to second-order blue.
Extinction. Oblique.
Twinning. Polysynthetic twinning with (OlO) as the twin-plane is very
common.
Intederence Figure. The intederence figure is biaxial negative with a
rather large axial angle, but it may be difficult to obtain on account of
the small size of the crystals.
F lc. 12-22. ( X 60) Alunite in an alunite vein . ( X nicols.)
FIG. 12-21. (X20) Twinn ed crystals of polyhalitc in a gran ular aggregate. ( X nicols.)
Distinguishing Features. Poly h alite may resemble gypsum, but both

its refractive indices and birefringence are higher. It is decomposed by
water with the separation of microchemical gypsum.
Occurrence. Polyhalite occurs in saline beds; the common associates
are halite, sylvite, magnesite, and anhydrite. In the West Texas-New
Mexico Permian b asin it is an alteration product of anhydrite according
to Schaller and H enderson.
Cleavage. Fair cleavage in one direction {000l}.

Relief. Fair, n > b alsam. When the stage is rotated th ere is a slig lll
change of relief.
Birefringence. Moderate, n . - nO) = 0.020; th e interferencc colors
Extinction. Parallel or symmetrical in most sections. Basal scctions art'
dark in all positions.
Orientation. Crystals and cleavage traccs are length-fast.
Interference Figure. Basal sections give a positive unicL'::ial intcrfercII C'''
figure.
Related Minerals. Natroalunite, the sodium analogue of alunilc, is
very similar to alunite in its properties .
Occurrence. Alunite occurs as a hydrothermal alteration prodll cl or
rhyolites, dacites, and andesites. It is also prominent as a vein min e ral.
JAROSITE
KFe~II(OH) 6 (S04 ) 2
TTcxftJz;o lllll
(llhomhohpdrnl HlrllHYHI""I )
ALUNITE
Hexagonal
KAI 3 (OH) 6(804) 2
nw = 1.572
n, = 1.592
Opt. (+)
Form. Alunite usually shows fine to coarse aggrcga tes. Crystals vary
from tabular to pseudocubic rhombohcdral (rr' = 9050').
n, = 1.715
nw = 1.820
Op t.. ( - )
Color. Colorl css to hrown in lhin sections.
Form . J:lros ile OCC III"S ill c rys l;rl agg rega les :l lltl occasioll a ll y ill ('Iril('d n ri
c rys l';r1s, wlliell ; 11'(' Silllil;lr I n ,llose or ;Iirlllil e, for ,llese !.\\' O IIli lH'r;r1s
isol11o rplloll s.
C ll' UVII~(" l)islllH'1 d( 'I1VIII'.I' II, lilli ' d lrl '('li (l 1l {OOOll .
11 1' ( '
228
Relief. Very high, n > balsam.

Birefringence. Extreme, nw - no = 0.105.
Extinction. Parallel or symmetrical. Basal sections are dark in all positions.
Orientation. Difficult to test on account of the extreme birefringence.
Interference Figure. Tabular crystals give a negative uniaxial figure
with many rings.
Related Minerals. N atrojarosite, N aFe 3 ( OR) 6 ( S04) 2; ammoniojarosite NR4Fe3(OR) 6(S04)2; plumbojarosite PbFeG (OR)dS04)4; and
argentojarosite AgFe3 (OR) G (SO'J) 2 are all very similar to jarosite.
Alteration. Jarosite alters readily to limonite.
Occurrence. Jarosite is a rather common mineral in the lower oxidized
zone of ore deposits. It is occasionally found in volcanic igneous rocks,
perhaps as a late hydrothermal mineral.
229
Color. Nearly colorless to neutral in thin sections.

Form. Monazite occurs in euhedral crystals, which are usually very
small.
Cleavage. Parting parallel to {Om} is often prominent.
Birefringence. Strong to very strong, ny - n" = 0.049 to 0.051. The
maximum interference color is upper third or lower fourth order. Cross
0.001
sections of crystals have very weak birefringence since n il - n"
to 0.002. The mineral may be metamict with low birefringence.
"""'-,
.:
PHOSPHATES
Many phosphate minerals are found in small concentrations in pegmatites, in metallic mineral deposits, and as minor rock constituents. The
minerals described constihlte the more abundant species.
MONAZITE
Monoclinic
L{3 = 766'
(Ce,L ~~,N cl,Pr)P04
1.786 to 1.800
1.788 t o 1.801
n~
n.." = 1.837 to 1.849
217 = 6 to 19 ; Opt . (+)
ex or X, c 1\ l' 0[' Z = - 2 to - tOO
ncr
z I,
l~b = X::=
0 ----
100
~.
F lc. 12-24. ( X 19) Monazite crystals in quartz matrix.
Extinction. Longitudinal sections have a small extinction angle (2 lo

10 ). Sections parallel to {001} do not show complete extinction.
Orientation. Crystals are length-slow.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial positive wilh :l
small axial angle. The axial plane is normal to {01O}. Disp ersion slroll!-(,
00\
-,
----y
l'
---
I" " ,. I ~', !.\: I, ()"" lIl l tli n ll di ngll ltl' of' tll OII II>: il (', S('ct illil
p:tr:t1I ,'1 III ( (lIO ).
<
v.
Distinguishing Features. Monazite is more like sphene than any CO tn mon mineral, but its birefringence is not so high , Since it usual ly COII tains thor ium it is radioactive and even in thin section will an-ect a scnsi live Gei ger countcr.
Occurrence. Mon:lzile 0('('1Irs in pcg1l1atitcs, granite, :lIlel Ili ay llc fOlllHI
ill veills. It is a de lril :d 111i11( 'l'lil :111(1 IlIlIy hn fOlllld ill all(:ic llt s('dilll('l1 IlIl'y sl)':iI ;l ())' ill YOIIII !.!('I' Sl lll(l s,
II,
MINERAL DE SCRIPTION S
230
231
CARBO NATES, SULFATES, AND PHOSPHATES
APATITE
Hexagonal
3Ca 3(P0 4hCaF 2
(Hexagonal subsystem)
n, = 1.630 to I.G51
nw = ] .G:):) to ] .G55
Opt. (-)
F IG.
FIG.
12-26. ( X20) Apatite crystals in approximately uniform orientation. ( X nico1s.)
Occurrence. Apatite is a common minor accessory mineral of practically all igneous rocks. In the opinion of Tolman and Rogers, it is a late
magmatic mineral and not an early one. It also occurs in pegmatites, in
some high-temperature veins, irr metamorphic limestones and is also
prominent in some iron ores.
12-25. ( X30) Apatite crystals in igneous rocks.
DAHL LITE

Form. Apatite is usually found as minute six-sided prismatic crystals.
It is a common and widely distribu ted mineral but usually occurs in small
amounts. (See Figure 8-22. )
Cleavage. Imperfect basal {000l} shown as cross fractures. Larger
crystals may show imperfect cleavage parallel to the length {IOIO}.
Relief. Moderate, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Weak, nO) - n , = 0.003 to 0.004. The interference colors
are first-order gray to white. Cross sections are d ark between crossed
nicols .
Orientation. The crystals are usually length-fast, but crystals of tabular
habit are length-slow.
Interference Figure. Basal sections are usually too small to give good
interference fi gures.
Distinguishing Features. Apatite is distinctive. The only common mineral that closely resembles it is dahllite, which occurs as a secondary
mineral in cavities and seams associated with collophane.
Related Minerals. Wilkeite, a rare mineral of the apatite group with
the sulfate radical; voelckerite or oxy-apatite; fermorite, sb'ontian apatite,
l1nd ell cstadite are similar to apatite in physical properties.
Hexago na i
3Ca3(P0 4) 2. CaC0 3
(Hexagona l
8 11h8Y8 1.1' 1II )
n, = 1.619 to l.626
n., = l. 623 t o l. 635
Opt . (-)
Color. Colorless to pale brown or gray in thin sections.
Form. Dahllite occurs in minute hexagonal crystals, in crusts wilil
banded subradiating structure, in spherulites, and in fine-grain ed aggn 'gates forming concretions or sedimentary rocks.
Relief. Moderate, n > b alsam.
Birefringence. Weak, nO) - n , = 0.004 to 0.009. Intcrferencc colors ;I re
bluish gray to white of the first order.
Extinction. Parallel. Cross scctions arc dark between crossed ni cois,
but occasionally they may show biaxial sectors.
Orientation. Prismatic crys lals arc lenglh-fasl likc a patile. Th e COllllllliS
of crtl sls ancl flh ers of sp il (' l'I!iil ('s are also len glh -fa st. Scc liolls of Lalll!i :II:
crystals arc le ngth-siow.
Interference Figure. Bllsll i :i \; (: li(),, ~ nro usually loo :-;rnull to givo goou
interferenco flglll'os.
"
232
233
b
FIG. 12-27 a,b. ( X 60) A crust of dahllite showin g banding and fiber texture. (a i
Ordinary illumination. (b) The same view with X nicols.
Distinguishing Features. Dahllite is much like apatite, but it is always

a secondary mineral. To make certain of its identity it may be necessary
to try the solubility of isolated particles of the mineral.
Related Minerals. Francolite is a closely related mineral.
Occurrence. Dahllite occurs as a secondary mineral in phosphorite or
so-called phosphate rock. The usual associate is collophane. The dahlJite
has probably been form ed by the gra dual crys tallizalion of th c collophan e
and by the mi gration of so me of lh e calcium phosphate.
FIG. 12-28 a,b. ( X 20 ) D ahll ite and collophane in phosphate rock. (0 ) Ol'd1 l1 1l1 Y
illumination. (b) D ahllitc (white ) and collophane (black ) in the sa llie Vil'W wil l,
X nicols.
COLLOl'HANE
3C a 3(P0 4) 2.n Ca(C0 3,F 2,0) (II 2 0) x
Mi ll( 'rll,loid
1. .')7 Lo 1.(;2
AmorphOll S c: i1 c illll1 c: 11'1)( )110phosph :1l0 is I lsll :dly cOlIsic1( 'I'( 'd 10 1)(' II
1l1:1ss iVQ 1'(11'111 01' :lpa l il (', 1>111 il is dislill cl iv( ' "11(1 sll()(dd 1)(' li skd sq Hlrn l (' ly liS (l 111i1 1('l'lI loid .
234
235
It also occurs as a deh'ital mineral in beach sands of the South Atlantic

states according to J. H. C. Martens.
LAZULITE
AI 2 (M g,Fe; (OII)z (P0 4)z
Monoclinic
L{3 = 88
n" = 1. 603 t o 1. 604

n f3 = 1. 632 t o 1.633
n .., = 1.639 t o 1. 642
2V = ca. 69 ; Op t. (-)
b = {3 or Y , c 1\ a or X = + 9
F Ic . 12-29. ( X 18) Collophane in oolitic phosp horite. (Both thc matrix and the ooliths
are collophane.)
Color. Usually light to dark brown, yellowish brown, gray, etc. , in thin
sections, but occasionally it is colorless.
Form. Collophane is usually massive but may be oolitic or colloform,
in grains and fragments. It often shows the organic structure of bones,
molluscs , brachiopods, crinoids, bryozoans, or corals.
Cleavage. Absent. Irregular fracture m ay show on ed ges of the slide.
Relief. Moderate, n > b alsam. The index of refraction is variable, but
it is usually 1.60 to 1.61.
Birefringence. Usually isotropic but may show weak form-birefringence
(up to 0.005). Pseudospherulitic stru cture (concentric instead of fibrous
elements) sometimcs shows.
Orientation. Birefrin gent areas may be length-slow or length-fast.
Distinguishing Features. Some specimens of collophane resemble opal,
but the refractive index of th e latter is always less than that of balsam.
Oolitic chamosite resembles oolitic collophane.
Alteration. Collophane is often more or less replaced by calcite. Replacement by quartz, chalcedony, or opal is very rare. In some specimens
dahllite seems to b e fannin g at the exp ense of collophane.
Occurrence. In sedimentary phosphatic limestones, in phosphorites or
so-called phosphate rocks as the chi ef constituent, and in phosphate
nodules. It is the dominant mineral of fossil bone, in which the microstructure of the original bone is usually preserved. In fossil bone it has
been fonned by phosphatic enrichment. In invertebrate fossils it has b een
formed by enrichment in the case of phosphatic brachiopods such as
Lingula, but in most cases by the replacement of original calcarcous
organisms.
FIc . 12-30. Oricntation diagram of lazulitc . Section p arallel to (010) .
Color. Blue to colorless in thin sections. Some sections are p lcochroi c

from blue to colorless. Axial colors : a or X = colorless; f1 or Y = aZil J'('
blue; y or Z = azure blue.
Form. L azulite is occasion ally found in euhedral crys tals of hipy ralll idal habit but it usually occurs in anhedra.
Cleavage. Indistinct p arallel to {llO}.
Relief. Fairly high, n > b alsam.
Birefringence. Strong, ny - n" = 0.036 to 0.038, so th at th c maximllill
interference color is upper second or lower third order.
Extinction. Oblique.
Orientation. The lon g diagonal of th e crystal scctions is th c fa ste r ray ,
Twinning. Polysynth etic twinning is common . Twin -ax is = [00 I I.
Interference Figure. Th e fi gure is biaxial negative with a large :l xi:tl
angle. Th e axial pl anc is {0l0 }. Disp ersion , T < v .
Distinguishing F eatures. Lazulitc is practi cally th c only bIli o plcoc:ilroir.
min eral with strong hirefrin gence.
Occurrence. As i':1l' :IS kiIO W II , b '/. lllile is co nfin ed lo nl c l:lnlol'pld l;
rocks. I t oce llI'S ill q" :lrl '/. il ('<,; :llld ill qll :lrl '/. v(' ill s. 'I'l l(' II SII : ti :lss ()(' i:il ('s
:lro <jll:lrl '!., I'lIlil (" ('O l'llll<illlll, p)' l'() pl,)' lIil< " k),: "til (" II lld II lld;tllls il (\
237
SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES)
while tridymite and cristobalite are on occasion widely distributed in

volcanic rocks .
In respect to physical propertics the silica minerals may be placed in
two groups. Quartz and chalcedony have refractive indices near balsam
CHAPTER
13
THE SILICA MINERALS AND MINERALOIDS
Mineral
Silicates: Framework Structures (Tectosilicates)
SILICA GROUP
FELDSPARS
Quartz
a-Quartz
,B-Quartz
Chalcedony
Opal
Tridymite
Clistobalite
Lechatelierite
Coesite
Alkali Feldspars
Orthoclase
Adularia
Sanidine
Microcline
Anorthoclase
Plagioclase
Albite
Oligoclase
Andesine
Labradorite
Bytownite
Anorthite
FELDSPA THoms
L eucite
Nepheline
Cancrinite
Sodalite
Haiiyne
Melilite
SCAPOLITE GROUP
ZEOLITES
Analcime
H eulandite
Stilbite
Chabazite
Natrolite
Mesolite
Thompsonite
Scolecite
Crystal system
Quartz .. .
Chalcedony .
Opal .
Tridymite.
Cristobalite .... ..
Lechatelierite.
Hexagonal
Aggregates
Mineraloid
Pseudoh exagonal
Pseudoisometric
Amorphous
SILICA GROUl.'
Silica occms in nahll'C in six distinct min erals and min c:raloi ds as listed
bclow. Thc first thrcc arc co mmon ; lechatcli crile (silica glass) is rare,
2:)0
nw
na
n
na
n cr
n
= 1 . 5442, n,
= 1.531, n-y
= 1. 40- 1.46
.5533, n, - nw = 0 .009
.539, n-y - na = 0 . 008
1 .469, n-y
1 .484, n-y
= 1.458- 1 .462
473, n-y - ncr = 0 . 004

.487, n-y - ncr = 0 . 003
and birefringence of about 0.009; the other four have lower indices of
refraction and weaker birefringence, which reaches nil in lechatelieritc
and usually in opal.
Chalcedony always occurs in aggregates of some sort, and consequently
the optical properties are not completely known.
On h eating quartz there is a sudden change in the properties and
crystallization at about 573 a C from the trigonal trapezohedral class to
the hexagonal trapezohedral class. The low-temp erature form is called
a-quartz or low quartz and the high-temperature form ,B-quartz or high
quartz . The quartz of some igneous rocks was ,B-quartz at the time of its
formation but on cooling inverted to a-quartz. Similar changes take place
on h eating tridymite and cristobalite. The stability range of the various
Q
The tectosilicates form the largest and probably the most important of
the six-structural divisions among the silicates. The Si0 4 groups of this
series form a continuous thTee-dimensional framework.
The silica group is frcquently included among the oxides as listed in
Chapter 11. However, quartz forms a large molecule in which each silicon has four single covalent bonds to oxygen. Each oxygen in turn is
attached to two silicons. While the empirical formula is Si0 2 the term
"silicon dioxide" is really a misnomer. Although quartz is classed structurally as a tectosilicate, several other members are included with quartz
to avoid separation of the silica group.
...,
r:;
ex-Quartz
.
R>
fJ-Quartz ~
-------~ ~
1 "-
(:5'__:!'2t!f."!.i!!_~o_o _________ J1- Tridymite

o
Cl
It)
~ -"!!!.~c!!!qj'!.e_ 3- ~ ___ f!.. -J!'/~c!!!l!!i!.!- - - - - - - - - - - - 1~ --/,
________ _ ____ __ _ ~'l!!Pf!!~ ____________ l.---
-273
i
Liquid
1000
2000
Degrees, Centigrade
FTC . 13-1. Dia gram to show the relations b etwccn the variu ll s form s uf silica. (Afll'l'
Sosman.)
silica min erals is shown in th e dia gram or Fi gm c '13-1. Th e inversioll 1( ' 111 peralure of qll~u"lz by careflll IIl('aS III"('III ('lIl \i;I S h('('11 s hO\v lI by '1' 11111(,
(194.9 ) lo vary as nllleJl liS I ,!)()" (: , 1,0\\1('1' ill ve rsiOIl lClll lwraltlr("s ('0 1'rolalo wil h higlwr I OIlIP( ' I'II III1' I '~ 01 \,,, 1IllIlioJl.
238
Chalcedony and opal are low-temperature minerals. Quartz has a considerable temperature range. Tridymite and cristobalite also have a rather
large temperature range. The two latter occur almost exclusively in volcanic igneous rocks and in all probability h ave b een formed by hot gases
at the close of the magmatic period.
Qualtz crystals measuring several inches across may be grown on small
seed crystals in an autoclave. A solution of sodium carbonate is employed in a sealed system at about 350 C to b'ansfer silica from fragmented quartz in one chamber to the chamber containing seed crystals.
The dissolving chamber is about lOoC high er in temperature.
Hale and Hurlbut (1949) greyv a quartz crystal on a quartz sphere at
temperatures of 376 C (top) and 397 C (bottom) in an autoclave. The
pressure was estimated at 700 atm.
a -QUARTZ
Si0 2
(Low Quartz)
Hexagonal
nw = 1.5442
n, = 1.5533
Opt. (+)
FIG.
FIG.
FIG. 13-3.
FIG. 13-2.
13-2. ( x 25) Quartz grain s in sandstone. ( X nieols.)
13-3. ( X 10) Graphic intergrowth of i3-quartz and feldspar. ( X nicols. )
Color. Colorless in thin sections. It often contains inclusions.

Form. Quartz occurs in euhedral prismatic crystals, in veinlets, disseminated grains, and as replacement anhedra. It may be inter grown
with orthoclase or microcline (graphic granite) and with plagioclase in
vermicular forms ( myrmekite ). It often occurs as a late interstitial
mineral. Qumtz is common as pseudomorphs after other minerals.
Cleavage. Usually absent, but it sometimes shows on the edge of th e
slide. The cleavage is imperfect rhombohedral {lOll}, almost rectangular
in favorable sections since n J = 8546'.
SILICATES : FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICA TES )
239
Relief. Very low, n > balsam.

Birefringence. Rather weak, n e - nw = 0.009; thin sections 0.03 mm
thick show as a maximum, first-order white interference color with a
slight tinge of yellow. Quartz is very useful in determining the thickness
of any slide in which it occurs.
Extinction. Parallel in euhedral crystals and symmetrical to cleavage
traces . Basal sections are dark in all positions. Irregular and wavy extinction due to strain is common. Vein quartz often shows peculiar structures
such as flamboyant, feathered, lamellar, etc. Secondary enlm"gements of
quartz grains are common in sandstones and quartzites.
Orientation. The position of the slower ray marks the b"ace of the
c-axis. Euhedral crystals are therefore lengthslow.
Twinning. Although twinning is common in
quartz, it rarely shows in thin sections.
Interference Figure. Basal sections of ordinary thickness give a uniaxial positive figure
without any rings. The interference figure of
thick sections (greater than 1 mm) has a
weak or hollow center on account of rotary FIG. 13-4. ( X 10) Quarl;-o
crystals with graphic 0 11 Lpolarization.
lin es surrounded by mi croOccasionally quartz gives a biaxial figure cline. ( X nicols).
with 2V as high as 10.
Distinguishing Features. Quartz is usually easy to determine on account of its lack of alteration, absence of cleavage except p erh aps on the
edge of the section, and absence of twinning. CordieIite may be mistake n
for it, but cordierite is biaxial. Beryl resembles quartz in thin secliolls
but is length-fast and optically negative. Some varieties of scapolite a Iso
resemble quartz, but they are optically negative, length-fast, and havo
cleavage. Chalcedony has aggregate structure.
. Alteration. Quartz is less affected by alteration than almost any othcl"
mineral, but it sometimes shows slight replacement by sericite, by p)'l"0phyllite, and rarely by t alc.
Occurrence. Quartz is a ubiquitous mineral. It is found in man)' rock
types as an essential, accessory, or secondary mineral. It is csp cc i:dly
abundant in sandstones, arkoses, sands, quartzites, granites, rll)'o lil cs,
and gneisses . In many igneous rocks it is a secondary min cral in Sf':lIl1 S
and eavitics. Qu artz is the most com mon of all vein min crals. ft OCCIII'S
as a replacc ment of other minerals and as a rc placc rn cll t of wood lI lId
calcareous ross il s.
Quo.rlzis ono of th o most ('(l lllIII OIl del rilall nill ornk
240
MIN ERAL DESCRIPTIONS
SILICATES: F RAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES)
241
{3-QUARTZ
Si0 2
(High Quartz)
Hexagonal
(Hexagonal subsystem )
The quartz appearing as phenocrysts in rhyolites and quartz porphyries

is the high-temperature form known as {3-quartz. It has formed above
573 C.; and the low-temperature form called a-quartz b elow 573C. On
cooling, the {3-quartz inverts to the a-form, so that all quartz examined
in thin sections is now tt-quar tz. Th e habit of ,a-quartz is usually different
from that of the a-form. A hexagonal dipyramid ( the symmetry is AG. 6A2)
predominates, and the pris m face is subordin ate, whereas in the a-form
the prism predomin ates.
As shown by Dru gman, th e twinnin g laws of {3-quartz are different
from those of a-quartz, but twinnin g rarely shows in thin sections.
a
CHALCEDONY
Si0 2
Aggregates
[Hexagonal (?)]
nw = 1. 53 1
n, = 1.539
F IG. 13-5.
F IG. 13-6.
13-5. ( X 10) Radial chalcedony showin g a portion of a polarization cross.
( X nicols. )
FIG . 13-6. ( X 8) Banded chalccdony showin g both salt and pcpper structure and
radial layers. ( X nicols.)
F IG.
Color. Colorless to pale brown in thin sections and often bluish white
by reflected light.
Form. Chalcedony usually occurs as a cavity filling or lining that is
often sph erulitic as a replacement of fossils, as cementin g materi al, and
in massive form.
Relief. Low, n about the same as that of b alsam, eith er slightly lower
or slightly greater.
Birefringence. Rather weak, ny - n" = 0.008, practically the same as
that of qu artz. Chalcedony always shows aggregate Sb'll cture b etween
13-7 a,b. ( X 20) A p ortion of a vcsicle fill ed with silica : ( a ) ordina ry ill II II "" 11
tion, and (b ) thc same area ( X nicols ) showin g granular rlu <lrtz Slll'I'o llll(l, ." by
chalcedony aggrcga tcs.
FIG.
crossed nicols. This often takes on a sph erulitic form with the splwl'ldili ('
cross prominent in many cases .
Extinction. Parall el to th e length o[ th e fibers.
Orientation. Th e flhers arc usually lengLlI -fast, Imt in ma ny cas('s 111 (,),
a rc len glh -slow. Th e fj bel'S of CO J1 CC II t ri c ZOIi CS a 1'(, of len a h en 1;1 t ely slow
and fa st.
Disl ill gllisllillg Feallll'l' .~ . '1'1 1( ' i1 ggrq~; I l< ' SII'lI (' l l lr(' with opt ieal prop( 'rti( 's v( 'ry (Iose to those' of qll !lll i'. i ~ dislitl('l iv( ' for (II:ti ccdoll),. ' 1'11 0
242
MINERAL DESCRIPTION S
SILICATES: F RAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECT OSILICATES)
minerals most likely to b e mistaken for chalcedony are probably gibbsite

and dahllite, but in both of these the relief in balsam or clove oil is
distinctly higher.
Occurrence. Chalcedony is a secondaq mineral in the cavities of
igneous rocks and is often associated with quartz, opal, and the zeolites.
It also occurs in sedimentary limestone in nodules and b ands and as a
replacement of calcareous fossils. Chalcedony is the principal constituent
of cherts and jaspers. It occurs in diatomite as a replacement of opal.
The temperature ran ge of chalcedony secms to be lower than that of
quartz .
243
OPAL
Si0 2 (H 2 0) x
Mineraloid
n = 1.40 to 1.46
(usually ca. 1.45)
F I G.
13-9. ( X20 ) Crenulated ban ding in opal.
,.
-. 1
..
>fIo,
'"
: "...
FIG.
~.,
f!,,~
13-8. ( X 65 ) Collofonn opal with infilled chalcedony.
Like other mineraloids opal is variable in its properties.

Color. Colorless to pale gray or brown in thin sections.
F orm. Opal is often found in colloform crusts, in veinlets, and as a
cavity filling or lining. More often it is massive without any p articular
structure. It often occurs as a replacement of wood ( F igure 8-4 ) and
other organic materials. It is common as a replacement of feldspar and
as the cementing material in sandstone.
Cleavage. Absent, but irregular fractures are found on the cdges of
thin sections.
gel-stage.
( X25) Wood replaccmcnt by opal with contortcd bands a lLrib uled
III 1111 \
Relief. Rather high, but n < balsam.

Birefringence. Usually nil, but some varietics, espccially hyalilc, may
show vcry weak birefringc ncc th a t is du c to stra in . Intcr fere ncc colors
callsccl hy cxceedin g ly lhin rilms sh ow in sccli ons of precio us opal, cs p('cially in rdlecL('cl light.
Dis li ll ~ lIis hin g Fc ulllr('s. Th (. hil-(I, reli c f ;1I 1c! low illd e x o f r( 'fnl('l io ll
un ) d is till o( ivtl. I.v(lllllll ' I/" ri l (. ( sll ic 'i! I-(I:tss) is v(' ry sililil ll r, IIlId i l
IlI lIy
244
SILICATE S: F RAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES)
245
be necessary to try the closed-hlbe test for water in order to distinguish

them.
Occurrence. Opal is a secondary min eraloid in volcanic igneous rocks.
It appears in cavities or seams and as a replacement of feldspars or other
silicates. The more common associates are quartz, chalcedony, and tridymite. It is the principal constituent of diatomite (Figure 8-7) and
geyserite and occasionally occurs as the cementing material in sandstone.
It also occurs as the main constituent of opal shale and opal rock.
Lussatite. A fibrous variety of silica with a low index of refraction
known as lussatite has b een considered to b e a variety of tridymite or
even a distinct silica mineral, but it is probably a mixture of fibrous
chalcedony and opal.
TRIDYMITE
Ort horhombic
Si0 2
(Hexagonal above 117C)
na = 1.469
n~ = 1.469
n" = 1.473
2V
35 ; Opt. (+)

Form. Tridymite usually occurs in minute euhedral crystals as a
cavity lining. The crystals are six-sided, thin, tabul ar, and are often
twinned . It also occurs as a porous crystalline aggregate.
Relief. Moderate, but n < balsam.
Birefringence. Very w eak, ny - n" 0.004; best seen with a sensitiveviolet test plate.
Twinning. W edge-shap ed h:vins made up of two or three individuals
are characteristic. The h:vin plane is {1016}.
Interference Figure. Because of the small size of the crystals it is very
difficult to obtain interference figures with tridymite.
Distinguishing Features. Tridymite vmy much resembles cristobalite,
not only in its general appearance but also in its geologic occurrence.
(In the experience of A. F . Rogers, the tile structure often said to b e
characteristic of this mineral is not at all common.) The twinning of
tridymite and the wedge-shap ed sections are charactelistic; in their absence it may b e necessary to determine the refractive index of isolated
grains . (For h'idymite n < 1.480; for cristobalite n > 1.480.)
Alteration. Paramorphs of cristobalite after tridymite have b een found
at several localities . ParamOl'phs of quartz after h'idymite (the pseud()tridymite of Mallard) are known from a number of localities.
Occurrence. The characteristic occurrence of h-ldymite is in the cavities of volcanic igneous rocks sll ch a<; ohsidian, rltyolioc, andesite, clc.
It is (\ lato min01~ll formed h y Itol' gases. Tridymit(l is not vory ahundant,
b
13-11 a,b. ( X 60) (a) Tridymite surrounding vesicular cavities, and (b) the
same area ( X nicols) showin g small twin crystals.
FIG.
but it is common and widely distributed . A tridymite-feldspar rock

formed by the action of hot gases upon rhyolitic obsidian h as b een
studied by A. F . Hogcrs in Impcri al Cou nty, California. In T exas
tridymite occurs in a rhyolitic tuft' (Gu eydan form ation of the southwes tern C lilf Coas tal Pla in ).
Arlificifll Trid!JIlli/ C. Th e prill cip:iI ('olistit ll (' lI t o( sili ca h r ick is b'jdY ll1il o wi lli n istoh alil\' liS : 111 lI sso(' i:il l'. 'I' l l(' sili (,il hri l'ks 111'(' made hy
h ca lill g g rOlilld -lip (!lllirl /, ilc '~ cd low irOi I
~uitl
10
I ii ' III OSI' w illi 111\ \ " C I',~C ';, 1
' "110" 111 0/
( '01111'111 .
Iritl Ylidl O,
'I' l l(' hest hricks
Ill'''
246
CRISTOBALITE
Si0 2
Pseudoisometric
(Isometric above 230C)
n" = 1.484
n'Y = 1.487
247
Cleavage. Cristobalite has a peculiar curved frachlre that is highly

characteristic.
Relief. Moderate, n < balsam.
Birefringence. Very weak, ny - n" = 0.003; best detected with a sensitive-violet test plate. Between cross ed nicols it often shows a mosaic
structure that is due in part to twinning.
Distinguishing Features. Cristobalite closely resembles tridymite, but
the curved fracture usually distinguish es it. It may b e necessary to determine the refractive index of detached fragments. (For cristobalite
n > 1.480; for tridymite n < 1.480.)
Occurrence. Cristobalite is found in volcanic ign eous rocks such as
obsidian, rhyolite, andesite, auganite, and basalt. The fact that it usually occurs in cavities is evidence that it has been form ed by hot gascs
at a late stage. Tridymite is a common associate, and at a number of
localities paramorp.hs of cristobalite after tridymite have been noted.
Cristobalite has b een found in some specimens of opal and hence has
been formed at a temperahlre lower th an its stability range.
Artificial Cristobalite. Cristobalite and tridymite are the constituen ts
of silica bricks that are made by heating ground-up quartzites of low iron
content.
LECHATELIERITE
Si0 2
(Silica Gl ass)
Mineraloid
n = 1.458 to 1.462
b
FIG. 13-12 a,b. ( X GO) (a) Cristobalite formin g aggregates of small crystals, and
(b) the same area ( X nicols ) showin g minute anisotropic crystals.

Form. Cristobalite is found in minute squ are crystals or aggregates in
the cavities of volcanic igneous rocks; it also occurs intergrown with the
feldspar fib ers of spherulites ( see Fj gure 13-12).
Color. Colorless in thin sections . The tend ency toward opacity is clli C
to minute bubbles.
Form. Lechatelierite is amOlvhous silica glass. It is usually vcsi clll nl'
and may also be banded and show flow sbucture.
Relief. Low, n < balsam.
Birefringence. Nil. D ark b etween crossed nicols.
Distinguishing Features. From other glasses lechatelierite may he di stinguished by its very low refractive index. It very much resembles o p:d
except in its geologie occurrence. A closcd-hlbe t cs t may b e neccss:lry 10
make certain that the mineral is not opal.
Occurrence. Lcchatelierite is the main constitu ent of fu 1g11rites, w11i('h
are hollow tubes of glass produced by the action of ligh tning lIpOIl
quartzose sand.
An in teres tin g occurrencc of lechate1icri te is that of Me[eor Cra ll'r,
Arizona. H erc a hi ghly V('sicl.!:l r sili ca gla ss h as l)('('n prodll ('('d rrOIl1
sandstone hy [h (' 'w:lI' g('IH 'r:li< 'd :I S :1 r('s lI]1 of' Ih (' ('x p]nsiv( ' in lp:l C'1 or II
11l1gl' nwl ('()rilc Ill' Ilwl( 'oril(' SW:t 1'l1l ( ( :: Iii on I)i :lh]o Il H' l c' ori l (' ).
Art/lido l 1.1'f'iIlII I'IiI ri/I . SlI kll 1~ 1:' ~s is IIO W IlInd( , Il rli fi(' ili lly Oil II I: "'gn
1'1<'11 ]0 ror YIlI'i ()I1 ~ kiJl(] '1 01 ( ' ] 1(' 11" 1'1 11 " P]l !l I ' I IIII ~, ] ( ' Il ~ C '~. il ll(] w lllelo w ]l1l11( 'H
248
Mll'<ERAL DESCRIPTIONS
249
SILICATES : F RAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTO SILICATES)
Or =fOO
to transmit ultraviolet light. It has a remarkably low coefficient of thermal

expansion.
COESITE
Si0 2
Monoclinic
0
L(3 = 120
na = 1.599
n-y = 1.604
2V = 54 0 ; Opt.
C+)
l:J""<
G'
,"
A dense (Sp. Gr. = 3.01) and extremcly stable phase of silica is produced in the laboratory at 35,000 atm and 500-800 a C by the reaction of
equal parts of dry sodium metasilicate and diammonium phosph ate. It
forms both as extremely small aggregates and as crystals up to 0.6 mm
in length. The material is colorless and transparent, and pseudohexagonal
plates yield unsymmebical extinction.
Normal quartz rather than dense silica forms b elow 35,000 atm in the
range 500 to 800 a e. Occasionally, near 35,000 atm both phases are observed. Above 800 a C a t 35,000 atm only normal quartz is produced. The
conditions required for the formation of coesite, togeth er with its great
stability, may provide criteria for more closely estimating the conditions
under which deep-seated rocks are crystallized.
,q}
~(, ~
"
:'
~,,'-i ~""" ..'
""' I
&
<y-<:!
1
(. ;>Albite
y! .
..........
.......
-- Plagioclase ~
Anorthite
Labrqdorite Bytownite
Oliqpclase Andeyne
70
Molecul ar percent An (per cent Ab inferred)
90
An
=100
FELDSPARS
The feldspar group (Figure 13-13a,b) approximates a tenary system

and may b e considered in terms of three components : orthoclase, Or =
KAISi 3 0 s; albite, Ah = NaAlSi ~ 08 ; and anorthite, An = CaAI 2 Si 2 0 s. Or
and Ab fonn the alkali feldspar group, with An absent or a minor constituent. Ab and An form the plagioclase group where a range in composition may occur from 100 per cent Ab to 100 per cent An.
THE FELDSPAR MINERALS
Alkali fe ldspar
Monoclinic:
Composit ion
Orthoclase
.
Triclimc:
Plagioclase
..
. CamposltIon
Ab
An
(KNa) AlSi 30 s
Sanidine
(KNa )AlSi 30 s
Adularia
(KNa)AISi 30 s
Triclinic :
Microcline
(KNa )AISi 30 8
Anorthoclase
(NaK)A1Si 30 8
100
Albite
{90
10
Oligoclase
{ 70
30
Andesine
{50
50
Labradorite
{ 30
70
Bytownite
{ 10
90
An orLhil C'
{()-roo
\1 23 4
Weight per ce nt
An
PH,o = 5000 bars
h
F Ir: . 13- '1 3. (II ) Th e appro\i lll :II(' <i i\ l ri llillio l l o r Ih, r,' lcb pars i" Ill(' 1""1 111 )' l,y .\ I,,,"
Or- Ah- AII . AIII' y d,...II , 1I,, ll s ill<ii, ': II ,' illl ," (': 1 o r ('( )J ll p l .. Ii 1I!i \(' i J, i lil y ill II II' 0, A"
s" li ," II I II,, lig lll ,,1'11,(, d (l ll ,'d II"" , ( Mu cli/i!''' [ru lll '/' I'UI:"I', 11).');'. ) (II ) ' J" '''ip " l ll.
l" l'I \~ Ill' rOll ll "li, ,,, i ll II" , ' 1,, "I" III II IY //)'\ 1( ' " 1 01 Ail "" 11 ,0 II I .'),()()() bill S, (Ali I'/'
Yo""'" SII'II '," I, IIIIfI ,.; II lit/, , I l)r(f , )
250
Among the feldspars, orthoclase, sanidine, and adularia are monoclinic

while the other species- including some adularia - are triclinic. Although
two systems of crystallization are represented throughout the feldspars,
the crystal habits are somewhat similar, and the deviations in angular
measurements of clystals are not large.
Temperature studies of feldspars include the examination of mineral
associations, synthesis of pure feldspars at measured temperatures, melting point determinations, and synthesis in sealed bombs with H 2 0. When
products formed artifiCially are compared with natural feldspars, information concerning the temperatures of formation may be inferred.
The temperatures which prevail for plagioclase (Figure 13-14a) in
the system Ab-An-H 2 0 show a higher range than the temperatures which
prevail for the system Ab-Or-H 2 0 at 5,000 bars (Figure 13-14b). In the
system Ab-Or-An-H 2 0 at 5,000 bars 1 Yoder, Stewart, and Smith (1957)
have shown (Figure 13-13b) that anorthite, orthoclase, and albite will
crystallize at 1234C, 876 C, and 748C, respectively.
In the series Ab-An-H 2 0 at 5,000 bars a solidus extends from 748C to
1234C (Figure 13-14a). Below the dotted line plagioclase crystals form
at the composition indicated along the base of the diagram. Above the
dotted line crystals and liquid exist together. Complete melting takes
place above the solid line.
In the series Ab-Or-H 2 0 at 5,000 bars a range of feldspars may form.
The minerals in general include adularia, orthoclase, sanidine, microcline,
anorthoclase, and albite.
The system Or-Ab-An explains many of the features of the feldspars .
A large miscibility gap (Figure 13-13a) lies between Or and An. Under
anhydrous conditions clystals are unstable at temperatures in excess of
900C. In the area of anorthoclase (and Na-sanidine) which borders the
miscibility gap on the Or-Ab side of the diagram, crystals are stable at
high temperatures and unstable at low temperatures.
The Or-Ab series is continuous at high temperatures, but on cooling
exsolution develops. The homogenous material separates into two solid
feldspar phases: one rich in soda, the other rich in potash. Where the
potash-rich phase (microcline) predominates over the soda-riah phase
( albite), the intergrowth is referred to as perthite (Figure 13-15). Where
the soda-rich phase predominates, the intergrowth is described as antiperthite (Figure 13-16).
The name perthite is derived from the locality Perth, Quebec, Canada,
where unusual examples of this type of exsolution were originally described. Perthitic intergrowth, known as mic1'Operthite, exhibits a characteristic pattern b etween crossed nicols. It develops in the Or-Ab series
1
1 bar
= about 14.5 pounds per squ are inch.
251
1400 1
1 ---,--,---,----,--,---,---,---,---,---,
1300 f--
PHzO
5000 bars
1200
/'/
/'/'
1100
//
./
il000
././
.2
./
~ 900
E
~
---_.. -" ----
800
,..."
,.../
//
700
600
500'
Ab
r}!('\
.... '"
An
=100
1100
PHZO = 5000 bars
1000
l?_ 800
~
'"
E
876 0
Feldspar-liquid-qas
/'
-\- liquid -\- 9
......... .!~
600
Feldspar
+qas
/'
500
qas
748 0
700
'"a.
~
Liquid
900
/'
"
//
rt: 1UO
!,-
....
-- -
............
"
2 - feldspars
+ qas
05
"-
/'/'
/'
--'
Feldspar
+qas
,
400
300
Ab
Weight, per cent
Or
= 100
(b)
13-14. Projections of th e feldspar ternary systems at 5,000 bars 'I [,0 preSSll r(,.
(a) The plagioclase system Ab-An-I-J,O, (b) The alkali feldspar syste m A],-Or- II,O.
~Aftel' Yud.e l', Ste wart, and S'm.ith, 1957.)
FIG.
252
MINE RAL DESCRIPTIONS
with the fall in temperature b elow 660C. X-ray study shows that Or-Ab
feldsp ar which may appear b eneath the microscope as a single phase
is often made up of 1:\vo phases. Thjs may b e called Cl'yptopelthite.
The Ab-An series includes the plagioclase group from albite to anorthite. Kohler (1949) has shown that the optical properties of t\vinned
plagioclase may reflect the thermal history of the material. A difference
exists b etween the properties of plagioclase derived from high-tempera-.
ture volcanic rocks and plagioclase from other sources.
Igneous Association. The alkali feldspars are widely distrihuted in
igneous rocks, particularly among the granite and syenite clans. PlagiOclase occurs in a range of compositions through the igneous rock classification from granite wh ere Ab is predominant to peridotite where An
253
SILICATES : FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES)
cline (MacKenzie, 1957) . Three forms of albite are b elieved to exist

as shown by internal structure : low temperature up to 450C, intermediate temperature from 450C to lOoooC, and mgh temperature above
1000C.
Sanidine, albite, and other feldspars as formed ill lavas or under other
near surface conditions are indicative of high temperatures. On the other
hand, orthoclase, albite, and other feldspars formed in well-clystallized
co
0
'<
"'
0>
'T1
------
CONTINUOUS REACTION SERIES

I
I
I
r
0
l>
I
I
I
c;O>
(f)
Cl
Si::;:
ro
fTl
1000 0
D..
~
I
I
ro
D..
ro
7I
'"0>
ro
:
900 0
.0 '
Quartz
/
I
I
Q.
0
'"ro
ro
'"
0
<"> -0
g ~
00
ro
ro
a
'"
c --l
;:;:
0-
:;::
J>
.. '"
L/
I
800 0
700 0
n~
____ ____ _____ ____ ______ ___ MAGMA _____ ___________ __ ___
Gabbro
Diorite
--+
.- ro
I" ~ .)
--+
Gra nite
(1)..
0"
Albite
J>
'T1
II
F IG_ 13-15. Perthite. Soda feldspar (al-
FIG. 13-16. Antiperthite. Potash feldspar
bite ) crystalli zed in predominant potash

feldspar (microcline) groundmass.
(microcline ) crystallized in a predominant soda fcld spar ( albite) groundm ass.
predomillates. Microscopic study in which the feldspars play a major

role h as conh-ibuted greatly to knowledge of igneous rocks.
The normal sequence and association of the feldspars with respect to
the most common min erals derived from a magma was set forth by
V. M. Goldschmidt (1916) . The feldspars and quartz constihlte the
felsic products, while olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and the associated
metallic minerals form on the mafic side. The temperatures decline from
the gabbroic to th e granitic stages, but at the same time a sequence in
the mjnerals form ed is maintained according to th e general outline of
Figure 13-17.
The temperatures of formation 'of the feldspars are considered significant in the interpretation of the temperatures of rock crystallization.
High- and low-temperahlre forms of several feldspars are recognized .
Potassium feldspar may crystallize as the high temperature modification sanidine. but it may b e mctastable and may invert later to micro
OI; ~ ~ O"ho~ ~ p;", ~

vine
Ipyroxene i
J>
1- __ .1..
I
Contac t - -
-0
::J
0'
rn
.'
'>
::;:
ro
ro
: Tourmaline
I
I
n
~
I
I
I
ro
:
I
I
I
-----r-+
Diopside -+ Augite
3.
J (:)
n~ ~
0 _'
I
:;::
N
,,~ _n
(j).
c.;
..
OJ ~ ft)
"
~tg- ~~~
., '"I!' ..
=.:
o
ro
;.J(\)
- I
cu
t'
nJ
Limits range with

DISCONTINUOUS REACTION SERIES- wate r co ntent
Ch rom
ite
Fe S- I Ilmenite !
melt Ti -Mo gnetite
Magnetite
Ilme nite
Hema tite
FIr.. 13-17. The plagioclase sequ cnce in igneous rocks. The approxim ate O.-cll'" 01
separation in the normal crystalli zation of a magma series. (M oc/'i/ied

and V. M. Goldschmidt.)
1/'1)/1/
'I'l'i 'I: // '
plutoniC masses or in pegmatites are formed at lower temperal ll J'( 's.

Adularia is frequently a vein mineral.
Numerous albite and oligoclase sp ecimens (Ana to An 17 ) from pegmatites and grrutites (Laves, 1954) h ave b een shown to consist of I,\I()
submicroscopically discrete phases. In microscopic study th ese :lppl':l1'
as sin gle phases. Yet X-ray shldi es show disconLinuities in lh e progn 'ssive ra nge of lattice dim ensions with co mposi ti on (Smith 'In<l Yodl 'l',
J956) . Villil lh es e arc inlerpn'led ill l<' rms of inlerna l sll'll c.:l1ll'o :llld IIIOI'l
prt.'C ise oplical da la are cS la blisll ('d, oplical illformation now :lvlli lll l>h
III li S I Ito III ili zl'd .
254
Crystallization. The optical properties of the feldspars are ordinarily

oriented with respect to crystallographic directions. Monoclinic feldspar
crystals may be illustrated by orthoclase (Figure 13-18). The signiBcant
interfacial angle (010) 1\ (001) and the angle between the two prominent cleavages is 90. The angle f3 which measures the inclination of the
a-axis is 6357'. Triclinic members of the alkali feldspar group exhibit
moderate but significant angular differences. The (010) 1\ (001) angle
deviates from 90.
The triclinic crystals of the plagioclase group may be illustrated by
albite (Figure 13-19) . Measurements for the significant angle (010) 1\
c
I
/'
-.
uals. The individuals show differences in birefringence between crossed

nicols when examined in thin section. Several stages of growth in plagiOclase may be shown by zonal structure. Complexity in growth at times
may produce such an unusual development as a central crystal core of plagiOol
clase enclosed in an envelope of ortho010
clase.
010
Twinning. Feldspars exhibit at least
001
seven types of twinning. Symmetrical
displacement is observed so frequently
(0)
(b)
that twinning is Widely used in study FIG. 13-20. Feldspar cleavage fra gand identification.
ments. (a) Cleavage parallel tu
Twins are d escribed with reference to (001). (b) Cleavage parallel tu
(010).
directions in the feldspar crystal. D escription is given in terms of the axes around which twinning takes plac
and the composition planes along which the twin individuals meet.
[J
G:J
FELDSPAR TWINS
--h
b
0
FIG. 13-18. Orthoclase.
255
SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICA TES )
Type
Alb ite
Manebach
Baveno
Carlsbad
Actin e
Pericline
Ala
Twin axis
Composition plane
.L (010)
.L (001)
.L (021) or (021)
(010)
(001)
(021) or (021) (Right or L oft,)
largely (010); partly ( 100)
(001)
In zone (010); ranges
(001) or (010)
11[001]
11 [010]
11 [010]
11 [100]
FIG. 13-19. Albite.
(001) range from 900 37~ ' (albite) to 8354' (anorthite). The angles
between the crystal axes for plagioclase range as follows:
a(c 1\ b)
f3(a 1\ c)
93- 9430'
115- 11630
Twin crystals formed by simple repetition are represented by tll C Carlsbad, Baveno, and Manebach twin laws (Figure 13-21) . Carlsbad twillS
are common in orthoclase, while Baveno and Manebach twins arc OCCaSionally observed. Carlsbad twins may also be present in plagioclaso. .111
'Y(a 1\ b)
87-91 30
Both alkali feldspars and plagioclase have good cleavage in two directions parallel to (001) and (010). Cleavage fragments observed with
the microscope often form small flat plates with two sides parallel. The
best cleavage is parallel to (001), but (010) is also good (Figure
13-20) . Fragments 0.1 to 0.4 mm thick and large enough to fill the field
of the microscope yield interference figures which are readily measured.
These are described by Tuttle as excellent mounts for determining the
optic angle with the universal stage.
Feldspar frequcmtly exhibits phase changes in what may appear externally as a single crystal but actually represents two or more individ-
(0 )
(el
(b )
FI r.. l :l. 2 1. Ty p, ,~ or I wi ll (, l y~ l lI l , \ ' 111111 111111 rill' ,,,11.0"' "1'> " . hili 1.1 '>1 '
r, .ld 'p"I ". (/I) IIII VI'"0 , ( II) Mllllnlll,, II , ( I' ) Ci llllll llll i.
1'1)1111.1
(III
0111".(
256
thin section, Carlsbad twins often exhibit two elongate individuals separated by a single composition plane (Figure 13-22a). The individuals
differ in extinction b etween crossed nicols . Baveno twins may be separated by a diagonal plane (Figure 13-22b ).
Multiple or polysynthetic twinning is abundant in plagioclase (Figure
13-23a). Albite twinning is widespread. It is recognized by the
001
parallelism between the composi1_ I --L :=
tion planes and the (010) cleavage
010
-I --~ 010
(Figure 13-23b). Fragments show010 II'" '
-1 1_ 1I-I
ing albite twinning are useful in
001
- I plagioclase identification.
I ~I-I
According to Emmons and Gates
010
( 1943) polysynthetic twinning is
(0)
(b )
formed late in the growth of the
FIG. 13-22 a,b. Section s of twin crystals
.
plagIOclase crystal. A common force
as illu strated by orthocl ase : (a) Carlsbad
and (b) Baveno.
leading to polysynthetic twinning is
the mutual interference of growing
crystals. A phenocryst ordinarily suffers little twinning in a fin e-grained
groundmass. Donnay (1943) places greater weight on the role of internal
factors in twinning.
Schuster's M ethod. In this identification, known as Schuster's Method,
cleavage flakes are mounted on a glass slide. Fragments with slightly
1
III
11 -'1
257
SILICATES : FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES)
twinning for the plagioclase under observation. The extinction angles

for fragments on (010), also given, may yield more significant angles for
plagioclase at the sodic end of the chart.
Michel-Levy Method. Where albite twins are observed in thin sections
no limitation in orientation prevails as in the case of the examination of
fragments. Here Schuster's method is inapplicable. However, in su ch
instances the statistical method of Michel-Levy has been found useful.
+2
+10
o
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
30
10
Ol igoclase
010
(0)
(b)
13-23 a,b . (a) Polysynthetic twinning of the albite typ e as developed on a

Single plagioclase crystal. (b) A cleavage fragm ent showing albite twinning. Cleavage
parallel to (001).
FIG.
better cleavage will show composition planes parallel to cleavage edges.

This is indicative of albite twins with composition planes normal to
(001). Schuster's curves show the extinction angles corresponding to the
complete range of plagioclase species (Figure 13-24). Reference to the
curve for extinction on (001) should give the proper value of th e albite
FIG.
50
Andesine
70
Labradorite
90
lin 10
Bytownite
13-24. Schuster's curves showing the extinction on (001) and (010) clca vlI g" "
The method is dep endent upon the presence of a satisfactory nil 11'1])"1'
of crystals in a section to provide a sufficiently representative id entif it',, tion, Sections of crystals cut normal to (010) are sought. These arc ]'('('og
nized by three factors : ( 1) the sharpness of the composition planes wi lh
a slight change in focus, (2) uniformity of illumination of all la n1('11 n.
when parallel to the vibration planes of the nicols, and (3) th e cq ll :il il)'
of the extin ction angles for twin sets rotated to the left or ri ght.
A single meas urement .is shown in Fi gure 13-25. At least ('ighl OJ' 1( ' "
different crystals should h e In cas lII'('(l to incli ca lc til e "!:I xillll ll " ,'x lilll' liOIi
an gle ror a parliel" "r pi:r gio('l:i sc. ;\ d if rl' rl'lI ('e or as IIl1ld l as (j " ill I.. 111111
H :lll g ics is :rllo lV:l hl (', h i d til(' ;IV('J':I )!;" is Ils(d . C l'ys l :rI s('('(iIJIl S ill wlli, '11
t l lo :.11 1'1'11 [( 1(1 / , 111111 II l w ill g l'OllPS silo w .lIlii'.ll'lll ill l llili ll ll li'lli "i " I<I Sli t Is-
258
Left twins
extinct
Uniform
illumination
SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES ( TECTOSILICATES )
259
Right twins
extinct
13-25. Diagram showing the method of detennining thc extinction angles in

albite twins cut normal to (OlD) for the plagioclase feldspars (the method of
Michel-Levy) .
FIG.
701
iii I i i
iii i
i i
i i i
iii
iii
601 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ! I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l ie I
FIG.
501 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1:,1"1 I I I I I
401 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1.-r=1 I ! I I ! ! I I I I I I I
301 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 L,f4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I I 1 I I 1 I 1
20kl
I 1 I 1 I i I I 1 I I I I 1 I I 1J.4 I I I I 1 I I I 1 1 I I 1 I I 1 I I 1 I I 1 I I 1 I I I 1 1
101 1111 1'1. 11 1 1 111,(111 11 11 111 1 1111 1 111 1 1 111 1 1 1111 1 1111 I
01 1111 1111 Ni l ll l llll l llll l llll l llll l llll l llll l ll il l

o
10
30
Oligoclase
50
Andesine
70
Lab radorite
90
An 100
Bytownite
13-26. Curve showing the maximum extinction angle of albite twins cut normal
to (OlD) for the plagioclase feldspars (Michel-Levis method).
FIG.
factory angles. In recorrung the extinction angle (Figure 13-26) the direction of the faster ray is used; otherwise no angle greater than 45
would be obtained. It will be noted that angles of 1912 or less appear
twice on the curve. From Ano to An21 the angle is negative, and for those
above An2l it is positive. In the absence of the (001: 100) edge- and this
is rarely present- positive and negative angles cannot b e distinguished.
13-27. ( x 18) Combined Carlsbad-albite twinning in plagioclase. ( X nicols.)
260
In order to identify plagioclase of \:he Ano-An21 range from plagioclase

of the An21-An38 range, indices of refraction or optical sign may be used.
Most of the first group have indices of refraction less than balsam and are
optically positive. The others have indices of refraction greater than
balsam and are optically negative.
Extinction of Combined Carlsbad-Albite Twins. When Carlsbad and
albite twinning are both present (Figures 13-27, 13-28) , a single crystal
section normal to (010) will suffice for the determination. Such sections
(Figure 13-29) will in general yield four extinction positions for the
crystal Xl, X 2 and YI , Yeo Sections normal to (010) , the composition face
for both kinds of twins, may be recognized in the 45 position. H ere the
26i
SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICA -rES )
+40
tilti !1
+20
30
"
U"
0;10
-.::::::
,9..-
+10
:J*:p
++ 3D ,
I' 1 tT ong le " c!lOn

ex11n .
.
lorge r_ _L
1+- 20 ......,
v
+30
+t
-1 i
t=::::,?o....: __
-+-
10
'l:
~;i
,
-
p-J.~
/0
- 10
u>
!~
00."
-20
-
-30
30
10
Oligoclose
70
50
Ande si ne
Lobrodorite
Bytownite
90
An 100
IAnorthite
13-30. Curves showing extinction angles of combined Carlsbad-albite twin s

normal to (010) for the plagioclase feld spars. (After F. E . Wright.)
FIG.
13-29. Diagram showing the m ethod of determining the two sets of extinction
angles (X and Y) in sections of combined Carlsb ad-albite twins cut normal to (010).
FIG.
albite twinning disappears, and the crystal appears to be a simple Carlsbad twin. In the 0 position both the albite and Carlsbad twinning
practically disappear.
The extinction angles Xl, X2 and YI , Y2 of the albite twins in each half
of the section (Figure 13-29) are measured. The average of the two
smaller (Y values) is given on the horizontal lines of Figure 13-30, and
the average of the two larger (X values) on the curves. The intersection
of the proper horizontal line with the appropliate curve gives a vertical
line that indicates the relative amount of the anorthite molecule.
At a composition of about An 2 0 Carlsbad twinning cannot be detected
in thin sections, and the method is not readily applicable. In this case the
maximum extinction angle for albite twins in sections normal to (010) is
00
Angle of the Rhombic Section. Pericline twinning when observed may
provide useful information (Figure 13-31). It is polysynthetic and results in lathlike individuals which may resemble albite twins as observed with the microscope. Howevcr, pcriclin e twin planes may h e almost normal to the direction of th e albite composition plane. Pcriclin ('
+3(r "'"
0
00
- 17
()'
'"
(001)
~~~"-------~
8
(b)
(01
13-31. The inclination of p ericlin e twin planes. (a) One inclination of th u (;1)111 position plane projec ted to show the rhombic section. (b) Pcri clin c tw ill pl rlll l's Oil
(010). The angle {j with (001) ranges fronl +37 0 to _17 0 (angle of Lhc rhulllbl C'
section) .
FIG.
twjns arc recognized by th eir inclination with referen ce to th e (00 l) /\

(010) edge (th e an gle of th e rhombic section). A plag ioclase crys l III
showing the proj ee lion of th e rhombi c seclion and th e cOl'l'es pondi li g

pCl'iCiillc COilipositiol1 p];III(' is sll()w ll ill Fi gure 11-1 10. It is lh e ilidillll lioll of Ih o sl'(' lioli 1':1111('1' 111 :1 11 III(' sll:lJw lliul is Siglliri C: IIlt. It l'illl g('S \-vi lh
1110 ('Olliposilioll o\' 1110 pl llgi ()('\II ~ ( ' \'1'1)11 1 II positi ve' II ngl, ' of : ~7 t) \'m IIlhil(
262
(AnO) to a negative angle of 17 for anorthite ( Anl oo ), At about the intermediate composition of andesine (An.Jo ) the angle of inclination is
0 (Figure 13-31b). The range in the angles for the various types of
plagioclase as shown by Schmidt (1919) is given in Figure 13-32.
Combinations of albite and peri Cline twinning frequently appear in
alkali feldspar- p articularly in microcline. The combination produces
a distinctive grid pattern b etween crossed nicols. In addition, tongues of
80
o 60
""
' i\\0Y
S00\
40
Q)
c::
Ci.
u
>
i. 20
NO
Cl.
+30
",,/
~/'
Q)
Hi,h
c::
,gCl. 80
A ntipert!!.!!:... - I- -
100
.......
--
hOC
~
art
-.:.
\~.
S!,
~icra per
-10
,~
LOW TEMPERATURE
GROUP
Albife
Ci.
sonidine' te
cr;ptop
~
60 -"-
+10
sonidil!! - ----;;;
I:~
A~
_-
/'
/' ; thOc lo ~ e
/' An foperthlfe
o 40
-f
""
""
""
IY
V ""
20
+20
",,/
HIGH TEMPERATURE
GROUP
Q)
0>
c::
a
+40
263
SILICATES : FRAMEWORK snmCTURES (TE CT OSILICATES)
-~---
- - e-'-":':"
Law
~
rlhOclOS
9.
h'f
Microc/ine - Perf~!.
L,........
------
Infermediate
_
\~~Maxi-
__ _
\',. m~m
-f
Albite
120
-20
o
1
30
10
Albite
Oligoc lase
50
Andesine
70
Lab radorite
90
Bytownite
Ab+An
An 100
1 Anorthite 1
FIG. 13-32. A curve showing the range in angles of inclination of pericline twins from
An. to An,oo. ( Afte r E. Schmidt.)
albite often penetrate the grid struchll'e at more or less regular intervals.
The intergrowth forms the pattern known as perthite (Figure 13-15).
Alkali Feldspar Group
The alkali feldspar of volcanic rocks is frequently sanidine, while
plutonic rocks yield orthoclase. Microcline is a common constituent of
pegmatites whilc adularia may be a vein mineral.
High- and low-temperatme groups of alkali feldspars have b een distinguished by MacKenzie and Smith (1956). When correlated with
X-ray data and composition, the optic angles for the alkali feldspars
indicate a high-temperature division (Figure 13-33) containing anorthclase, two forms of sanidine and a high-temperature albite. Orthoclase,
microcline, and low-temperature albite conslihlte a low-te mperalure
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
90
80
Or
Weight per cent
13-33. The ran ge in optic angles for the alkali feldspars. (Afte r Tut/'/e, ID 5~;
Ma cKenzie and Smith, 1956. )
FIG.
group. The texture of the higher temperature group is cryptopcrthili <:

while the lower temperature group is microperthitie.
ORTHOCLASE
(K,Na) AISi 3 0 s
MOllocli llio
L(3
= (\;1 ;)""
ncr = 1.518
n~ = 1.524
n'Y = 1. 5:26
21' = GO 1,072; Opt. ( - )
b = 'Y or Z , a /\ ex or X = +5 1,0 + 12,
c /\ (3 01' Y = - 14.0 (,0 - 2 1
Color. C olorless in lhin secli ons, hilt 111 :1)' 1)(' ('\o"d),
in cipi cllt :ll tc l':llioli ill ('()lll rn~ 1 w ill i (1l nrl'/', wlli c'll is dC 'lI r ,
O il :I ('('() 11 lit
Ill'
~64
~- -b
(0)
(b)
FIG. 13-34 a,b. Orientation diagrams of orthoclase. Sections (a) normal to the a-a.-'ds
and (b) parallel to (010).
265
Extinction. On {001} parallel, on {OlO} from 5 to 12, increasing with

the soda content.
Orientation. Clea vage b'aces on {010} make a small angle with the
faster ray.
Twinning. Twinning according to the Carlsbad law (c-axis or [001] =
twin-axis) . These are simple twins consisting of two individuals.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial negative with a
large axial angle. The axial plane is normal to {OlO} . Dispersion, r > v.
Distinguishing Features. Orthoclase is distinguished from its dimorph
sanidine by its large axial angle.
Occurrence. Orthoclase is a widely distributed mineral in persilicic
igneous rocks such as granites and syenites. In spherulites of obsidian
and rhyolite it is often intergn wn with cristobalite or quartz. It is also
common in deb'ital deposits and in sandstones and arkoses.
In rocks subjected to hydrothermal alteration orthoclase is ordinarily
more resistant than plagioclase. Kaolinite often forms a weathering product at the expense of orthoclase.
ADULARIA
KAISi 3 0 s
Monoclini c
DID
-++++-~' - b
o
a
(0)
(b l
FIG. 13-36 a,b. Orientation diagrams of adularia. Sections La) norm al to tho c - !lxl ~
FIG. 13-35. ( X 160) Orthoelase-cristobalite spherulite in volcanic glass.
Form. Orthoclase occurs in phenocrysts, in subhedral and anhedral

crystals, and in spherulites.
Cleavage. Perfect cleavage parallel to {001}, less p erfect parallel to
{OlO}, imperfect parallel to {110}.
Birefringence. Weak, 11t' - n o< = 0.008; so the interference colors are
gray and white of the first order and the maximum a little lower than that
Qf quartz in the same slide.
Adularia is probably a variety of orthoclasc but is b'catcd separalel y

because of genetic significance.
The optical properties of adul aria corrcspond to those of orthoclaso,
but the crystal h abit is pscudo-orthorhombic with a rhomhic cross soc lioll
(110 1\ 110 = 61 13'). The (010) face is narrow or abson t.
Adular ia is a rath ~r low-tcrn pCral1'1rC feldspar I'olln d ill veins and repb ccl11 c nt depOS its, and ill SO IlI (J r()(oks oj' I()w-g rad o IIH'Iillllorphisnl , j!;
'I
CS PC(' ill ll y (; IH1I'nl'l (lrisli( ' oj' T( lrliliry ~old 1111d sil vor on 's oj'
IllI l 1)()III1I1 '1:1I
266
FIc .
13-37. ( X 20) Vein feldspar, probably adularia. ( X nicols.)
267
Color. Colorless in thin sections; clear in contrast with orthodase,

which is often cloudy,
Form. Sanidine usually occurs in distinct crystals as phenocrysts.
Cleavage. Perfect p ar allel to {001 }, less p erfect p arallel to {OlO}.
There may also b e pmting parallel to {100}.
Relief. Low, n < b alsam.
Birefringence. W eak, ny - na = 0.007, so the interference colors are
gray and grayish white of the first order.
Extinction. On (001) p arallel, on (010) + 5 0 Sections normal to an
optic axis remain practically dark since the axial angle is often very
small.
Twinning. Usually according to the C arlsbad law ( c-axis or [001] =
twin-axis). Twins ar e simple twins of two individuals and are rarely
polysynthetic.
Interference Figure. Some sections give a negative biaxial interferenco
figure with a small axial angle, but the angle m ay be so small that the
figure is almost uniaxial. Dispersion, (1) r < v, (2) r > v .
type. The crystals are commonly minute and can b e identified only with
a r ather high-power obj ective. X-ray study indicates a triclinic phase.
SAN IDINE
Monoclinic
6357'
(K,N a)AISi 30 s
L(3 =
na = 1.517 to 1.520
n f3 = 1.523 to 1.525
n 'Y = 1.524 to 1.526
2V = 0 to 12; Opt . (-)
Orientation: (1) Ax. pl. {OW}, b = (3 or Y,

C{ or X = +5 01' (2) Ax . pI. 1- {OW},
b = 'Y or Z, a 1\ C{ or X = +5
a 1\
c
FIC.
~x
(0 )
FIC.
(b )
13-38 o.h. Oricnt ati on (li :1gra ms of sa nicl ine. Secl ions p;\ r:1l1 ('l 10 (010) .
13-39. ( X 12) A single crystal of sanid ine which has suffered COJ'l'osion
Oil (,IH I,
end.
D istinguishing Features. Sanidine is distinguished from orthoclase by

the small axial angle and in som e cas es by a difference of or ie nlali oll .
Orthoclase is often cloudy on account of in cipi ent alter ation ; :;a nid inc, 0 11
the other hand, is clear.
Occurrence. Sanidine ha:; b een generally co nsid ered charae lc risli (' of
volca nic rocks slldl as rh)'o li ll's a llci lrad l), l('s and lil e COI'l'(,SP(lIlciill g
lufl's , bill Mac K( 'llzie alld SlIl ilil ki VU :O>l 'ggt'sl.('d il s O (,C III'I'( ' II ('V ill pili
IOlli(' rocks as w('11.
268
MICRO CLINE
Triclinic
La = 8953'
L{3 = 6410'
L-y = 9051'
KA1Si 30 s
269
Intergrowth. Albite is commonly intergrown with microcline so that

the (010) directions are parallel. This intergrowth is known as perthite.
Interference Figure. On account of the twinning it is usually difficult
to obtain good interference figures. Dispersion, l' > V.
n" = 1.518 to 1.522

n~
n~
= 1.522 t o 1.526
= 1.525 to 1.530
2V = 77 t o 84; Op t . (-) .
Ax. pI. or -y or Z a re nea rly .1. (010 ). Angle
between trace of ax. pI. and edge (001 ): (010) = +5
c
z.
b
a
FIG. 13-41. ( x 15) A microeline section cut p arallel to (001). ( X nicols. J
(0)
(bl
13-40 a,b. Orien tation diagrams of microeline. Sections (a) norm al to the c-axis
FIG .
Color. Colorless in thin sections but may b e cloudy on account of incipient alteration.
Form. Microcline is usually found in subhedral to anhedral crystals.
Euhedral crystals are rarely seen in rock sections.
Cleavage. Perfect parallel to {~Ol} , less perfect parallel to {OlO}, imperfect parallel to {llO} and {lID}.
Birefringence. W eak, ny - no = 0.007, so interference colors are gray
and white of the first order.
Extinction. Extinction angle on (001) = + 15 0 , on (010) = + 5 .
Orientation. Cleavage traces on (010) are about parallel to ' the faster
ray.
Twinning. Poly synthetic twinning is almost universal in microcline.
The twinning is in two directions, on e according to the albite law
( {OlD} = twin-plane), and th e other according to the p ericlin c law
(b-axis or [010] = hvin -axis) . This usually gives the so-called gridiron
or quadrille structurc (Figure 13-41) , th e two sets of lam ellae bein g at
right angles. The t'vvin lamellae are usually spindle shaped and th e ('xtinction usually wavy.
FIG.
13-42. ( X 12 ) Anh cdral crystals of microcl in c in random oricnta lion s. ( X lIicoJ:;.)
Distinguishing Features. jVIicroclin e is distin guish ed from orthodtSl

by polysynth e tie twinning and from orthoclase and albile hy th e ('xlin ction angle of 15 on (001) and by the spi ll cl lc-shapccl lwin Ialll <, II;I('.
Occurrence. Mi croclin c OCC Ill'S ill SOlll(' graniles, syclIiles, alld gll( 'iss('s,
In l)(,l'llti l e iti~ lli o pri,, (' ip;d rl'ld spar or gr;I,Ii[ \' P( 'glll;ilil ('s, II is II lso II
OllllnOIl II iii 1( ' 1'11 I in !'all<i sloll (,S, III'koSI'S, 1'1 (' " II lId is 1'00 1IId liS II tll 'lrll",
Illill( 'l'li l ill Sl lll!ls.
270
271
ANORTHOCLASE
Triclinic
La = 906'
L{3 = 6342'
L-y = 9017'
(Soda Microcline)
(N a,K)AISi 30 s
ncr
= 1.522 t o 1.536
1.526 to 1.539
l.527 to 1.541
n 'Y
2V = 43 to 54; Opt. (-).
Ax. pI. nearly -L to {01O I
n~
FIG.
13-44. (X 30) A portion of a crystal of anorthoclase showin g cleavage.
Occurrence. The characteristic occurrence of anorthoclase is in sodarich igneous rocks such as rhomb porphyries. It is sometimes found in
pegmatites. It is a comparatively rare mineral.
I --+--=b
Plagioclase Group
(bl
FIG. 13-43 a,b. Orientation diagram of anorthoclase. Sections (a) normal to the
c-axis and (b) parallel to (010).
(0)

Form. Anorthoclase occurs in phenocrysts and in anhedral crystals;
also in large cleavage masses.
Cleavage. Perfect parallel to {001}, less perfect parallel to {0l0}, as in
the other feldspars.
Birefringence. Weak, ny - net = 0.005-0.007; the interference colors
are gray and white of the first order.
Extinction. On (001)
+l G to +4, on (010)
+4 0 to +10 .
Twinning. Polysynthetic twinning in two directions like that of microcline, but the lamellae are finer. It may be necessary to have an unusually
thin section to detect the twinning.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a moderate
axial angle. Dispersion, r > v.
Distinguishing Features. Anorthoclase may be distingUished from
practically all other feldspars by the axial angle of about 50 (sanidine
is lower and the others are higher). Thc small extin ction angle on (001)
distillguishes it from mi croel ine and all tl lo pl:l giodllS{,S (~xeopt albile.
The plagioclase minerals constitute an important group for which an

unusual number of optical methods have been developed to aid in study
and identification. These are illustrated in text figures and diagrams. For
convenience the figures relating to the different methods arc listed
below:
PLAGIOCLASE METHODS
T oxt JIIII HtmUoll t<

Normal plagioclase (n", n~ and n'Y) ..... . ..... . . . .. . ........ . ...... .
High-tem perature plagioclase (n" , n~ and n'Y)' . ... . . ...... . . .. ... . .. .
Cleavage fragments oriented on (001) or (OlD) .
. . ........ .. .... .
Plagioclase glass fu sed at l500C a nd quenched .. . ... . ..... . .. .. . .. .
Birefringence
n'Y - ncr for norm a l plagiocl ase. . . . . . . . .
. .... .. .. .......... .
Extinction angles on twin cryst fLls
Uniform illumin ation of polysy llt het ic twi n ~ ill I hin sec tion (MichelL evy met hod) . .
. . . .. ..... . .
Combin ed Ca rl ~ bad - Albit(' twiIl H...
. ............ ... .. .. . .. ",
Extinctioll on c1 e ", v a~o rl'll ~ IIl( ' III K (S(' IIII Ht(' I" H 11' (' 11,0.1 ) """" .. " " ,
Inelinatioll of pPl'i.,li,ll I.lVillH (i1I'1J;II' "I' I Ii (' I'lio llllli i: HI'I :t i,," ) , '. , , , , ,. ,
Opti u lU' Jl:lr'H
AIIJl:l e <I V [0" IIO!'!II I\! pl" v; i'H'I 'I' III
StOl' I)()KI" ~I'Ii !() PI'I. jllllt\ 'HIi I ril l' h lv. ll 1(\1 ,1 i "" " 1,(\,,, 11IId 1101'1111\1 ph lf(i o. )I IUJI) . ,
l3 - ~fiR
1 3-~fi b
J3 - ~O
1:\-/1
13-18
I :I- :.W
1:1-:\0
1 : 1-~1
1:1 :12
1:1-/111
1:1 /iO
I
272

/1 1.590
1.590,
1.5801
7 /
:17 /
As studies of the group progress, a small but consistent distinction in

optical properties develops between plagioclase of normal-temperature
origin and high-temperature types. This is more noticeable in the range
Ano to An35 (albite and oligoclase) . Fundamental optical data on the
distinction between high- and low-temperature forms have not yet been
established to the extent desirable for routine study. Data on the two
types which may be applied with the universal stage are shown in Figure
13-50. Natural plagioclases have b een converted to the high-temperature
1.580
-1-------t----+---:;;77/Libr/~=-7'7""',c=di:::::::J 1.570
1.570rl
1.5601---1
/ / 1
7/ //
273
SILICATES: FRAME WORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES)
1.560
fi
fi
1.550
1.590
1.540
1.580
~
1.530
1.570
1.520
0
...i"
fil
1.520
30
10
70
50
90
nl
An 100
1.560
(0)
(001l
(010),
fi2
1.590
1.550
....
1.5BO
fi2
(OOi)
(010)
,;'
1. 540
k:
1.570
.:;:.-
1. 530
1.560
1.520
30
10
I Albi te I
Oligoclase
50
Andesine
70
La bradorite
90
Bytown ite
An 100
IAnor1I111i' I
13-46. Curves showin g th e indices of refraction n, and n, of cleavage n:t k(' ~ ill
the plagioclase feldspars. (After T suhoi.)
FIG .
1.5401
7~
7 /
I ",/ I
1.520 1
Ab
I
10
11.530
,.
I
30
I
50
(b)
.!
70
90
'1.520
100
An
13-45 a,b . (a) Indices of refraction of norm al plagioclase. (Chayes, 1952.) (b)
Indices of refraction of plagioclase inverted to high-temperature modifications by
heating. (Smith, 1957.)
FIG.
forms and precise indi ces determin ed (Smith, 1957). These arc givc" ill
Figure 13-45b.
The determination of th e index of refraction of glass for med 1>y l lli \
fusion of plagiocl ase has b een utilized as a method of icl enlifl <.; :r I in"
(Foster, 1955 ). Selected pl agioclase fragments as free as possible i'roll'
impurities are placed in platinum foil. Th e material is th en 110:1I Cd I()
about 1500C wilh th e oxygen-gas hlowpipe and qu oneh ed in wnln.
The incl cx of' rcfr<r cli on of' lil c gl:lss i'orrtwcl is dele rmin ed hy 11'0 illllll( 'rsion IIwll'o(i willt illd('x li(I"id ~ . H, i'r:,di v<l illlli c('s for pl:r gioci "s() glass
a m s:g,Ii(i('I IIII ()i' 11' 0 ()dgill irl pl ll gi()( 'llIs(' ( I"igll n : 1:1-1(7).
274
10
30
70
50
90
Anl00
1.570
1.560
1.550
1.540
n
1.530
1.520
/V
1.510
1.500
1.490
1.480
80
/, .570
90
+/
.560
80
.550
V-
FIG.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
An 100
.530
.520
1.510
.500
/90
100 crop
I
I
I
I
.....
1.490
"0
I
I
I
.480
Labradorite
Bytownite
10,
20
30?
I
Anor-
I
I
t hite
13-47. Indices of refra ction of plagioclase glass. ( After Foster, 1955.)
0.014
0.014
0.013
0.013
0.012
0.012
a 0.011
13-49. The axial angle 2V for norm al plagioclase. (After ReinhanZ, 1931.)
An
Andesine
. J-./'
+V
\ "'- -...-/
1
90
'"~
I--"
70
.540
Albite Oligoclase
FIG.
70
.580
1.580
275
50 I.
0.011 ~
~
0.010
0.010
0;009
0.009
0.008
O.OOB
0.007
0.007
10
90 AntOO
70
30
50
13-48. The bi re frin gence of normal pla g ioclase. (M odified frolll C/l(lyes, 1952. )
FIG.
or
F ,e:. '13-50. 1\ SII'IIograp ld c.; (1'01,'('111111

x, Y, il lid 7. II lId III(' Ilpli c """ A II lId IJ
u li ('111('l 1 lV iii, " " 1,, '('1 III ( 001 ) 11,,,111,, , (' 11\/' 1',)( hll ll, 1111 11111.1 pl " glll, I" ", ( , ,)lId IInlls )
lliid " i/~ I, It ''IIPCl III I"' II p lll l'. III( III'.1I ( 1" "1,,," lillI") . (AII III' "'"1, , 11)[-,[,. )
276
ALBITE
Tl'iclinic
An o- lo
= 1.527 to 1.533
n fJ = 1.531 to 1.537
n.., = 1.538 to 1.542
2V = 77 to 82; Op t. (+)
'n a
277

large axial angle. Dispersion, r < v weak.
Distinguishing Features. Albite is the only plagioclase with indices of
refraction both equal to and considerably less than balsam. Extinction
angles furnish significant criteria (Figure 13-26).
Occurrence. Albite occurs in some granites, in granite p egmatites, in
veins, and in some metamorphic rocks. It is the only plagioclase that is
at all common as a vein mineral. In some altered subsilicic igneous rocks
Frc. 13-51. ( X 12) Albite showin g curved twin lamellae caused by deformation.

Form. Albite 2 occurs in plates or lath-shaped sections, rarely in phenocrysts. It may be intergrown with microcline.
Cleavage. {001} p erfect, {01O} less p erfect, {1l0} and {lIO} imperfect.
Relief. Low, n < balsam. (For indices of cleavage flakes see Figure
13-46. )
Birefringence. Rather weak, lley - n" = 0.009 to 0.011; interference
colors are pale yellow of the first order, about the same as quartz in the
same section.
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in albite twins (i.e. , twins
according to the albite law) varies from 12 to 19 . In cleavage flakes
parallel to (001) the extinction angle is 3 to 5; on those parallel to
(010) , from 15 to 20 .
Twinning. Polysynthetic twinning according to the albite law ( {01O} =
twin-plane) is rarely absent. There may also b e twinning according to
the Carlsbad law (c-axis or [001] = twin-axis) either alone or combined
with albite twinning. Pericline twinning (b-axis or [010] = twin-axis) is
sometimes present. The angle of the rhombic section is +15 0 to +37 0 .
, T he word albite may b e used in 3 ways (1) as a min eral name, ( 2 ) as :'. mol ecul e,
and ( 3) to desc ribe polysynthetie tw ililling li to (010).
Frc. 13-52. ( X30 ) Albite intergrown with microcline in a perthitie tex ture.
(spilites ) it is formed at the exp ense of calcic plagioclase as a dcutcr.ic

mineral.
OLIGOCLASE
Tri(:lill i('
An lO- 30
1.533 to 1..'543
nil = 1.537 t o 1. 548
n.., = 1. 542 Lo 1.551
2 If = 82 to 00 ; Opt. (+) or ( -)
na
Color. Colorless in thin section s.

Form. Oligoclase occurs in ellh cd ral, subh edral , and anh edra l crys lals .
The appearance is th e same as for th e other fe ldspars.
Cleavage. {OOJ } p erfec t, {OlO } less p e rrect, {UO} a nd {UO} impe rfecl.
Uelief. Low, I/, e ith e r less Illall , g rea te r lh a ll , or :d)o lll e<llial lo [il:lI' or
b:ds:l1n . (For illdi ccs or d C:lv:!g(' lI :li;:('s sec l'i g 111'<' I :~-/I (-i.)
Bil'j'fl'in ~(' I1 (,(,. YVI'!1k or ral l\( ' I' Wi' : 1k, II)'
II "
O.()()K I () o.om): il 11 ('1'_
h '1'( 'II ('c' ('o lors 11 1'0 gray or w li ll o cd' III I' ri l'~ 1 u1'( lc 'I',
278
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in albite twins (twinning

according to the albite law) varies from 0 to 12 . The extinction angle
on a (001) cleavage Hake varies from 0 to 3 ; on {OlO} Hakes, from 0 to
+ 15 (Figure 13-24).
Twinning. As in albite.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial, either positive or negative
with a very large axial angle, or neutral (2V = 90 ) for An 17 Dispersion,
r> v weak.
Distinguishing Features. Indices of refraction are slightly below balsam
at one extreme, but are generally above. Extinction angles (Figure 13-26)
are distinctive.
Occurrence. Oligoclase is very common in persilicic igneous rocks such
as granites and rhyolites, also in syenites, trachytes, and other igneous
rocks . It is occasionally found in granite pegmatites and also in some
metamorphic rocks.
279
SILICATES : F RAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES)
in metamorphic rocks. The composition An50 marks the boundary between silicic (or acidic) and calcic (or b asic) igneous rock types.
L ABRADORITE
Anso- 7o
Triclini c
na
= 1.554 t o 1.564
n f3 = 1.558 t o 1.569
ny = 1.562 to 1.573
2V = 7()0 to 90; Opt . (+ )
Color. Colorless in thin sections, often with regularly arrangcd inclusions.
ANDESINE
Triclinic
An 30-50
2V =
na = 1.543 to 1.554
nf3 = 1.548 to 1.558
ny = 1.551 t o 1.562
76 to 90; Opt. (+ ) or (-)

Form. Andesine is found in euhedral to anhedral crystals.
Cleavage. {OOI} pedect, {OlO} less peTfect, {llO} and {lTo} impedect.
Relief. Low, n always greater than balsam. (For indices of cleavage
Hakes see Figure 13-46. )
Birefringence. W eak, ny - na = 0.008 so that the interference colors
are gray or white of the first order.
Extinction. Th e maximum extinction angle in albite twins ( twins
according to the albite law) varies from 13 to 27~ 0 . On (001) cleavage
Hakes the extinction angle vades from 0 to -7; on (010) Hakes, from
0 to -16.
Twinning. As in albite. The angle of the rhombic section varies from
+3 to _2 in andesine.
Intederence Figure. The figure is biaxial, either positive or negative
with a large axial angle, or neutral (2V = 90 ) for An3s. Dispersion,
r < v.
Distinguishing Features. Andesine is distinguished from other plagioclases by maximum extinction angles of twinned crystals and by the
indices of refraction (extinction angles, Figure 13-26).
Occurrence. Andesine is a common and widely distributed mineral
in ignenous roeks especially in diorites and andesites. Andesin e also occurs
FIG. 13-53. ( x 15) Labradorite crystals showing albite twi nnin g. ( X ni lI) ls. )
Form. Labradorite occurs in euhedral to anh edral crys tals. TIll' 1111 _
hedral crystals are often large as compared with thosc of other pl llg]o.
clases.
Cleavage. {00l} p erfect, {OlO} lcss p crfect, {llO} and {lJ O} ill'lWri'( '(' I,
Relief. Fairly low, n> balsam. (For indiccs of clcavage flakvs S ( ' (I
Figurc 13-46.)
Birefringence. Wcak, 11-)' - n" = 0.008 to 0.009; intcrrere nee co lol's
arc gray or white of the first ord er.
Exl illclion. Th e maximum ex tin ctioll an gle ill alhite twillS ( lw ilillillg
accordillg to th e a lbite la w) va ri es I'rolll 27~ 0 to 39. Til e (,,\ Iill('(ioll
IG" ; Oil ( ()I() ~
all glo Oil (001) (kavagv fl akts var ivs 1'1'0111 _7 to
!lakes, fl'(Hl1
lri 10
2Do.
I \" lllllill ~. A~ ill 11 11111 ('.
281
280
Interference Figure. The figure is usually biaxial positive with a large

axial angle but is biaxial negative at times and neutral for An68. Dispersion, r < v.
Distinguishing Features. LabradOlite is distinguished from the other
plagioclases by the maximum extinction angles of albite twins and by
the indices of refraction (Figure 13-26, 13-45a) .
Occurrence. Labradorite is a very common mineral in subsilicic igneous
rocks such as auganites, basalts, gabbros, and olivine gabbros. It is the
principal constituent of most anorthosites. Labradorite also occurs in
metamorphic rocks.
on (001) cleavage flakes varies from - 16 to - 32; on {OlO} flakes,

from -29 to -36 .
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a very large
axial angle. Dispersion, l' > v .
BYTOWNITE
Triclinic
An7 o- 9o
n" = 1.564 to 1.573

n~ = 1.569 to 1.579
n ~ = 1.573 to 1.585
2V = 79 to 88; Opt. (-)
FIG. 13-55. ( x 15) Bytownite showing albite and Carlsb ad twinnin g. ( X ni cols. )
Distinguishing Features. Bytovmite is distinguished from oth er plag ioclases by extinction angles and refractive indices (Figures 13-26, 13-4511 ).
Occurrence. Bytownite usually occurs in gabbros, anorthosites, or
b asalts, but it is a comparatively rare mineral.
ANORTHITE
An~O- 100
T r i(:iil lio
n" = 1.573 to 1.577

n il = 1.570 t o 1.585
n ~ = 1.585 La ] .500
2V = 77 to 70 ; Opt. ( - )
FIG. 13-54. ( X 15) Bytownite showing albite twinning. ( X nicols.)
Color. Colorless in thin sections .

Form. Bytownite occurs in subhedral to anhedral crystals.
Cleavage. {001 } perfect, {OlO} iess perfect, {lIO} and {IIO} imperfect.
Relief. Moderate, n > balsam. (For indices of cleavage flakes see
Figure 13-46.)
Birefringence. Rather weak, ny - n O!
0.009 to 0.012. Interference
colors are gray, white, or pale yellow of the first order.
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in albi te twins ( twinnin g
according to the albite law) varies from 39 to 51 . T he ex tinctiun angle
Color. Colorless.
Form. Anorl hile occurs in anh e clra l to s lI hh c c1ral plates or h ilts.
C leavage. {OOI} p c rrcc t, {OlO} les s p e rfe ct, { IIO } and { IIO } ill'l)( ' rf( ('1.
H e lie/'. 'Fair, 1/
hal satrl . (For illdi ees of ('k:,va g <' f1 :lk( s s(( Fi g lll'tI
>
J :'3-'1 G. )
Bil'('fl'i ll ~(, II <'T .
1\ :111 1('1' W( ':I" , Il y

II " .
0 ,0 12 10
(II ' v(ll olV or II I(' lirsl ol'ti( 'r.
('o lill's a l'(' g l'a)" w ll il ("
() . ()I :~ ;
ilti (' r1( '!'( 'II ('(1
282
283
SILICATES : FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES )
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in albite twins (twinning

according to the albite law) varies from 51 to 70. The extinction angle
on (001) cleavage Rakes varies from - 32 to -40; on (010) it is
about -37 .
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a large axial
angle. Dispersion, 1" > v.
Distinguishing Features. AnOlthite is distinguished from other plagioclases by the extinction angles and refractive indices (Figures 13-26,
13-45a ).
Occurrence. Anorthite is rare compared with the other plagioclases.
It is found in a few contact-metamorphic deposits and in a few lavas.
THE FELDSP ATHOIDS
The role of the feldspathoids in some igneous rocks is similar to the

role of feldspars. They either occur in place of feldspars or may be found
with them but are comparatively rare. Nepheline may be a prominent
constituent as well as leucite.
THE F ELDSPATHOIDS
Mineral
Chpm ical
("om position
Crystal
syste m
Leucite.
N e pheline.
Cancrinite ..
Socialite . ...
Haiiyne .. . .
Meli li te .. . .
KAI
NaAI
N a AI + C0 3
N a AI + Cl
NaAI + S
Ca,Mg,AI
P scuclo isom etric

Hcx ag;on al
Hexagonal
I sometric
Isometric
T etragonal
n cr
n,
n,
n
n
n,
=
=
=
=
=
=
1.508, n"'( = 1.50!)

1.527- 1.543, nw = 1.530- 1.547
1. 4!)6- 1.500, nw = 1.507- 1.524
1.483- 1.487
1.496- 1.510
1.626- 1.62!), n w = 1.632- 1.634.
LEUCITE
Pseudoisometric
KAl(Si0 3)2
(Iso metric above 600C)
na = 1.508
n"'( = 1.509
Form. Leucite practically always occurs in euhedral crystals. Th e
crystal form is the trapezohedron {211}, which shows octagonal sections.
It often contains inclusions, and these may be arranged in a regular
manner, either radially or concentrically (Figure 8-12).
b
FIC. 13-56 0,1). ( X I 5) (II) Lell cilc showin g an 1II1 cqllall y dcvcloped lr:Ij.""'I.olll"ci,ul
outlinc. (b) Thc salllc crystal showiJl g lwinning. ( X ni cols.)
Helief. Fair, n < halsam.

Birefringence. Very wcak,
ny -
11 "
= 0.00] ; iLis l)('sl
d e l !'e l!'d
hy
u sin g Lh e sensilive-violeL l es t plale. M inille crys Lals Iliay IIoL sll()w lilly
IJircfl"i Il gC' II CC.
Exljll cl jOll. I s ()fl (' II W :IV )'.
Twinnin g. /\ (" 11 : 1J"i1( ' I( 'I" i ~ li ( ' 1'1 ': 11111"(' (lr k\l (' i!J ' is III(' ("()fllpli(,I1I( ,(l polysy "lll('li l' l \Vi lill ili g ill Sl 'Vt ' n d dill ('(in ll s. \V lddl 01 1( '11 I'I 'S ( ' III"II 'S 111111 of'
284
285
microcline. When heated to about 600C the twinning disappears, which

proves that KAI( Si0 3)2 is dimorphous.
Distinguishing Features. L eucite resembles analcime. The latter shows
weak birefringence but does not have definite polysynthetic twinning.
Microcline has greater birefringence and lower relief.
Occurrence. L eucite occurs almost exclusively as phenocrysts in lavas
(leucite tephrite, leucitite, leucite basalt, leucite phonolite, etc.) and the
corresponding tuffs. L eucite-bearing rocks are common in Italy but rare
in most other parts of th e world. A promin ent American locality for
leu cite-bearing rocks is the Leucite Hills, Wyoming.
Frc. 13-58. (X 12) Euhedral nepheline in thin section.
FIG. 13-57. ( X 12) Cross twinning in leucite. ( X nicols.)
Leucite is exceedingly rare in grained igneous rocks (fergusite). In

such rocks it usually has been altered to so-called pseudoleucite (orthoclase-nepheline mixture).
NEPHELINE
eN a,K) (Al,Si )
20 4
(Eleoli te in pa rt)
FH: . 13-59.
Hexagonal
(Hexagonal subsystem)
(Esse nt ially N aAISiO.

with an excess of SiO.)
n , = 1.527 to 1.543
nw = 1.530 to ] .547
Opt. ( -)
Color. Colorless to turbid in thin sections. It may show rows of inclusions.
F orm. Nepheline occurs in short prismatic hexagonal crystals (phenocrysts) in dense rocks and in anhedra in grained rocks. The crystals have
( X 12:
Anh edral and e uh cdral lIcphelille crystals ill thi" Mlrl" " .
( X nicols.)
rectangular and hexagonal sections and sometimcs show zona l stl'l 1('(1 11'1 '
(Figme 8-27).
Cleavage. Impcrfect parall e l to {lOlO} , not always appal'en l.
Relicf. Very low, n ahout the same as balsam hilt II sll ;rlly s l i ~hll y
high cr.
Birefringe nce. VVc; lk, II",
II ,
0.008 to (UlO/I; illtl'l'r( 'l'l'II ('(' ('olms :II'!
gray o r t h(' fil'st ol'd (' I'.
Extin("lioll, ]>ul';rll ('1 rol' 1,(,( 'I" " gl" :11' s('('li()I\S, 11:lsnl S{'(' liOliS ,, 1'( ' (lnrk
hl 'l wel 'II (; t'oss ('d II /vols.
286
Orientation. The rectangular sections are length-fast.

Interference Figure. Basal sections give a negative tmiaxial figure without any rings.
Distinguishing Features. The mineral most likely to b e mistaken for
nepheline is orthoclase, but the latter has better cleavage and is biaxial.
It also resembles melilite and scapolite; the former h as higher relief and
the latter stronger birefringence.
Alteration. Nepheline alters very readily to zeolites, sodalite, muscovite
( gieseckite ), cancrinjte, or hydronephelite (a vaIiety of natrolite).
Occurrence. Nepheline is conRned to soda-rich igneous rocks such as
nepheline syenites, phonolites, and a few b asaltic rocks. It is not associated with original quartz.
CANCRINITE
Hexagonal
3N aAISi0 4 .CaC0 3 .H 2 0(?)

n , = 1.496 to 1.500
nw = 1.507 to 1.524
Opt. (-)
Color. Colorless in thin sections to very pale yellow in sections a little

thicker than normal.
Form. Crystals are usually anhedral with a tendency toward elongation
parallel to the c-axis. Euhedral crystals are rare.
Cleavage. Good cleavage parallel to {lOlO}.
Relief. Fair, n < balsam.
Birefringence. Variable from rather weak (0.007) to moderate (0.028);
the interference colors vary from first-order pale yellow up to middle
second order.
Extinction. Parallel to outlines and to the cleavage traces. Some sections are isotropic.
Orientation. Crystal outlines and cleavage traces are length-fast.
Interference Figure. Basal sections give a negative uniaxial interference figure with not more than one or two rings.
Distinguishing Features. Cancrinite is distinguished from similar minerals by its stronger birefringence.
Alteration. There is sometimes alteration along cleavage cracks and
fractures.
Related Minerals. Hydronephelite, a zeolitic alteration of n eph eline,
is a closely related mineral.
Occurrence. Cancrinite is a rare, but widely distributed, mineral characteristic of nepheline syenites. It is probably a deuterie mineral since it
often surrounds and apparently replaces feldspars. Its associates ar(,}
plagioclase ( especially albite) , microcline, nepheline, and sodalite.
SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TE CTOSILICA TES )
287
SODALITE
3N aAISi0 4 .N aCI
I sometri c
n = 1.483 to 1.487
Color. In thin sections colorless to gray, often with dark borders.
Form. Sodalite occurs in six-sided euhedral crystals (cross sections of
dodecahedra) and in anhedra.
Cleavage. Imperfect parallel to {1l0}, more likely to show on edges
of the slide.
Relief. Fair, n < balsam.
Birefringence. Nil.
Extinction. D ark behveen crossed nicols.
Distinguishing Features. Sodalite resembles analcime, but thc lattcr is
usually secondary. It may be necessary to make microchemical tests to
confirm the determination of sodalite.
Alteration. Sodalite is readily altered to zeolites.
Related Minerals. N osean ( sometimes called noselite) is a rcla led
mineral containing the sulfate radical in the place of chlorine.
Occurrence. Sodalite is practically confined to soda-rich igneous rocks
such as syenites and trachytes. It is especially prominent in rocks called
sodalite syenites. It is a common associate of nepheline.
HAUYNE
m3N aAISi0 4 CaS04.

n3N aAISi0 4 .N a 2S
(Lazuritc in part)
I sorn cl.ri o
n = 1.496 to 1.510
With hauyne, often given in the less euphonious variant haliynile, is ill cluded lazurite, here considered to b e simply a sulfide-bearing h:LiiYII( ,.
(The name lazurite is discarded because of its Similarity to lazuliLe. )
Color. Colorless, gray, pale blue, bluish green to deep blu e in L11l11
sections. The color may vary within a single crystal. Transparent to
h'anslucent.
Form. Hauyne usually occurs in cuh edral to anhedral crystals and ill
crystal aggregates. Both octahedrons and dodecahedrons arc comlllOIl
crystal forms.
Cleavage. It may show imperfect cleavage (dodecahedral , as ill
sodalitc ) .
Relief. Bather low, n < hals:1m.
Birefringence, Tlaii )' ll o is Il sll :i1ly isolropi c, hilt o('c:ls'ion :dly it 11111
show very weak l)ircf'rill gc lI C'(' lip to ~lh()l lt 0.00 /1.
Dislillgllisllillg FCHlI'rcs. Il ilii )' II C l'l'sc'lllhl('s sod :i1ilc', hill il s r( ,rrll( 'llyo
illcl(lx is Ili gllC'l' Il ilcl lIs l'iI 'IIVlI g(\ I( ,ss IlI'olllill( '111 tl llil l tl ll il or sndil lii n. Till
288
presence of pyrite is characteristic of the sulde-bearing hauyne of lapis

lazuli.
Related Minerals. N osean (or noselite) , a mineral of the sodalite
group, is similar to h auyne, but it contains little or no calcium.
Occurrence. Haiiyne occurs in (1) soda-rich volcanic rocks such as
phonolite and in (2) the contact-metamorphic limestones or muscovitediopside gneisses known as lapis lazuli. Pyrite is an invariable constituent of lapis lazuli.
MELlLlTE
m(Ca 2A1 2Si0 7).

n(Ca 2MgSi 20 7)
Tetragonal
n , = 1.626 to 1.629
nw = 1.632 to 1.634
Opt. ( -)
289
SILICATES: FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICATES )
Relief. Fairly high, n > balsam.

Birefringence. W eak, nw - ne = 0.005 to 0.006; interference colors are
first-order gray and often anomalous Berlin blue.
Orientation. 111e rectangular sections are length-slow, since the min era I
is tabular in habit and optically negative.
Interference Figure. Basal sections give a uniaxial negative figure with out any rings.
Distinguishing Features. Elongated sections with w eak bireflinge nce
and peg structure are characteristic. It somewhat resembles neph clin(
but the relief is fairly high instead of low.
Related Minerals. Other minerals of the melilite group are gehl cnilo,
CazAl, SiO" found in metamorphic limestones and akerman i1:("
Ca" MgSi 2 0 7 , found in furnace slags and as a laboratory product.
Alteration. Incipient alteration takes place along lin es normal to th o
length of the crystal. This gives the so-called peg structure. It may also
be altered to calcite and zeolites.
Occurrence. Melilite occurs in subsilicic igneous rocks such as nopll oline- and leucite-bearing lavas and in melilite basalts (alnoites ). USllld
associates are augite, olivine, nepheline, leucite, and perovskite. It is a'fso
a prominent constituent of a coarse-grained alkaline igneous rock rolled
uncompahgrite in the San Juan region, Colorado.
Melilite is also found in furnace and in Portland-cement clinkcr sIngs.
SCAPOLITE GROUP
(Wernerite)
m[3NaAISi 30 s.NaCI] = M a
n[3CaAI 2 Si 2 0 s.Ca(O,C0 3 ,S0 4)] = Me
T e tI' U~ ()ll l d
n , = 1.540 to 1. 571
nw = 1. 550 to 1. 607
Opt. ( - )
FIG.
13-60. ( x 190) Melilitc (fair relief) in nephelinite .
Melilite, although complex in composition, is essentially an iso

morphous mixture of the two end members gehlenite (CaAl) and aker
manite (CaMg), according to Buddington.
Color. Colorless to pale yellow in thin sections.
Form. The usual forms of melilite are euhcdral crystals of tabular habit
that show as rectangular sections. It often has "peg structure" due to
lines normal to the length of the sections.
Cleavage. Indistinct parallel to {00l}, which often appears as a single
crack in the center of the section,
Scapolite is an isomorphous mixture of the nvo end memhers giv( '"

above. The sodium en d member is called 1T/mialil e, and th e ca1cil lill ('lid
member, meionite. The name w ernerite is applied to certain inlernwdi:rlo
members.
It will b e noted th at the ch emical composition is simil ar lo tlr:lt
1111
pl agioclases hilt with added NaCl,CaCO", olc,
Color. Colorless in thin sec tion s.
Forill. l\/lill c r;ds or tll <: st'; lp()lil (' grO llp IISII ;III y on'lIr ill CO lllllllllll' agg l'q~; II( 'S, (; rys lals ; 11'(' Il sll ;dly 1'1111)( ' 1' Illr!!:(',
H( ,lid. I ,ow to filiI', 1/ - . h:dslIl ll.
or
290
Cleavage. Distinct parallel to {100} , less distinct parallel to {llO}. In

most sections the cleavage traces are parallel to the length; in cross sections the cleavage shows in two directions at right angles.
Birefringence. Rather weak to rather strong, n", - n. = 0.010 to 0.036.
The maximum interference color varies from yellow of the first order up
to second-order violet, depending upon the chemical composition. The
birefringence increases with calcium or meionite content.
Extinction. Parallel in most sections . Basal sections remain dark between crossed nicols.
Orientation. The cleavage b'aces and main crystal outlines are parallel
to the faster ray.
Interference Figure. Basal sections give a uniaxial negative figure with
a few rings. Longitudinal sections give a "Rash figurc. "
Distinguishing Features. Scapolite is similar to plagioclase but lacks
twinning, has parallel extinction, and usually has stronger birefringence.
Varieties with w eaker birefringence resemble cordierite, which is biaxial,
or quartz, which is optically positive. Without chemical analyses it is
difficult to determine the various kinds of scapolite, but the birefringence
increases with the calcium content.
Alteration. Scapolite is often altered to muscovite and to ill-defined
fibrous aggregates.
Occurrence. The characteristic occurrence of scapolite is contact-metamorphic limestones where it is often associatcd with idocrase, diopside,
gamet, etc. It also occurs in certain gneisses and in some gabbros as a
high-temperature alteration of plagioclase.
THE ZEOLITES
Z E OLITES
Mineral
Analcime .. . .
Heulandite ...
Stilbite . . . .
Chaba zite . .
Natrolite .
Mesolite .
Thomsonite.
Scolecite .
Chemi cal
composition
Na
Ca
Ca,Na
Ca,Na
Na
N a ,Ca
Na,Ca
Ca
Crystal
syst em
Isometric
Mono clinic
Mono clinic
Mono clini c
Orthorhomhi r
Mono clinic
Orthorhombic
Mono clinic
n"
especially basalts. Although variable in optical properties, they all have

low indices of refraction and rather weak birefringence. The last four
in the list are fibrous or columnar, but there are also other fibrous zeolites
such as ptilolite, mordenite, and laumontite. A few rare zeolites such as
harmotome and brewsterite contain barium.
ANALCIME
N aAI (Si0 3) 2.H 20
n~
ny
n = l.487
1 .496-1 .499 1. 497- 1.501 1.501- 1.505
1 .494-1.500 1 .498- 1.504 1 .500- 1 .508
n" = 1. 478- 1 .485, n y = 1 .480- 1 .4 90
1 .473- 1.480 1 476- 1. 482 1. 485- 1. 19:1
1 .50.5
1 505
1 .50G
l. 512- l. 530 1 . 513- 1 . 5 ~l 2 J .51 8- 1 .542
1 .519
1 .512
1 .519
-
---
(Analcite)
n
Isometric
l. 487
t
t
\
FIG.
The zeolites are hydrous sodium calcium aluminum silicates that commonly occur as secondary minerals in cavities of subsilicic volcanic rocks,
291
SILICATES : FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES ( TECTOSILICATES)
13-61. ( X I5) Euhedral analcime with rongh trap ezohcclral oulli ne.

Form. Analcime occurs in equant crystals of trapezohedral hahil 111;ll
are octagonal to rounded in sections (Figure 8-25). It may also (lce ll), ill
the groundmass in irregular masses.
Cleavage. Imperfect cub ie, which in sections often appears as Iwo sf'ls
of lines at light angles.
Birefringence. Analcime is cither dark hctwecn crossed ni cols 0 )' sll() WS
very w eak birefringence (not ovcr 0.002). Use th e scnsitive-violel pl:ll o
to de tect th e donblc refraction.
Distinguishing Featu res. Lell cite very m il c h 1'('.o; (' lIlhl l'S ;l1l:I!c illll ' hili
h:ls a sli ghll y grC;llcr rdr:ll'I ivo ill dex ( I .SOB ;IS :lg;liIiSI I .tIS7) .
OcclIrrclice. ;\ II ;r1 cillll' is :1 S('l 'o lld :lry rnil l('r:r1 ill (,:lvi l i( 's il lid SI'II IIIS Ill'
igll( 'oIiS rocks, usua lly IIss()(' i:I!( 'd will i 01 11111" zf'oli[ (s 1111(1 (; r1vi!( '. III S Pill( '
292
SILICATES ; FRAMEWORK STRUCTURES (TECTOSILICA TES )
igneous rocks, such as teschenites and analcime basalts, it occurs in the

groundmass as a deuteric mineral. In several western localities it occurs
in lake beds.
293
Occurrence. Heulandite is a secondary mineral in the seams and

cavities of igneous rocks, esp ecially basalts. Stilbite is a common associate.
STILBlTE
HEULANDITE
H 4CaAI 2(Si0 3 ) 6.3H 20
Monoclinic
= 8834'
H4(Ca,N a 2)AI 2(SiO a) 6.4H 20
L.{3
ncr = 1.496 to 1.499

n f3 = 1.497 to 1.501
n~ = 1.501 to 1.505
2 V = 0 t o 48; Opt. (+)
b = l' or Z, c 1\ {3 or Y = - 6
Monoclinic
L.{3 = 51
ncr = 1.494 to 1.500

n f3 = 1.498 to 1.504
n~ = 1. 500 to 1. 508
2V = 33 ; Opt. ( -)
{3 or Y, a 1\ Q' or X = +5
201
a ~ . ------,=-
FIG. 13-62. Orientation diagram of heulandite. Section parallel to (010) .

Form. Heulandite usually occurs in distinct crystals that are tabular
parallel to {OlO}.
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {OlO}.
Relief. Rather low, n < balsam.
Birefringence. Weak, ny - n" = 0.007; the interference colors range
up to white of the first order. Sections parallel to {OlO} that include
cleavage flakes have very weak birefringence since n(3 - n" = 0.001.
Extinction. Parallel to the cleavage traces.
Orientation. Cleavage traces are parallel to the faster ray.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a moderate
axial angle. The axial plane is normal to {OlO}. Dispersion, r < v.
Distinguishing Features. H eulandite resembles stilbite but has b etter
cleavage and is optically positive, whereas stilbite is optically negative.
The side pinaeoid {OlO} sections of heulandite are unsymmetrical and
the corresponding sections of stilbite symmetrical on account of twinning.
FIG. 13-63. ( X 12) Tap ercd crystal s of stilbite in radial arrangc mc nt. ( X lIi (;() I ~. )
I' I(). I:) (H . ( X 12 ) SllIllil tlw ill" 'III" .d"d 11 111 lill i ''; I"
/I
I; " illllllil 1,111 1,11\1 11, /1 ',.,. ( X ,ilI '"I ,. )
294

Form. Stilbite usually occms in sheaf-like aggregates.
Cleavage. Good in one direction {0l0}.
Birefringence. Weak, 'Ilry - n" = 0.006 to 0.008; interference colors are
gray and white of the first order.
Extinction. Extinction of sections showing the best cleavage is parallel.
The extinction angle of sections with the highest interference colors is
about 5. The extinction is usually wavy and not uniform.
Orientation. The cleavage traces
c
are p arallel either to the slow ray
or to the fast ray.
Twinning. Twins with {001 } as
twin-plane are common.
Interference Figure. The figure
is biaxial negative with a moderate
axial angle. The axial plane is
{010}. Dispersion, l' < v.
Distinguishing Features. Heulandite is similar to stilbite, but it
has b etter cleavage and is optically
FIG. 13-65. Orientation diagram of
positive instead of negative.
twinned stilbJite. Section parallel to
Occurrence. Stilbite is a sec(OlD) ; twin-plane = (001).
ondary mineral in cavities and
seams of igneous rocks . Usual associates are calcite, heulandite, and other
zeolites. It has been found as a hot-spring mineral in the interstices of
sandstone.
295
Interference Figure. The figure is either uniaxial or biaxial with a

small axial angle. The optical character is positive.
Distinguishing Features. Chabazite may be mistaken for other zeolites,
espeCially analcime. The birefringence of chabazite is a little higher than
that of analcime.
Related Minerals. Gmelinite is a zeolite very similar to chabazite in
properties, but with slightly lower indices of refraction.
Occurrence. Chabazite is a secondmy mineral in cavities and seams of
igneous rocks, especially basalts. It is often associated with calcite,
prehnite, and other zeolites.
NATROLITE
N a2A12SiaOlo.2H20
Orthorhombic
ncr = 1.473 to 1.480

n~ = 1.476 to 1.482
noy = 1.485 to 1.493
a
2V = 60 to 63; Opt. (+)

I
a or X, b = f3 or Y, c = 'Y or Z
c
I
001
I~"o
y
-b
CHABAZITE
Monoclinic
(Ca,N a2)Ab(SiO ah.6H 2 0
(Pseudorhombohedral )
n"
noy
1.478 to 1.485
1.480 to 1.490
2V = 0 to 32; Op t. (+)
.Z

Form. Chabazite is usually found in euhedral rhombohedral crystals
that approach the cube (1011: 1101 = 85 14' ).
Cleavage. Imperfect rhombohedral, hence almost rectangular.
Birefringence. Very weak to weak, n y - n" = 0.002 to 0.010; interference colors are first-order gray.
Extinction. The extinction is symmetrical to crystal outlines and cleavage traces.
FIG.
1
13-66. Orientation diagram of natrolite. Section parallel to ( 100 ).

Form. Natrolite usually occurs in lon g prismati c crysta Is 01' nhro ll s
aggrcgates tha t arc often more or lcss radi a ting. Cross seclions of cl'ys tll ls
are nearly squarc (110 1\ 110 = ca. 89 ).
Clcavagc. Parallel lo th e length of lll(' crys la Is { 110) .
Rclicf. Modcl'ate, 'It < halsam.
13ircfl'illgclI(': c. Halll('1' w(~nk , lI y
II "
0.01 2 10 (J.()I :> ; L1 w IlI ilXi llllilU
il llul'rorom.:o color is y~\ II() w Of 1II' II II gO ()f lho Ul'~ l ord( II',
296
297
parallel extinction but is length-slow in some sections and length-fast in

others.
Occurrence. Natrolite is a secondary mineral found in cavities of
igneous rocks, especially basalt. The associates are other zeolites and
calcite.
(l
FIG. 13-68. ( X 15) Clu sters of natrolitc crystals. ( X nicols. )

MESOLITE
Na 2Ca2Al 6(Si30IO) 3.8H20
M ono<:lil lit:
na
n fJ
1.505
l.505
l.506
n'Y
2V = ca. 80; OpL. (+)
c 1\ (3 or Y = 2 Lo 5
b
FIG. 13-67 a,b. ( X 15) (a) Natrolite showing a radial acicular group. (b) Thc same
view between crossed nicols.
Extinction. Parallel in longitudinal sections, symmeh'ical in cross sections .

Orientation. The crystals are always length-slow.
Interference Figure. A good figurc is difficult to obtain on account of
the small size of most of the crystals.
Distinguishing Features. Scolecite resembles natrolite but is lengthfast instead of length-slow and has oblique extinction. Thomsonite has

Form. Mcsolite usually occurs in fibrous aggregates.
Cleavage. Perfect in two directions (nO) and (fiO).
Birefringence. Very weak, 'Ilry - n" = 0.001; the maxirrmm intcrkr('IIt'(
color is first-ord er gray.
Extinction. Th e maximrrm ex Lin ction an gle inlon giLlldin <11 sceliolls is
vcry small, from 2 La 5.
Orienlalion. The ril)('rs :rro ill p:11'1 I('" g th -slow :lIld ill P:lrt 1(' lI g tll -fil s!.
Twinllillg. Twills w illi, IOOl il S Iwi ll -pl :lI1\' ;11'( ' 11 II iv(' rs: rl , hili 1111 ' twill nin g is lI () t ('()II spi( 'll(iIiS
298
MINERAL DESCRIPT IONS
299
SILICATES : F RAME WORK ST RUCTURE S (TECTOSILICATES)
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a very large

axial angle. The figure lies across the fibers. Dispersion, l' > v sbong.
Distinguishing Features. Mesolite very much resembles the other
fibrous zeolites. In common with thomsonite the fibers are in part lengthslow and in part length-fast. From thomsonite it may b e distinguished
by the maximum extinction angle of 2 to 5 and by its larger axial angle.
Occurrence. The occurrence of meso lite is the same as that of other
zeolites, in the cavities of basalts and related rocks.
THOMSONITE
Orthorhombic
N aCa 2Ah (Si0 4) 5. 6H 20

na
nfJ
= 1.512 to 1.530
= 1.513 to 1.532
n.., = 1.518 to 1.542

2V = 44 to 55; Opt. ( + )
a = a or X, b = 'Y or Z, c = {3 or Y
Form. Thomsonite usually occurs in fibrous or columnar aggregates.
Euhedral crystals are very rare.
c
Cleavage. In one direction {OlO}.
!
Birefringence. Rather w eak, n-y - n" = 0.006 to
0.012; maximum interference colors range from
first-ord er white up to low second-order blue in
different specimens. Cross sections of fibers show
the highest interference color for a given thick0 -'
ness.
Orientation. Some of the fibers are length-slow
and some length-fast since c
Y.
.y
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial posiI
tive with rather large axial angle. The figure lies
F.rG. 13-69. Orientat~on
across the fibers since the axial plane is {001}.
ch ag~am of thomsomte. Dispersion l' > V strong.
SectIOn
parallel
to
'
(OlD).
Distinguishing Features. Thomsonite is much
like the other fibrous zeolites in general appearance and optical properties . Natrolite is length-slow and scolecite lengthfast, whereas some of the fib ers of thomsonite are length-slow a nd some
length-fast. The same is true of mesolite, but in mesolite the maximum
extinction angle c /\ (3 or Y is about 3 . The axial angle of mesolite is
much larger than that of thomsonite.
Occurrence. Thomsonite occurs as a cavity filling in subsilicic volcanic
rocks such as amygdaloidal b asalts.
FIG. 13-70. ( x 12) Radial thomsonite crystals forming a group. ( X nicols.)

SCOLECITE
CaA12Si30 1o.3H20
Monoclilli e
= 89 18'
L.{3
na - 1.512
nfJ = 1.519
n.., = 1.519
2V = 36 0 ; Op t. ( - )
'Y or Z, c /\ a or X
- 15 0 t o - 18

Form. Scolecite occurs in crystal aggrega tes with
a columnar to fibrous structurc.
Cleavage. Distinct in two directions {nO} at
angles of ca. 88.
Relief. Low, n < b als am.
Birefringence. W eak, ny - n" = 0.007; 'S o the interference colors are gray and white of the first order.
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in longitudinal sections is - 15 to - 18.
Orientation. The crystals are always length-fas t.
Twinning. Twinning is common. Th c c-ax is [001]
is the twin-axis and (100) the composition facc.
Interference Figure. Th c fi gurc is biaxial nega livc
with a mou.cratc ax.ial a nglc. Th c ax ial "bllc is lIormal lo {OIO} . Dispcrsioll, J' < V slrong.
F Ir..
13-7 1. Oli"1I1 11-
lioll di a g l':1J1l llf s('III

(I'Clil '"
(' In
(Sl'Cli')' " 1>111 11 1

()IO .
])isliJl g lli shin~ Fealures. S('o lcc il( ' is IIIII dl lik( , 1I :!lrolil n :llId 0 111 ('1' rnr( '
fihroll s 'l.(loli l c's. Tli t ) ohliqll( ' (', lill (' li o ll 01' :i1I() "l 17" il lid Iwi lillili g 11 1'(
111 0 11I()s l d f~ lill ( ' l lv( ' l'i 'il lllI " ' ~ (II 'wlll( '('II(1,
300
Occurrence. Scolecite is a secondary mineral found in cavities of
igneous rocks, especially basalts.
REFERENCES
Silica
Brown, C. S., et al.: The Growth and Properties of Large Crystals of Synthetic
Quartz, Mineral. Mag. , vol. 29 , pp. 858-874, 1952.
Coes, L. J., Jr.: A New Dense Crystalline Silica, Science, vol. 118, pp. 131132, 1953.
Eitel, W .: "The Physical Chemistry of the Silicates," pp. 620-629 , University
of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1954.
Hale, D. R: The Properties of Synthetic Quartz Crystals and Their Growin g
Technique, Brush Strokes, Brush Development Company, Cleveland,
1952.
_ __ : The Laboratory Growing of Quartz, Science, no. 2781 , pp. 393-394,
1948.
Kerr, P. F. , and E. Armstrong: Recorded Experiments in the Production of
Quartz, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 54, suppl. 1, pp. 1-34, 1943.
Ramsdell , L. S.: The Crystallography of "Coesite," Am. Mi.n eralogist, vol. 40 ,
pp. 975-982 , 1955.
Tuttle, O. F.: The Variable Inversion Temperature of Quartz as a possible
GeologiC Thermometer, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 34, pp. 723-730, 1949.
Feldspars
Baskin, Y.: A Study of Authigenic Feldspars, ]. Ceol. , vol. 64 , pp. 132-155,
1956.
Bowen, N. L. , and O. F. Tuttle : The System NaAISi,0 ,-KAISi30 s-H,O, ].
C eol., vol. 58, pp. 489-511 , 1950.
Bradley, 0 .: An Investigation of High-Temperature Optics in Some Naturally
Occurring Plagioclases, Mineral. Mag. , vol. 30, pp. 227-245 , 1953.
Calkins, F. C.: A Decimal Grouping of the Plagioclases, ]. C eol., vol. 25, pp.
157-159,1917.
Chayes, F.: Relations between Composition and Indices of Refraction in
Natural Plagioclase, Am. ]. Sci., Bowen Volume, pp . 85-105, 1952.
Chudoba, K.: "The Determination of the F eldspars in Thin Section" (trans.
by W. Q. Kennedy) , pp. 1-61, Thomas Murby & Co. , London, 1933.
D ay, A. L. , E. T. Allen , and J. P. Iddings: The Isomorphism and Thermal
Properties of the Feldspars, Carnegie Inst. Wash. Publ. 31, pp. 1-95,
1902.
Donnay, J. D. H .: Plagioclase Twinning, Bull. C eol. Soc. Am., vol. 54, pp.
1645-1652, 1943.
Emmons, R C. , and R. M. Gates: Plagioclase TwinJaing, Bull. Ceoi. Soc. Am.,
vol. 54, pp. 287-304, 1943.
Foster, W . R: Simple Method for the D etermination of the Plagioclase F eldspars , Am. Min eralogist, vol. 40, pp. 179-185, 1955.
C ay, P ., and J. V. Smith: Phase Relations in the Plagioclase Feldspars: Composition Range Ano-An2o, Acta. Cryst. , vol. 8, pp. 64-65 , 1955.
301
Grunner, J. W. , and G. A. Thiel: The Occurrence of Fine Grained Authigenic

F eldspar in Shales and Silts, Am. Minemlogist, vol. 22, pp. 842-846, 1937.
Kennedy, G. C.: Charts for Correlation of Optical Properties with Chemical
Composition of Some Common Rock-forming Minerals, Am. Minemlogist,
vol. 32, pp. 561-574, 1947.
Kohler, A.: Recent Results of Investigations on the F eldspars , ]. Ceol., vol. 57,
pp. 592-599 , 1949.
Laves, F.: Artificial Preparation of Microcline, ]. Ceoz., vol. 59, pp. 511-512,
1951.
- -: Phase Relations of the Alkali Feldspars , ]. Ceol., vol. 60, pp. 436-450,
1952.
Mackenzie, W. S.: The Effect of Temperature on the Symmetry of HighTemperature Soda-Rich Feldspars, Am. ]. Sci., Bowen Volume, pp. 319342, 1952.
- - - and J. V. Smith: Orthoclase Microperthites, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 40,
pp. 707-732, 1955.
- -- and - - -: The Alkali Feldspats (3 papers ) , Am. Mineralogist, vol.
40, pp. 707-732, 733-747, 1955; and vol. 41 , pp. 405-427, 1956.
Muir, I. D .: Transitional Optics of Some Andesines and Labradorites, Mineral.
Mag., vol. 30, pp. 545-568, 1955.
Reinhard, M.: "Universaldrehtischmethoden," W epf & Cie., Basel, 1931.
Schmidt, E.: Die Winkel der kristallographischen Achsen der Plagioklase,
Chem . Erde, vol. 1, pp. 351-406, 1919.
Smith, J. R., and H. S. Yoder: Variations in X-ray Powder Diffraction Patterns
of Plagioclase F eldspars, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 41, pp. 632-647, 1956.
Smith, J. V. , and W. S. Mackenzie : The Alkali Feldspars- A Simple X-ray
Technique, Am . Min emlogist, vol. 40, pp. 733-747, 1955.
Trager, W . E.: Optische Eigenschaften und Bestirnmung der Wichtigstcn
Gesteinbildenden Minerale (Feldspate) (H. Freund, ed.) , "Handbuch
der Mikroskopie in der Tecknik," 1st ed. , vol. 4, pp. 79-119, Umschall
Verlag, Frankfurt, 1955.
Turner, F. J.: Determination of Plagioclase with the Four-Axis Universal Stagc,
Am. Min emlogist, vol. 32, pp. 389-410, 1947.
Tuttle, O. F .: Optical Studies on Alkali Feldspars, Am. ]. Sci. , Bowen Volum e,
pp. 553-567, 1952.
Yoder, H . S. , D. B. Stewart, and J. H. Smith: Feldspars, Annual Report of the
Director, Geophys. Lab. , Carnegie Inst. Wash ., no. 1277, pp. 206- 2] 7,
1957.
303
SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES)

PYROXENES
Orthopyroxenes
Clinopyroxenes
CHAPTER
Enstatite
MgSi0 3
14
AUGITE
Co (Mg, Fe)(Si03)2
[(Al Fe)203] x
I
I
Clinohyper sthene
(Mg,Fe) Si0 3
I
!
Ferrohypersthene
(Fe, Mg) Si03
PYROXENE GROUP
AMPHIBOLE GROUP
EPIDOTE GROUP
Orthopyroxenes
Enstatite
Hypersthene
Clinopyroxenes
Diopside
Augite
Pigeonite
Hedenbergite
Aegirine-augite
Aegirine
Jadeite
Spodumene
Orthoamphiboles
Anthophyllite
Clinoamphibol es
Cummingtonite
Grunerite
TremolitcActinolite
Hornblende
Lamprobolite
Riebeckite
Glaucophane
Orthorhombic
Zoisite
Monoclinic
Clinozoisite
Epidote
Picdmontite
Allanite
II
I
I
I
:
PIGEONITE:
14-2).
.'10.C)
LiAl (Si0 3)2
(Co, Fe) (S i0 3)2

Hedenbergite
Na Fe (Si0 3 )2
Aegirine
FIG. 14-1. A diagram showing the approximate chemical relations of the metasilicatcs
that comprise the pyroxene group. A: Enstatite-Ferrosilite series; B: ClinoenstatitcClinoferrosilite series; C: Diopside-Hedenbergite series; D: Jadeite-Aegirine series.
Augite and pigeonite are intermediate in composition. Spodumene represents a species
on the border of the pyroxene group . Aegirine-augite is intem1ediate.
Aegirine
C/I X
Spodumene
;;;g;;;;;;;-ougite
127"
<j,o
C/I Z ') Oiopside

Hedenbergite
Augite
PYROXENE GROUP
The pyroxenes are metasilicates wllich frequently form original rock

constituents (Figure 14-1). A considerable range in chenlical composition
and corresponding optical properties prevails throughout the group.
Crystals exhibit significant cross sections (Figures 8-30, 8-33). Cleavage
is parallel to {110} and the angle (110:110) is about 93 . At times parting occurs parallel to {001} or {lOO} . Twinning with {100} as twin-plane .
is rather common. The minerals are all bia;'(ial with rather large axial
angles. The axial plane of the optic axes is (010).
Individual members of the group are often identifIed by usc of th e
maximum extinction ::U1gles in longitudinal scctions ( Figure 14-1 ancl
S~0dumene
' I
FeSi0 3 - - - --- Clinoferrosilite
Jodeite
Pioeon/te
The ina silicates contain a number of minerals important in igneous

and metamorphic rocks. In tllis structural division SiO.! groups may form
a continuous chain (Si0 3 ) n. After the tectosilicates, the ina silicates constitute one of the most important assemblages of rock-forming minerals.
0
Jadeite
Na Al (Si03)2
m(Ca,Mg)(Si0 3)21'
n (Mg, Fe) Si0 3
I
FeSi0 3
Ferrosi lite
Clino enstatite
DIOPS ID E
I
MgSi0 3- - - - - - - (Co, Mg)(Si03)2 :
Hypersthene
(Mg,Fe) Si03
Silicates: Chain St1'uctUl'es (Inosilicates)
Aegirine - augite
I _-----
.______---rFIG .
0-----
14-2. Clinopyroxene extinction angles on (010).
304
Augite and pigeonite are by far the most common minerals of the
group. Jadeite and aegirine are known as soda pyroxenes.
@~o,,~~
FIG.
100
14-3. Cross sections of minerals of the pyroxene group showing cleavage.
SILICATES: CHAI N STRUCTURES (INOSILICA TES )
305
Intergrowth. The intergrowth of enstatite with a monodinic pyroxene

is rather common. They have their coaxes in common and at first glance
resemble polysynthetic twins .
Distinguishing Features. Enstatite is distinguished from hypersthene
by lack of pleochroism and from the monoclinic pyroxenes by parallel
extinction.
Alteration. It is common to find enstatite more or less altered to antigorite. Pseudomorphs of antigorite after enstatite are known as bastite.
Occurrence. Enstatite is a characteristic mineral of subsilicic igneous
rocks and derived serp entites. It is also found in meteorites.
The Orthopyroxenes
HYPE RSTHENE
ENSTATITE
(inc. Bronzite)
MgSi0 3
C{
Orthorhombic
(Mg,Fe) Si0 3
n" = 1.650 to 1.665

nil = 1.653 to 1.670
n-y = 1.658 to 1.674
2V = 58 to 80; Opt. ( +)
or X, b = {3 or Y; c = 'Y or Z
Color. Colorless to neutral in thin sections. Bronzite has faint pleochroism.

Form. Enstatite is found in prismatic crystals with the characteristic
pyroxene cross section. Inclusions are
c
common and produce what is known as
schiller structure in the ferroan variety
!
known as bronzite.
Cleavage. {llO} in two directions at
nearly right angles (88 and 92 ). Cleavage or parting parallel to {OlO} is also
sometimes present. In longitudinal sec- - -b
tions the cleavage traces are in one direction parallel to the outlines.
Birefringence. Rather weak, ny - n" =
0.008 to 0.009; the maximum interference
z
color is pale yellow of the first order.
Extinction. Parallel in most sections.
enstatite. Section parallel to
Twinning. Rarely present.
( 100).
Orientation. The crystals and cleavage
traces are length-slow.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a moderate to
very large axial angle. The axial plane is {OlO} . D isperSion, l' < v weak.
OrthOl'hom biro
1.67:3 to 1.715
n"
nil = 1.678 to 1.728
n -y = 1.683 to 1.731
2 V = 63 to 90; Opt. (-)
C{ or X, b =
{3 or Y, c = 'Y or Z
Color. Neutral to p ale green or pale red in thin sections. Plcochroie

from greenish to pale reddish. Inclusions are common and proclu (;c
schiller structure (Figure 8-15) .
Form. Hypersthene usually occurs in sullhedral
crystals of prismatic habit. The CJ'O.~S
c
sections
are nearly square.
!
Cleavage.
Parallel to {llO}; sometimes par.
001
allel to {OlO} and {100} .
1~lmo
y---t--t o= X~'-b
I
z
14-5. Orientation diagra m of hypersth cnc. Sce tion
para llel lo (LOO) .
F IG.
F I(:. 11-6. ( X 9) Ilypclslhene ( grny) ill nor ile- . T Ill'

lig ht mineral is plagIOclase and thc black ono mil l('
lIelitc.
Bil'cr.-ingcncc. H:ltlier w(': lk ,
l 'y
11 " -
0.0'10 I n O.Olfi; Ih e
illl('1'f(' r (' II ('(' co lor is y ell !)\\! 10 n d o r III(' firsl md lI.
In ax ll1ll1l1l
306

Orientation. The cleavage traces are length-slow.
angle. The axial plane is {OlO }. Dispersion, 1" > v weak.
307
SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICA TES )

Diopside
1.851
Hedenbergife
i
iii
Pigeonite
Aegirine
Augite
Augite
Jadeile
1.85
1.80
1.80
1.7 5 n
,\ ,,,
,
" \\
nT"
,\
n,.
" \\
\
-- '-
1.70
nfX-- ::~:: -
1.65 1 ! "
, I ! , "I
I !
,
,
I
25
50
30 40 50 60
(Ca.Mg)( Si O,), ... (Co, Fe) {SiO~,
Fe SiO ,
r" "
I , , ! , I ' ! , ,I
50
100
No Fe (SiO,), Co (Mg , Fe) {SiO,1,
[{AI, Fe ),O ,].
I ! ;- ;-=J3lL 65
50
100
NO,AI (SiO, ),
-+-
14-8. Indices of refraction of commol\ clinopyroxenes. Molecular constituents lin'

shown in per ccn t from left to right. (S ee Hess and Poldewaat.)
FIG.
14-7. ( X80) Hypersthene showing cleavage. An included crystal of feldspar

is shown.
FIG.
010
Distinguishing Features. The pleochroism is the most distinctive feature of hypersthene. It resembles some varieties of andalusite, but the
latter mineral is length-fast, whereas hypersthene is length-slow.
Occurrence. Hypersthene is found in a number of igneous rocks but
is especially characteristic of norite, hypersthene gabbro, some andesite,
and a p eculiar hypersthene granite known as charnockite.
)(,7
. - b
a
(0 )
The Clinopyroxenes
(b)
14-9 a,b. Orientation diagram s of diopside. Sections (a) norm al to Ih, (', ,,I,
and (b) parallcl to ( 010).
FIG.
DIOPSIDF.
Ca(Mg,Fe) (Si0 3) 2
M onoclinic
L(3 = 7410'
na = 1.650 t o 1.698
n~ = 1.657 to 1.706
n-y = 1.681 to 1.727
2V = 58 t o 60; Opt (+)
b = (3 or Y , c A 'Y or Z = -37 to -44
Color. Colorless, neutral, pale green to bright green in thin sections.

Form. Diopside usually occurs in subhcdral crystals of short prisma ti c
habit. Cross sections are four- or eight-sided.
Cleavage. Parallel to {llO} and so in two directions at angles or tj'1 o

and 93 . Parting parallel to {Ool} is sometin1es developed.
Relief. Fairly ,h igh , 11, > b alsam.
Birefringence. Rather stron g, 1'lry - 11,,, = 0.029 to 0.031; th e ln aXilllll l1l
inted erence color is about upper second order.
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in sections CIII par:tlld 10
the c-axis var ies from - 37 to - 44 . In cross scclio ns lh o ('x lill ('lioll is
sym melri ca l lo th e cleavage lraces.
Orientation. T ho ex lin Cli on clirecli on lh at makes th e slll:tli er all glo willi
th o clc'av:l go lr:l C('s in lon g illiclin ,d s('cli oll s is lill' slow(w ra y.
Tw ilillilig. TwillS wi lli ( 100 ) llS lwi ll -pl ll lll ' ilro 1'11 111 (\1' ('OllllllOIi . Poly-
308
synthetic twinning with {OOl} as twin-plane is common as secondary

twinning.
Interference Figure. Diopside gives a biaxial positive figure with a
rather large axial angle. The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, r < v weak.
Flakes parallel to the {001} parting
give a good optic-axis figure.
Distinguishing Features. Diopside
is distinguished from hedenbergite by
lower refractive indices. From tremolite it is distinguished by larger extinction angle. Augite has a little
higher extinction angle (c /\ y 01' Z)
and is usually a darker color. Pigeonite
has a smaller axial angle.
Alteration. Diopside is sometimes
FIG. 14-10. ( x36) Diopside from
more or less altered to tremolitecontact metamorphic zone.
actinolite.
Related Minerals. Chrome diopside and omphacite are similar to cliopside.
Occurrence. Diopside is especially characteristic of contact-metamorphic zones. It occurs with garnet, wollastonite, idocrase, and other
309
extinction, but sections cut parallel to {01O} give the large extinction
angles characteristic of diopside. The parting flakes give an uncentered
optic-axis interference figure that serves to distinguish it from the orthopyroxenes. Diallage is especially characteristic of coarse-grained gabbros.
AUGITE
Ca(Mg,Fe) (Si0 3h[ (AI, Fe) 20 a]x
Monoclini c
= 7410'
L{3
= 1.688 to 1.712
= 1.701 to 1.717
nor = 1.713 to 1.737
2V = 58 to 62; Opt. (+ )
or y, c /\ 'Y or Z = - 45 t o - 54
na
n~
b = {3
010
,.-:
J~
..
-b
100
I
o
(oj
(b)
1"1G. 14-12 a,b. Orientation diagrams of augite. Sections (a) normal to 1h(' C-lI xl,
and (b) parallel to (010 ) .
FIG. 14-11. (X20) Diopside showing cleavage parallel to (110). The two directions
are almost at right angles.
silicates. It is found in some gneisses and schists and in some igneous

rocks.
Diallage. This name is used for a variety of ferro an cliopside with
prominent parting parallel to {too}. It is scratched by a knife blade and
has a pearly, more or less metalloidal luster. Patting fl akes have parallel
Color. Almost colorless, neutral, pale greenish, or pale purplish hrowli

in thin sections. Zonal structure is sometimes present. PleoclU'oisrn ahs(\l1l
to weak; it is best shown in (100) sections.
Form. Augite usually occurs in short prismatic crystals wilh ro1ll'- 01'
eight-sided cross sections.
C leavage. {llO} in two directions at angles of 87 and 93 . C ka vag( 1
traces are in one direction in longitudinal sections. Diallagc ha s prolld .
nent parting parallel to {lOO}.
Relief. High, n > b alsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, n'( - n"
0.021 to 0.025. Th o ma xilllllill 111terference color is abo ut rniddle sccond order. Scctions parallel lo (I ()() I
have low first-order oolors.
Extinction. Tho m:di lll.lllil ox lin etioll :lng lo of 1()II ~it"di":l1 s('ctioli S
val' i~ 1'1'0111 36 lo 'I!)') . Th(s(' so(:l iOIl $ Ili wo lho 1IIIlX illlllili illl( Ir/'( ll'OlI('(
colors for lho slido. SO/lHl vU l lolll 's hllVO It Iwe lili ll l' (;() IH.! Olllrl (' Wttvy (lX tinOtlOIl known liS lho h()tll'(: /II ,v1l s ll'\1('[\1l'o . Cf( /SS s III ' l lo ll s IIIIV!) pUl'ullol
310
or symmetrical extinction dep ending upon whether {100} and {OlO} or

{lID} predominates.
Orientation. The extinction direction that makes the smaller angle with
the cleavage traces is the faster ray.
311
SILICATE S: CHAIN STRUCTURE S (INOSILICATES )

PIGEON ITE
mCaMg(Si0 3h
n(Mg,Fe)Si0 3
(Enstatite-au gite)
Monocl ini c
LfJ
(?)
n" = 1.680 t o 1.718

n~ =
1.698 t o 1.725
n" = 1.719 to 1.744

211 = 00 to 40 0; Opt. (+)
0
(3, c 1\ 'Y at' Z = - 220 to -45
.c x 'xl
) -- b
010
(0)
14-14 a,b. Orientation diagrams of pigeon ite. Sections (a) normal

FIG.
FIG.
-.u.:..Aa>
.- (
14-13. ( X 24) Augitc (high relief) with plagioclase in basalt.
Twinning. Twins with {100} as nvin-plane are common ; these often

appear as twin seams. Polysynthetic twins with {~Ol} as twin-plane are
occasionally found. Combined {100} twins with {OOl} polysynthetic
wins give what is known as herringbone structure.
Interference Figure. The figurc is biaxial positive with a rather large
axial angle. The axial plane is {OlD}. Dispersion, r > v.
Distinguishing Features. Augite is often difficult to distinguish from
diopside. The extinction angle c 1\ y or Z is a little smaller and the color
lighter in diopside.
Alteration. There are nvo common alteration products of augite: (1)
hornblende formed at a late magmatic stage and in p arallel position on
the augite; (2) uralite or secondary tremolite-actinolite formed by hydrothermal alteration.
Occurrence. Augite is a very common mineral in subsilicic igneous
rocks such as auganites, gabbros, basalts, olivine gabbros, limburgites,
and peridotites. Locally it is found in gneisses and granulites.
Augite is also a common debital min eral.
[0
th e c- :I\I ,
Pigeonite (named by A. N. Winchell from Pigeon Point, Minn .) is :111

isomorphous mixture of diopside and clinoenstatite, a monoclinic pyroxene found in meteorites and also produced in the laboratory.
Color. Colorless or neutral in thin sections. It may show failll pleochroism.
Form. Pigeonite usually occurs in anhedral crystals.
Cleavage. In two directions {lID} at angles of about 87 and 93
Birefringence. Moderate, n')' - n" = 0.021 to 0.033; so the max illlllill
interference color varies from lower to upper second order.
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle varies from a b Oll t 22 III
45 . It increases with increase of the clinoenstatite content.
Orientation. The extinction directi.on that makes the smaller a nglo wi lli
the cleavage traces in longi.tudin al section s is the slower ray.
Twinning. Polysynthetic twinrling with (100 ) as the lwin -plnllO is
characteristic of pi geonite.
Interference Figure. T il e interfere nce ng lll'(' of pigconi l(' is hia xial posl.
Live with a I'nll1 ('1' srn:dl 10 vCl'y small axia l all g k . T il l' axial pliill( ' is
" slI :i11y ( ()IO ), hili ill v:l ri (' li( 's willi v('I'Y low {': i1 {'i llill {'()I II 1\ 111 III(' lIx i,i1
pl llll( ' is 11()l'Illld In (010 ) . For II ('('fillill ('n 'llp n ~ l li()l1 pig( '()Ilil( ' sil( )lild
312
have 2V = 0 ; a uniaxial pigeonite from Mull has been described by

Hallimond.
Distinguishing Features. The only mineral that is likely to be mistaken
for pigeonite is augite, from which it may be distinguished by its small
axial angle.
Related Minerals. Clinoenstatite, the calcium-free end member of the
pigeonite series, is a well-known laboratory product (the Geophysical
Laboratory) , but as a mineral it is known only in meteorites.
Occurrence. According to Barth, pigeonite is the most abundant member of the pyroxene group in volcanic rocks. It occurs in basalts, dolerites,
and diabases. It is largely confined to the groundmass and is rarely
found in phenocrysts.
HEDENBERGITE
Monoclinic
= 7430'
Ca(Fe,Mg) (SiO a) 2
313
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in longitudinal sections is

about 42 (c 1\ a -:>r X) .
Orientation. The extinction direction that makes the smaller angle
with the cleavage traces is th~ faster ray.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a rather large
axial angle. The axial plane is {010}. Dispersion, r > v weak.
Distinguishing Features. Hedenbergite is distinguished from diopside
and augite by higher indices of refraction.
Occurrence. The characteristic occurrence of hedenbergite is in contact-metamorphic zones. It is often associated with iron ores as a sk;un
mineral.
AEGIRINE-AUGITE
Intermediate between
aegirine and augite
in chemical composition
L(3
Monoclini n
na = 1.680 t o 1.745
n{3 = 1.687 to 1.770
n "( = 1. 709 to 1. 782
2V = ca. 60; Opt. (+) or ( - )
b = (3 or Y, c 1\ a or X = -15 to - 38
na = 1. 732 to 1.739
n {3 = 1.737 to 1.745
n "( = 1.751 to 1. 757
2V = 60 ; Opt. (+)
b = (3 or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = - 48
c
yO;
ps",)( "K ; X, d
010
-A ",,) /. /v,7 , ) 1
(0)
(0)
b
010
> - b
(b)
FIG. 14-15 a,b. Orientation diagrams of hedenbergite. Sections (a) nonnal to the
e-axis and (b) parallel to (010).
Color. Neutl"al to greenish in thin sections.

Form. Hedenbergite usually occurs in columnar aggregates.
Cleavage. {llO} in two directions at angles of 87 and 93 (like the
other pyroxenes).
Birefringence. Moderate, ny - n" = 0.018 to 0.019; the maximum interference color is about first-order violet.
(b)
14-16 a,b. Orientation diagrams of aegirine-augite. Sections ((/)

e-axis and (b) parallel to (010) .
FIG.
1101'111 :11 10
Ii".
Color. Green in thin sections. Pleochroic from yellow-green ((J or )/ )

to greenish (a or X, yOI' Z) .
Form. Aegirine-augite usually occurs in ouhecU'al cry~tals of sll()I'1
prismatic habit with {lOO} as th c dominant form .
Cleavage. In two direction s {I J O} at an gles of 87 and 93.
Relief. High, "/I > hal s:llll.
nirefl'ill~cnct" l\ u l.li( '1' Sll'oll g , lIoy
II "
O.02D 10 O.O:J7; illil'l'f( ' I'(III('(
'olol's I'UII ~tl llp 10 lli n IIliddl ... 01,11( 1 s, tolld "nit,l'.
314
Extinction. The maximum extinction in longitudinal sections varies

from -15 to -38.
Orientation. In sections with the maximum extinction angle the extinction direction nearest the c-axis is the faster ray.
Twinning. Twins with {lOO} as twin-plane are common.
Interference Figure. Is biaxial positive with a rather large axial angle.
The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, r > v.
Distinguishing Features. Aegirine-augite resembles aegirine but may
be distinguished by the larger extinction angles. It is most easily distinguished from the green varieties of hornblende by pyroxene cross sections and cleavage.
Occurrence. Aegirine-augite occurs in soda-rich igneous rocks such as
syenites, trachytes, nepheline, syenites, phonolites, etc.
Monoclinic
L{3 = 739'
NaFe(Si0 3)2
= 1.745 to 1.777
= 1.770 to 1.823
n-y = 1.782 to 1.836
2V = 60 to 66; Opt. (- )
b = (3 or Y , c 1\ IX or X = - 2 to _10
nil
315
Cleavage. {1l0} in two directions at angles of 87 and 93.

Relief. High, 11, > balsam.
Birefringence. Strong to very strong, n-y - n ", = 0.037 to 0.059; the in terference colors should be third or fourth order but may be difficult to
determine because the color of the mineral may mask the interfercn"
colors.
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in longitudinal sections i ~
very small (from 2 to 10 ) .
Orientation. The crystals are always length-fast.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a rathe r hr ~(I
axial angle. The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, r > v.
Distinguishing Features. Aegirine resembles some of the amphihol( s
but is distinguished by the small maximum extinction angle and k ll ~ i11
fast character. All the other monoclinic pyroxenes have larger ex lill el iO Il
M~es.
AEGIRINE
na
Related Minerals. Aemite is a pyroxene closely related to aegiri ll l:. "

differs from the latter in its brown color.
Occurrence. Aegirine, although a rather rare mineral , is charac te risl i(
of soda-rich igneous rocks such as nepheline syenite, phonolite, sY<',lit(',
trachyte, soda granite, soda aplite, etc. In these rocks it often occurs li S
an overgrowth on aegirine-augite crystals.
JADEITE
N aAl(Si0 3) 2
(Jade in part)
na
M'ollo(:lilli n
L{3 = 7 ~o' I 1 1 :l '
= 1. 655 to 1. 6GG
= 1.659 to 1.674
n-y = 1.667 to 1.688
2V = 70 to 75; Opt. (+ )
b = {3 or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = -30 to _ %0
n il
/' 1'>/ /L
x..
/'1
) --b
o
(0 )
(b)
14-17 a,b. Orientation diagrams of aegirine. Sections (a) normal to the c-axis
FIG .
Color. Green in thin sections. Strongly pleochroic. Axial colors:

X, dark green; (3 or Y, light green; y or Z, yellow.
IX
or
Form. Aegirine is usually found in long prismatic crystals, often

bladed, with the typical four- to light-sided cross section of the pyroxenes but with {lOO} frequently b e tter developed than {01O}.
Color. Colorless to green in thin sections. Somc of th e dcepl y co lort 'd

varieties are pleochroic.
Form. Jadeite usually appears in granular to colllmn ar or SO III m YI III I
fibrous aggregates. The texture varies from fin c-grain ed to coars('-grIlJII( .d .
Euhedral crystals are excecdingly rare.
Cleavage. {llO} in two diTcctions at anglcs of aholll 87 :lnd m o.
Relief. Bather high, 11, > balsam .
Birefringence. Mod erale, l'I' -- n,, = 0.()1 2 lo 0.02:1; Ill u IIll1 Xilllllll1
inte rkroncc colors II ro socond mdt' r.
F.xlinc liOH . TIl(' 11I1I \ illllllll (IX lill (,lion I III ~ I( ill IOIl !-(illidill :d s l'(' l i(lIl ~
Vllrios rJ'()1I1 :100 10 /1/1".
316
Orientation. The extinction direction near est the c-axis is the slower
ray.
Twinning. Twins with {100} as twin-plane are occasion ally found.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a large axial
angle. The axial plane is {OlO}. Dispersion, l' < v .
Distinguishing Features. J adaite is distinguished from nephrite (variety of tremolite-actinolite) by larger extinction angle and higher refractive indices. From diopside it is distinguished by smaller maximum extinction angles and columnar habit.
317
SILICATES : CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES)
jade," a massive green grossularite; "Oregon jade," also a variety of

grossularite; "Styrian jad e," a kind of pseudophite, a compact chlorite; as
well as sillimanite, pectolite, and wollastonite.
SPODUMENE
LiAl(Si0
Monocl ini(\
Lf3 = 6910'
3) 2
na = 1.651 t o 1.668
n~ = 1.665 to 1.675
n-y = 1.677 to 1.681
2TT = 54 to 69; Opt. (+)
b = f3 or Y, c /\ l' or Z = - 23 to - 27
.--
. '-'
-r, ~o"
110
100
la
(a)
(a )
(b)
FIG.
14-19 a,b. Orientation diagram of spodum ene. Sections ({/.) nonna l

and (b) parallel to (OlD).
Related Minerals. Chloromelanite is an iron-bearing greenish black

jadeite that is strongly pleochroic in thin sections.
Alteration. Jadeite is sometimes found more or less altered to tremolite-actinolite.
Occurrence. Jadeite occurs exclusively in jadeite rock (jadeitite) , a
monomineralic metamorphic rock formed according to Grubenmann in
the deep zone of metamorphism. Albite is mentioned as one of the characteristic associates. The origin of jadeitite is obscure; it is found in only
a few localities in Upper Burma, eastern Turkestan, northern Italy, and
Guatemala.
Jade. The name fade (Chinese, Yii) is a general term for two distinct
minerals: (1) nephrite, a tough, compact variety of tremolite-actinolite
and (2) jadeite, an independent member of the pyroxene group, includ,
ing its iron-bearing variety, chIoromelanite.
The jadelike minerals or pseudojades include bowenite, a hard tough
serpentine; californite, a compact variety of idocrase; "South African
Color. Colorless in thin sections. Some varieties show color (: 1111 0 111 ),
stine for kunzite, greenish for hiddenite) in thick sections a lld ill'( '
pleochroic.
Form. Spodumene usually occurs in euhedral crystals tahular plIrnll( '1
to {100} and elongated in the direction of [001] . Crystals as a 1'111 0 111'(1
inclined to be large but are sometimes on the order of scvcral lI1illilll('l (' I'S,
Cleavage. Perfect parallel to {110} (110 /\ 110) = 93 . Pa.rtill g pllr: d
leI to {laO}, which is often more prominent than the clcavago.
Relief. F airly high , n > balsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, 'I~ - n" = 0.013 to 0.027; ti le IIlll xi ll II II II
interference color varies from upper Rrst order Lo mjcldle second ordnl'.
Extinction. Th e maximum ex tin ction angle in l.oll gitrrclillllI S('e[iOll8
varies rro m 23 to 27 . Tn cross secLions lh(, ex tinction is p:1J'ldl oJ or Sy ill o
nwtrieal . Or ienled scclions elll parall(1 10 tho (100) pu rlill g I",vo 1'11 1'11 1101
ex ti llclion .
OriuIItnliull. Tho oxU lleLlolI dlroe\.lon that makes lito Sll1ulI (lj' i lll ~ 11
wit'h. I'ho dllil V\lgO Il'ut"us Is till' slowol' my.
14-18 a,b. Orientation diagrams of jadeite. Sections (a) normal to the c-axis
and (b) parallel to (010) .
FIG.
10
II,, (. ,," ,
318
3] 0
Twinning. Twins with {100} as twin-plane are knO\Vll.

Interference F igure. Spodumene gives a positive biaxial interference
Rgure with a rather large axial angle. The a.xial plane is (010). Dispersion, r < v.
Distinguishing Features. Spondumene resembles diopside in general
appearance, from which it may be distinguished by smaller extinction
angle (c 1\ y = ca. 25 ) and frequently by very conspicuous (100) parting.
Alteration. Spodumene is sometimes altered to a mixtme of albite and
muscovite known as cymatolite. The muscovite here is an alteration of
eucryptite (hexagonal LiAISiO,j ).
Kunzite is known to be altered to cookeite, a lithium ahuninum silicate
related to lepidolite.
Occurrence. The typical occmrence of spodumene is the lithium
granite pegmatites where it is associated with albite, lepidolite, elbaite,
and rare lithium minerals.
The Pyroxenoids. Berman has suggested the term pyroxenoid for a
number of pyroxene-like meta silicates that are not isomorphous with any
of the pyroxenes. Pyroxenoids include rhodonite, bustamite, pectolite,
and wollastonite. Of these, only wollastonite is important as a rock-forming mineral.
With the exception of crossite, in all the amphiboles the plane of tll(l
optic axes is {OlO}.
AMPHIBOLE GROUP
The amphibole group is more or less parallel to the pyroxono gnllip .

Corresponding members of the t",ro groups, however, are not dimOl'pll(lIl s.
Hornblende is by far the most common mineral of the group. Clllllillillgtonite is a pale brown monoclinic amphibole with the composilioll or 1111
thophyllite. It is rare. Basaltic hornblende is considered a d is[i Iwilv il
mineral under the name lamprobolite. Riebeckite, glaucophalll', IIl1d /I
few rarer minerals are known as soda mnphiboles .
The amphibole group is one of the most complex of alll11ill('l'nl gl'( l1'1)'~'
There are many amphiboles that cannot b e placed und ol' lilly or tho
minerals listed here.
Orthoamphiboles
The amphiboles may b e considered in terms of Rve series (1) anthophyllite, (2) cummingtonite-grunerite, (3) tremolite-actinolite, (4)
aluminous amphibole, and (5) soda amphibole.
. . .",e'
FIG.
14-20. Cross sections of minerals of the amphibole group showin g cleavage.
The anthophyllite series is orthorhombic while the others are monoclinic. The composition RSi0 3 is fundamental to the group with
R=Ca,Mg,Fe. The anthophyllite, cummingtonite-grunerite and tremoliteactinolite series consist essentially of a range in RSi0 3 compositions,
while the aluminous and soda amphiboles contain Al and Na in addition
to the fundamental composition. The general chemical relationships are
outlined below.
The amphiboles have rhombic to pseudohexagonal cross sections and
perfect cleavage parallel to {110} at angles of about 56 and 124, as
shown in Figure 14-20. Twinning parallel to {100} is fairly common.
A J"'IPHIBOLE
.
Mmeral
Chemical
't'
compOSI IOn
Gnoup
na
n/3
n..,
2V
".
,
c: 'Y or y,
----------
S 1l {A nthOp1y
IlI'
lte .
M F
r g e
{1.598
1.652
1.615
1.6G2
1.623} 170900
1.676
-
I. G39
{ 1.G57
I. G57
Grunerite .
. .. I F e
{ 1.663
1.600
CaMgFc
~Tre.molite_act.inolite
{ 1 . 628
~
(me. nephnte)
I. 614
g Hornblende .. .
CaMgFeAl {
1.675
1 .670
::g Lamprobolite .
CaMgFeAl {
1.692
Riebeckite . . ..
NaFe
1 . 693
1.621
Glaucophane.
NaAIFe
{ 1.655
1. G45
1. 669
1. 686
1.684
1. 697
I.G99} 17.9_8G O I 10 1.1"

1. 717
1.613
1 . 6L1 4
1.625} 1 79- 850 I III ~Il "

1. 655
1.618
1.691
1.633} 1 52- 85 I 12 :\0"

1.701
1. 683
1 730
1 : 695
1. 693} G4 800
1. 760
1 . 697
Lf\l'~(,
() Ill"
I.G39}
II
0.-s
. 1F cMg
Cummingtonite.
'8
1.638
1. 664
1, ' GG4} I G8- 87
11. G68
450
() O
I Ii :LO"
RIi '
0"
ANTHOPHYLLITE
(Mg,Fe)7(OH) 2(Si 'IOll) 2
(I,
Color.
VIII'I( ' UI'S
Colllrl( ' ~ s (II'
OI'I.IIC)I'II()IIII)i C1
n"
n~
1.508 1.0 1.()52

I.G 15 Lo I.GG2
11 .., = I.m:) 1.0 1.07(;
If = 70 1.0 !jO i Op!.. ( -\- )
(J OJ ' l' , t
(~ 0 I' .'\ , Ii
'Y or %
)llI lc ('c) lol'( 'd ill 111i1i
sllo\'v pl( '()('ilillblil .
s ( ( ' l iil ll ~ . SC IIII( ' III III( '
,
(,(dlll'ld
320
321
SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICA TES )
Clinoamphiboles
MONOCLINIC AMPHIBOLES
TREMOLITE
Ca2( Mg ,Fe15 (OH12(5 i 4 0 ll lz
(Kupffer itel
M9 7 (OH)2 (5i4 0 11 12
ox
ACTI NOLITE
Caz(Fe, Mg15 (O H}z.{Si 4 0 Il 1l
I
;; Xv ')
) _lJ
0-'
Glaucophane
Naz M9 3 Al z (OH1 2 {Si 40n)2

HORNBLENDE
Caz(Mg, Fe,ALl5iOHiz [lSi ,Al)4 011]z
I,
I,
LAMPROBOLITE
Ca2 Fe';; Fe';; Oz(Si 4 01l 12
NEPHRITE
Ca2{Mg,Fe)5 {OHl z {S i4 0Il)2
Cummingtonite
{Fe,Mg1 7 (OHlz {Si 4 0 u12
zt
(a)
(b)
i .
{Ferrot remolitel \
CalFe5 {OH)z (Si 4 Ollll
Grunerlte
Fe7 (OH 12 {Si 4 0 nll
Ri ebeck it e
NaFe"' ISi0 3 12 ' Fe" SI0 3
FIG. 14-21 a,b. Orientation diagrams of anthophyllite. Sections (a) normal to the
c-axis and (b) parallel to (OlO).
Form. Long prismatic crystals and columnar to fibrous aggregates are

characteristic of anthophyllite. It is sometimes asbestiform.
Cleavage. In two directions {1l0} at angles of 54 0 and 126 0 Cross
fractures are common.
Birefringence. Moderate, n-y - n" = 0.016 to 0.025; interference colors
range up to low second order.
Extinction. Parallel in longitudinal sections, in cross sections symmetrical to outline or cleavage.
Orientation. Length-slow.
Twinning. Absent.
angle, or neutral (2V
90 0 ). The axial plane is {OlO}. Dispersion,
r> v orr < v.
Distinguishing Features. Anthophyllite resembles tremolite-actinolite
and also cummingtonite but may be distinguished from these minerals by
its parallel extinction.
Related Minerals. Gedrite is an aluminous variety of anthophyllite. It
is optically negative instead of positive.
Alteration. Anthophyllite is often altered to talc. The partially altered
mineral was formerly called hydrous anthophyllite.
Occurrence. Anthophyllite is characteristic of metamorphic rocks. It
is the main constituent of anthophyllite schist and is also a secondary
mineral in peridotites and dunites.
Anthophyllite is the principal constituent of mass-fiber asbestos.
FIG.
14-22. Major groups among the monoclinic amphiboles.

CUMMINGTONITE
MOllo<:/illio
(Fe,Mg) 7(OH) 2(Si 4 0 11) 2
1.639 to 1.657
1.645 to 1.669
n-y = 1.664 to 1.686
2T1 = 68 t o 87; Opt. ( +)
b = {3 or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = -15 to - 20
na
nf3 =
Y(~~Ol~ '_ b
(01
Fit :, 1t1 - 2:_~ fl.lJ , ()dj llll :tl llI li d lllg l lltH "l 0 1
li-lI xll!
II II.!
(1/ ) 11I 1I Idl,oI
III
( 0 10 ) ,
(b)
( ' IIIIIIldll g I Oli l l tl ,
S c ' ( ' lfllll ~
( II )
IIClIIII III I n
I III'
322
Color. Colorless to neutral in thin sections. It may show slight pleochroism.

Form. Cummingtonite usually occurs in parallel to subradiating aggregates of prismatic crystals. The crystals are sometimes cmved.
Cleavage. Cleavage in two directions at angles of about 56 and 124
as in the other amphiboles.
Relief. Moderately high, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Rather strong, ny - n" = 0.025 to 0.029.
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in longitudinal sections
varies from about 15 to 20 ; the angle increases with increase of magnesium content.
Orientation. Elongate sections are length-slow.
Twinning. Twins with {100} as a twin-plane are highly characteristic
of cumrningtonite. The twinning is polysynthetic, and the twin-lamellae
are usually very narrow.
Interference Figures. The figure is biaxial positive with a large axial
angle. The axial plane is (010). Dispersion, r < v .
Distinguishing Features. Cummingtonite has a larger extinction angle
and lower indices of refraction than grunerite. Cummingtonite is optically
positive, and gnmerite is negative. From b'emolite, cummingtonite is
distinguished by higher indices of refraction. Anthophyllite is very similar to cummingtonite but may be distinguished by its parallel extinction
and absence of l:\Ivinning.
Occurrence. Cummingtonite, as far as known, is confined to metamorphic rocks. It is a characteristic mineral in schists at the Homestake
Mine in South Dakota. It is a characteristic mineral of hornfels at several
localities in California.
CRUNERITE
FC7(OH)2(Si 4011) 2
Monoclinic
na = 1.657 to 1.663
n il
n."
= 1.684 to 1.697
= 1.699 to 1.717
211 = 79 to 86; Opt. (-)

b = (3 or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = _ 10 to -14
Grunerite (not griinelite) is the name used for the minerals of the
cummingtonite-grunerite series in which iron greatly predominates over
magnesium.
Color. Neutral in thin sections.
Form. Grunerite usually occurs in fibrous to columnar aggregates. It
is sometimes asbestiform. Cross sections are rhomhic as in other amphiboles.
323
< ~OI0) --b
o
(0)
(b)
14-24 a,b. Orientation diagrams of gruneritc. Sections (a) normal to thc c-axis
FIG.
Cleavage. Cleavage is in two directions at angles of about 56 and

124 as in the other amphiboles. Cross fractures are common.
Birefringence. Strong, ny - n" = 0.042 to 0.054; the interference colors
range up to upper second order or low third order. Sections with parallel
extinction show low first-order colors .
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in longitudinal scct ioliS
varies from 10 up to about 15 . The variation in maximum cxtinctioll
angle is due to variation in chemical composition. The replacemc" l of'
some of the iron by magnesium brings about an increase in the ox lill ction angle.
Orientation. Elongate sections are length-slow.
Twinning. A characteristic feature of grunerite is the polysynthol it"
twinning with (100) as the twin-plane. The twin-lamellae are of ton v('ry
narrow.
Interference Figure. Interference figures arc often difficult to obtllill ,
but when found they are biaxial negative with a large axial an gle. TIll"
axial plane is (010). Dispersion, l' > v, weak.
Distinguishing Features. Grunerite has a smallcr maximum extin ctioll
angle and high er indices of refraction than ellmmin gton itc. 1(' is opticnll y
negative and eummin gtonite positive. Th e indi ces or rcfr[lcliOIl 01
grunerite arc also hi gh cr tkln those of' tr('JI) 0 Iite-:l ctino lit('. (\ntllOp l, )t1liln,
similar in III<lny ways, h<l s p<lr<lII ( 1 ('x lfli cli oJ) IIl ld nev('r sl lows 1111 )'
twjllnill g.
OCCIII"I"( II(."I. (;I"IIII\ 'rill ' i ~ :I Pl"oti I1("1 IIi" 1ll("l lllIlllrpllislll . II 1l( ( III".~ III
111011l1l1ol'pldl ' J"( H'ks like ' II,e ' 11I !t '1 1 s dd ~ I ': III ( :Illloill'/(\ J"( 'S, I )( 'PIIIIIIII ,"1 01
MINERAL DESCRIPTION:\'
324
Var, France (the original locality) , also as an alteration product in the

eulysite of Tunaberg, Sweden, and is very prominent in some of the iron
ores of the Lake Superior region, notably the magnetite ores of the
Upper Peninsula of Michigan.
TRE MOLITE-ACTIN OLITE
Monoclinic
= 7448'
Ca2(Mg,Fe) 5(OH) 2(Si 4 0 11) 2
L(3
na
n~
n "'(
b=
it
= 1. 600 t o 1. 628
= 1.613 to 1.644
= 1. 625 to 1. 655
SILICATES : CHAIN STRUCTURES ( INOSILICATES)
325
Birefringence. Moderate to rather strong, n y - n" = 0.022 to 0.027; so

the interference colors range up to low or middle second order. Narrow
longitudinal sections show the highest colors. Cross sections have white
to yellow interference colors.
Extinction. The maximum extinction in longitudinal sections varies
from 10 to 20. A few longitudinal sections have parallel or nearly
p arallel extinction. Cross sections have symmetrical extinction.
Orientation. Elongate sections are length-slow. In cross sections the
long diagonal is the slower ray.
Twinning. Twins with {100} as twin-plane are frequent. Fine polysynthetic twinning with {Ool } as twin-plane is occasionally encountered.
211 = 79 t o 85 ; Opt. (-)

(3 or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = _10 to - 20
E' (0 s< C )' , K7 <:00
>"
--b
(0 )
FlG .
(b )
FIG. 14-25 a,b. Orientation di agrams of tremolite-actinolite. Sections (a) n0l111al to

the c-axis and (b) parallel to (010).
Color. Colorless to pale green in thin sections. The green varieties

show faint pleochroism. Green ferriferous tremolite is known as actino-
lite.
Form. Tremolite-actinolite occurs in long prismatic crystals and columnar to fibrous aggregates. Asbestiform varieties are common. The typical cross section is rhombic with (UO 1\ 110) = 56 .
Cleavage. {UO} in two directions at angles of about 56 and 124.
Longitudinal sections show cleavage traces p arallel to the length. There
may be parting parallel to ( 100 ).
14-26. (x50 ) Tremolite in metamoqJhic dolomitic limeslone.
Interference Figure. Tremolite-actinolite gives a biaxial ncga livo fi gllro

with very large axial angle. The axial plane is { 01O } . Disp ersion, ,. ....... t)
weak. Broad elongate sections with low interference colors g ive lil e I)('sl
figure.
Distinguishing Features. The extin ction angle and amphibole cross
sections are characteristic. Wollastonite has the same general appOal"llll ("i
as tremolite, but the trace of the optic ax ial plane is norma l 10 1111
cleavage instead of p arallel to it as in tremolile.
Relatcd Mincrals. A colorless amphibol e, edenite, greatly resOI nhl(ls
tremolite but h as larger extinction an gles.
Altcration. Trc rnolite-ac tin olile is som elim es r()IIml al(('red to Lnlc:.
OcclIrrcncc. Trc molile-aclill olil c oCC ll rs in COIiLacl -lIlC'lan1orphi ( (kpos its, in sc hi sls alld g ll (' iss('s, II lId ill 1I H' llIllIorp lli (' iill H'slolll's. It Is II I ~ o
LOlilid li S II 1'\\p lll(,(,1I1( 11l1 or P), I'il\( '11I" ill iglll '(lIIS l"O('k s.
326
NEPHRITE
(.Jade in part)
Ca2(Mg,Fe) 5(OH) 2(Si 40 11 ) 2
/
Monoclinic
n"
= 1. 600 to 1. 628
n f3
= 1.613 to 1.644
n)' = 1. 625 to 1. 655
worn p ebbles and boulders. It is doubtless a product of metamorphism,

but its origin is not well understood.
Nepru-ite is a Widely distributed mineral much valued by the natives
of many countries as material for both weapons and ornaments.
HORN BLENDE
C a 2(Mg,Fe,Al) 5(OH) 2[ (Si,Al) 40]lJ 2
211 = 79 to 85; Opt. (-)

b = (3 or Y; c 1\ 'Y or Z = - 10 to - 20
Nephrite is really a tough compact variety of tremolite-actinolite, but

for emphasis it is treated separately.
Color. Colorless to gray in thin sections.
Form. Nephrite usually occurs in fibrous to fibro-lamellar aggregates of
imperfect prismatic crystals.
Cleavage. Is like that of tremolite-actinolite but is rarely distinct on
account of interfelted fib ers.
Birefringence. Moderate, ny - n" = 0.022 to 0.027; so the interference
colors range from first-order gray up to bright colors of the middle second order.
Extinction. Vari es from parallel to a maximum of about 100 to 20 0
A few of the broader longitudinal sections may have p arall el extinction.
The extinction of nephrite is often wavy and indistinct.
Orientation. Most sections are length-slow.
Twinning. With {100} as twin-plane is occasionally found but does not
seem to be common.
Interference Figure. Nephrite does not usually give a good interference
figure on account of the aggregate structure. The figure when obtained is
biaxial negative with a large axial angle. The axial plane is {0l0} as in
the other amphiboles.
R-elated Minerals. There is no very shalp distinction b etween nephrite
and other varieties of tremolite-actinolite. The term seminephrite has
been used by F. J. Turner for an amphibole intermediate b etvveen
nephrite and less compact, more coarsely crystalline tremolite-actinolite.
Distinguishing Features. Nephrite is distinguished from jadeite, the
other jade mineral, by its smaller maximum extinction angle and its
lower indices of refraction and also by its lower specific gravity. From
other varieties of tremolite-actinolite it is distinguished by its greater
compactness, which is due to interfelted crystalline aggregates.
Alteration. Nepru-ite is sometimes altered to talc.
Occurrence. Nephrite usually occurs in ass ocia tion with serpentin~ as
''kidneys'' with more or less schistose sb-u cturc and in d erived w ater-
327
SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES (IN OSILICATES )
Monoclinic
L(3 = 752'
n" = 1.614 t o 1.675

n f3 = 1.618 to 1.691
n)' = 1.633 t o 1. 701
211 = 52 to 85; Opt_ ( -)
b = (3 or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = - 12 t o - 30
c
:)(;:>.J 010
:>- -
-0
o
io
(0 )
(b )
14-27 a,b. Orientation diagrams of hornblende. Sections (a ) norll1ni

FIG.
10
110 11
Color. Green or brown of Val-ious tones in thin sections. PlcochroiSlll

as follows:
(3 o r
'" orX
Y cllow g r cc n
P a le green
P a le brown
Y cll ow g l'CCIl
GI'('r lli ~ I, b rowli
'YOI'
Olivc g rcc n
Gl'ccn
Gl'cr ni s h
Y(' ll olV
n .('dd iHio brown
AbHorpl ion s(:I, (' Il ,I' :
'Y I II ' /,
> (j
01' ) '
Dark J; rcr ll
Dark ~ r(' c n
Da r k ~ 1' l)(' 11
Ihowli
H,('d hrowll
>"
or X .
fonll. C l ys l u ls ar(, p ris illilli (' ill Il il hil wi lli PSI'II<i o il (')'lIg<)II :d ( ' ro~s
sO<: li () ll ~ ( 110 1\ ITo r);;". I!)' ). (;1 )'S I Il I ~ 111'1' 1'I 1I1 ' l v ",,,II I tllli i/ ll n ll 'lI
( Fig"rl' Ii ~~ I ) .
328
,
FIG.
14-28. ( X60) Hornblende in a l'Ounded crystal showing faint cleavage.
329
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in longitudinal sections

varies from about 12 to about 30 . In cross sections the extinction is
symmetrical to the outlines or to cleavage traces.
Twinning. Twins with {l00} as the twin-plane are rather common.
Twimling is often manifest as twin seams.
Interference Figure. The ngme is biaxial negative with a large axial
angle. The axial plane is {OlO}. Dispersion, r < v weak.
Distinguishing Features. Hornblende differs from augite in cleavage,
pleochroism, and maximum extinction angle. Brown hornblende resembles biotite, but the latter has better cleavage (in one direction only)
and parallel or almost parallel extinction. Lamprobolite has a smaller extinction angle, higher indices of refraction, and sb'onger birefringence.
Occurrence. Hornblende is a very common and widely distTibuted
mineral in many types of ign eous rocks. It also occurs in schists, gneisses,
and amphibolites.
It is a prominent constituent of many deb'ital sediments.
LAMPROBOLITE 1
(Basaltic Hornblende)
Ca,Mg,Fe,AI silicate
Monoclinio
L(J = 7358'
= 1.670 t o 1.692
= 1. 683 t o 1. 730
ny = 1.693 to 1.760
2 V = 64 to 80; Opt. ( -)
b = (J or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = 0 t o - 12 0
n"
nf3
I' X
.--......
010
>
14-29. ( X 22) Late magmatic hornblende (dark) formed at the expense of

pyroxene.
C",,1
)0
-- b
. ~X
FIG.
Cleavage. {1l0} in two directions at angles of about 56 and 124 .

Relief. Rather high, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, 1'/,y - n ", = 0.019 to 0.026. The maximum in.
terference colors are about middle second order, but in many varieti~
the color of the mineral modifies or even ma.sks the interference colors.
10
(0 )
Ib)
FJ(';. 14-30 11,/1. O "i c lIlll l iOIl d ia gr; llIls of' IlIl1Ip l'oiln lil ,. S, ... I iOll s ( 1/ )
c-I Lxi s alld (/1 ) pal'rtlkl lo ( 1I () ).
1I0rl 1111 I
lo tlu)
' Th,) 1I \1I1\( ) II/'II/ I/'() IIIIIII, ' W I" 1''''1" )''' '.1 I,y 1\ . I'. 1t,,1:'. "' " I Alii . M III, II'I'/0I:IIII, ~ ,
H2(1 H2H ( 11l11O ) I '" II,,, ,"1,,","1 1I',(l loIl y " " II" d 1' llI ldl /i ' !l/llllht"IIt/I ',
MINERAL DE SCRIPTIONS
330
Color. Yellow to brown, often with opaque borders. Pleochroism

rather sh-ong: IX or X, light yellow; f3 or Y, brown ; y or Z, dark redbrown.
Form. Lamprobolite occurs almost invariably in euhedral crystals with
the pseudohexagonal cross section of the amphiboles . The habit is
usually short prismatic.
Cleavage. {llO} in two directions at angles of 56 and 124 as in the
other amphiboles.
Birefringence. Rather strong to very sh-ong, 11,y - na = 0.026 to 0.072.
The interference colors should be high order, but they are usually
masked by the color of the mineral.
Extinction. The m aximum extinction angle is very small, from zero up
to as much as 12 in some varieties.
Orientation. The crystals are length-slow. Cross sections have symmeh-ical extinction.
Twinning. Twins with {100} as twin-plane are found but are not conspicuous on account of the small size of the extinction angle.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative ,"lith a large axial
angle. The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, l' < v.
Distinguishing Features. Lamprobolite is distinguished from ordinary
brown hornblende by the smaller extinction angle and the sh'onger birefringence. Biotite shows no cleavage in six-sided sections.
Related Minerals. Kaersutite is a titanian amphibole related to lamprobolite.
Occurrence. Lamprobolite occurs in volcanic rocks such as andesites,
auganites, basalts, basanites, tephrites , and the corresponding tuffs.
It is also fairly common as a detrital mineral.
It seems likely that lamprobolite h as b een produced from ordinary
hornblende by the oxidation of the iron, probably by hot gases at the
end of the magmatic stage.
RIEBECKITE
(inc. Crocidolite)
N aFe Ill (Si0 3) 2.Fell Si0 3
Monoclinic
= 7610'
L(3
na = 1.693
n{3 = 1.695
n-y = 1.697
2V large; Opt. (-)
b = (3 or Y, c 1\ a or X = +5
331
SILICATES: CHAIN STRUCTURES ( INOSILICATES )
xx:..:q 010
) -- b
-' ,
z~
0-
o
(0)
(b)
14-31 a.,17. Orientation diagram of ri ebeckite. Sections (a.) normal to thc c-axis
\
F!G.
Color. D ark blue in thin sections. Pleochroism strong: IX or X, dccp

blue; f3 or Y, lighter blue; y or Z, greenish. Absorption: IX or X > f3 or
Y > y or Z.
Form. Rieb eckite occurs in subhedral prismatic crystals and in Rbrol ls
and asbestiform aggregates. According to recent investigations, croeid olite is a fibrous variety of riebeckite.
Cleavage. {llO} in two directions at angles of about 56 and 124.
Birefringence. Very weak, 11,y - n O! = 0.004; the interference colors aro
masked by the deep color of the miner al.
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in elongate scctions is
about 5, but the fibrous variety, croci do lite, h as p arallel extin ction .
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a large :IXilil
angle. The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, l' > V strong.
Distinguishing Features. The color, pleochroism, and sma ll ex t inet i()11
angle are distinctive.
Alteration. Crocidolite is often altered to an iron -s tain cd flhnHl s qll:l!'t'l.
known as "tiger's eye."
Occurrence. Ri eb eckite is characteristic of soda-rich granites, nli (' I' )granites, gra nite aplites, granite pcgmalitos, syenites, neph elin e syc llil\'s,
and trachytes. 1n th ese rocks it is of' tC'n associa ted with ;lcg ir iIl O. C!'o.j(lo.litc is f'ollnd ill ('('rt:lill "i ~ ld )' sili t:('o ll s IIwlall10rpli ic rocks Slldl UN
t il(: "iro nstolll'S" of Criql lid:111l1 VVc 's l , S() IIIII Africa ,
332
333
SILICATI.S: CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES)

GLAUCOPHANE
N a 2MgaAb(OH) 2(Si.O ll ) 2
Monoclinic
L{3 = 77
na
= 1.621 to 1.655
= 1. 638 to 1. 664
noy = 1.639 to 1.668
2V = 0 to 68; Opt. (-)
b = (3 or Y; c 1\ 'Y or Z = - 4 to - 6
nil
Related Minerals. Crossite is a soda amphibole intermediate between

glaucophane and riebeckite, but the axial plane of crossite is normal to
(010 ). Gastaldite is a soda amphibole related to glaucophane but paler
blue in color because of lower iron content.
Occurrence. Glaucophane is found in certain schists and gneisses.
The usual associates are muscovite, quartz, garnet, sphene, lawsonite,
'x
__y " I '" ,C,> <:

r
b>< '" '> v ,/ 1)0

DID --b
.-:.-- II
I I-X
FIc. 14-33. ( X50) Glaucophane forming a felted crystalline mass in sc hisl.
(01
(b)
FIG. 14-32 a,b. Orientation diagrams of glaucophane. Sections (a) normal to the
and clinozoisite. Glaucophane schists are abundant in the Coast Rall g(!s
of California and are also found in Syra (Greece), Italy, and Japan, bill
are rare, taken the world over.
Color. Blue to violet in thin sections. Pleochroism: a or X, neutral;
EPIDOTE GROUP
f3 or Y, violet; y or Z, blue.
Form. Glaucophane occurs in prismatic crystals or columnar aggregates. The cross sections are pseudohexagonal or rhombic.
Cleavage. {1l0} in two directions at angles of 56 and 124.
Birefringence. Moderate, ny - n",
0.013 to 0.018; the maximum interference color is about sensitive violet, but the color of the mineral may
modify or even mask the interference colors.
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle in longitudinal sections is
very small (4 to 6 ). Cross sections have symmetrical extinction.
Orientation. The crystals are length-slow.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a small to
moderate axial angle. The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, r < v strong.
Distinguishing Features. The axial colors, together with the small extinction angle and amphibole cross section and cleavage, distinguish
glaucophan e from all other min erals except cross ile and gI as tald ito.
The epidote group consists of silicates of calcium and aluminum ,"vith

occasional addition or substitution of iron, manganese, or cerium . (;a l.
cium aluminum silicate may occur as zoisite (orthorhombic) Or di llo
zoisite (monoclinic) . Other members of the group are monoclinic.
Orthorhombic
ZOISITE
Ca2(Al,Fe) 3(OH) (Si0 4 ) 3
OrLhorhOlill,il'
n",
n~
'/l oy
2 If
1.G06 to 1.700
1. GOG Lo I. 70:)
= 1.7021,0 1.7 18
:10 1.0 00; Opl.. (+ )

' !' \VO ol ' jnlllllliullf'C
( I)
/I
(~~)
/I
:0, "
01 '
01' /',
Ii
/1
III' \ ', {'
(V
tI l'
IV
(no .\' ,
/1
III'
I'
334
C
" '~"O"
010
I I I -" - I I I
335
SILICATES : CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILICATES)
-- b
--~ a=Z
X
,r
,x
I
FIG. 14-34. Orientation diagrams of zoisite . Sections parallel to (100) . Orientation (1) .
I II() --b
I
FIG .
14-35. Ot'ientation (2).
There are two varieties of zoisite: a non-ferrian variety with orientation (1) and anomalous interference colors, and a fenian variety with
orientation (2) and normal interference colors.
Color. Usually colorless in thin sections, but manganian zoisite (thulite) is pink and pleochroic.
Form. Zoisite usually occurs in columnar aggregates, but euhedral
crystals are not uncommon.
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {OlO}.
Birefringence. W eak to moderate, 11ry - n" = 0.006 to 0.018; th e interference colors in one variety (2) are normal; in the other variety (1 )
they are anomalous (deep blue) .
Orientation. In some specimens (1) the crystals are length-fast; in
others (2) either length-fast or length-slow.
Twinning. Polysynthetic n vinning may be present.
moderate axial angle. The axial plane is either (1) {01O} or (2) {001 }.
Dispersion, (1) T < v distinct or (2) l' > v distinct.
Distinguishing Features. F enian zoisite (orientation 2) is distinguished from clinozoisite by normal interference colors. Non-fenian
zoisite (orientation 1) is distinguished from clinozoisite by a smaller
axial angle and by deep blue anomalous interference color.
Occurrence. Zoisite is a rather rare mineral found in some metamorphic rocks . Clinozoisite is much more common than zoisite.
FIG. 14-36 (/,b. ( X 20) Bladed zoisite crystals in a q uartz matrix. (a) O ,dlli '"
illumination an d (b) X nicols.
Monoclinic
CLINOZOISITE
Ca 2Ah(OH) (Si0 4) 3
(Iron-free Epidote)
MO II ()(' lill it:

(J
rI "
= I. 7 10 Lo I. 7n
'/I ~
I. 7 l !i 1.0 I .78n
I .7 I!) 1.0 I .7:{11
II ~
(iV'
V
fJ "
(J 01'
1',
I:
1\
1.0
!JO
IV 01 '
Q
;
Op t.. ( I )
0" 1.(1 I I '2 u
(j'lo:\(),
336
OIO __
z_
337
SILICATES: CHAI N STRUCTURES ( INOSILICATES )
1<"':::
(0)
14-37 a,b. Orientation d iagrams of clinozoisite. Sections (a) normal to the

FIG.
Color. Colorless and non-pleochroic in thin sections.

Form. Clinozoisite, an iron-free or iron-poor epidote, usually occurs
in elongated crystals or columnar aggregates. Cross sections are six-sided,
with (100 1\ (01) = 64Yz .
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {001}.
Birefringence. Weak to rather weak, ny - n" = 0.005 to 0.011; interference colors are middle first order but anomalous. TIle gray is somewhat blue, white is absent, and the yellow is greenish yellow. Upper
first-order colors of thicker sections are normal.
Extinction. In most sections the extinction is parallel since the crystals
are nearly always elongated in the direction of the b-axis.
Orientation. Some sections are length-slow and some length-fast since
b = f3 or Y.
Twinning. Polysynthetic twinning with {100} as twin-plane may be
found in some specimens.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial positive with
large to very large axial angle. The axial plane is {OlO}. Dispersion,
r < v strong.
Distinguishing Features. Clinozoisite is distinguished from epidote by
weaker birefringence, lack of pleochroism, and optically positive sign;
from zoisite by the distinctive yellow-green interference color of the first
order and larger axial angle.
Occurrence. The occurrence of clinozoisite is practically the same as
that of epidote. It is a rather common and widely distributed mineral and
has often been identified as zoisite. It is usually a deuteric mineral in
igneous rocks. Clinozoisite is also found as a product of dynamic metamorphism in such rocks as amphibolites, hornblende schists, and glaucophane schists.
b
FIG. 14-38 a,b. ( X 20 ) E lon ga ted crystals of clinozoisite sc t in q uartz. (1/ ) 0 1'<11 11 111
illumination and (b) X nicols.

EPIDOT E
(PisLacitc)
Ca2 (Al,Fe)a(OTJ) (S i0 4) 3
Mnll()(:iilli o
(:J -
n" -
1,0 \. 7~H-
1.72 tl 1,0 1 . 7n;~

1.7;\tl 1,0 1.77!)
'21'
(;0 0 I (I HDO; Op\' . (
(I OI'I',I' I\ I.I II .\'
\ 1(l ],o\ li()
11 ~
II ,\,
"
\. 720
(;tl:r"
338
MIN ERAL DESCRIPTION S
y1 I 9:
z~
339
SILI CATES : CHAIN STRUCTURES (INOSILI CATES )
fC,....:
0/
100
(0)
(b)
F IG. 14-39 a,b. Orientati on diagrams of epidote. Sections ( a ) nomlal to the c-axis
and (b) parallel to (010 ).
Color. In thin sections it is colorless to yellowish green, not usually

uniform. The mineral is somewhat pleochroic.
Form. Epidote occurs in granular to columnar aggregates and in more
or less distinct crystals that are elongated in the direction of the b-axis
and have a pseudohexagonal cross section with the forms {OOl}, {lOO},
and {lOll . (100 1\ 001) = 6437'.
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {OOl }.
Birefringence. Moderate to strong, n:y - n" = 0.014 to 0.045, increasing with increase in iron content. The maximum interference colors range
from low second-order to upper third-order colors. The middle first-order
colors are a];lOmalous like those of clinozoisite.
Extinction. Parallel in elongate sections since epidote, unlike most
monoclinic crystals, is elongated in the direction of the b-axis.
Orientation. Since b = f3 or Y, some longitudinal sections are lengthslow and some length-fast.
Twinning. Twins with {lOO} as twin-plane are not uncommon.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial negative with
a large axial angle. Cleavage flakes give an optic-axis figure since one of
the optic axes is almost normal to {OOI}. The axial plane is {OlO}. Dispersion, r > v.
Distinguishing Features. Epidote is distinguish ed from clinozoisite
and zoisite by stronger birefringence and from diopside and augit e by
parallel extinction.
Occurrence. Epidote is a commmon and Widely distributed mineral in
many types of igneous and metamorphic rocks. In igneous rocks it is
usually a d euteric or late magmatic mineral . It is the dominant min eral
in epidosite, a metamorphic epidote-quartz rock.
Epidote is rather common as a detrital mineral.
.....
F!C . 14-40. ( X 20 ) Crystals of CiJid ute d istributed throu gh q uartz.

PJEDM ON TlTE
(Manganese E pidote)
Ca2(Al,Fe,Mn) ~ (OH ) (Si0 4) 3
Monociilli(;
= (;llo:lD'
.t.(3
na = 1.745 t o 1. 758
n f3 = 1.764 t o 1.789
n'Y = 1. 806 t o 1. 832
217 = 56 t o 86; Opt. (+ )
b = (3 or Y , c 1\ a or X = _ 5 t o _ 7
'l~e::O-h
z~
0 ./
100
(0 )
F IG. 14-41a,h. O rient ati on d iagra m of p ied illo ntit e . Sect io ns (II) 11 01'11," 1 In II" , (. ,,, '"
~ n d (7)) p 3ra liel to ( 010 ) .
Color. Vivid characteristic ax ial co lors: ye ll ow, o r;lll gc, n'd , v lt .1, '1.
Pleoch roi c : (I' or X, ),e1 low to o r a ll ge; (:l 01' Y, a lll c lli),s L lo vio lel; y 0 1' Z ,
~a rnlill C In d('('p n'd .
F orm. I I I forlll pi t 'd lll !) 111 il (' i ~ V(' I')' 1I11 1dl l ikl' t 'p id Oi(' .
C lc uvu ~t' . III
O LI O
d in T I !o ll ()O l l .
340
341
Orientation. The direction of the faster or slo"ver ray is (1

determine.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a Llrge axia l
angle. The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, l' > V strong.
Distinguishing Features. The color and pleochroism at piedmol1tite arc
so distinctive that there is little chance of mistaking it for any other
mineral.
Occurrence. Piedmontite occurs for the most part in schists and
gneisses, also in altered quartz porphyries, as at South Mountain, Pa.
ALLANITE
(O: t hite)
(Ca,Fe
II
2(AI,Ce,Fe
III
3(OH) (Si0 4 ) 3
na = 1.64
(a)
Monoclilli (;
L {3
to1.77
= 6!i
n f3 = 1.65 to 1.77
n.., = 1.66 t o 1.80
2V = large ; Opt. (-)
b = (3 or Y , c 1\ a or X = +360
'\~ l ):~--.
()
100
(0)
14-43 a,b . Orientation diagra ms of allan ite. Sections ((/) normal to tl,, (' I I\I ~
FIG.
(b)
FIG. 14-42 a,b. ( X 20) Piedmontite associated with quartz. (a) Ordinary illumination
and (b) X nicols.

Birefringence. Very strong, ~ - n a = 0.061 to 0.082. The interference
colors are high order but are more or less masked by the color of the
mineral.
Extinction. Parallel in elongate sections since the crystals, like those
of epidote, are elongated in the direction of the b-axis.
Color. Brown and pleochroic from pale brown to dark browil in thill
sections.
Form. In form al lanite is similar to epidote, of which il is a cori'lln bearing varie ty. It often occurs in pa rall cl position as an overgrowtll 011
epidote.
Relief. Hi gh , 11 > b a lsa lll.
Cleavage. Impe rfect parallcllO {OOI} .
Birefringence. Hallwr slron g , lI y
1/ "
0.01 10 0.0:1; lht' illl( 'rf(lJ'(' II ('o
co lors a rc Il sll :dly IIla skcd hy II I(' ilrowli co lor of 111 0 IIlill( lrli l.
ExliliClioll. US \l Hll y p" rl ll( .I, li ke, o LlI t'1' IIH 'lltlH 'rs of 111 0 (\l?idul o gJ'OII l,"
OrionlIII iUII . Dlflkldll.o ()hlll!H,
342
Q
343
Alteration. Allanite is often altered or inverted to an amorphous substance with about the same chemical composition as allanite. This m etamict min eraloid is produced by the breakdown of the space lattice by
radioactive emanations.
Occurrence. Allanite is found in granites, syenites, granite pegmatitcs,
and gneisses.
REFERENCES
Pyroxenes
~
#
FIG.
FIG.
14-44. ( X 40) Allanite in granite.
14-45. ( X 20) Allanite crystals in a y'uartz matrix.
T w inning. It is like that of epidote.

Distinguishing Features. Allanite is distinguished from brown hornblende by parallel extinction and cleavage in one direction instead of two.
Related Minerals. Magnesium orthite is a rare magnesium variety of
allanite.
Hess, H. H.: Pyroxenes of Common Mafic Magmas, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 26 ,

pp . 515-535, 1941.
- - -: Chemical Composition and Optical Properties of Common Clili oPYroxenes, Part I, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 34, pp. 621-666, 1949.
- - -, R. J. Smith, and G. Dengo: Antigorite from the Vicinity of Ca ra cas,
Venezuela, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 37, pp . 68-75 , 1952.
Poldervaart, A.: Correlation of Physical Properties and Chemical Composi lioll
in the Plagioclase, Olivine, and Orthopyroxene Series, Am. Min em logisl ,
vol. 35, pp. 1067-1079, 1950.
- - -: The Relationship of Orthopyroxene to Pigeonite, Mineml. Mag ., vol.
28,pp. 164-172, 1947.
- -- and H. H. Hess: Pyroxenes in the Crystallization of Basaltic Magl ll ll,
]. Geol., vol. 59, pp. 472-489, 1951.
Trager, E.: Dber den Fassait und libel' die Einteilung del' Klinopyrox('II(',
Neues Jahl'b. Mi11 eral. Monatschefte, no. 6, pp. 132-139, 1951.
- - -: "Tabellen zur optischen Bistimmung del' gesteinbildcn Min cralC' ," p.
149, Verlag Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, 1952.
vVincheIl , A. N .: Mineralogical anel Petrographic Study of the Gabbroid 1I()('ks
of Minnesota, and More Particularly, of the Plagioclasytes, A lii. C colog/Sf,
vol. 26, pp . 197-245, 1900.
345
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING S1O. STRUCTURES
considered to be a member of the group. Its crystal system is orthorhombic. Larnite, with the composition Ca 2 SiO., is not a member of the
olivine group since it is monoclinic.
THE OLIVINE GROU P
CHAPTER
15
Chemical
composit ion
Mineral
Forsterite (Fo) . . .. . .. . .
Olivine (FomF a n) . .. ... .
sio.
Olivine Group
Forsterite
Olivine
Fayalite
Monticellite
Humite Group
Chondrodite
STRUCTURES (NESOSILICATES)
Garnet Group
Stamolite
Sphene
Idocrase
Zircon
Axinite
Iddingsite
MULTIPLE
sio.
Sillimanite Family
Andalusite
Sillimanite
K yanite
Mullite
Dumortierite
Topaz
STRUCTURES (SOROSILICATES)
nil
ny
1. 651
1 .660
1.670
1.706
1.838
1 877
1 646
1 .662
1. 670
1.680
1 .689
1. 718
1. 847
1.886
1. 655
1.669
2V
--
Silicates: Single, Multiple, and Ring Si04 Structures
SINGLE
na
F ayalite (Fa).
..... . .
Monticellite ...... . . .
{ 1. 635
Mg 2SiO .
1.640
{
1.
651
(Mg,Fe),SiO ,
1. 681
{ 1.805
Fe,SiO,
1.835
{
1. 641
CaMgSiO,
1. 651
85- 00 0
70- 90 0
'J.7- li'l
75- 80
Minerals of the olivine group are characterized by rather high refra ctive indices and strong birefringence. The axial plane is (001) , and tht
axial angle is usually very large.
Olivine is exceedingly abundant as a rock-forming mineral in subsilicie
igneous rocks. Forsterite is practically limited to metamorphic limcsto ll ('S
or contact metamorphic zones . Fayalite is found in granite p egmatitcs, ill
lithophysae of rhyolitic obsidians , and in some ores, but it is rathcr )':11'(' .
Lawsonite
FORSTERITE
6- UNIT
RING STRUCTURES (CYCLOSILICA TES )
Beryl
Tourmaline
Cordierite
Wollastonite
The minerals of Chapter 15 represent three divisions of silicate structure, nesosilicates, sorosilicates, and cyclosilicates. Minerals with single
tetrahedral groups are more numerous and include a number of important species. Only one multiple group silicate is included (lawsonite)
and four ring-group silicates (beryl, tourmaline, cordierite, and wollastonite) .
SINGLE SiO. STRUCTURES
The Olivine Group
The olivine group consists of the two end members, forsterite and
fayalite, and the intermediate isomorphous mixtme, olivine. The rare
mineral tephroite, Mn 2 SiO" also belongs to the olivine group. The double
salt, monticellite, (CaMgSi0 1 ) , is closely related to olivine and is often
344
OrLhol'hOilli ,io
Mg 2Si0 4
na = 1.635 to 1.640
nf3 = 1.651 t o 1.660
ny = 1.670 to 1.680
2V = 85 t o 90; Opt. (+)
a = 'Y or Z, b = a or X, c = {3 01' Y
c
FlO. Iii 1. ()",,"I I,II ,", ci l" !,,' " I1' ,,1' I'W ',IIIIII; I, SII" Ii O'1
p ili
10 11 ,,1 III ( 100 ).
346
MI NERAL DESCRIPTION S

Form. Forsterite usually occurs in euhech al to subhedral crystals.
Relief. Fairly high, 11 > balsa m. The indices increase with increasing
iron content.
Cleavage. {OlO} imperfect. Irregular fractures common.
Birefringence. Strong, n y - lla = 0.035 to 0.040. Th e maximum interference color is upper second order.
Extinction. Parall el to crystal outlines and cleavage traces.
Orientation. Crystals showing cleavage are length-slow.
Interference Figure. The interference fi gure is bi axial p ositive with a
very large axial angle. The axial p lane is {00l }. Dispersion, 1" < v .
Distinguishing Features. Forsterite is an iron-free olivine and so resembles ordinary olivine b u t has somewh at lower indices of refraction.
Alteration. Forstelite is often altered to antigorite, but the secondary
magnetite so common with altered olivine is absent.
Occurrence. Forsteritc occurs for the most part in metamorphic limestones as a product of dedolomitization . Phlogopite is a common associate. Forsterite also occurs in contact-metamorphic zones, where it is
often associated with magnetite.
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, A N D RING SI 0 4 STRUCTURES
347

Form. Olivine occurs in anhedra with polygonal outlines and in phenocrysts with the characteristic outline of Figurc 8-28, which is a section
parallel to {100}.
Cleavage. Imperfect p arallel to {OlO}, irregular fractures common.
Birefringence. Strong, lly - 110: = 0.037 to 0.041; the maximum intcrference color is upper second order.
Extinction. Parallel to crystal outlines and cleavage traces.
OLIVINE
(Chrysolite)
(Mg, F c) 2Si0 4
Ort horhombic
n" = 1.651 t o 1.681

n {3 = 1.670 t o 1.706
n'"( = 1.689 to 1.718
211 = 70 0 t o 90 0 ; Opt . (+ ), also ( -)
a = 'Y or Z , b = a or X , c = {3 or Y
c
FIG. 15-3. ( X 12) Twinned olivine in dun ite. ( X ni culs.)
III III", '"
" lllI~ --'

I
I
/
,Y
I
FIr:. 15-2. Orientation d iagram of oli vine. Secti on pnrnl1cl to ( '100 ).
Orientation. Crystals showing cleavage are lcngth-slow.

Twinning. Somctimes found, but thc lamcllae are broad and nol w( ,11
denned. The tvvinnin g is probably vici nal.
Interference Figure. Thc intcrfcrc nce fi gure is usually bi,'Lxial posiliv( '
with a large axial angle, but olivin e hi gh in iron is optically n egal iv( '.
Olivine often shows a va ri a ti on in the size of the axial a ngle wiLilil1 II
single crys tal, th e an gle dcc reasin g Lowa rd th e exterior of th e crysl:iI .
Accordin g to Tomkeicfr, Lhis is cvicie ll ce or zO llill g, L1l c ouLer ZO ll l'S hvi'l g
ric he r in rayalile. Tile axial plan e is (001 } . Dispe rsioll , l ' < V.
Dislin guishin g Fealures. 'I'll( ' IlIilll 'n il Iliosl :Ipl 1(1 ho IIlislnk CIi lo r
oli vill e is di opsid c\ hili di o p ~ id, ' II II S h, 'III 'I' ('ll'nv:lgc" ohlil(" 1J /,x lill('lioli
alill SO Ii1 (lWII Il I wl'lIk( lr Ilil"l , r d ll '~I I II ( ' I \,
348
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, A N D RIN G SIO. STRUCTURES
349
monomineralic rock dunite it is the dominant mineral. It is a relict

mineral in many serpentines.
Locally, olivine may be important as a detrital mineral.
FAYALITE
(Fe,Mg) 2Si0 4
(Iron Olivine)
na
Orthorhombic
1.805 t o 1.835
= 1.838 t o 1.877
n-y = 1.847 t o 1.886
nfJ
a =
Ca )
(b)
FIG. 15-4 a,b. ( X20) Interlocking anhedral crystals of olivine in dunite. (a) Ordinary illumination and (b) X nicols.
Related Minerals. Olivine fairly rich in iron with about 50 per cent of
Fe2 SiO. is known as hyalosiderite. The indices of refraction and the birefringence are higher than those of olivine proper.
Alteration. Olivine commonly shows alteration to antigorite and secondary magnetite along irregular fractures (see Figure 16-38, page 417) .
In basaltic rocks the alteration of the outer iron-rich rims of olivine to
brownish-red iddingsite is fairly common.
Occurrence. Olivine is an exceedingly common mine ral in subsilicic
i&n eous rocks such as b asalts, olivine gabbros, and p erid otites. In the
2V = 47 t o 54; Opt . (-)

l' or Z, b = a or X, c = (3 or Y
Color. Colorless to yellowish or neutral in thin sections; it may show

faint pleochroism.
Form. In cavities fayalite is euhedral, but as a rule it occurs in anhedral crystals.
c
Cleavage. Imperfect in one direcI,
tion {OlO}.
Relief. Very high, 11 > balsam .
Birefringence. Strong, 11y - 11., =
0.042 to 0.051.
Extinction. Parallel to cleavage
traces.
010
Orientation. Cleavage traces and
I I
) .- b
crystals showing cleavage are lengthx
slow.
Twinning. Vicinal twinning with
broad lamellae seems to be characteristic of fayalite as well as of olivine.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxi al negative with a
y
moderate axial angle. The axial plane is
{00l} as in olivine. Disp ersion, T > v .
Distinguishing Features. Fayalite FIG. 15-5 .. Orientation diagram of foy alltc. SectIOn parall el to ( 100 ) .
resembles olivine in its prop erties
but may b e distinguish ed by small cr axial anglc, higher indices of rofrn ction, and optically ncgat ivc charactcr.
Alteration. Faya lite is somctim es foun d w ith gnll1 crite as an altoration
p rodu ct.
Related Mine mls. K ndw lile, a m all ga nian faya lit e, ;1I1d horl'oll olil o
( F c ,Mg,l'vln ) "Si O, lin' illl ('l'IIl('<iill t(, 1I11 'llIlw rs of tho oli v in o gr Ollp lind
Ilro simil ar lo fll )'n li l\'. ill opt i('1 1i p rop(' rl ins.
T oph roj lo , M H ~ Si ( ) " II (,I II 11' 11 ('f (ll'i Nti c' tni Hom l of tho Fl'llll klill Fll rt '"(;(,)
l,"U I J~ H ghllll
01'1)
d o p()S l i ~ . I',
ul"" NhldlllX lo fllYll l llo,
350
Occurrence. Fayalite is a rather rare mineral. It is an associate of iron

ores. Manganian fayalite, a low-grade iron ore in Tunaberg, Sweden,
occurs in a rock called eulysite, the origin of which is in doubt. It is also
found in abundance in high-temperature deposits in Santa Eulalia, Chihuahua, Mexico, according to Basil Prescott.
It is a widely distributed mineral in lithophysae of rhyolitic obsidian
accompanying cristobalite.
Fayalite is one of the most characteristic constituents of furnace slags.
MONTICELLITE
Orthorhombic
CaMgSi0 4
n"
Occurrence. j\lIonticellite is a contact-metamorphic mineral usually

found in limestones and dolomites. Large masses of monticellite constituting a veritable monticellite rock occur at Crestmore, the famous
mineral locality in Riverside County, California.
Monticellite is occasionally found in igneous rocks such as alnoite
(Bowen), polzenite (Scheumann), and nepheline basalt. In these rocks
it occurs as overgrowths or rims in parallel position on olivine.
Humite Group
Representatives of this group include humite, chondrodite, clinohumitc,
ilvaite, ardennite, and langb anite.
1.641 t o 1.651
n~
= 1. 646 to l. 662
n-y = 1.655 to l.G69
a
351
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, A N D RING S1O. STRUCTURES
CHONDRODITE
2Mg 2Si0 4 .Mg(OH,F) 2
Monocli lli(:
2V = 75 t o 80; Op t. (-)
'Y or Z, b = a or X, c = (3 or Y
L(3
n"
Monticellite is usually considered to be a member of the olivine group,

but, strictly speaking, it is a double salt.
c
I
Form. Usually in granular aggregates
of anhedral to subhedral crystals, but it
may also occur in euhedral prismatic
crystals. In some igneous rocks it is
found in rims around olivine crystals.
Cleavage. Imperfect parallel to {OlO}.
II I..
b
Birefringence. Moderate, ny - nO!
x
0.014 to 0.018; so the maximum interference color is first-order red.
Extinction. Parallel to cleavage traces
and to the main crystal outlines.
Orientation. Crystals showing cleavY
age are length-slow.
Interference Figure. The interference
figure
is biaxial with a large axial angle.
monticellite. Section parallel to
The
axial
plane is (001) as in olivine.
( 100).
Dispersion, l' > v.
Distinguishing Features. Monticellite is a rather difficult mineral to
recognize since it has no very distinctive properties. It resembles forsterite
and olivine but has weaker birefringence than either of these. It may also
be distinguished from forsterite and from most olivines by its negative
optical sign.
Alteration. Some of the Cresllnore monticellite is replaced by idoen\SQ.
= ao o
1.592 'to 1.643
n~
b=
'Y
= 1. 602 to 1. G55
n -y = l.G21 t o 1.670
211 = 70 to 90; Opt . (+)
or Z, a ;\ a or X = - 26 to - 31
Y.
0--
.r
15-7. Orientation di agram of chondrodite . T win crystal with (00 I ) as I Wio, .

plane. Section parallel to (010) .
FTG.
Color. Colorless to yellowish or brownish . Thc deep er colored varidius

arc pl eochroic from nculral lo hrown or pal e hrown lo red-hrown , ell,;.
Ft)rm . C lt onclrodiLc is com nlolIi y /'olilld ill sllhll cdra l c:r)'s w ls, which
arc O/'L (' II 1II000e or less rOli llci ('cI ;lll d ill 1;lrg<' lI lIll edl'lI . Allilo ll gh tho
rnint'l'nl is Ill ol1oclilli (', lill' 1 /1 iJulw('('1l til l) N 1111( 1 r; IIXCS is Out) (Ol'lhc)l'iloliliJi(' S)' lI gOlly) ,
352
c/
(a )
353
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING S104 STRUCTURES
Orientation. The extinction direction nearest the trace of the twinplane is the faster ray.
Twinning. Twinning, which may appear as simple twins, twin seams,
or polysynthetic twins, is rather common. The twin-plane is tOOl}. Without twinning it is very difficult to orient chondrodite. There may also be
twinning parallel to {105} and {305}.
angle. The axial plane is normal to {OlO}. Dispersion, r > v weak.
Distinguishing Features. The pleochroism usually distinguishes chondrodite from olivine.
Related Minerals. Three other minerals of the chondrodite group, viz .,
norbergite, humite, and clinohumite, are similar to chondrodite. The di stinction is based upon extinction angles and refractive indices.
Alleghanyite, the manganese analogue of chondrodite, is much lik"
chondrodite, but it is optically negative.
Occurrence. Chondrodite is one of the characteristic minerals of metumorphic limestone. It is often associated with phlogopite and spinel.
Garnet Group
to 1.7(10
to J,8Hi
1.792 to 1.820
Mg 3Ab(Si0 4) 3
P Yrope
Almandite Fe3AI 2(Si04) 3
{
Spessartite M n 3Ah(Si0 4)3
n
n
n
= 1.741
uvarovite Ca3Cr 2(Si0 4)

Grossularite Ca3AI 2(Si0 4) 3
{Andradite
Ca3Fc 2(Si0 4)
n
n
n
= 1.838
= 1.778
=
= 1.736
to 1.870
to 1.7U:1
= 1.857 Lo 1.88
(b)
15-8 a,b . ( X60) A portion of a fractured crystal of chondrodite. (a) Ordinary
illumination and (b) X nicols showing twinning.
FIGS.
Cleavage. There is often parting parallel to (001) which is due to

twinning.
Birefringence. Rather strong, n-y - no: = 0.027 to 0.035; the maximum
interference color varies from green to red of the second order for different varieties.
Extinction. The maximum extinction angle measurcd from the trace
of the twin-pl ane {00l } vari c~ from - 26 0 to - 310.
F Ir: . I !}-Dc ( X 2!) ) l)() ci lTlI it vd n ii ('I'y, l lii s
T ho s ix Illill (' r:d s

tW()
or
"r
gi ll
111'1.
111(, g: II'II( '1 )!;i'O IlJl 11('1'( ' li sl(d 11111)' he ' dll ss ilinl ill
S llh ~ r() lIp s : III( ' PYI'CIJlI " 11I1 1111d ill ' S I W S~ 1I 11 1 11 ' s('1'ii 's ( /'11 111 -" 1)!lI'/,[sp/! /'
354
355
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING S10. STRUCTURES
in polygonal grains, aggregates, and masses. Inclusions are

Cleavage. Absent, but it may have parting parallel to {llO}.
fractures are characteristic.
Relief. Very high, surface rough; n > balsam.
Birefringence. Most varieties are dark b etween crossed nicols
have weak or very weak birefringence. The birefringent areas
arranged in zones or sectors (see Figure 8-26).
frequent.
Irregular
but some
are oftcn
(a)
FIG. IS-H. ( X20) Anomalous garnet crystals from a contact JIl clamorp ili c
D arwin, California. (Cotll'tesy of Prof. Vince nt Kelle y.)
(b)
FIG. 15-10. ( X20) Anhedral garnct crystals in a quartz-plagioclase matrix. (a)
Ordinary illumination and (b) X nicols showin g isotropic character.
by Winchell) and the uvarovite-grossularite-andradite series (called
ugrandite by Winchell). It is rare to find a garnet that corresponds to

anyone of the formulae given. They are isomorphous mixtures of these
end members in varying amount. The name is assigned according to the
dominant end member present.
Color. Colorless, pale reddish, pale to dark brown, greenish gray, etc.,
in thin sections. Crystals are often zoned.
Form. Euhedral dodecahedral crystals in six-sided sections and trapezohedral crystals in eight-sided sections are common. Garnet also occurs
/ .11"1 ',
Distinguishing Features. Garnet resembles spincl, but th e la u cr O(,(' llrs

in octahedra. The different kinds of garnet may bc detennin cd by indi ('I'S
of refraction combined with the d etermination of the spccific gravi ly.
Alteration. The most common alteration product of garnct is cllioril('.
Occurrence. Garnet is esp ecially characteristic of metamorpl,i c 1'0( ' \; 1' .
It is also a very common detrital mineral. Almandite is the COIIIIIIOII
garnet of schists and gneisses. Pyrope is practically confincd to pcridol il t'S
and derived serpcntines. Grossularite and andradite arc com mOil ill ( ' 0 11
tact-mctamorphic zon cs . .Mclanitc, a dccp brown var icly of alldr;iClilt "
occurs in soda-rich igncous rocks sllch as ncphelin e sycn iles, pllOliolill'S,
ctc.
Spcssarlite is found in pegmalitcs, scl li sls, and qll ;ll'lzilcs.
Uvarovit.c, th e rnn's l of Ill e g; II"IICI S, is 1'01111<1 as ;1 s('('o ll d:lry IlIill('1'1I 1
in ('hroll1itt , all<l abo ill SOIlI( ' ('Ollll1 (' I-III(' ll1 ll1 () rplli (' '/ ,Oi Il 'S ,
(:i1rlli'l i~ ('I lilllllllil II~ i1 tidl ilill 1I1i11( 'rll l. Till ' grll ill s III', ' Oi'U'1i I'r()()v"d
(II' pi ll (,d.
356
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SI0 4 STRUCTURES
357
STAUROLITE
Orthorhombic
2AbSi0 5 .Fe(OHh
n" = 1.736 to 1.747
n fJ = 1.741 to 1.754
n-y = 1.746 to 1.762
2V = 80 to 88 ; Opt. (+ )
a = (3 or Y, b = a or X, c = l' or Z
I' y
x
(a)
FIG.
15-12. Orientation diagram of staurolite. Section parallel to (OOl).
FIGS. 15-14 a,b. ( X 20) Coarse staurolite crystals in schist. (a) Ordinary illllmillul itH,
and (~) X nicols shOWing lineation in quartz grains of the m atrix.
FIG.
15-13. ( X 20) A crystal of staurolite showin g qu artz inclusions.
Color. Pale yellow in thin sections. Pleochroism distinct from nearly

colorless to yellow-brown. Absorption: y or Z > f3 or Y > a or X . .
Form. Staurolite usually occurs in euhedral crystals of short prismatic
habit and six-sided cross section with the form {nO} and {010}.
(110 /\ flO) = 51.
111e crystal s are usually a centim eter or more lon g.

Cleavage. Inconspicuous parallel to (010).
Inclusions. Irregularly arranged inclusions of quartz are nearly always
prominent (Figure 8-29).
Birefringence. Bather weak, 11ry - n" = 0.010 to 0.015; the maximUIll
interference color is first-order yellow to red.
Extinction. Parallel in most section s, symmetrical in cross sections.
Orientation. The crystals are le ngth -slow.
Twinning. Penetrati on Lwin s willi {02,'3 } or {232} :I S Iwill -pl :lIl('s UI'( '
common, hilt polysy"lhetic lwills UI'( ' IlIlkllown. T w ilillilig is I'lIl'dy lIol/ 'd
ill Ihill s('el ions,
358

very large axi~l angle. The axial plane is {100}. Dispersion, r > v weak.
Distinguishing Features. The color, pleochroism, and quartz inclusions
are distinctive.
Occurrence. Staurolite is found as metacrysts in metamorphic rocks
such as schists, phyllites, and gneisses. Common associates are garnet,
kyanite, and sillimanite in addition to quartz.
The prescnce of staurolite proves that the original rock was a sedimentary one.
It is also a common detrital mineral.
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SIO. STRUCTURES
359
Birefringence. Extreme, ny - n O! = 0.092 to 0.141; the interference

colors are high-order white but are usually obscured by total reflection.
Extinction. On account of strong dispersion sphene does not always
show complete extinction. Rhombic sections have symmetrical extinction.
Twinning. Twins with {100} as twin-plane are sometimes present
(Figure 8-18) . Polysynthetic twinning parallel to (221) may also be
present.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a moderale
axial angle. The axial plane is {01O}. The acute bisectrix is almost norma1
to (102). Dispersion, r > v strong.
SPHENE
(Titanite)
CaTiSiO s
Monoclinic
= 6017'
L.{3
1.887 to 1.913
= 1.894 to 1.921
n')' = 1.979 to 2.054
2V = 23 to 50; Opt. ( +)
b = (3 or Y, c /\ a or X = +33 to 43
n"
n{3
I'z
=:::. . . _Q.
( .:0
15-16. ( >( 20) Euhedral sphene crystals showin g high relief, ang ula .... I,o"d,;"
sections, and prominent parting.
FIG.
111
(0)
FIG.
(b)
15-15 a,b. Orientation diagrams of sphene.
Color. Almost colorless to neutral in thin sections. Some varieties are

pleochroic in thick sections. Axial colors: a or X, nearly colorless; f3 or Y,
pale yellow to pale greenish; y or Z, yellow to red-brown.
Form. Sphene usually occurs in euhedral crystals that have an acute
rhombic cross section or in irregular grains.
Cleavage. Sphene often has prominent parting (parallel to 221) . These
parting directions are not parallel to the crystal outlines.
Distinguishing Features. Monazite is somewhat like sphen e hili 11 : I S

lower birefringence and weaker dispersion. Th e acute rhombi.c cross
sections of sphene are very characteristic.
Occurrence. Sphene is a widely distributed accessory (probahly dCll teric) mineral in grained rocks and in such metamorphic rocks as g n (' i ss ( '.~
and schists. It has probably formed at a late stage in ign eous focks .
It is not very common as a detrital min eral execpt locally, :IS ()1I UI
southern shore of Lake Tahoe, wh ere it is cl criveu from granodiorile:i.
mOC IlAsE
Ca ~A1 2 (O IT,F)Si 20
(V ('1'i 11 v iall i 1.<:)
7
'I I ,
' 1.70 I 1.0 I ,n ()
/I",
I. 70fi L() I . 7:1~

Opl,. (
T nLI'Hg()lI a\
360
Color. Colorless to neutral in thin sections. It may be pleochroic in

thick sections.
Form. Idocrase occurs in euhedral crystals, in columnar aggregates, in
anhedra with polygonal outlines, and in fine aggregates.
Cleavage. Imperfect parallel to {HO}.
Birefringence. Very w eak to weak, nw - ne = 0.004 to 0.006; interference colors are low first-order gray, sometimes normal. sometimes
anomalous gray-green, purple, or deep blue.
Orientation. Length-fast in columnar aggregates.
Interference Figure. The figure is usually uniaxial n egative but may
be biaxial with a small axial angle.
Distinguishing Features. Anomalous idocrase resembles zoisite and
clinozoisite and is often difficult to distinguish from them.
Alteration. Rarely observed.
Occurrence. The principal occurrence of idocrase is in contact-metamorphic zones. Associated minerals are gamet, diopside, wollastonite,
epidote, and calcite. Idocrase is also found in association with serpentine
as a kind of pseudojade (califomite).
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SI01 STRUCTURES
361
stronger birefringence and higher relief. It may be separated from

crushed rocks with bromoform or other heavy liquids.
Related Minerals. Malacon is the metamict alteration product of
zircon. It is an amorphous mineraloid.
Occurrence. Zircon is a widely distributed mineral in granite and other
grained igneous rocks. In some syenites it is prominent enough to furnish
the name zircon syenite. Zircon also occurs in certain metamorphic rocks.
zmCON
Tetragonal
ZrSiO.
nw = 1.925 to 1.931
n , = 1. 985 to 1. 993
Opt. (+)
Color. Colorless to pale colors in thin sections.
Form. Zircon usually occurs in minute crystals of short prismatic habit.
They are often found as inclusions and may be sun-ounded by pleochroic
haloes.
Cleavage. Absent.
Birefringence. Very strong, ne - nw = 0.060 to 0.062; the maximum
interference colors are usually pale tints of the fourth order, but minute
crystals show lower interference colors.
Orientation. Crystals are length-slow.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is uniaxial but may b e
difficult to obtain on account of the small size of the crystals.
Distinguishing Features. Zircon is distinguished from apatite by
~
o
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Scale in mm
FIc. 15-17. Sketches of zircon crystals separated from south ern Afr icall gl'll ll it('~
( Cou1tesy of Prof. A1'ie Poldervamt).
It is one of the most widespread and abundant deb'ital mineral s lw ill g

unusually resistant to destruction during erosion and d epos iti on . '1'11( \
forms of zircon crystals observed in sandstones have been SlImmnri'l.(d
by Poldervaart (1955) .
Zircon (ZrSiO.) and thorite (ThSiO.) appear to fonTI a strll ('t 111'11 1
series. Zi.rcon also alters chemically with the add ition ofU , T h, Ph, II l1d
H 2 0 accompanied by a loss in sili ca. Altcred zircon may consist of llailTOeryst.'llline aggregates whi ch h ecomo isotTopi e :lnd opa qll e. Mi llill
zircon crystals includ ed ill hiol il t! are oft ('11 S IIJ'1'Olllld e d by pkodll'olu
halos.
362
AXINITE
H(Fe,Mn)Ca 2AhB (Si0 4)4
Triclinic
na
n~
= 1.678 to l.684
= l. 685 t o 1. 692
n., = l.688 to l.696

2V = 70 to 75; Opt. (-)
IX or X almost J.. to (011)
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, A N D RING SI01 STRUCTURES
363
tact-metamorphic rock known as limurite it forms more than 50 per cent

of the rock.
IDDINGSITE
MgO.Fe20 3. 3Si0 2.4H 20
Orthorhombic
na = l.674 to l.730
n~ = l. 715 to l. 763
n., = 1.718 to l.768
2V = 25 t o 60; Opt. ( + ) or (-)
a = IX or X, b = (3 or Y, c = 'Y or Z
""".'~'?iff.
FIC.
15-18. ( X 20) Crystals of axinite forming a cluster in a matrix of calcite.
Color. Colorless to pale violet in thin sections. It may show pleochroism in thick sections.
Form. Axinite usually occurs in anhedral crystals with acute-angled
sections. Inclusions are frcqucnt.
Cleavage. Imperfect in several directions.
Birefringence. Rather weak, ny - n" = 0.010 to 0.012, a little higher
than that of quartz.
Extinction. Oblique to outlines and to cleavage traces.
angle. Dispersion, r < v or r > v.
Distinguishing Features. Axinite has no very distinctive features and is
rather difficult to recognize in thin sections. Its birefringence is like that
of quartz, but its refractive indices are considerably higher. It is biaxial,
whereas quartz is uniaxial.
Occurrence. Axinite occurs in the calcareous rocks of contact-metamorphic zones. The more common associates are in addition to quartz
and calcite, garnet and hedenbergite. Axinite is also found in granites
and granite pcgmatites. It is a comparatively rare mineral, but in a con-
FIC.
15-19. ( X 20) Iclclingsite under ordin ary illumination.
Color. Brown in thin sections. Pleochroism slight to distinct. Absorp.

tion: yOI' Z > f3 or Y > (]' or X.
Form. Iddingsite, as far as known, always occurs as partial Or corn.
plete pseudomorphs after olivine. It shows a lamellar structurc.
Cleavage. In three directions {100} , {00l}, {0l0} at right an gles. or
these {100} has the most perfect cleavage.
Birefringence.' Strong, ny - ncr = 0.038 to 0.044; th e maXil1llll1l illll 'l'ference color should be in the third order, but the color of the II Ii 1I1 'I'iII
modifies or masks the interference color.
Extinction. Parallel to the cleavagc traces.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial, eith er positivc ol'lll'gal ivo,
with a moderate axi al an glc. The ax ial plane is {() IO} . /)isp(' I'sioll,
r > v or'/' < V sll'on g.
Distinguishing Features. '1'11(' ("( 'ddi sh ])I'OWII ('o lor ;llld IlIlll('111I1' SII' II( '.
tnl'C Logc lll ('1' wilh 1110 IIIUdl ' or 111 '1'111'1'( '11 ('\1 ill', ' di sl ill('l iv( ' 1'01' iddi"gsll o.
364
Alteration. Iddingsite is sometimes found more or less altered to

limonite or indefinite hydrous iron oxides.
Occurrence. Iddingsite is found in basalts and basalt porphyries as an
alteration product of olivine. According to Ross and Shannon, it is a
deuteric or hydrothermal mineral and is not formed by weathering.
Sillimanite Family
It is useful to consider certain anhydrous aluminum silicates and
similar compounds containing fluorine or boron in a group. These are
essentially anhydrous minerals which invert to mullite, 3A1 2 0 3 .2Si0 2 at
high temperatures. Sillimanite, andalusite, and kyanite are polymorphous
forms of A1 2 0 3 .si0 2 with an alumina:silica ratio of 1: 1. Sillimanite is one
of the most widely distributed minerals of the group although kyanite,
andalusite, and topaz are common.
ANDALUSITE
(inc. Chiastolite)
AbSi0 5
(Al z0 3.8iO z)
Orthorhombic
n" = 1. 629 to 1. 640

n~ = 1. 633 to 1. 644
n-y = 1.639 to 1.647
2V = ca. 84; Opt. (-)
a = 'Y or Z, b = (3 or Y, c = IX or X
Color. Usually colorless, more rarely reddish. The colored variety is
pleochroic from rose-red ((t or X) to
I
pale green ((3 or Y) and (y or Z).
z
Form. Andalusite usually occurs in
euhedral crystals or coarse columnar
aggregates. Cross sections are nearly
square (110 :110 = 89 0 12' ). Dark iny
"" / ' ')
:> --b
clusions of carbonaceous matter are
often present and arranged symmetrically to form a kind of cross.
This variety is known as chiastolite
(Figure 8-24) .
,
Cleavage. Distinct parallel to
{110}. In cross sections the cleavage
FIG. 15-20. Orientation diagram of antraces are in two directions at apdalusite. Section parallel to (001).
proximately light angles.
Relief. Fairly high , n > halsam .
Birefringence. Rather weak, ny - n" 0.007 to 0.011, ncar th at of
quartz. Interference colors range up to first-order yellow.
365
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPL E, A N D RING SIO. STRUCTURES
Extinction. Parallel in most sections. Cross sections have symmetrical

extinction.
Orientation. Crystals of columnar aggregates are length-fast.
Interference Figure. Cross sections of crystals give a negative biaxial
figure with a very large axial angle. The axial plane is {OlO}. Dispersion,
l' > v, weak.
Distinguishing Features. Andalusite is distinguished from sillimanite
by its length-fast character, weaker birefringence, and large axial angl e.
The colored pleochroic variety resembles hypersthene, but the latter j!j
length-slow instead of length-fast.
Related Minerals. Viridine is a manganian andalusite with higher indices of refraction and stronger birefringence than those recorded here.
Alteration. Andalusite is often found altered to sillimanite, The varicly
chiastolite is usually more or less altered to sericite along the lines of in cluded carbonaceous matter.
Occurrence. Andalusite occurs in granite pegmatites and in high temperature veins. In the form of chiastolite it is a characteristic contaclmetamorphic mineral in schists, phyllites, and slates. It is a rather common and Widely distributed mineral.
SILLIMANITE
A1 2Si0 5
(Alz0 3 .Si0 2)
Orthorhombio
n" = 1.657 t o 1.661
n~ = 1.658 t o 1.670
n-y = 1.677 to 1.684
2V = 20 to 30; Opt. ( + )
a = IX or X, b = f3 or Y, c = 'Y or Z
I
'X
I')
II " " If) ~ I , O ,f""1 1I 1111 11 d llll'. " "" " I' " IIII !l IIII II I,', S"" I I""
1' 11 1Ii 11,,1 III
( 001 ) ,
367
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND lUNG SIO. STRUCTURES
MINERAL DESClUPTIONS
366
"---..
Birefringence. Moderate, ny - n" = 0.020 to 0.023; so th e interference

colors range up to second-order blue. Cross sections show very low firstorder colors since n il - n O! = 0.001 to 0.009.
Extinction. Parallel in longitudinal sections and symmetrical in cross
sections.
Orientation. Th e crystals or fibers are length-slow.
Interference Figure. On account of th e small size of the crystals, good
figures are rarely obtained. The axial plane is {01O}. Dispersion, l' > 'V
strong.
Distinguishing Features. Sillimanite is distinguished from andalusilc
by its length-slow character, stronger birefringence, and smaller axial
angle. It is even more like mullite, but the latter has higher dispersioll
of birefringence. At times it resembles apatite, but the latter is lcngtllfast and has weaker b irefringence.
Occurrence. Sillimanite is found in gneisses, schists, slates, hornfclst's,
and other metamorphic rocks. The more common associates arc corundum, andalusite, kyanite, dumortierite, and cordierite.
KYANITE
Trit:lilli'i
La = ao.') 1-/
L(3 = 101 2 '
L'Y = 10.'),1.11 ~ '
AlzSiO s
(Alz0 3 .Si0 2 )
na = 1.712
n~ = 1.720
n-y = 1.728
2V = ca. 82; Opt. ( - )
Ax. pI. almost ..L {100} ; c 1\ 'Y or Z - 30
(b)
FIG. 15-22 a,b. ( X 60) Sillimanite in elongated crystals in schist . (a) Ordinary illumination showing dark patches of biotite and (b) X nicols.
C olor. Colorless in thin sections.

Form. Sillimanite usually occurs in small, often minute, slender prismatic crystals and in a felted mass of fib ers (Figure 8-6). The crystals
are often more or less bent.
The crystals are nearly square in cross section with (llO 1\ 110) =
88 15~
Cleavage. Parallel to {010} but not always noticed in sections. Transverse fractures are common.
C olor. Colorless to p ale blu e. It may b e pleochroic in thick sections.

Form. The characteristic sections of h)'anite
(Figure 8-17) are broad elon gate platcs tahllJar
parallel to (100) and n arrow sections p arallel to
(010). Crystals are often b ent.
Cleavage. Perfect parallel Lo {lOO}, lcss p crfect
p arallel to {01O }, also cross partin g {OOl} a t
angles of 85 with thc lcngth of th e crystal s.
Relief. Hi gh , n> balsa m.
Birefringence. IVr ocl C'r:11 C , 'II)' - Il "
0.0 I (i ; 11< ' 11 ('('
intcrfe rell ce ('() I()rs 1':111 "'; <' li p I n firsl-on ln n 'd .
ExtinClion. All gl(' O il 11001 is ,tI'(i 1i1 :10 0 lVi lll
llio Ivllgl " ()f 1110 ( ' l yS I : " ~ , III o lh"I' S ('dltlll ~ JlI(ndl(, 1
1"( :.
I!) 2:1. Odllll tuttiltl
t ~l llg,l
l l1ll
S. '(' lli ll'
( 1(0 ) ,
"I
kYII IIII Il.
plll ltll nl
til
~68
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, A N D RING SIO. STRUCTURES
369
biaxial interference figure obtained from the broad sections is distinctive

for kyanite.
Occurrence. Kyanite OCCurs in schists and gneisses associated with
quartz, muscovite, garnet, staurolite, and rutile. It never occurs in
igneous rocks. It is also found as a dctrital mineral.
MULLITE
3A1 0 .2Si0
2
OrthOl'hombi l:
na = 1.642
, __ 1.
n {3
= 1.644
ny
1.G54
211 = 20 ; Opt. C+)

a = a or X, b = (3 or Y, c = 'Y or Z
FIG. 15-24. ( X20) A portion of a bladed crystal of kyanite.
'X
. I' I ')
) -b
o
Flc. 15-26. Orientation diagram of mullite. Section par;:dl cI to (00 I ).
FIG.
15-25. ( X 60) Kyanite in a matrix of quartz and muscovite. ( X nicols.)
to the c-axis the extinction angle is small, sometimes practically zero.

In cross sections the extinction is parallel or almost parallel.
Orientation. The extinction direction nearest the c-axis is the slow ray.
Twinning. Twinning is frequent; there are two common twin-laws : (1)
{lOO} = twin-plane, (2) {00l} = twin-plane.
Interference Figure. Sections cut parallel to {100} or cleavage flakes
give a negative biaxial figure with a large axial angle. The axial plane
makes an angle of 30 with the trace of the c-axis. Dispersion, l' > v,
weak.
Distinguishing Features. The extinction angle of 30 together with the
The optical constants here givcn are for th e artifi cial m in cral ; tIlt' ill
dices, birefringence, and optic angle are all a littlc high cr for tIl t' lIallll':1I
mineral.
Form. Mullite Occurs in crystals of long prismatic hahit witll 11('111'1
square cross section. 110 1\ 110 = 8913'.
Cleavage. {OlO}, distinct.
Relief. Rather high, n > b alsam.
Birefringence. Bathcr wcak, '1'Iry - 11" = 0.012; th e l11:1 xillllllll illlt 'r
ference color is about first-ord cr ycllow. Cross scct ions have dark grll )'
interferen ce colors sin ce nO - '/'I " = 0.002.
Extinction. Parallel in long itlldinal section s and sY "II1<'1ric'nl ill t 'I'()S~
sections.
OrientatiOIl. TIl( ) crys ta ls an ' It 'n~ lll - s l ()w.
Il'Itcd'cl'('lI ct..' Figw'(" Th,. fi gl'l'(' is hiax ial posili vl' wi lh II Iliod/II'HI<'
axilil HIl Klo. 'I'll" I L~ll1 l pl ll lll' is 1010 1. I H~ p " I'.~ i()II , ,. . Il.
370
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RIN G
sm.,
STRUCTURES
371
for automobiles. Mullite is also found in ordinary porcelain as minute

prismatic crystals.
DUMORTIERITE
HBAl sSi 30 20
Orthorhombic
na
1.659 to 1.678
n fJ = 1.684 to 1.691
n'Y = 1. 686 to 1. 692
2V = 20 t o 40 ; Opt. (-)
a = 'Y or Z , b = (3 or Y, C = a or X
,_ _
FIG.
A _ _ _ ~ "~~' _ _
_.
_ __
_ _.
15-27. ( X 25) A radiating cluster of mullite crystals ( artificial) .
Color. Colorless to blue, lavender, pink, or reddish . Pleochroic from

colorless to blue or colorless to reddish with the greatest absorption when
the length of the crystal is p arallel to the vibration plane of the lower nico!. Minute crystals
may not show pleochrOism.
Form. Dumortierite OCcurs in prismatic to
acicular crys tals, which often form a felt of
fib ers. Cross sections are pseudohexagonal on
account of twinnin g.
Cleavage. Imperfect p arallel to the length.
There are also cross fractures.
0-Relief. High, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Rather weak to moderate,
ny - n ",
0.011 to 0.020; so the maximum interference color varies from orange of the first
order up to blue of the secon d order.
FIG. 15-29. OricnlaliOIl
diagram of dumorlicr.ilc.
Twinning. Cross sections are sometimes pene- Sectio n parallel to (0 I0).
tration trillings with {1l0} as th e twin-plane.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is biaxial negative willi a
moderate axial angle, but on account of the small size of th e crysta ls il
may b e difficult to obtain. The axial plane is {OlO}. DisperSion, l' < I)
or l' > v.
Distinguishing Features. Dumortierite resembles some varieli es 01
tourmaline, but the grea ter absorption .is man ifest wh en th e cryslals arc
parallel to the vibra tion plane of th e lower nicol instead of normal lo lhal
direction. Non-pleochroic dumorticri te resembl es sillimanite, but lbn
latter is length-slow.
Alteration . D l1l11orlicrite is somel im es mOre 0 1' less :i1I (' rcd to scricile'.
FIG .
"
15-28. ( X20) Bladed crystals of mullite (artificial X nicols).
Distinguishing Features. Mullite is so much like sillimanite in its properties that it was not recognized as a distinct mineral until about two decades ago . The refractive indices of sillimanite are a little higher than
those of mullite.
Occurrence. Mullite occurs in fused argillaceous sediments found as
inclusions (xenoliths) in igneous intrusions. Mullite is a very rare mineral
found on the island of Mull off the west coast of Scotland.
Artificial Mullile. Artificial mullite is the substance formed by heating
sillimanite, andalusite, or kyanite to a high temperature. It is used in the
manufacture of high-grade porcelains such as those used in spark plugs
OCCIII'I'Clice.
g n cisses,
il lld
DIIIII()rl i(' l'il ('

o ll J('!,
O( '(' II I'S
111( 'I II IIIOll)IIi ('
ill
g l':llIil ('
p eglll :! 1il ('s,
Scili sl s,
!'ock s, 'I'll(' ( '(111 11111111 :l ss ()(' i :iI ('S lI r o
MINERAL DESClUPTIONS
37:i.
SILICATr.s : SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SI0 4 STRUCTURES
373
'X
'\..
c=Z
~"o
/i?c .. --
120
I
FIe:. 1.5-32. Orientation diagra m of topaz. Section parallel to (001) .
FIG. 15-30. ( X50) Crystals of uumorticritc in a matrix of sericite .

1
1
,
,t .
.
l _
...,
f\
..
J
-
?-
..:-.- ~
..
, .
FIr.. 15-33 . (X20 ) An hed ral crystals of topaz. ( X nicols. )
' n
FIG. 15-31. ( X 25) Euhedral crystals of clull1orticritc.
quartz,
rutile.
muscovite,
tourmaline,
andalusite,
sillimanite,
topaz,
and
TOPAZ
Orthorhombic
Ah(F, nH) ,Si0 4
= 1.607 to ] .52\)
= 1.610 t o ] .531
n~ = 1.517 to 1.5:i8
2fT = 4'3 Lo 5S o ; Opt. ( + )
or X, /) = (3 or Y, c = ' y or Z
na
n~

Form. Topaz appears in euhedral crystals of short prismatic habit, in
anhedral grains, and in columnar aggregates. Negative crystals wilh
Auid inclusions and gas bubbles are not uncommon.
Cleavage. Pedect in one direction parallel to {001}.
Relief. Fairly high , 11. > balsam.
Birefringence. Rather weak, 11.-y - 11." = o.om to 0.010, about th e sa m
as that of CJuartz. Interference col ors arc gray, white, or straw yel low oJ
the Rrst order. Cleavage fl akes show vcry weak hirefrin genee sin ce
n{3 11 " -= 0.003.
Extin ctioll. Parall el in lon gilll d in al seclions and sy mm elri cal in basa l
sec I ions.
Oriellialion . C h ' :l v: I!!(' lr:I('('S : 11'( ' p :lr:t1 I(' ll o li t(' r: I ~ I( ' r r:l y .
374
Interference Figure. Cleavage flakes and basal sections give a oiaxial

positive figure with a rather large axial angle. The axial plane is {OlO} .
Dispersion, l' > v distinct.
Distinguishing Features. Topaz resembles quartz but has higher relief, is biaxial, and has perfect cleavage.
Alteration. To muscovite or sericite is not uncommon.
Occurrence. Topaz occurs in high-temperature veins, in granite pegmatites, and occasionally in rhyolites. Associated minerals are tourmaline,
fluorite, cassiterite (wood tin in the rhyolite occurrences) , and muscovite.
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SIO., STRUCTURES
375
Twinning. Polysynthetic twinning with {HO} as twin-plane is rather

common. The lamellae are usually thin, may be in cither one or two directions, and are sometimes curved.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a very large
axial angle. The axial plane is {OlO}. Dispersion, l' > V strong.
MULTIPLE SiO. STRUCTURES-SOROSILICATES

LAWSONITE
H 4 CaAhSi 20 1o
Orthorhombic
na = 1.665
n{3 = 1.674
n'Y = 1.684
211 = 84; Opt. (+)
a = a or X, b = (3 or Y, c =
'Y
or Z
!x
~.,
FIG.
I'vi<l 'bO
'- b
a
FIG. 15-34. Orientation diagram of lawsonite. Section parallel to (001).
Color. Colorless in thin sections. It may be pleochroic in very thick

sections.
Form. Lawsonite occurs in euhedral crystals of varying habit. Sections
are usually rhombic (nO 1\ 110 = 67 ) or rectangular.
Cleavage. Good parallel to {OlO} and {001}, fair parallel to {HO}.
Birefringence. Moderate, n-y - na = 0.019; so the interference colors
Extinction. Parallel or symmetrical.
Orientation. The long diagonal of rhombi c sections is parall el to the
slowcr my.
15-35. ( X20) A melacryst or porphyroblast of lawsonite in chlorite.
Distinguishing Features. Clinozoisite somewhat resembles lawsonile,

but the anomalous interfcrcnce colors distinguish it. Prehnite may al so he
mistaken for lawsonite, but its birefringcncc is higher.
Occurrence. The characteristic occurrcnce of lawsonite is in m cla morphic rocks such as glaucophane schists. It is also found in gahhr()s
and diorites as the result of incipient metamorphism. Th e type locality is
Tiburon Peninsula on San Francisco Bay, California, but it has also b O(' 11
found in Italy, Corsica, and New Caledonia. The usual associatcs or
lawsonite are muscovite, glaucophane, garnet, and sphene.
6-UNIT RING STnUCTURES-CYCLOSILICATES
BERYL
n cx :\,g() II nl
(lIcxagonnl SUl li;.\'Ii I,.,," )
Be3Ah(Si0 3) 6
n, = 1. 564 to 1.590
nw = 1. 568 to 1. 5D8
Opt. ( - )
Color. Colorl ess in lliin section s. In thi ck ()r i(' lIl('(l s('cti olls ('olor('(l
varic li ('s SII (' II as ( ' 111( ' 1'111<1 III'( ' SOIlI ('wll :il pl ('o(' l,roi( "
376
377
SILICATES: SIN GLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SI0 4 STRUCTURES
Orientation. Crystal sections are length-fast.

Interference Figure. Basal sections give a negative uniaxial figure
without any rings. The cross may show a sli ght opening in certain areas.
Distinguishing Features. Beryl resembles apatite, but the latter has
higher indices of refraction . From quartz it is distinguished by its lengthfast character and optical sign.
Alteration. It is sometimes altered to kaolin.
Occurrence. The principal occurrcnce of b eryl is in granite p egmatites.
It is also found in mica schists and in veins in limcstone associated with
albite.
Tourmaline Group
Three minerals are prominent in t he tourm aline group :
15-36.
elusions.
FIG.
Beryl crystals showing hexagonal outlines accentuatcd by in-
Sehorlite (Iron T ourmaline)

N aFe3B 3AhCOH) 4(AhSiG0 27)
Dravite (Magnesium Tourm aline)
NaM gaB 3Ala(OH) 4(A bSiG0 27)
Elbaite (Alkali Tourmalin e)
Na2LbB GAI9(OII) s(AlaSiG0 27) 2
Schorli te
n , = 1. 628 t o 1. 658
nw = 1.652 to 1.608
Opt. (-)
FIG.
D ravite
n , = 1. 61 3 to 1.628
nw = 1.632 to 1.655
Opt . ( -)
Hexagonal
(Rhombohedral subsys tem)
Elbaite
n, = 1.615 to 1.62!J
nw = 1.635 to 1.65 <":
Opt. ( - )
15-37. (X20 ) A granular aggrega te of beryl and top az. ( X nicols.)
Form. Beryl usually occurs in rather large crystals of prismatic habit,

occasionally in small, slender prisms, and also in massive form. Liquid
inclusions with gas bubbles in six-sided negative crystals are common in
oriented sections.
Cleavage. Imperfect parallel to (0001) , not usually seen in thin sections.
Relief. Moderate, n > balsam .
Birefringence. vVeak, nw - ne = 0.004 to 0.008; interfcrcnce colors
are gray, white, or sh'aw yellow of the first ordcr.
Extinction. Lon gitudinal sce Lion s have parall el ex tin cti on. Basal sec
lions arc cbrkin all positions.
15-38. ( x 50) Secti ons ac ross and lengthwise cut th rou gh elonga tc
crystals in a qu artz m atri x.
FIG.
l Olll'lllofill (l
Color. Schorlitc is m'lllral gray, slalc hltIC, hillr, oli ve, elc. Pko('ll roi slll
is lI sll ally ma rked '" > {. Zon a l Stl'll ctlll'( ' is ( 'O Jll I I IOIl ill ('ross scc tion s.
Drav i[c is c'o lorl l'ss 10 P:"( ' v(II o", i ll Illill s('(' tiom 111111 S() llIt '1V 1111[ plt '()
378
chroic with absorption: w > L Elbaite is colorless, but thick sections

may show pleochroism: , colorless; w, pink, pale green, or pale blue.
Form. Schorlite occurs in prismatic crystals and may form columnar or
fibrous radiating aggregates. Spherulitic aggrcgates of elbaite known as
tourmaline suns characterize luxullianite, a tourmalinized granite from
Cornwall ( Figure 8-14). Cross sections of tourmaline crystals may be
triangular with curved convex sides, or hexagonal. Dravite crystals are
generally large.
Cleavage. Absent but irregular fractures are common.
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SIO, STRUCTURES
379
blende. Both of these have p erfect cleavage, which is lacking in tourmaline. Elongate habit, p arallel extinction, strong absorption, and triangular or hexagonal cross sections are significant.
Occurrence. Schorlite reachcs its maximum developmcnt in granite
pegmatites. It is also found in tourmalinized granites, in greisen, and in
high-temperature veins, wh ere it is often associated with cassiterite. It is
also characteristic of celtain schists and gneisses and is frequently found
in hornfelses. It is a widely distributed detrital mineral, both in fragmentary prisms and well-rounded grains.
D ravite usually occurs in metamorphic limestones. It is also found in
some schists.
Elbaite occurs in granite p egmatites. The usual associates are lepidolite, albite, and quartz.
CORDIERITE
Mg2Al 4Si 5018
(Iolite)
Orthorhombic
(Pse udohexagonaI)
= 1.532 to 1.552
= 1.536 to 1.562
n'Y = 1.539 to 1.570
na
n~
2V = 40 to 80; Opt . (-) or (+)

= (3 or Y, b = l' or Z, C = a or X
FIG. 15-39. (X20) A section of a single tourmaline crystal in a matrix of quartz and
feldspar. ( X nicols.)

Birefringence. Mod erate to strong (schorlite) or modcrate (dravitc
and elbaite). Cross sections show no birefringence. Schorlite nw - n" =
0.022 to 0.040, usually about 0.025. Dravite nw - 11e = 0.019 to 0.025.
Elbaite nw - n" = 0.015 to 0.023.
Extinction. Parallel in most sections. Cross sections remain dark on
rotation.
Orientation. Crystals are length-fast. Interference colors in sch orlite
may be masked by natural color.
Interference Figure. Basal sections give a n egative uniaxial figure with
an e or two rings.
Distinguishing Features. Among the members of the tourmaline group
schorlite shows ' the strongest absorption normal to the plane of the
polarizer. Dravite is ordinarily colorless to pale yellow. Elbaite may b e
colorless, pink, pale green, or p ale blu e.
Of the more common min crals schorlite rcscmbles biotite and horn -
Color. Colorless in thin sections. Very thick sections are pleocluoic.

X, yellow; f3 or Y, dark violet or blue; y or Z, pale blue or violet.
Absorption : f3 or Y> y or Z> a
or X.
Form. The characteristic form of
cordierite is in ps eudoh exagonal
crystals of short prismatic habit.
01 0
These crystals are p enetration twins.
OJ 1 .. 1) 1 -- - - -b
Cordierite also occurs in anhedra
and anhedral aggregates.
Inclusions. Common; these are
often surrounded by pleochrOic
0 10
halos.
Cleavage. Imperfect p arallel to
FIG. 15-40. Orientation diagrn l11 of eo r(010) , but it may not show in sec- di
erite. Section of twin -erystn l pnrall el to
tions. Parting parallel to {001} that (001) . The twin-plane is {100}.
is clu c to alteration.
nelicf. Low, n e ith er a lilll e less Or a li ttl e g reater than balsa m.
Birefringence. HallIC.: r weak, lI y - '1/ " - 0.007 lo 0,0 11 , aho ll t th e samo
as l!t al or q ll arl :!,; 11 ('11('<: Il la x illllllll ill!< ,r!'('I'\' II ('(' co lors 11 1'(' II sll :tlly aboul
a or
slra w y ('lI ow of II I(' nrsl or<i<'l'.
MINERAL DESCRIPTION !5
380
Extinction. Parallel to crystal outlines.

Twinning. The pseudohexagonal crystals are penetration twins with
{HO} as twin-plane. Twin-lamellae are also often present.
Interference Figure. The figure is usually biaxial negative with a variable axial angle. Optically positive cordierite has been described from
several localities. The axial plane is {100}. Dispersion, l' < v weak.
Distinguishing Features. Cordierite is one of the few minerals that is
easily mistaken for quartz. It is biaxial with a moderate to large axial
angle and often shows twinning (either penetration or polysynthetic) .
SILICATES: SINGLE, MULTIPLE, AND RING SI0 4 STRUCTURES
381
FIG. 15-42. Orientation diagram of wollastonite. Section parallel to (010) .
FIG .
15-41. ( x 20) Cordierite showing twinnin g. ( X ni cols. )
Alteration. Cordierite is usually more or less altered to sericite (pinite) ,

chlorite, talc, or indefinite silicates.
Occurrence. Cordierite is a typical metamorphic mineral. It is found
in gneisses and schists, often at the contact with persilicic igneous rocks .
Sillimanite is a common associate. It is a characteristic mineral of hornfels. Rarely is it found in igneous rocks as an endomorphic mineral.
WOLLASTONITE
Triclinic
CaSi0 3
La
= 900'
L{3
= 9516'
= 10322'
L 'Y
n" = 1.620
n f3
1.632
n . ,. = 1.634
2V = ca. 39; Opt. ( - )
b a lmost II to (3 or Y, c 1\ a or X
+:320

Form. Wollastonite usually appears in columnar or fibrous aggrcgnks.
The cross sections are nearly rectangular.
Cleavage. In several directions in the zone [010]; perfect parall(,1 !o
(100), less perfect (001) and (102) and imperfect (101) and (TO!) .
Birefringence. Rather weak, ny - na = 0.014; the maximum intl'l'
ference color is about orange of the first order. Longitudinal SO(! iOll s
show gray or white interference colors.
Extinction. Parallel or almost parallel in longitudinal sections, oh liqll( '
in cross sections.
Orientation. Longitudinal sections are either length -slow Or 1( 'lI glll
fast since the elongation is in the direction of the b-axis and b = fJ or ) .
Twinning. Twins with {100} as twin-plane are known.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial negative with a modl 'nil( '
axial angle. Since the axial plane is almost parallel to {OlO}, tk fi glll'(
lies normal to the length of the crystals. Dispersion, l' > v w cak.
Distinguishing Features. Tremolite greatly resembles wolb slorlill '
not only in hand specimens but in thin sections as well. Trcmolil o, how
ever, has oblique extinction and the typical amphibole cross scc! iOIl IIlId
cleavage. In tremolite the interference figure lies along the lcn!lh of 1111
crystal; in wollastonite it lies almost normal to the length.
Related Minerals. CaSi0 3 is trimorphous. In addition !o (1'Ieiilll<:
wollastonite, there are also parawollastonite (Pcacock) , whi ch is mOllOclinic, and the high-temperature modJication \;all cd p scliclowollas(olll(I '
(Rankin and Wright) . The uniaxia 1 pse lldowollastonit~! hil S 1>('(' 11 (\( ' .
scribed as a natural min eral in Pcrsia : McLintock ) .
Pcctolite [JINaCa. (SiOu) u] is much like woll ustollilc in sorno of li s
properties.
382
ML'<ERAL DESCRIPTIONS
CHAPTER
16
Silicates: Sheet StTuctUl'es and MineTaloids
MICA GROUP
FIG .
(X
15-43. ( X20) \'Vollastonitc showing elongatcu crystals in a

nicols.)
aggregate.
Occurrence. Wollastonite occurs in contact-mctamorphic zones, in

some schists and gneisses, and in limestone inclusions in volcanic rocks
(para wollastonite) .
REFERENCES
Olivine Group
Bowen, N. L., and J. F. Schairer: The Svstem, MgO-FeO-SiO" Am. ]. Sci. , vol.
29, p. 197, 1935.
D eer, W. A. , and L. R. W age r: Olivines from the Skaergaard Intrusion. Kangerdlugssuak, E ast Grcenlan d, Am. Mine'/'alogist, vol. 24, pp . 18-25, 1939.
Zircon
Frondel, C.: Hydroxyl Substitution in Thorite and Zircon, Am. Min eralogist,
vol. 38, pp. 1007-1018, 1953.
Poldervaa rt, A.: Zircons in rocks, Am. ]. Sci., vol. 253, pp. 433-461 , 1955.
CLAY MINERAL GROUP
Muscovite
Lepidolite
Phlogopite
Biotite
Kaolinite
Dickite
Halloysite
:M ontmorillonite
Hydromuscovite
Palygorskite
Sepiolite
CHLOlUTE GROUP
Proehlorite
Clinochlore
Penninite
Chamosite
SEHPENTINE CHOUP
Antigorite
Chrysotile
BRITTLE ]VIICA GROUP
Stilpnomelane
Chloritoid
PREI-INITE
GLAUCONITE
TALC
PYHOPIIYLLITE
MINEHALOIDS
Volcanic Glass
Palagonitc
SHEET STRUCTURES (PHYLLOSILICATES)
Minerals with sheet structures range from thc largc clcavahl( ' s ll('( \ I.~
of muscovite to the nne flaky crystals of clay mincrals fr('CjII( 'lIll y " ,
vealed only with the electron microscope. Scveral min('r:ds II lid sllow
tubular structure with th e elecLron mi croscop e and a rc no! fOlllid I"
single crystals suitable for X-ray mcasurcl11cnt may no t hcloll g ill :1 g,'olll'
of phyllosilicates. On the other hanel , sli ch mineral s :IS p:dygorsk il\- II lId
sepiolite show an association w iLh clay nlilwrals alld for lilis I"( lil SOIl III '"
inclmled in lhis g roup .
Two exam ples or mincr:doid s ~ II'\' g iv( '11 :11 III(' ('lId of C I':lpll 'l' 1(1, vo l
Clin ic gln ss IIl1d pnl ngo ll il(', Ilo!11 111'\' S(l lll\ \wllli l illdl'fillil( ' ill ('olllp()~1 1 lOll
a od show II I'II11g< ' ill Pl'op"II I, 's,
:111:1
384
MINERAL DESCRIPTIO NS
The Mica GrQup

The micas constitute a well-defined group of silicates of aluminum
together with the alkalies, magnesium, and ferrous iron. They ar) characterized by perfect cleavage in one direction {00l } and by strong birefringence. The extinction angles of sections cut nonnal to the cleavage
are small or practically zero. They may b e divided into two classes depending upon whether the optic axial plane is (1) normal to or (2) parallel to {OlO} ( see Figures 16-1 and 16-2 ). Muscovite and lepidolite belong to the first class, and phlogopite and biotite to the second. All the
micas are optically negative.
,,
')"" "l.,""(
~
I
I
...........
,,
,,;
.............
",,/ ~
........
"
.........
I
I
I
FIG. 16-1.
FIG. 16-2.
FIG. 16-1. Mica of the first class. The dotted lines rep resent the "perCUSSion figure."
FIG. 16-2. Mica of the second class.
The micas are pseudohexagonal monoclinic. Structural studies show

that the sheetlike arrangement of the atoms in mica p ermits intervals of
rotation of 60 in the basal plane. This allows stacking of adjacent
(AISiaO lO ) tetrahedral sheets in a fixed series of alternative positions,
summarized by Smith and Yoder (1956) as follows:
MICA
1M
20
3T
n",
2V
ny
nil
Structural
nom enclature *
Chemical
composition
Mineral
,
...... "" ....... .... . . . ,
-","I ..........
I
,
... "'"
THE MICA GROUP
......
'
*
The 20 and 6H polymorphs have not been found in nature, but others
have b een identified as constituents of clay aggregates or zones of
argillic alteration.
Through mineral synthesis and X-ray study it has b een shown (Yoder
and Eugster, 1955) that muscovite is restricted in conditions of formation
below a range of 625 to 715C and 5,000 to 30,000 pounds per sq~arc
inch pressure. Thus the mineral is absent in rocks formed at higher temperatures.
Lepidomelane is the name given to iron-rich biotite. Fuchsite and
mariposite are green chromium-bearing varieties of muscovite. Sericile
is a secondary muscovite found in minute shreds and aggregates and
formed by hydrothermal alteration.
385
SILICATES : SHEET STRUCTURES AND M I NERALOIDS
O'
180'
120 0 or 240 0
(Mirror images)
2M t
120 0 or 240 0
(Alternating)
6H
60 0 or 300 0
(Mirror images)
2M .
60 0 or 300 0
* M, 0, T, and H represent , respectively , monoclinic,
hexago na l.
{ 1. 556
1.570
Hydromuscovit.e ..... . .. .
KAI
{ I 535
1 570
Lepidolite ... . ..... .. . . . .
K LiAI
Phlogop ite . . . . .. ... . .. ..
KMgAI
Biotite . ..... . . . .. . .. ..... KMg,FeAI
Ccm2 t
P3 t 12 or P 3.12
C'/ e
orthorhom'bw, tr igonal, and
30' - 10"
.. .. .
1 565 }
1 605
smnli
1 . 560
1 . 598
1 . 605
110 0
{ 1. 551
1.562
1 . 598
1.606
1 .598
1 . 606
0 0 Ion
{1. 541
1 .579
1.574
1 . 638
1 . 574 }
1 .638
... ..
0 :.!lio
Mono<;lilli<;
(3 = H!) Olitl
(inc. Sericite)
1o)
= 1.556 to 1.570
= 1.587 to 1.607
ny = 1.593 to 1.61 1
2V = 30 0 to 40 0 ; Opt. ( - )
= 'Y or Z, a A (3 or Y, = +] to
nil
C' /m
P6 t 22 or P6 5 22
1.593 }
1.611
n ",
Space group
C' / e
1 . 587
1.607
MUSCOVITE
KA1 2 (OH) 2(AISi 30
POLYMORPHS
Rotation on
basal plane
. . . . . . . . . KAI
Muscovite ...
+~o
Color. Co lorle ss lo palc g ree n in Lilin secli olls. SOIlH ' vur i(t lts Hl'c
p leoch roi C"
Form. !\1l lsl'ovi ll ' " slI :dl y O('('III'S ill tli ill tll hlli ar I'r)'S I II IS or III S(,1l I
a gg rq~lIt\s or sllI(,(\s. T llc ' IlIi llll".ly (' I'ys tnltill o VIlI'i('( is l 'l dl l ,t! .Wl'Id( I ' ,
CI(mvHt-:0' III Oli n d ln 'I 'IIIHI (001 1 VC'I ), P( II r(( l.
"
386
SILICATES; SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINERALOIDS
387
'y
c
,-3
-;/ I
c =X
-+--
00'
E""= . _ ===:d
I .. - - b
x
10
(0)
(b)
FIG. 16-3 a,17. Orientation diagrams of muscovite. Sections (a) parallel to (001 )
and (b) parallel to (010) .
FIG. 16-5. (X30) Muscovite crystals showing alignment in a quartz-mica scllis!.

( X nicols.)
,..
16-4. ( X 30) A portion of a muscovite crystal. The crystal is slightly distorted

as shown by the curved cleavage. (X nicols.)
FIG .
Relief. Not marked, n > balsam. On rotation there is some change of

relief, fair when the cleavage traces are parallel to the vibration plane of
the lower nicol and low in a position at right angles to this.
Birefringence. Strong, n y - n il! = 0.037 to 0.041; h ence the highes t interference colors are upper second order. Sections parallel to the cleavage
give first-order colors since ny - n il = 0.004 to 0.006.
Extinction. The extinction is as a rule practically parallel to the cleavage traces, but it is often possible to find angles as high as 2 or 3 .
Orientation. The direction of th e cleavage traces is always the slower
ray.
Twinning. Twinning according to th e mica law [tWin-plane = {UO}
and composition face = (001)] is fairly common. It may b e detected by
slight differences in interference colors as well as by extinction angles.
FIG. 16-6. ( X IO) Sericite in a Rne aggregate surroulluin g Cj ll a rl z . ( X lIi('ok)
Interference Figure. Sections parallcl to {001} or cleavage li lll-, 'S g ivo

a biaxial negative figure with a modera te axial angle. Disp e rsioll, I' ~ . I)
weak. The axial plane is normal to {Olo} .
Distinguishing Features. Tal c is so similar lo rnll scovilc and pyl'op llyllite in its optical properties lhat it is dislingllis ll ('(i willr diffi c,dt y. 'I'll!
axial an gle of lalc .is smaller. Il may h e n (,c(,ss~lry to IlIal-, ' : 1 IIli (, ro(' lll'lId
cal lcs l for IlIa gncs iutn (IIS(' N: I"(;O,, i'II SiOII ) ill !)rd,'r 10 cliff('n' llll ll le l
th em.
H(llnled Millt'l'lIls. Il ydl'olllll s('()vile ' is \wry sllldl ll!' II) 111 1) sor1dl o VlIl'le;l\,
or 1l1lIS(OV/to.
388
:!-.1:INERAL
._- --- - - - - -
-- _..
DESCRIPTION~
389
SILICATES: SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINERALOIDS
'r
I
Z
C=X
) --b
-E'
--Ej
t,o_,o '"
I
y
b =Z
ItX
io
(0)
( b)
16-8 a,b. Orientation diagrams of lepidolite. Sections (a) p arallel to (00 I )

and (b) parallel to (OlD ) .
FIG.
FIG.
16-7. ( X 10) A network of sericite veinlcts cutting quartz. ( X nicols. )
Occurrence. Muscovite is very common in metamorphic rocks such as

phyllites, schists, and gneisses. It is found in some granites and reaches
its maximum development in granite pegmatites. It is common as a
detrital mineral, especially in arkoses.
Sericite. Sericite occurs in minute shreds and is a secondary mineral
formed by hydrothermal alteration of silicates, especially the feldspars.
In the opinion of A. F. Rogers, it is in all probability a late hydrothermal mineral. Sericite also occurs as a constituent of schists, phyllites,
and slates.
Hydromuscovite. For a description of hydromuscovite, see page 413.
LEPIDOLITE
LiKAb(OH,F)2(Si 20 6) 2
Monoclinic
n" = 1.560
n~ = 1.598
n-y = 1.605
2V = 40 ; Opt . (-)

Form. Lepidolite usually occurs in thick tabular or short prismatic
pseudohexagonal crystals.
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {001}.
Birefringence. Strong, 1Iry - n" = 0.045; hence interference colors
i'ange up to the middle of the third order. Sections parallel to the cleavage (including cleavage flakes) h ave weak double refraction 1Iry - n fj =
0.007).
FIG. 16-9. (X20) L epidolite cut parallel to cleavage in a pl ag ioclase

nicols. )
IIl lI llh .
(X
Extinction. The e;,,'tinction angle measured against the d c.wa g( 11'11 ( ' ( ':;
varies from zero up to a maximum of 6 or 7 .
Orientation. The direction of the cleavage trace is alwa ys Ill(' slow('r
ray.
Twinning. Twinnin g is common accordin g to til e lI1i (';I law Il will
plane = {llO} ], th e composition fa ce h ein g {OOI) . SOlll('lillJ('S [1i"I '( ' 111'0
p enetration twin s.
Interference Figure. T he figlll'c is bi ax i.ul nega livo w ill i U ul()(.lornlo
axial angle, usually a bout 4()0. Disr ol'sion , l' > v woak.
390
391
Distinguishing Features. Lepidolite is very similar to muscovite in its

optical properties but has a larger extinction angle. It may be necessary
to use some non-optical test to distinguish them. (Lepidolite is easily
fusible and gives a lithium flame. )
Related Minerals. Zinnwaldite is a lithium-iron mica also found in tinstone veins and granite pegmatites.
Occurrence. Lepidolite occurs in granite pegmatites, in some higntemperature veins, and occasionally in granites. The usual associates are
tourmaline (especially elbaite), albite, topaz, beryl, spodumene, and
quartz.
PHLOGOPITE
KMg 3AI(OH)Si 4 0 1o
Monoclinic
L.(3
= 90 0
net = l.551 t o l.562

n il = l.598 to l.606
n'Y = l.598 to l.606
211 = 0 0 to 10 0 ; Opt. (-)
b = (3 or Y
16-11. ( X30) Elongated sections of phlogopite cut through tabular CI'VSlllh,.

(X nicols.)
FIG.
'2
!
y
I ) --b
--c=X
0-- (
~--:= b~. ~
~)Z
.X
I
10
FIG.
(0)
(b)
16-10 a,b. Orientation diagrams of phlogopite.

FIG.
Color. Pale brown to colorless in thin sections. Slightly pleochroic.

Form. Phlogopite is found in six-sided thick tabular to short prismatic
crystals.
Cleavage. In one direction {00l} as with the other micas.
Birefringence. Strong, ny - n" = 0.044 to 0.047; the maximum interference color is about the middle of the third order. Sections parallel to
{OOl}, which include cleavage flakes, have very weak birefringence since
ny - nil is very small (0.000x).
Extinction. Extinction is usually parallel to the cleavage, but sometimes the extincti.on angle is as much as 50.
16-12. ( X lO) Scattered crystals of phlogopilC in limCSlonc. ( X lI i('(,k)
Orientation. The cleavage traces are parallel to th e slower ray .

Twinning. Though often prescnt, is not consp icllollS. Il Iliay IH ' 1'(,(,0 1',
nized by differences in interference colors of adjacG"l parls or II l'I' VSIIl I
as well as by extinction angles.
Interfercnce Figmc. Basal sections, wld ch also inclilcl o CI(';IVllgl' 11 11\-" \ ,
give a negative interference RglII'e that is e illt er hia xi;d wi lit II V( 'I'Y ~ lIl l dl
anglo or pra cli cally IlIlia xial. Dispcl'sioll , '/' > I/, w(ak.
Dislillgllishillg FClllmcs. Pldog() pil( ' is di slill g'lisll! 'ci fro II I Il lolll" hy
li ghlvr l'o lo l' IllId \v(':d, ('I' Ilbsol'p li()lI . Co l orl('s~ I'ldogo l'il n Is 11\\1( ,11 111((1
IIIII HC() Vlt ll lHIII!! IIY btl d isli!l I'. ldslll'd Ily ll.~ SIII IIII !'!' II Xlll l ll llg lil. _
392
393
Occurrence. The characteristic OCCUTI"ence of phlogopite is in metamorphic limestones. The common associates are chondrodite, spinel, and
forsterite. It is also found in a few igneous rocks such as peridotites, derived from serpentines, and leucite-bearing rocks.
BIOTITE
K 2(Mg,Fe) 2(OH) 2(AlSi 30 1o)

na
Monoclinic
L{3 = 90
= 1.541 to 1.579
n~ =
n"(
1.574 to 1.638
= 1.574 to 1.038
2V = 0 to 25; Op t. (-)
b = {3 or Y, c 1\ a or X = 3
'Z
FIG. 16-14. ( X30) Biotite in positions of illumination (gray crystal showing

and absorp tion (black) associated with zircon (high relief).
clc avll ~t) )
DID
I . -b
c =X
1
0 -- (
b-
b/
001
:::::::::::=l Z
x.
to
(0)
(b)
16-13 a,b. Orientation diagrams of biotite. Sections (a) parallel to (001) and
(b) parallel to (OlD).
FIG.
Color. Brown, yellowish brown, reddish brown, olive green, or green

in thin sections. Pleochroic. The absorption is stronger when the cleavage
traces are parallel to the vibration plane of the lower nicol.
Form. Common in euhedral six-sided crystals that are usually tabular
in habit; also in lamellar aggregates. The plates are sometimes bent.
Inclusions. Inclusions of such Ininerals as zircon surrounded by pleochroic halos are fairly common in biotite.
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {Ool}. Sections cut parallel to {001}
do not show any cleavage. In schistose rocks these sections predominate.
Birefringence. Strong, ny - na = 0.033 to 0.059; interference colors
range up to second-order red, but the color of the mineral may mask the
interference color. The birefringence of sections parallel to {001} is practically nil since ny - n i3 = 0.000x.
Extinction. Usually parallel to the cleavage traccs, but the oxtin ction
angle may b e as mu ch as 3 in ~omc ~cc tion s. Bell t plates ha vo wavy ('X
FIG.
16-15. ( x30 ) Biotitc showin g halos around minute radioacliw
CO,, " .
tinction. Near the extinction position a peculiar crinkl y appl"ilnIIlVl ' Is

usually noticed in biotite.
Orientation. Th e direction of th c cl eavage tra cc~ i ~ a lwa ys till" slow('1"
ray.
Twinning. Twillning acco l"dill g 10 the mi ca \:tw Ilwill -]> I:III('
111011
mily he prese lll.
III(('rl"('I"('II(;C l i i ~ III"( . S('l"Iio ll s pill":III (' 1 II I IO() II , ill (' lll<lill l!: (II IIV IIj..(1'
Ibk( s, l!: iv<I iI 1I0gil li v,' hi il\ i:iI li g ll l'(' w illi :I vl'I'y SllI il lI :"illl IIl1 g l(" 'I'll<'
/lxilll ]>11111(' is 11,\ ll lI lI y fl llI'l d"" to 10101 , IIiIt Is 11()1I11 11 1 til j(HOI 111 11111 \
\1111'10 1" (1I 1111111 11( \) . 1) /0. ]1"1 , 1.)11 . I' II Ill' "
il w('l iI<.
394
Distinguishing Features. Biotite is distinguished from phlogopite by

its darker color and stronger absorption. From ordinary brown hornblende it is distinguished by the smaller extinction angle and difference
in cleavage. L amprobolite also has the typical amphibole cleavage. Tourmaline has strong absorption when elongation of the crystals is normal
to the vibration plane of the lower nicol.
395
chromian chlorite by D. L. Lapham (1957) suggest a generalized fundamental division of the chlorite group as follows:
CHLORITE G ROUP"
Corundophilite
Mg 5.3 AI1(Si2.3A II.7 )O!O(OH)8
Prochlorite
Mg 5.1 All(Si 2.6AI1.4)O!O(OH).
Clinochlore
Mg 5.0 All(Si3.oAll. o) Ol o(OHls
Penninite
Mg 4.9 AI 1(Si3.2Al o.s)O!O(OH)s
* F e-chlorite (substitution > 4 per cent FeO or Fe 203 for Mg)
Cr-chlorite (substitution < 2 per cent Cr ,0 3 for Mg or AI)
Kotschubeite (Tetrahedral Cr > 2 per cent Cr,0 3)
Kammercrite (Octahedral Cr > 2 per cent Cr,0 3)
FIG. 16-16. ( X30 ) Halos in biotite caused by alpha-particle bombardment from small
zircon crystals containing radioactive impurities.
Related Minerals. Lepidomelane resembles biotite but has higher indices and larger axial angle. Manganophyll is a manganian biotite found
in metamorphic dolomite at L 'mgban, Sweden.
Alteration. Biotite is often more or less altered to chlorite. It may also
alter to vermiculite. In the opinion of E. W. Galliher, detrital biotite is
the source of practically all glauconite.
Occurrence. Biotite is a Widely disb'ibuted and common mineral. It
occurs in igneous rocks of nearly all types. It is also a prominent constituent of schists and gneisses and may be found in contact-metamorphic
zones. Biotite is common in detrital sediments. It is often bleached or
otherwise altered.
FIG. 16-17. ( X30) Chlorite form ecl along the border of a quarlz mass.
Chlorite Group
The micaceous mineral group, chloTite, covers a range of chemical
modifications with corresponding optical variation. This form of mica
occurs most frequently in Rake-like crystals with anomalous birefringence
and greenish pleochroism. H ey (1954) in a survey of the literature indicates 24 chlorite species with varying degrees of validity. Studics of
(0" ( :.
10 IH. (
:10 ) All "1',1',11 '1',11 1(1 IIf (,111 111111 , " ' ),'.111 1,. 11 ,\", ... 111 1,,01 lVI II, "'1'1""", 1,("
396
MINERAL DESCRIPTIOl\S
397
SILICATES : SHEET STRUCTUHES AND :MINEHALOIDS
angle, often practically uniaxial. The axial plane is parallel to {010}. Dispersion, l' < v.
Distinguishing Features. Pro chlorite is distinguished from clinoehlore
and p ennine by high er indices of refraction.
Occurrence. Prochlorite is th e principal constituent of some chlorite
schists often accompanied by magnetite. It also is found as an alteration
product of other silicates. A characteristic occurrence of pro chlorite is in
quartz veins with adulmia, albite, sphene, etc.
CLINOCHLOHE
Mgs(AI,Fe) (OH)g(AI,Si) 40 10
Monoclinic;
= 8940'
L(3
net = 1.571 t o 1.588

n~ = 1.571 to 1.588
ny = 1.576 t o 1.597
2V = 0 to 50; Opt . (+)
b = (3 or Y, c 1\ 'Y or Z = 2 to 9
FIG. 16-19. ( X30) Flaky chlorite crystals in interlocking aggregate. ( X nicols. )
In terms of occurrence four representative chlorites are considered,

prochlorite, clinochlore, penninite, and the Fe-chlorite widely known as
chamosite. All are probably monoclinic and exhibit distinct cleavage
parallel to (001) . Although green prevails, lavender, pink, or purple may
predominate for higher chromian chlOlites.
The term orthochlorite has been applied to the group of chlorites low
in iron and leptochlorite to the high iron group.
001
yE
PROCHLORITE
(Ripidoli tc)
Monocli nic
;0
'-
--
0 -'
110
net = 1.588 to 1.658

n~ = 1.589 to 1.667
ny = 1.599 t o 1.667
2V = 0 to 30; Op t. (+)
Color. Green or greenish in thin sections. Pleochroism weak.
Form. Prochlorite usually occurs in scaly masses. It is also frequently
found in vermicular crystals with hexagonal cross sections and in fanshaped crystal aggregates.
Cleavage. In one direction parallel to {00l} as in the other chlorites.
Relief. Fair to moderately high, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Usually weak but varies from very weak to rather w eak,
ny - na 0.001 to 0.011.
Extinction. Parallel to almost parallel.
Orientation. Cleavage traces are parallel to the faster ray.
Interference Figure. The interference figure is usually diffi cIIlt II)
obtain. Whe n found , it is lI snally biax ial QosiLivc wilh a wrv Slilall ,lxiaJ
010
io
(0)
( b)
16-20 a,b. Orientation diagram of cIinochlorc. Sections (l) parallel to ()O I )

(b) p arallel to (010) .
F1G.
II l1d
Color. Colorless to green in thin sections. Pleochroic with ahsorpl iOll :

or X and f1 or Y > y or Z .
Form. Th e crystal habit varies from thin to thick tabular wiLh p solld oh exagonal outlines . Crys tals are often b ent.
Cleavage. Perfcctin on e cliroc Lion p arall el Lo fOOl).
Relief. Fair, 'II, > h alsam.
13irefrill~enee.vV ('nk to ratll('r \V( 'a k, I' oy
1/ "
0.00 /1 to 0.011 .
Ex lillclioll. TIl(' Ill l l\ill llll il ( 'x lill (' lioll 111l ,l~ I I' 1ll( 'Ii) III'( ,d I'rOlll ( ' I (,l1VII~1
b 'IiI 'I 'S \llIri l 'S 1'1'tl1l1 ~" 10 0". I\ II ~ II I s (,I ' l lo ll ~ 111'<1 Ili li( ' I I( 'l dl y isoll'Opi( '.
O l'i t' III11liol1 . ( :1" . ,1,, 1'1 . :I i 11 \\1 1I I!,. /'11 " 1\1111',( \ 11 11 1 l/ 'oI lli ll y 11 1111'.1111',1,) 1.
a
398
Twinning. Polysynthetic twinning is common, according to the mica

law.
variable axial angle. The axial plane is {OlO} . Dispersion, r < v.
Distinguishing Features. Clinochlore is distinguished from other
chlorites by the oblique extinction and from p ennine by greater birefringence and distinctly biaxial character.
Related Minerals. Leuchtenbergite is an iron-free chlorite that is celorless in thin sections. Kotschubeite is a chromian clinochlore frequently
associated with chromite.
Occurrence. Clinochlore occurs in chlorite schists and in other metamorphic rocks. Common associates are talc, antigorite, chondrodite, and
phlogopite. It is also an alteration product of other silicates.
PENNINITE (PENNINE)
1.575 t o 1.582
1.576 t o 1.582
n '"( = 1.576 t o 1.583
2 V = 0 to 20; Op t. ( + ) or ( - )
ncr
n f3 =
'x
c
I,
II
C=Z ----1.1~-
L.g ,:y "; 'x

,Z
110
la
FIG.
(a)
399
Birefringence. Very weak, ny - no = 0.001 to 0.004; the interference

color is often an anomalous "Berlin blue," a color not found on the interference color chart.
Extinction. Parallel or almost parallel to cleavage traces and to crysta l
outlines.
Orientation. The cleavage traces are parallel to either the faster or
slower ray.
Twinning. Twinning parallel to {OOl} with (001) as the composition
face is so characteristic that this mode of twinning is known as (,11('
pennine law. Since the extinction is practically parallel this twinning is
not easily recognized in thin sections.
Interference Figure. ::me interference figure is biaxial with such a smull
axial angle that it appears to b e uniaxial. The optical sign is usually posi.
tive, but sometimes it is negative. The axial plane is usually parall ol ( 0
{OlO} .
Monoclinic
Mg 6 (AI,Fe) (OR) s(AI,Si) 40 10
010
SILICATES : SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINE RALOIDS
(b)
16-21 a,b, Qrientation diagrams of pcnninite. Sections (a) normal to the c-axis
and (b) parallel to (OlD).
Color. Green or greenish in thin sections. Pleochroic from green to

nearly colorless: occasionally from green to brownish red.
Form. Penninite usually occurs in six-sided crystals of thick tabular
habit.
Cleavage, Perfect in one direction p arallel to tOOl} .
Distinguishing Features. Penninite is distinguished from most of (h o

other chlorites by parallel extinction, very small axial angle, and ::momalous interference colors. The indices of refraction are lower than lhoslI
of prochlorite.
Related Minerals. Kammererite is a chromian penninite very simibr 10
kotschubeite. Pseudophite is a compact tough varie ty of p enninitc. II' is
one of the pseudojades known as "Styrian jade."
Occurrence. Penninite usually occurs as an alteration prodllct or olltl -r
silicates such as galnet. The most typical sp ecimens are found ill S ( 'il llI ~
and cavities.
CHAMOSITE
Fe~l A12Si 2010.3R20
MOIIOI 'lillil' (?)
n ca. = 1.635
2V small ; Opt. ( - )
Color. Green, greenish gray, gray, pale brown to almosi' co l ()rl, '~~ III
thin sections. Some sections show slight pleochroism.
Form. Usually oolitic ,,\lith p seudosph eruliti c stru ctmc ( C OII( ' ( ' I II ri l' III
stead of fibrous clements ). Subhcdral crystals of thi ck la lllJl:ir 1':Jilil li n '
occasionally found. The ooliths often have a portion of :1. cllJlJlloslln
crystal as a nucleus. Chamosite is some timcs m ass ivo w ilh i1 ggn '~Jl t (\
structure.
Cleavage. In on e dircction , hut nol as p erfcct as in (III' II I iC"i1 s. '1'111
ooliths often show con centric partillg.
Helicf. Mod er:!( 0 , rI > h a I S; I Ill . '1'1 I, ' i"dl'\' or J'( ,rr;ld iOIl is ill (Il(" liP/ Kit
horl,o()(l of 1,0:1:'.
TIirdrillg(III(l. N il III \\l('lI k , lip III 1I 11I) 'Il O.O(l7 III (l,(H)/-! , I "f<orf" I" 'IH Ii '
(:Illors Il l'll Jlllt Jl ppl'('( 'ill lli y 1I II1 I I\\ l d ll l\ 'j ,
400
Orientation. Both cleavage traces and the concenhic layers of ooliths

are length-slow.
Distinguishing Features. Chamosite is distinguished from the other
chlorites by higher index of refraction and from glauconite by lower birefringence. Chamosite often resembles oolitic collophane, but the presence
of chamosite crystals and the slightly higher index of refraction will
usually distinguish it.
Related Minerals. The chlorites, delessite and thuringite, are similar
to chamosite, but the former occurs in true spherulites in amygdaloidal
rocks and the latter in schists. Greenalite, an iron silicate occurring in
amorphous granules in cherts of the Lake Superior region, also resembles
chamosite.
Occurrence. Chamosite is a prominent constituent of oolitic sedimentary iron ores that are prominent in the Jurassic of England, where
they are usually known as ironstones and are commercially important
low-grade ores. According to Hallimond, they are for the most part of
marine origin, but some are probably fresh water. The usual associates
of chamosite are siderite, calcite, collophane, pyrite, and various detrital
minerals.
These chamositic ores are also found in Scotland, Lorraine, southern
Sweden, Bohemia, and Newfoundland.
401
SILH";ATES: SHEET STHUCTUHE S AND MIN ERALOIDS
Twinning. Polysynthetic twins after the mica law.

Interference Figure. Flakelike crystals are r eported to give a uniaxial
negative figure.
Distinguishing Features. The min eral resembles biotite and may b
overlooked in fi eld examination. The p seudo-uniaxial interference figuro
and higher index of refraction are distinctive. Pleochroism is ordinarily
more colorful than pleoclu'oism of biotite.
Related Minerals. Stilpnomelane is related to the other m embers of
the brittle mica group.
Occurrence. Stilpnomelane has been found in quartz-adularia pegmatite veins, in nepheline-syenite p egmatites, and probably occurs as all
introduced mineral formed as a hydrothermal alteration product.
CHLORITOID
H 2(Fe,Mg,Mn)AbSi07
(Ottrelite)
n a = 1. 715 t o 1. 724
n fJ = 1.719 to 1.726
n -y = 1.731 t o 1.737
2V = 36 t o 63; Opt. (+)
b = (3 or Y, c /\ 'Y or Z = +3 to +21
Monoclillio
Brittle Mica Group

Micaceous minerals without the flexibility of chlorite, lacking the
alkali content of biotite, and frequently containing calcium in place of
magnesium constitute the blittle mica group. The minerals stilpnomelane,
clintonite, margarite, chloritoid, and ottrelite b elong to this group. Stilpnomelane and chloritoid are common minerals.
3-21
DID
,/
) .-.l!
'0
-=-=-- - b =
y-==-
2V= 36~ 6 0 0
STILPNOMELANE
Monoclinic?
H 2 (Mg,Fe)AhSi0 7
nO! = 1.612 to 1.634
nfJ = n-y = 1.700 t o 1.745
2V = ca . 0
Color. Brown and yellow to green. Pleochroic with Y and Z > X.
Form. Often found in micaceous masses, but it may occur in isolated
crystals.
Cleavage. Perfect parallel to (001).
Relief. Moderate to high, n > balsam.
Birefringence. Moderate to strong, try - n" = 0.030 to 0. 119, Basal
plates are almost isotropic.
Extinction. Almost parallel.
Orientation. The angle between X and c is small
01
(0 )
(b )
16-22 a,h. Orientation di agra ms of chloritoid. Sec liol1s (1/) norm nl 10 II" . ,. ,,<i ~
and (b) p nrallcl to (010 ) .
FIG.
Color. Grecn, grecnish gray to colorlcss. Us ually morc or loss pll \{ )

ch1'oic.
Form. Chloritoid, on e or: th e g rollp known as 7JJ'i ff/ e //Ii n / .\', ('() IIIIII Olll y
OCClll"S in p,~ c " cioh exago ll al lahldar crys lal s. IlI clll siolis ; 11'0 orici l pn,solll
It o[len sh ows a kind or " Il ol irg lass" slnl Clllre.
Cleavage. I\ ,rrcl'l i ll 0111' dir\' diOIl tOO l J IIl1d illll'rfI T I pnrull ()1 lo
{ II 0) .
Hdid'. 111 ): 11, 1/ ~ . h Il IHI IIII .
"
402
Birefringence. Weak to moderate, n)' - 11" = 0.013 to 0.016. Basal

plates are practically isotropic.
Extinction. Almost parallel up to ca. 20 .
Twinning. Polysynthetic twins after the mica law are very common.
Interference Figure. The figure is biaxial positive with a moderate to
rather large axial angle. The axial plane is {OlO}. Disp ersion, r> v or
< v.
403
SILICATES: SHEET STHUCTURES AND MINERALOIDS
'y
010
C=x
. \
oi
_.J!.
tOOl
an~~.~
110
(0)
(b)
FIG. 16-24 a,b. Orientation diagrams of talc. Sections parallel to (a) (001) alld (II)
(010 ).
FIG. 16-23. ( x 10 ) Chloritoid forming a metacryst in phyllite. ( X nicols.)
Distinguishing Features. Chloritoid somewhat resembles some of the

chlorites, but the relief is much higher and the cleavage less p erfect.
Related Minerals. Ottrelite, usually treated as a variety of chloritoid,
is considered by Melon to b e a distinctive mineral.
Occurrence. Chloritoid occurs in metamorphic rocks such as mica
schists and phyllites as metacrysts.
TALC
Mg 3 (OHMSi 20 5 h
Monoclinic
L{3 = (?)
n" = 1.538 to 1.545
n(3 = 1.575 to 1.590
n')' = 1.575 t o 1.590
2V = 6 to 30; Opt. (-)
a = (3 or Y, b = 'Y or Z, c = ex or X

Form. Talc occurs in coarse to fine platy or fibrou s aggregates that
often have a more or less parallel arrangement. Shreds and plates are
often bent. Euhedral crystals of talc are unknown .
FIG. 16-25. ( X 10) A scc tion cut throu gh a fo liatcd mass o[ talc crysta ls. ( X Id ('ok)
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction {OOl }.

0.030 to 0.050; tll (' 111:I\ illlllill
Birefringence. Very strong, n )' - 11"
interference colors are upper third order. Sections parall el to 111(' e1( ': 1ViI);1l
give very low first-order gray colors since 1ly - 11 (3 is almost lIil ( O.()O().I') .
ExtincLion. T he ex Lin ction is para ll el to the cleavage trac('s i" 1IIIlSI
section s; in a Few sec Lion s th (' (" tin ction is 2 Or .'3 ; 11 (' 11 ('(' la l( i ~ prn h
ably mono(' lilliC'.
OrienLation. C k :lv:l,l!t Ir: I ('('~ a lld s ll r< 'd ~ :11'( ' 1('II glll slow :IS i,l 11111 \
covit('.
IlIl nf"l'c lI ('\' Io'iglll'l" ( :11': 1" :1 1',1' 11 : l k( '~ g ivi' II hi:l\ i:d 111'gll li vl' II !~ I II 'I \ 11'1 111
II SIII HII II\ i:i1 III' I',II " I ) lo. p ",. , IIII I, "
/l dl ~ lilli'l ,
404
SILICATES~
SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINERALOIDS
405
Distinguishing Features. Talc greatly resembles muscovite and pyrophyllite, but may often be distinguished by the smaller axial angle
provided an interference Rgme can be obtained.
It may be necessary to make a chemical or microchemical test in order
to prove the identity of talc. The association with other magnesium minerals indicates the presence of talc rather than muscovite or sericite.
Occurrence. Talc is the principal constituent of talc schists and soapstones. It is often a hydrothermal mineral formed at the expense of antigorite and tremolite in shear zones of serpentines. Dolomite and
magnesite are frequent associates.
PYROPHYLLITE
Monoclinic( ?)
AI 2(OH) 2Si 40 1o
na
1.552
= 1.588
n'Y = 1.000
n~
2V = 53 to 60; Opt. (-)

a = 'Y or Z, b = f3 or Y, c = ex or X
Form. Pyrophyllite occurs in subhedral crystals that are tabular parallel
to {OlO} and much elongated. The
c
crystals are usually curved and disI
torted. A radial structure is common. It also occurs in Rne aggregates.
Cleavage. Perfect in one direcO--..EE-+----z
tion {001}.
Relief. Rather low to moderate,
n> balsam.
Birefringence. Strong, ny - niX =
0.048; the maximum interference
FIG. ~6-26. ~rientation diagram of pyrocolor is upper third order. Sections
phylhte. SectlOn parallel to (010).
II I
hI'
para e to t e c eavage gIve gray
or Rrst-order colors since ny - n il = 0.012.
Extinction. Parallel or almost parallel to cleavage traces and parallel
to the elongate sections.
Orientation. Cleavage traces are parallel to the slower ray. Elongate
sections not showing cleavage are length-slow.
Twinning. Twinning like that found in the micas is present but is not
well defined.
Interference Figure. Sections parallel to {001} or cleavage flakes give
a biaxial negative Rgme with a rather large axial angle. The cLxial angle
is parallel to {OlO} or the length of the crystals.
FIG.
16-27. (X 10) A radial aggregate of pyrophyllite crystals. (X nicols.)
Distinguishing Features. Pyrophyllite usually has a peculiar elongnlo

tabular habit. Muscovite and talc greatly resemble pyrophyllite. Talchns
a much smaller axial angle. Microcrystalline pyrophyllite is very dj(fi c1I11
to distinguish from sericite or talc by optical means; it may be neco.~s!l l'y
to make chemical or microchemical tests.
Occurrence. Pyrophyllite occms in metamorphic rocks and IlllS ofloll
developed as a hydrothermal alteration product. Common assoein les ur(
andalusite, sillimanite, kyanite, lazulite, and alunite.
The Clay Minerals
These minerals are widely distributed in sedim entary rocks, IIlI ly hn
found in veins, and ocem as alteration products of igneo us :l lld IIH 'III
morphie rocks. The most common clay minerals belong to tho kllOll ll ,
montmorillonite, palygorskite, and hydromica groups_ All Hl'O rilll,.I),
crystalline or meta colloidal and occur in flakelike or dense aggl'('gll l\ \~
of varying types.
The kaolin group includes the minerals kaolinite, anauxi lo, dick ite "
nacrite, halloysite, hych-ohalloysite, and allophane. Of th eso, k:r()lillit O,
dickite, and nacrite have tlle same composition (AI ~ O!l _2SiO " .2 n ,.O) hili
differ optically and also in internal sh-llcture, as shown by X-ray dirl'rll('tion. Anauxite (Al"O".3SiO".2H"O) clirr('rs slightly frolll l<llo lillil o I)()III
structurally and op ti ca ll),. Tlalloysile (;\ I ~ O :,.2SiO " _2 TT " O) nile! hyd l'll l cd
halloysite (AI " O ~ .2S iO ,. -'ITI " O ) din'cr SO ll ltlw lt at opl icu lly IIn(l nlso slrl wtlll'ally_ AlIoplllin o is II. soliclific 'd gel (Al ~ O Il .x SiO ,..IIIU)) willi 1111 111I1c 'X
of rcrrnc lioll low('r IIt a II II!C . illcli('('s of 1110 oille 'r IIl illC'l: tI ~ of lit" g l()lIp.
K(loli llil n, 111(1 IIlml ("IIII IIIH IIi kllOl1 l1 , 1)( ' I ' lIr,~ ill 1 1I1'}~n qllllllllll" ~, 1101 11
406
residual and as a transported mineral in the white clays of the southeastern United States. It is frequently formed by th e decomposition in
situ of rocks containing fcldspars. Dickite, although less common, is
better crystallized and may occur in pseudohexagonal plates. It is commonly formed by hydrothermal solutions in veins or dikes and occasionally occurs associated with sulfides in are deposits. Halloysite is found
as a porcelain-like mass or fIne white powder in shales and sandstones
and as a replaccment of limestone. It may occur independently but is
frequently associated with kaolinite, alunite, and various forms of hydrous
aluminum oxides.
Montmorillonite is a widely cUsh'ibuted clay mineral. It occurs as an
alteration product of volcanic ash and tuff. The rock bentonite, common
in the western United States, is composed largely of montmorillonite.
Montmorillonite is also found in minor amounts as an alteration product
in pegmatite dikes . The montmorillonite group consists of montmorillonite
[( Mg,Ca) O.AtO".5Si0 2 .nH"O] , nontronite [( Al,Fe) 20 , .3Si0 2 .nH 2 0],
and saponite (2MgO.3Si0 2 .nH 2 0) .
Palygorskite, a clay mineral from a mining district in the Ural Mountains, Russia, "vas named by Ssaftschenkow in 1862. Fersman later defIn ed the palygorskite minerals. The minerals in this group now recognized include pilolite, lassallite, and attaplllgite. Attapulgite, common in
Florida and southern Georgia and found at Mormiron, France, is the
essential constituent of most fullers earth. Sepiolite yields a tubular structure in electron micrographs and in dehydration resembles attapulgite
(Martin-Vivaldi and Cano-Ruiz, 1955).
Hydromica (or illite) represents a poorly defIned group intermediate
between muscovite and montmorillonite. It is likely to occur in shale or
other argillaceous b eds where it may be associated with kaolinite or
montmorillonite and mixed with fIne detrital fragments of other minerals.
The general formula (OH) ,Ky(A1.J Fe ,Mg.,Mgn ) (Sis yAly)02o(Y = 1 to
1.5) suggested by Grim1 indicates the complex chemical character of
hydromica.
The signillcant optical properties of the clay minerals may be conveniently outlined for the four groups from the standpOint of microscopic
observation : (1) The kaolin group is characterized by w eak birefringence
and indices of refraction approximating those of quartz. (2) The montmorillonite group has a comparatively high birefringence but indices of
refraction for the most part lower than Canada balsam. (3) Palygorskitc
resembles montmorillonite in thin section but has a higher index of rcfraction and shows more abundant mass extinction. (4) The hydromica
'The name illite has been applied to thi s group, but it is possible that l'ydl'Omuscovite, as described by A. Johnston e [Q ua/'. J. Ceoi. Soc. LOlldon, 15: .363
( 1889) 1 m erits priority.
407
SILICATES: SHEET STRUCTURES AND lvIINERALOIDS
(d )
(e )
(f)
FIC. 16-28. ( X Ifi,OOO) 1':1 (;(;[1'011 '"i (' '')g ' : '1 ) I , ~ "I' (' I:,), ," ill' ' :.I , , I'"IVi l g 1, ,; ,111,, 00, 111>1
discl osed al' Ill :lg "iri c:llio ns po " i!>I, IV ill, II I(' POllllil' ili g l" i' I O" lIP' . (tI'II/ / tr 1I 1I / " '/111
ielllll IIISJi/II/ !': 11"/"/'1'111'(' ClllY "'/III '/lIk ) (1/) /\ll opl ,oI"' o , llll lVill l~ ' 1,1",.1, .: .1 1'"111",
(I)
llllllll lll' rllll" ~ (II' IlI dlo)" ilt ; ( I' ) P'", "dlll" ' \ II I',OIIl I 1'1 11 110, 01 " ,'1111,,11 11 ; ( " )
( X Il,OOO) "I)"IIII ~ .. r !ii(.I"I; '; (, ,) "" I iii" , 111111" . ill IIII 'ljllIl l ',IIIl; (J) ,,"I ,. IlIliI 1IIIIIdil l
f()I'''I ~ of' " '1'1.. 11111.
408
te.or..o~
tC
,..
,..
~
'"
o
o
'"
'"
'"
.-I
'" '"
"''''
...... ......
......
M
C'l
......
'"
o
tC'l
~I
-.::t'I ..... .-1
'"'"
I
1""""11""""1 f"""4.-1
'".....
..... C'l
o
o
M"'''' '"
"''''''' .....I
"'M
C'l
..... C'l'"
C'l M M O
000 1
C'l
ooog
000
000
000
o
C'l
'"
1 M '"......I
I ......~'". o'"'"
~ --- '" ~
Q)
l.Ql.Q0')
'a
lC ..... C"I C"l
""
.....
~I
'"
C'l
'".....
oo::t4
.-I
~]~~~~r!.
.....
~
t-
l~
e:>
s'"
...... "''''~
'"
'"
!----~- ~
~
'I"""'f
C'lt-o
Q:l .-I 00
l.C '"
LC
'"
'"..:....l
~
I>l
.~ .~ ~ ~ ~
'3 E '2 'a ~ ~

>."'"'
\.)
rtJ
....
'"
rtJ
C)
'"
"I
'"
M
'"
'"t-
._.....
C C
OIl OIl
C)
oo~~6bbbO
E-<E-<::E::E~~~
'"
<>
o
0:
o
::E::E::E::E
"o "
::E
::E
0:
0:
o
:~
lfl
o
p.
E
o
'"'
.'"'
'"
..c:
\.)
00
o
Ui
io
+1 +1
OC'lOOC'l~O
ic5 ii c5c5 i
C'l ._ C'l C'l ._ ._
.NUl
.;.
c.,CflW
~ ::x::::x:: ~
.:. ~. .
~
<:"I
c-I
('I
\.)
0
~q,q,0Il
...
q, q, q, q, q, q, q,
<
iii
~~"
~~~~
...
~~~'1~'1 ~
000
Uil
0 000
9+199+1+1
9
rn
rnrn
rn
~
~
.;.
::x::
o~o oo
l'
n" = 1.561
nf3 = 1.5G5
n-y = 1.566
2V variable ; Opt. (-)
or Z, C /\ a or X = 10 to 372"0
'Y
i.:
ii
Trielilli o
""""
o
0:
KAOLINITE
AI 20 3 .2Si0 2 .2H 2 0
<>
<=
<=
group is characterized by a comparatively high birefringence with indices

of refraction above Canada balsam.
Potash-bearing clay, probably hydromica, is frequently found as nn
alteration product of old volcanic ash, particularly in the Ordovician of
the eastern United States, or at times as a gouge day in ore deposits.
A strong artificial illumination is advisable in determining the b ir('fringence of the clay minerals . A summary of the optical properties of
the more important clay minerals based upon determinations either hy
C. S. Ross or R. E. Grim is given in the foregoing tabulation .
The most important clay minerals exhibit distinguishing featuros ill
thin sections. In general, however, these minerals present problems ill
identification best solved by coordinated optical, X-ray, th ermal , alld
chemical methods. Electron micrographs of some clay minerals are also
significant.
0:
"2l
o
0:
o
'0'000
o 0 0 0
I~
'"
:'"'
:5 :5 : :
g1
~~
Q)
Q)
....l
.-I
~"'''' I
............
o
'"
'"
......
t-
'"
409
<')
000
S
S?-
UiUiUi
<
~
::E...':~
oM .
"-;-:l"'''''
~ --. ~~
OIl
' ". M .
~
0 0
ow
z<
I ) -b
eX
111--1
00'
o~ . ~ 6=Z~ - - i
C'l~""
C'l
110
P.
::l
P.
"'
o....
"0
0:
a"''""'
o....
~
03
::l
I:,j)
.S
.~rtJ
ool
~
~
Q)Q)
~ .~
'a
.....
....
>.
.-$::::::0)
>< ~ .8 0~
;:::::1._._
-~ ~0.
o~~a;::::~o
ol <.~ ol ol >. 8
~,-"QZ~~ ....
"'o<="'
::E
P.
P.
::l
OIl
o
....
OIl
ol
'"
:';:;
..
aa;-.s.C)
8::=:
.s .~....
E ~ '2o.~
~~!;B
.@ ft ~
~eZrn~
.'"'
o....
"0
>.
::x::
"'gt::.
"''""'
.:;:
o
'"'::l"'
o....
io
::l
o....
:.g
rtJ
....
o
OIl
o.i~
"'"' "'"'
:';;;biJ
"'~
....
::l
'"
~ ~~
"0
~:::; .9
~ ~Jl
>.
(b)
uf kaolinite . SCC tiOIlS (fI) Ilonna]
lo lh ..
( - I ..\i~
111111
(b) parallcl to (010).
.25
>.
";
(0)
FIC. 16-29. Orie nta tion diagrams
OIl
ol
~ P.
Color. Colorless to pale yellow.

Form. Kaol inile occuIsin fino mosai cllk(' ma ss(\~ of crystals, ill v!'i llh \ l ~
replacing feld spars a nd otlier IllinN:ti s, ;lIld ill sCillcliko illdivld ll :il" 0('_
cas ionlllly slllal! plut('s sll( )w 1I( '('ordioll lilw olil lill( IS .
CIcIlVII~{. PNrl 'I't jll 0111 ' dill '('llo ll PIII'II II I ,11 1l (()()] I.
Holiof. ] .ow, It hlll ~ lI ll1 .
410
SllJCATES: S U E ET STRUCTURES AND J\ II N I': II III ,() II)S
Birefringence. W eak, ny - net = 0.005. In normal sections kaolinite

gives gray and white interference colors.
Extinction. Thc angle of extinction on (010) against the base is 1
to 3Y2.
Orientation. The cleavage traces and cqstals are length-slow.
Twinning. Minute crystals of kaolinite do not appear to show twinning.
Interference Figure. Kaolinite is ordinaTily too fine-grained to give an
interference figure. The axial plane is normal to {OlO} and nearly parallel
to {lOO} .
Distinguishing Features. It is distinguished by low relief and weak
birefringence. From dickite it is distinguished largely by its smaller extinction angle.
Occurrence. Kaolinite is found as a weatheling product of igneous and
metamorphic rocks produced particularly by thc decomposition of feldspars. It is a prominent clay rnineral in sedimentaq beds. At times it
may be a product of hydTothennal alteration associated with mineral
depOSits.
DICKITE
Ab0 3.2Si0 2 .2H 20
Monoclinic
na = 1.560
n~ = 1.562
n ,. = 1.566
2V = 52 to 80 ; Opt. (+)
b = Z, c 1\ X = 15 to 20
Relief. / AlW,
11
>
411
balsam.
Birefrin ~cnce. vVeak, n y

colors are II,ie/dIc first order.
11"
Exl inc t ion. Angle of extin ctio ll

to 20.
O,( )()(j ;
O il
th e maximum interference
10 f() J again st base varics from 15"
Orienlation. The cleavage tra c('s ; 11 I( I crys lals are length-slow.

f winning. No apparen t twi 1111 ill g.
Interfel'(~ncc F igure. Ordi nary II, i II s('cli ons
yield poor interference fi g ures or II (J II (. a t all.
The axial plane is normal to {O/() J. /)i sp crsion,
l'
''l ~
< v.
"l,i
.,
Distinguishing Featlll'cs. /)iekit (, is disting uished from kaolinite by slig /,lIy higher birefrin gence, larger crys la l.~) :lIld a Jarger exFIC . 16-31. ( X 30) Sca ll \'r\'d
tin ction angle.
Occurrence. Th e m incral is commonly found dickite ~rystaJs on n ,"jero
. d Wlt1
. I mela..// IC
. ll1lJ)
. c]'a ls 111
' ore d e- Scope slIde. ( X meuls. )
aSSOCIate
posits. It is usually prod uced by hydrothermal action and may oce ll I' II ~
a replacement of qllartz in quartzi te.
fill
HALLOYSITE
A1 20 3.2Si 0 2.2H 20
t\ P.V;"1 'p,1I I I'/~

( 'i,\"II,, 1 MI
n = I ..')I/ !) 1.0 I. r;o I
II II I"
,i1 ,,",
'" 1\ II I
y
0 10
ZE
)0
'-b
0-'
ia
(0)
(b )
16-30. Orientation diagrams of di ckite. Sections (a) nonnal lo ll'e

(b) parallel to (OlD).
FIC.
C-axIS
Color. Colorless to pale yellow.

Form. Dickite occur~ in small pseuclol1C'xagonal fl ake li ko crystals.
Cleavage. Perfect in on e dir('cti OIl pantll( 1 to {OOI} .
and
FIll /" 'I ' ( X I.')) r""" glll,II' "'" "" ' ' 1 " I li ll I/II) , 1111 ( ",II 'Y) /1 "',0('/11 1, '" wI lli '''1,"11 11 ( hllir
and J"l il", " ' \ 111" 11) . ( X 11 1('01'1. \
412
Color. Colorless.
Form. Halloysite occurs in extremely nn e-grained or colloform masses
and commonly shows shatter cracks.
Relief. Low, n slightly> balsam.
Birefringence. Very weak, almost isotropic.
Distinguishing Features. H alloysite is distinguished by extremely weak
birefringence, an index of refraction almost equal to b alsam and shatter
cracks. It is commonly associated with other clay minerals.
Occurrence. The mineral occurs in altered areas in limestone associated with diaspore, alunite, or gibbsite; in elay b eds associated with
kaolinite; and probably in extremely weathered portions of some shales.
Hydrohalloysite . X-ray study shows that two forms of halloysite exist:
a more hydrous form, AI 2 0 3 .2Si0 2 .4H 2 0, known as endellite or hydrohalloysite; a less hydrous type, AI 2 0 o.2Si0 2 .2I-I 2 0 , which is halloysite. The
more hydrous form is found in mine workings under the influence of
groundwater. It changes to the less hychous form on standing in dry
atmosphere.
MONTMORILLONITE
(Mg,Ca). AI2 0 3 .5Si0 2 .nI-I 2 0
SILICATES: SHEET STRUCTURES AND JVIINERALOIDS
41:3
Color. Pale pink, greenish, or colorless.

Form. Massive, claylike microcrystalline aggregates in the shape oJ'
shards. Nearly always in extremely nne scalelike crystals. Crystals or lilis
type have b een described by E. T. Wherry as a one-dimensional colloid
since they are usually so thin.
Relief. Rather low, n < b alsam.
Birefringence. Moderate, ny - n Il = 0.021. Although the birefrin g<" H'('
is moderate, the crystals are usu ally so thin that intetference colors ill
thin sections seldom go above the second order.
Interference Figure. Individual crystals are usually so small anti Ildll
that ngures cannot b e obtained.
Distinguishing Features. The most characteIistic feature of monlll llll'lI
lonite is microcrystalline aggregates in the shape of shards.
Occurrence. Montmorillonite is the chief constituent of b c nlollill \
which is altered volcanic ash. It is a common constituent of shale W Il( ' I'"
it may be associated with hydromuscovite. Occasionally it occm s :IS 1111
alteration material in p egmatite dikes. Montmorillonite is one or litl '
early alteration minerals formed in w all rock bordering min eral clcpoH iI ,~.
Monoclinic
HYDROMUSCOVITE
n" = 1.492
n{3 = n-y = 1.513
2V = 10 to 25; Opt. (-)
(I-Iydromica)
(Illite)
KAI 2 (OH) 2[AISi 3 (O,OH)1O]
IX
MOl )()(;I i II io( 't)
n" = 1.535 to 1 ..,)70

n-y = 1.565 to Ui05
2V sm all; Opt. ( -)
or X = 1- plane of a a nd c.
~
~,
12:50/" =.I
~
~
70/" - '
1<-
FIG. 16-34. Kaolinite prisms with intergrown hydrolllll scuvile pi :II('S, (A! /I'I' S. ( :.
Galpin, 1912.)
FIG. 16-33. ( X 15) Montmorillonite, more or less altered glass sha rd s, and felcl spar
frag ments i ll bentonile. ( X llicols.)
Color. Colorless to yellowish brown.

Form. I-Iydromuscovitc is fo und in ilTcglll ar ma lled f1 ak('s 111 :11 111 11)' ), 0
intercala ted with Hakcs of montmori ll onite or kaolillil(',
Relief. Low, n > h alsam.
Birefringence. Rather slron g, lI y
11 1\
(UnO to (un!), 1)111 III ,' ~ lI l1 dl .
thin crystals m ay not yic-lcl co lors ahov( ' I It o S('C'()II( l ord, ' I',
Distinguishin g Fea tures, Il ydrolllll s('(lvil(' (H'(' II I'S ill 1111111( '" ~ 1I11I11 Il lIk."
r esembl in g kao lillil o Hlld Ill ollllllOl'il1011il (l 1)111 I ~ ,11 ~ ll lI h l d s ll (\" frO l1l \1\,"11
414
morillonite by higher indices of refraction an d from kaolinite by a high er

birefringence. It is distinguish ed from muscovite by a lower axial angle.
Various polymorphs of mica an d interlayer mixtures of hydromuscovite
and montmorillonite require X-ray identification.
Occurrence. Hydromuscovite is a widcspread constituent of shale or
soil. It forms during the alteration of feldspathic minerals, biotite, muscovite, and other constituents.
PALYGORSKITE
Occurrence. Found in a contact metamorphic veinlike mass assoc i<ll( 'd

with inh'usives in Yavapi County, Arizona. Considered by some to bo, ill
times, a constituent of clay.
Serpentine Group
Serpentinite is a rock type of widespread occurrence in whi ch hyc1l'(lIlS
magnesian silicate minerals belonging to the serpentine group ~ue <1111111 '
dant. The usage which considers serpentinite as a rock name follows Ilit l
p attern by which rock names such as quartzite, pyroxenite, and <llIlplli
bolite are derived.
The serpentine mineral group consists of the two minerals alili gm il o
and cluysotile wh ich occur independently or as natural mixllll'('S III
various proportions (Nagy and Faust, 1956). The general f01'1I II dn
Mg uSi ,OlO ( OH )8 applies to both; however, Mg may b e replaced by I"",
o
M onoclinic( ?)
2MgO.3Si0 2.4H 20
to
Ah0 3.5Si0 2 .QH 2 0
1 1.')
na = 1.510
n" = l.533
Color. Colorless to pale yellow or green.
Form. Found in compact fine aggregates.
Birefringence. Moderate, ny - na = 0.023.
Extinction. Matted aggregates often tend to show a more or less uniform mass extinction in thin section.
Distinguishing Features. Resembles montmorillonite in thin section.
Electron micrographs exhibit a striking rodlike structme.
Occurrence. Widespread in full ers earth deposits of Georgia and
Florida, wh ere the name attapulgite has been used. Originally found in
the Ural Mountains of Russia. Found in France, Scotland, and Australia.
It is also reported to form by hydrothermal action in "mountain leather."
(0)
2MgO.3Si0 2.nH 20
(b )
F 1C. 16-35. ( X 16,000 ) Electron micrographs of serp entin e. (({) F laky II LLI ig()ll hl
SEPIOLITE
Monoclinic
na = 1.490 t o 1.506
n" = 1.505 to l.526
2V = 40 t o 60; Opt . (-)
Color. Colorless to gray.
Form. Frequently fibrous and in aggregates.
Birefringence. Rather stron g, 11y - n" = 0.015 to 0.020.
Extinction. Approximately parallel with positive elon gation (lengthslow).
Distinguishing Features. Occurs in fibrous aggregates with curved and
matted fiber groups.
fibrou s chrysotile an d (b) tubular chrysotile and fl aky antigorite

Institute: Reference Clay Min erals ).
II lld
(A/II Grit'flll ) '('/1 11 /1'"11 1
Ni, or Mn to form terro, nickel, or manganese chrysolile, i\ nd by Silldl il i'

replacement t erra , nickel, or manganese anJigo rite may be fOl'lIll'd .
The name serpophite was proposed by Lodochnikow ( 1D:3:3) liS II
combination of serp and ophite to apply to a co mpac l 1I(';l rly isolfo plll
mineraloid of the serpentine group. It corresponds in pal'l lo S('l' lh' lIllt I( 'I
used as a mineral name by Selfrid ge. The lizarcliLe of W ltill llk\'I' II l1d
Zu ssman, if the conclu sions of Nagy and Faust apply, is probllhly nlso III
p ar t this submicroscopic ma terial.
The members of th e se l'pclIlin e gro up OCC III' for II I(' 1I1()~ l PilI'[ III
crys tallin e IInils so small lh al di scr('[e fo rms a 1'( \ 11 0 1 oI!S(' l'v( 'd ",1 1110111
Lh e clcclroll Illicl'os('o pc. C llrys() lil (' is h('s l ddilll'd II IHI (H'(' III'S III IOli l'
fl nxi hl o llibld lll' ()J' lo(lI ik, r(I I'III S. A II li),!:or iI " I'x lti/l ils II li ll i , II lIky, 0 1' TII III
416
MINERAL PESCRIPTJ<"\N S
417
SILICA rES ~ SHEET STR UCTUHES AND MINERALOIDS
like habit. Patterns of serp entine minerals observed with the polarizing
microscope are aggregate effects due to crystals which range in dimensions within a fraction of one micron.
ANTIGORITE
Orthorhombic
H 4 Mg 3Si 20 9
na = ] .555 to 1.564
n f3
n~
= 1.562 to 1.573
= l. 562 to 1.573
2V = 200 to 90 0 ; Opt. ( - )
{3 or~Y , b = ex. or X, c = 'Y or Z
FIG. 16-38. ( X 30) Olivine cut and surrounded by serpentin e. ( X ni cols.)
FIG.
FIG.
FIG . 16-36.
F IG. 16-37.
16-36. Orientation diagram of antigorite. Section parallel to (010).
16-37. ( X 15) Antigorite in serpentine. ( X nicols. )
Color. Colorless to pale green in thin sections.

Form. Antigorite occurs in anhedral crystals or aggregates of fibrolamellar shucture. It often occurs as p seudomorphs after pyroxene
(bastite ), olivine, etc.
Relief. Rather low, n > b alsam.
Birefringence. W eak, ny - n" = 0.007 to 0.009; the maximum interference color is first-order yellow. This yellow is slightly anomalous since
it has a greenish tin ge.
Orientation. The crystals are leng th-slow.
Interference Figure. The figure is bia;d al negative with variable axial
angle. The axial plane is {100}. Disp ersion, l' > v w eak.
Distinguishing Features. Chrysotile is distinguished from its dimorph
antigorite by the fine fibrous structure. Antigorite usually shows aggregate sh'ucture and is in practically all cases an alteration product of
some other silicate mineral. Serpophite h as lower birefringerlC ethan
antigorite and shows little or no form or structure.
Occurrence. Antigorite is the main constitucnt of serpentine, a m et amorphic rock. It has been form cd from olivin e, enstatitc, a ugit('), etc., by
16-39. ( X 30) Texture in serpentine accentuated hy .illt(' ..r('I"C'II ("I' ('o l n , ~, ( X

nicols.)
FIG.
hydrothermal alteration . Common associates arc chrysolilc, 1:" ('.

tite, chromite, and picotitc.
11 1:\1 ', 111'
CIIHYSOTIL E
I-I ~Mg 3Si 2 0~
Orililll'lill il il, i o
17 "
/I ll
11)
2 1'
I. !f!) ;~ 1,0
1.!i 1(i
1.!iOI In 1.!i!i0
I .!i I 7 I n I .!)!)
00 I II :10 0 ; () p I.. ( I )
C olor. Co lo r\ ('ss ill ,ll i ll S I'I ' l i(lIl ~.

1"01"111. C III'yS OI III ' (I( 'I ' III'S ' " I ' I' I ":~ 11111 ' 1' v I ' h,f, ' I ';
( 1"'1'. '1'" H 1:1) .
418
Relief. Low, n slightly greater than balsam.

Birefringence. Moderate, 1lry - ncr
O.Oll to 0.014; the maximum interference color is bright yellow of the first order.
Orientation. The fibers are length-slow.
Distinguishing Features. The other forms of asbestos (tremolite,
anthophyllite, and crocidolite) all have higher indices of refraction than
chrysotile. Tremolite has oblique extinction.
Occurrence. Chrysotile occurs in veinlets in serpentinite.
PREHNITE
Ort.horhombic
H 2 C a 2 Alz(Si0 4)a
=
n f3
= 1.621 to 1.642
= 1.645 to 1.665
2 V variable; Opt. ( +)
a = a or X, b = (3 or Y , c =
GLAUCONITE
KMg(Fc,Al) (Si0 3) 6.3H 2 0

or Z
I
oat
010
o :"x
FIG. 16-40.
Monoclilli(:('t)
1.590 to 1.612
1.609 to 1.643
n l'
1.610 to 1.644
2V = 16 to 30; Opt. (-)
a or X ca . ..1 {OOll
na
l'
419
Twinning. Fine polysynthetic twinning in two directions at right angle.~

is found in some sections.
Interference Figure. Prehnite gives a positive biaxial figure, but tho
a,xial angle is varia hIe even in the same specimen. The a,xial plane is
{OlO}. Dispersion, T > v weak.
Distinguishing Features. Lawsonite in some occurrences is like prehn ite, but the birefringence of lawsonite is consid erably lower and th "
indices of refraction somewhat higher.
Occurrence. Prehnite is a secondary mineral in cavities and seams o f
various igneous rocks. It is a prOIninent mineral in amygdaloidal rock~
of the Lake Superior copper ores. It is sometimes found in veins. Associated minerals are quartz, calcite, datolite, and zeolites.
1.615 to 1.635
na
nl'
I ) -- b
FIG. 16-41.
FIG. 16-40. Orientation diagram of prchnite. Section parallel to (l00).

FIG. 16-41. (X 12) Prehnite showing " bow-tie" structure.

Form. Prehnite usually occurs in aggregates that are often sheaflike
and approach spherulites. What may be called bow-tie structure is characteristic (Figure 16-41). Crystals are mostly tabular parallel to {001}.
Cleavage. Good in one direction {001}.
Birefringence. Moderate to rather strong, 1lry - n" = 0.020 to 0.033;
the maximum interference color varies from low to upper second order.
Anomalous interference colors are found in some varieties.
Extinction. Parallel to the cleavage. The extinction is often wavy on
account of the structure.
Orientation. The cleavage b'aces are parallel to the fast ray.
n f3
Color. Green, yellow-green, or olive-green in thin scctions. Pleocllroll'

from yellow to green.
Form. Glauconite occurs in grains or pellets that are in part agg l'('gl il( 'S
of minute crystals and in part single
crystals. Euhedral crystals have not
been observed. The grains are often
casts of foraminiferal tcsts.
Cleavage. Perfect in one direction
{001}.
Relief. Moderate, n > b als am.
Birefringence. Modcrate to rather
strong, 1lry - n" = 0.020 to 0.032; thc
highest interference colors arc secondorder colors, but thcy arc ma skcd by
the color of the min cral. !vla ny spec imens show aggrcga te polariz<1tio ll.
Extinction. The cxtillclion with 1"(' 1'('1'(' 11 (,(' 10 CI(';IV;lgl' Ir;II '('S is pnl(' ll
cally parallel, hut an g les 01' 2 or 3 11 ;lv( ' 1)('( '11 I"( (ord('d .
Oriental ion. Th e ci('a vag(' Ira( '('S 111"(' 1(,ll g lll slow : I ~ ill III(" IId( I I ~.
Tlllcrf(~ J'('I\( 'C II'iglll'l..'. (; 1( '1Ivil~(' flllk( 's giv(' I I l li ll \ ild II<'gl ll ! VI I ")'.111'1\ wil li
a slllldl IIXili1 11 11 [( 1. " hili 111( ' 1i )', III( ' i ~ dill l( '1I11 Iii 1IIII Iilil 1111 " , '('1111111 III \llll
Sillidl s i'l.(\ III III ( ' 1 y\ I III ~ . 1) "' 111 11.',1111 1. '"
II .
420
SILICATES: SHEET STRUCTUR ES AND MINERALOlDS
421
D istinguishing Features. Glauconite much resembles some of the leptochlorites such as chamosite, but the latter has a highcr index of refraction
and weaker birefringence. Chamosite usually has an oolitic structure
lacking in glauconite.
Alteration. Glauconite is sometimes altered to limonite.
Occurrence. Glauconite occurs in sands, sandston es, and limestones. It
is espeCially abundant in the loosely consolidated sandstone known as
greensand, which is prominent in the Cretaceous of New Jersey. A common associate is collophane.
Origin. Glauconite is the product of interstitial scdimentation. Glauconite may be the res ult of the alteration of detrital biotite. The addition
of iron to a clay mineral in a marine environment is also possible.
MINERALOIDS
The term mineraloid is given to the mineral-like constituents of rocks

that are too indefinite in chemical composition or in physical properti es
to be included in the list of minerals. The most common and abundant
mineraloid is naturally occurring glass or volcanic glass, which is widespread and often of geological impOltance. Obsidian, perlite, pitchstone,
pumice; etc., are p etrographic terms, but glass as a whole may b e treated
as a mineraloid.
Palagonite, an alteration product of fragm ental basaltic glass formerly
classed as a mineral, is probably a mineraloid.
Hydrocarbons also may be treated as mineraloids.
Certain minerals shown by X-ray studies to yield diffraction lines, but
at the same time optically isotropic, such as cliachite, collophane, or opal,
are included in this group.
VOLCANIC GLASS
Amorphous
(Minaraloid)
Si0 2 ,Al 20 3,Fe 20 3, FeO, MgO,

CaO,Na 20,K 20,H 20, etc.
n = 1.48 to 1.61
Color. Colorless to gray or reddish in thin sections.
Form, 'Usually massive, sometimes vesicular, perlitic, etc. Often contains spherulites of orthoclase, microlites, crystallites, microphenocrysts .
and phenocrysts.
Cleavage. Absent, but it may show p erlitic parting.
Relief. Low to moderate, n usually less than b alsam but sometimes
greater. The index of refraction increases as the silica decreases.
Birefringence. Usually nil, but some varieties show weak birefringence
that is due to strain.
b
FIG. 16-43. Volcanic glass and associated features as show n in thin seclion, ( X to ) .
(a) Banding caused by flowa ge; (b) acicular erystalli tcs in g las, ; ((. ) t'( ld ', pllI
spherulites ( X nicols); (d) extin ction crosses in spherulites ( X lIi culs) ; ((' ) p' " JIl l, '
texture and crystallites; (f) perlitie tex ture.
Distinguishing Features. Opal m ay he mi slaken for g la ss, l)[iI lili l 1'( ' .
fractive indcx of opal is distinctly lowe r.
Alteration. Vol cani c gl:1 ss is oftC'1I mOn' or I('ss (i<-vill'ifi( '" (s('(' " 'lglIl'O
16-43). The allcra lio ll prodll('l s III'( ' 1I ~ II : dl )' I'II IIH 'I' illddlllil(" hili 8 (11111'
tim es feld s pllr.~ , ll'id Ylllil(', ('I'i ~ l () b l t1il( ' l Or IlIlIIIIIIIOI'iliollil {1 11 1'0 llt( 1 I" \~ IIII
422
SILICA~;ES :
SHEET STRUCTURES AND MINERALOID5
1,2:3
c
e
of devitrification. Palagonite is always the res ult of alteration of glass

fragments.
Occurrence. Glass often occurs as an independent igneous rock sueh
as obsidian, pumice, p erlite, or pitchstone. Most volcanic glass corresponds to rhyolite in composition. Glass is also found us a narrow selvag'
f
to basalt dikes. This variety is known as In ch!Jl!Jl e. G lass is :t pl'olllill('liI
constituent of vitrophyro ;l llcl O CC III'S ill th e gl'() III Hlll lass or 111 ; 111 ), vo l( 'l lI iI(J
rocks.
Si lica gb ss ti l lS 1)('(' 11 d('s(' l'il )('t\ 1111(1 ( , 1' 111 ( ' 11 11 111 ( ' /( .,.1/(/11'111'1' /1( ' (~ ( '( \ P IlI',11
2/[7 ) .
424
}'l1NERAL DESCHIPTI0NS
PALAGONITE
Si0 2 ,Alz0 3 ,Fei) 3FeO, M~O,

e a O,H 2 0
Amorphous
(Mineraloid)
(Altered Glass)
n = 1.47 to 1.63
Color. Usually yellow to yellowish brown but also brown and greenish
in thin sections.
Form. P alagonite is found as a rim or zone around glass fragments or
in massive form. It often shows an apparent oolitic structure tha t is due
to the filling of microvesicles.
Relief. Low to medium, n either less or great er than b alsam.
Birefringence. Nil to very w eak. Palagonite is a hydrogel, and the weak
birefringence sometimes noted is probably due to strain.
Distinguishing Features. Palagonite resembles opal, collophane, and
volcanic glass. The index of refraction is too high for opal and nearly
always too low for collophane. It is distinguished from glass by the high
water content.
Alteration. The palagonite formed from b asaltic breccia fragme nts at
Roseburg, Ore., h as, according to A. C. \ iVaters, b een altered to chlOlite.
Occurrence. Palagonite is found in palagonite tuffs and palagonite
rock. It is formed by the hydration of fragmental b asaltic glass. The glass
fragments are in whole or in part converted into the palagonite. Associates besides glass are calcite, zeolites, chlorite, pyroxene, olivine, and
plagioclase (the last three are relict minerals from the original glass) .
REFERENCES
Mica Group
Foster, M. D.: Correlation of dioctahedral potassium micas on the b asis of
their charge relations, U.S . Geol. Survey Bull. 1036-D, pp . 57-67, 1956.
Heinrich, E. W. , and A. A. Levinson: Studies in the Mica Group; Polymorphism among the High-Silica Sericites, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 40, pp.
983-995, 1955.
Levinson, A. A.: Studies in the Mica Group; Polymorphism among Illites and
Hydrous Micas, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 40, pp. 41-49, 1955.
Smith, J. V., and H. S. Yoder: Experimental and Theoretical Studies of the
Mica Polymorphs, Mineral. Mag. , vol. 31 , pp. 209-235, 1956.
Yoder, H. S.: SynthetiC and Natural Muscovites, Geochim. et Cosmochim.
Acta, vol. 8, pp. 225-280, 1955.
Chlorite Group
Brindley, G. W., K. Robinson: The Chlorite Minerals. X-ray Identification and
Structures of Clay Minerals, Mineralog. Soc ., London , pp. 173-198, 1951.
Hey, Max H.: A New Heview of the Chlorites, Min eral. Mag., vol. 30, pp
277-292 , 1954.
~ILICATES:
SHEET STTIUCrURES A N D M INERALOIDS
425
Lapham , Davis M.: Structural and Chemical Variation in Chromium Chlori l(.,
Am. Min eralogist, vol. 43, pp. 921-956 , 1958.
Winchell, A. N. : Chlorite as a Polycomponent System, Am. ]. Sci., vol. 2, pp ,
283- 300, 1926.
- - : A Third Study of Chlorite. Am, Mineralogist, vol. 21 , pp . 642- 65 1,
1936.
- -- : Additional Notes on Chlorite. Am. Min eralogist, vol. 13, pp. 161- 170,
1928.
Clay Mineral Group
Brindley, G. W.: X-ray Identification and Crystal Structures of Clay Mill('mls,
Clay Minerals Group , Mineralog. Soc., London, 1951.
Committee on Clay Minerals: Clays and clay minerals, Conferences 2, 3, lI lId
4, Nat. Research Council, W ashington , D .C., 1954, 1955, 1956.
Correns, C. W. , and H. Piller: Mikroskopie der feinkornigen Silikalllli ll (II!1( .,
Part 1: Mikroskopie der Gesteine; "Handbuch der Mikroskopio ill d"I'
Technik," vol. 4, Umschau Verlag, Frankfurt, 1955.
Grim, H.. E.: "Clay Mineralogy," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., No'" Y(I ' k,
1953.
Keller, W. D .: "The Principles of Chemical Weathering," Lll cas IIrolll, ., s
Publishers, Columbia, Mo. , 1955.
Kerr, P. F. et a1.: H.eference Clay Minerals, Am. Petrol. In st . Res. Proj. 110 , Nil'"
York, 1950.
Serpentine Group
Gruner, J. W.: Notes on the Structure of Serpentines, A m. Mil/ em /ilgis/, vol.
22, p . 103, 1937.
Kalousek, G. L. , and L. E. Muttart: Studies on the Chr)'sotilo ;l l1 d AIIl i~~o l lin
Components of Serpentin e, Am. Min eralogist, vol. 42, pp. 1- 22, 10:'7.
Lodochnikov, Vl. N.: Serpentines and Serpentinites and th e Pel rologi( : .1 1" '(11 ,
lems Connected with them, Problems Soviet Geo!. , vol. 2, pp . 111:' - 1:'0,
1933.
Nagy, B. , and G. T. Faust : Serpentines : Natural Mixttlrcs o[ CII I'),so l/i" "".I
Antigorite, Am. Min eralogist, vol. 41, pp. 817-838, 1956.
Selfridge, G. C.: An X-ray and Optical Invcs ti gation of Lho Scrp(' III i ll ll ~ II"
erals, Am. Mineralogist, vol. 21, pp . 463-503, 1936.
Whittaker, E. J. W. , and J. Zussman: The Ch aracteriza tion or SCI'J WI1I Ill, ' Mill
erals by X-ray Diffraction , Min eral. Mag., vol. 31, pp. I07- 12Ci, 1<):'0.
Zussman, J., and G. W . Brindle),: El cctron DifTraclion Stlldi('s of Iii " f-, (" p( '"
tine Minerals, Am. Min eral. , vol. 42, pp . 133- 153, 1957.
Index
Abbe refractometer, 54, 55

Abbreviations, xiii
Abrasives, 5
alundum, 7
carborundum, 6
emery, 6
Absolute indices, 48
Absorption, 124
Absorption fonnul a, 125
Accessories, 26
gypsum plate, 26, 28
mica plate, 26, 28
quartz wedge, 26, 28
Achromatic objective, 21
Acicular crystals, 158
Adine twins, 255
Acmite, 315
Actinolite, 324, 325
Acute bisectrLx, 95
figures, 88, 95, 99
Adjustment of microscope, centering
stage, 34
crosshairs (natrolite ), 35
fin e (vertical ), 26, 27
polarizer (biotite or tourmaline), 36
Adularia, 265-266
Aegirine, 314, 315
Aegirine-augite, 313
Aggregate structure, 127
Aggrega tcs, acicular, 159
cemcnted, 159
fibrous, 159
foliated , 159
granul ar, 159
graphic intcrgrowt'hs, 159
incipient crystals, "159
Int'hliko, 1.'5 U
Sph"lIdlt le, \.'\0
AltrcIII 'I, C. D .. 7 1, H:,
Alt rnJl~
12 ..( I
AIr, In(\"11 of, 41i
Akermanite, 289
Ala twins, 255
Albite, 276
crystallization of, 254
Albite molecule, 248
Albite twins, extinction on, 258
Alkali feldspars, 262-271
optic angles, 263
Allanite, 341-343
Alleghanyite, 199, 353
Allen, E. T. , 300
Allen, R. M. , 36
Allophane, 405, 408
AllotriomOlvhi c form , :I 32
Almandite, 353
Alnoite, 289, 351
Alundum, 7
Alunite, 226, 227, 4'1:1
American Op tical Coltlpnny 11l it- 1I "' " I"'.
14
Ameri can Pctrol ellrn In, titltfto, dO'( , ;j II,
Amici, C. B., 36
Amici-Bertrand Icns, 12, 25
Ammoniojarositc, 228
Amorphous min cral s, 12()
Amphibole group, 3 18-.1:1:1
chcmica! relatio ns, 3 19, :32 1
elcavagc, 3 18
monocli ni c spC'cil" , :)2 1
Amphibolitc, 329, :3:30
Ampli tud e of \\I:tw'S, t1 0
An alcimc, 291, 292
cuh cdral, 1.33
An alyzC'r, 21
Ann tns(', I\)7
AIIIlU ~ il C', t1 05 ' ' IIlH
AII(\ ll lu , illl. ~l (l 'I . :10:,

(11'11 vll l ~' . 1:1
l I H ' III ~, f~I II ~1
1''''111.
111 1
1 ~ \ J l I : ~!~
"II II ICI II I I ( 'i'( III 'l,
Alld" ''' " Il, ~>;(H . ~\11)

H\'(
l :l~
428
Andradite, 353
Angle, axial, 95
axial 2E, 102
axial 2V, 102
( See also Axial angles )
critical, 50
of extinction, 82-84
of incidence, 47
of inclination pericline twins, 262
of minimum deviation, 54, 56
of op tic axes 2V, 98
of refraction, 47
of rhombic section, 260
of total reflection, 50
Anhedral, 132
Anhydrite, 189, 22 1-223
cleavage, 137
fragments, 147
Anisotropic minerals (tables ), 167
Anisotropism, 51
caused by strain, 84
in mineral plate, 71
Ankerite, 213
Annular diaphragms, 30
Anomalous interference, 84
clinozoisite, 336
garnet, 355
idocrase, 360
penninite, 399
prehnite, 418
zoisite, 334
Anomite, 393
Anorthite, 281 , 282
Anorthite mol eculc, 248
Anorthoclase, 270, 271
Anthophyllite, 319
hydrous, 320
Antigorite, 416, 417
Antiperthite, 250, 252
Apatite, 230, 231
euhedral, 132
Apochromatic objective, 23
Aragonite, 189, 216-218
Aragonite group , 216-218
Ardennite, 351
Argentojarosite, 228
Armstrong, E., 300
Asbestiform, 324
Asbestos, chrysotile, 4 18
grunerite, 322
tremolite, 320, 324
INDEX
Attapulgite, 406, 408, 414

Auganite, 310, 330
Augite, 309, 310
fragments, 147
Automorphic form, 132
Axes, of ellipsoid, 100
optic, 95, 101
Axial angles, in air, 2E, 103
comparison of, 103
in crystal, 2V, 103
Mallard's equation of, 103
range, of biaxial negative, 176
of biaxial pOSitive, 177
2V, 95
Axinne, 362, 363
Baddeleyite, 197
Bakelite cement, 57
Balsam, Canada, 6
Barite, 218-220
orientation, 139
Barrett, C. S., 123
Barth, T. F . W. , 312
Basalt, 310, 312, 330, 348
Basaltic hornblende, 329
(See also L amprobolite )
Basanite, 330
Baskin, Y., 300
Bassett, William, vii
Bausch and Lomb microscope, 12
Bauxite, 204
Baveno twins, 255
Beam, 40
Beck, C., 36
Becke, F., 59, 63
Becke line, 59
Beidellite, 408
Bell, James F., 4, 9
Belling, J., 36
Bennett, Alva H., 30, 36
Bentonite, 413
Berek, M., 36, 78, 85, 123
Berek compensator, 27, 29, 78, 79
Berlin blue, 399
Berman, H ., 14 1, 142, 184, 318
Berthier, Pierre, 204
Bertrand, E. , 36
Bertrand, L. , 36
Bertrand lens, 86
Beryl, 375-377
'129
INDEX
Biaxial fi gure, 94
negative, 99
positive, 99
Biaxial mincral tables, 171
Biaxial ray surface, 98
sections of, 100
Biaxial sign, 104, 105
Binocular microscope, 11 , 144
Binormals, 101
Biotite, 392-394
adjustment with, 36
halos, 130
Biradials, 101
Bird, Paul H., 6
Birefrin gcnce, 66
with orientation, 72
tables, 167, 168
Bisectrix, acute, 95
obtuse, 95
Bladed crystals, 129
Boehmite, 204, 205
Bone structure, 127
Borax, 189
Borgstrom, L. H., 149, 151
Bosazza, V. L., 10
Bouasse, H ., 85
"Bow-tie" structure, 418
Bowen, N. L. , 300, 382
Bowenite, 316
Bradley, 0., 300
Bragg, W . L., 183
Brewster, D., 64
Brewsterite, 291
Bright contrast, 32
Brindley, G. W ., 424
Brittle mica group, 400-402
Bronzite, 304
Brookite, 115
Brown, C . S., 300
Brucite, 203, 204
Buchwald, E. , 109
Buddington, A. F. , 288
Burri, C., 37, 109
Bustamite, 318
Bytownite, 280, 281
Calcite, ] 89, 210

fra gll1 cn ts, 1117
IIli c ro ro s~ il s In,
n ul lll l, 128
128
Calcite, twinning, 131

Calcite group , 209-216
Californite, 316, 360
Calkins, F. C. , 300
Camera, 32
Canada balsam, 6
Cancrinite, 286
Cano-Ruiz, J., 406
Carbonaceous matter, 186, 364
Carbonates, 209-21 8
aragonite group, 216-218
calcite group, 209-216
Carborundum, 6
Care of microscope, 29
Cargille, R. P., 148
Carlsbad twins, 255, 281
Carnallite, 189
Cassiterite, 197, 198
twililling, 131
Cedar oil, 22
Celestite, 220, 221
Cellular opal, 126
Cements, Canad a balsam, 6
Lakeside "70," 6, 8
lucite, 4
Centering pins, 28
Centering stagc, 34
Central illuminati on, 58
Chabazite, 294
Chain stru chlrcs, 182, 302-311 3
Chalcedony, 240-242
mosaic, 128
radial, 127
Chalcopyrite, 188
Chamosite, 399, 400
Chamot, E. M., 37
Chamockitc, 306
Chayes, F., 272, 274, 3()O
Chiastolitc, 364
Chlorite group, 39'1-'1 00
Chloritoid , 401 , 402
Chl oro mclallitc, 3J6
Choncl roclitc, 351, 353
Ch rome cl iopsili c, 308
Chrom itc, 200, 20 I
C hrysolite (n li vill c), ::J II(j
hrysotilc, 1:10, 11 17, II III
flbrolls, 130
Cla" t10 i>1I , K. , IIl:l, :lOO
<:1" ',,1 11 1' M'i 'I IIl" '_ 100
Cl"v ,, 1I"(\ lld-I, dOl, .Jj I to
430
Cleavage, one direction, 135
two direction s, 136
three directions, 136
four direction s, 138
six directions, 138
relation to fonn, 147
tables, 161 , 162
Cleavage examples, and alusite, 137
anhydrite, 137
fluorite, 137
hornbl ende, 136
muscovite, 137
pyroxene, 137
top az, 136
Cliachite, 126, 206, 207
Clinoamphiboles, 321
Clinochlore, 395, 397, 398
Clinoenstatite, 312
Clinohumite, 351 , 353
Clinopyroxenes, 306-318
indices of refraction, 307
Clinozoisite, 335-337
anomalous, 336
deuteric, 336
Clintonite, 400
Coes, L. J., 300
Coesite, 248
Coker, E. G., 44
Colemanite, 189
Collofornl opal, 242
Collophane, 233-235
replacement by, 127
Color, 181
application of, 77
chart in color (opposite 168)
of min erals, 124
and vibration a.xes, 124
Color b ands in fi gures, 95
Color relations, 76
Colored minerals, 156, 157
Columnar crystals, 158
Compensator, Berek, 29
mica, 29
Condenser, 25
circle, 16
front lens, 86
lens, 26
Cone of light, 22
Conoscopic observations, 15, 17, 18
Contact metamorphic occurrence, 308,
346, 351, 355, 366
I NDEX
Contraction cracks, 207

Convergent light, 86
Cookeite, 318
Cordierite, 379, 380
Corpuscular theory, 38
Corundophilite, 395
Corundum, 193, 195
skeleton crystals, 132
twinn ing, 131
Cover glass, 28
Crest of wave, 40
Crew, H., 44
Cristobalite, 237, 246, 247
artifi cial, 247
Critical angle, 50
Crocidolite, 330
Crookes, W., 84
Crossed dispersion, 108, 109
Crossed nicols, 34
Crossh airs, 25, 34
adjustment, 35
Crossite, 319, 332, 333
Cmshed fragmen ts, 142-151
Cryptoperthite, 252
Crystal angles, phi amI rho , 115
Crystallites, 421
Crystallization, incipient, 126
C rystals, 131
anhedral, 132
euhedral, 132
hexagonal, 133
isometric, 132
monoclinic, 134
orthorhombic, 134
t(ltragonal, 133
triclinie, 135
Cullinan diamond, interference of, 84
Cummingtonite, 321, 322
Cyanite (kyanite ), 367
Cyclosilieates, 182, 375-382
Cymatolite, 318
D ahllite, 231-233
D ark contrast, 32
D atolite, 419
D ay, A. L. , 300
Deer, W. A ., 382
DeJessite, 400
Dengo, G. , 343
Diabase, 312
11:3 1
INDEX
Diallage, 308
Diamon d, Cullinan, 84
Diamond disp ersion, 49
Diamond indices, 49
Diamond saw , 8
Diaphragm, annular, 30
double-method , 62
iris, 58
substage, 15
Diaspore, 201 , 202
Diatomite, 244
D iatom s, 128
Dichroic, 124
Dickite, 405, 408, 410, 411
Diopside, 306, 309
Disp ersion , 108, 109
bia.xial fi gures, 107, 108
crossed, 108, 109
diamond, 49
flUOrite, 49
horizontal, 108, 109
inclined , 108, 109
Dolerite, 312
Dolomite, 189, 2 13, 214
cleavage, 137
twinning, 137
Donnay, J. D. H., 62, 300
Double-diaphragm method, 62
Double images, 67
Double refraction , 67, 78
variation with thickness, 78
Dravite, 377
Drew, E. R. , 45
Drude, P. , 85
Dmgman, J. L. E. , 240
Dumortierite, 371 , 372
crystal fOnll , 134
Dunite, 320, 349
Dunn, F . L., 57
E ccentric biax ial figures, 96

Edenite, 325
Edser, E. , 44
Ehringhaus, A., 37
E instein, A., 39
E itel, W ., 300
E lasti city axes, 96
E lbll ile, 377
E lect ro n ll1i "rc)gm plt ~, 107
E l o n \(l l\t ~,
I HI)
Eleolite (nepheline ), 284

Ellestadite, 230
E llipsoid , index, 98-100
Elongation, negative, 84
positive, 84
Emery, 6
Emmons, R. C ., Ill , 113, 123,300
Emmons five-axis stage, 113
Endellite, 408, 412
Enstatite, 304, 305
E nstatite-augite, 311
Epidote, 337-339
Epidote group, 333, 343
crystal fOnTI , 134
Epsilon (.) , 68
E quant grain s, 158
Ethyl propionate, 149
Eueryptite, 318
Eugster, H. P. , 385
Euhedral, 131, 132
Euhedral crystals, 158
Evan s, J. W. , 109
Evaporites, 188, 189
E xley, C. S., 4, 9
E xtinction, inclined, 82
p arallel, 82
oblique, 82
symm etri cal, 83, 84
E xtraordin ary ray, 90
velocity of, 91
F arwell , II. W ., 45
F aust, G. T. , 1.15
Fayalite, 349, 350
Feldspars, 248-282
cleavage, 255
crystalli za ti on, 251
minerals, 248
tempera lures, 2/19
tern ary syslem, 2/10
F eldspar [winnin g, Acli ne', 2:':'
Ala, 255
Al bite, 257-260
Baveno, 255
Ca rl sbad, 255, 26 1
Ma neiJac il , 25:'
'tJerielille, 26 1, 2M.
fo'e'ldsPlI liloitis, 2112-211!)
1"," """ il l " 2:)0
l'\'lsnll lll , A. 1100
432
Fibrous aggregates, 119
Field, image, 15
source, 15
Filon, L . N. G., 44
Fine adjustment, 26
Fletcher, L., 109
Fluorite, 190, 191
cleavage, 138
dispersion, 49
fragments, 147
indices, 49
objective, 21
Focal length, 21
Foraminifera, 128, 212, 419
Forsterite, 345, 346
Foster, 'M. D., 424
Foster, W. R., 273, 274, 300
Fragments, 142
acicular, 147
form s, 146
immersion, 143
mounting, 142, 143
octahedral, 147
prismatic, 147
size, 144
temporary mounts, 143
Framework complexes, 182
Framework structures, 236-301
Francolite, 232
Franklinite, 198
Freund, H. , 183
Frondel, C., 382
Front lens, 26
Fuchsite, 385
Fulgurite, 247
Gabbro, 309, 310

Gage, S. H ., 37
Galmite, 198
Galaxite, 198, 199
Galliher, K W., 394
Galpin, S. G., 413
Garnet, anomalous, 133
subhedral, 131
Gamet group, 353-355
Gastaldite, 332, 333
Gates, R. M., 300
Gay, P. , 300
Gedrite, 319
Gehlenite, 289
I NDEX
113:1
INDEX
Geophysical L aboratory, 312

Geyserite, 244
Gibbsite, 126, 205, 206
and cliachite, 126
twinning, 131
Gieseckite, 286
Gilbelt, C. M., 141, 184
Glass, J. J. , 151
Glass, crystallites in, 421
flowage, 421
lechatelierite, 247
in leu cite, 128
shards, 412
spherulites in, 422
volcanic, 420-423
Glass prism, hollow, 56, 57
Glauconite, 419, 420
Glaucophane, 332, 333
Gmelinite, 295
Goethite, 207
Goldsclm1idt, V. M. , 252, 253
Government oil, 149
Graduated circles, 112
Graham, G. W. , 63
Granite, tourmalinized, 378
Granulite, 310
GraphiC intergrowth, 238, 239
Graphite, 186
Grazing incidence, 53
Greenalite, 400
Greensand, 420
Greisen, 379
Gridiron structure, 268
Griffith, H. D. , 37
Grim, R K, 406, 409
Grinding holders, 6
Grinding powder, 6
Grossularite, 353
Groth, P., 85, 109
Grout, F. F., 141
Grubenmann, U., 316 ,
Gruner, J. W ., 301
Grunerite, 322-324
Gypsum, 189, 223-225
Gypsum plate, 26, 28, 94
uniaxial application, 94
Halides, 188
Halite, ] 89, 100
Hallimond , A. I,'. , :17, :112, 400
Halloysitc, 11()5, IIOIl, 11 1 I, 11 12
Halos, 129, 1:30
in biotite, 393, 3901
Halowax on, Itl H, 1/19
H am ilton, P. K., viii
Hardy, A. C., 45
Harker, A. , 1011
Harmonic curve, 42
H armoni c motioll , 11 2
Harmotome, 29 1
Hartshorn e, N . J I. , 37, 85
Hatch, F. II. , 183
H aiiync, 287, 288
H eetorite, 408
H edenbergitc, 312, 313
extin ction illustration, 83
H einrich, K W ., 141, 424
Hematite, 195
Henderson, E. P., 189, 208
Herapath, W . B., 65, 66
H erapathite, 64, 65
Hercynite, 198, 199
Herringbone structure, 310
Hertz, I-I. R , 38
H ess, H ., 307, 343
Heulandite, 292, 293
H exagonal crystals, 133
H ey, Max H., 394, 424
Heyl, P. R , 45
Hiddenite, 317
High-index liquids, 149
Holmes, Ralph J., viii
Horizontal dispersion , 108, 109
Hornblende, 327-329
anhedral, 131
euhedral, 132
extinction illustration , 83
fragments, 147
orientation , 140
Hornfels, 322
IIortonolite, 349
lIot platc, 6
[Jotehkiss, W.O., 59, 60, 63
JTollrglass sll'lIclllre, 309
ehlorilnid , 11 0 I
1111('11( ', n. VUII , 01
I Itllllll " 1:1111'1" :lr. I :lfi: 1
Habit, 125
H afF, J. C ., 123
Hale, D.1\., 238, 300
1\11111 , W . 1"., 1'11
Hurlbut, C. S., Jr., 238

Huygenian ocular, 19
Huygens, Christian, 38, 45
Huygens construction, 46
H yaHte, 243
H yalosiderite, 348
H ydrargillite ( gibbsite), 205
Hydrocarbons, 420
Hydrohalloysite, 405, 408, 412
(S ee also Endellite)
Hydromagnesite, 204
H ydromica, 413
H ydromica group, 406, 408
I-Iydromuscovite, 387, 413, 414,
(S ee also Illite )
HydronepheHte, 286
Hydroxides, 201-208
Hypersthene, 305
gabbro, 306
Schiller structure, 130
Iceland spar, 67
Iddings, J. P., 183, 300
Iddingsite, 363, 364
Identification, key, 152
outline, 154
tables, 152-177
Idiomorphic form , :1 32
Idocrase, 359, 360
anom alous, 360
Igneous association, 252
Illite, 413
Illumination, 19
sodium, .57, 58
Illuminators, 30
Ilmenite, 195, 1.96
I1vaite, 351
Image Held , 15, '19
Imlilersion, cn l'e of li'lllids, IGO
medin, ] 48, 1/19
methud, 1/13, Ill tl
preparatiun of liqllids, I fi O, I II I
slandardi za ti on, 150
Impn.:gll atioll, 4
fn c; ir\"lIee, a llgl(' of, 11
g l'il zillg, 5:3
11('l pil '"1 t' l y~ l il lll i'lI l lo ll , I ~~; ,
111 (11111 '.1 dl ' I,,,,,III I1 , lOll, 1(1)
111(,1",1" " "
I ~J, H ,
I ~I)
IlId" " d ,,11 1I 11I 11I 1I 1Ii 111 /1, 1/10
434
Index of refraction, 57
tables, 163-165
Index ellipsoid, 98-100
Index liquids, 145
Indicatrix, biaxial, 68
uniaxial, 68
Indices, range of, biaxial minerals, 174,
175
isotropic minerals, 172
uniaxial minerals, 173
Ingcrson, E. , 123, 183
Inosilicates, 182, 302-343
Interference, anomalous, 84
Berlin blue, 85
caused by strain, 84
color chart, 168
colors, 75
first-order, 75
in monochromatic light, 76
with quartz wedge, 75
second-order, 75
Interference figure, biaxial, 88
fonnation of, 87
isochromatic curves, 95
isogyres, 95
uniaxial, 87, 88
Interlayer mixture, 414
Iodocinchonidine-sulfate, 65
Iolite, 379
Iris diaphragm , 26
Ironstone, 331, 400
Isachsen, Y. W ., 8, 9
Isoamyl isovalerate, 149
Isochromatic curves, 95
Isogyres, emergence, point of, 95
Isometric crystals, 132
Isomorphism, 183
Isotropic minerals, 126, 166
Isotropism, 51
Jade, 316
nephrite, 326
Jadeite, 315-317
Jarosite, 227, 228
Johannsen, A., 37, 85, 109 141, 184
Johnstone, A., 406
Kaersutite, 330
Kainite, 189
INDEX
Kaiser, E. P., 151

Kammererite , 395, 399
Kaolin group, 405, 408
Kaolinite, 405, 408-410
Kelley, Vincent, 355
Kennedy, G. C., 9, 184, 301
Kernite, 189
Kerosene, 148, 149
Kerr, P. F., 300
Key to tables, 152
Keyes, M. G. , 9
Kieserite, 189
Knebelite, 349
Knopf, E. B., 123
Kohler, A., 252, 301
Kotschubeite, 395, 398, 399
Kraus, E. H ., 141
Kunzite, 317, 318
Kyanite, 367-369
bladed crystals, 130
fragments, 147
Labradorite, 279, 280

Lakeside "70" cement, 6, 8
Lamp, low-voltage, 31
sodium, 58
substage, 30
Lamprobolite, 329, 330
Langbanite, 351
Langbeinite, 189
Lapham, D . L., viii, 395
Lapis lazuli, 288
Laps for grinding, 7
Larnite, 345
Larsen, E. S. , 57, 141, 142, 150, 151, 184
Lassallite, 406
Laterite, 204
Lathlike crystals, 158
Laumontite, 291
Laves, F ., 253, 301
Lawsonite, 374, 375
Lazulite, 235
Lazurite, 287
Lechatelierite, artificial, 247
Leitz microscope, 13, 15
Length-fast, 84
L ength-slow, 84
Lepidolite , 388-390
L epidomelanc, 385, 394
Lcptochlol;tc, 396
INDEX
Leuchtenbergite, 398
Leucite, 282-284
cross 'twinning, 284
pseudoleucite, 284
Leucoxenc, 196, 197
Levinson , A. A. , 424
Light, 38
color, 42
frequ ency, 40
monochromatic, 40
polarized, 64
convergent, 86
red, 43
resolution, 71
sodium, 57, 58
sp eed, 4 1
theories, 38
vector, 41
violet, 44
Lignite, 127
Limburgite, 310
Limonite, 207
Liquids, care of, 150
high-index, 149
mixing, 150 .
standardization , 150
Lithophysae, 345
Lizarclitc, 415
Lodochnikov, V. W. N ., 415
Low-voltagc lamp , 31
Lucite mounting, 4
Luquer, L. M. , 141
Lussatite, 244
Luster, adamantine, 49
vih'eous, 49
Luxullianite, 129, 130, 374
MacCullagh, J., 85
MacKenzie, W. S. , 253, 262, 263, 267,
301
McLintock, W. F. P. , 381
Magma, basaltic, 343
matic, 343
Magnesioferritc, 198
Magncsite, 214, 215
Magncsium orthil'C, 242
Magnc ti c vcctor, 41
Mag nt'lil l', 200
Mag nific:lli,," , ('lllpl )" 2:)
illili ul, 22
435
Malcon,361
Mallard, M. E. , 244
Mallard's equation, 103
Manebach twin law, 255
Manganese antigorite, 415
Manganese chr),sotile, 415
Manganophyll, 394
Margarite, 400
Marialite, 289
Mariposite, 385
Marshall, C. R. , 37
Martens, J. H . C. , 235
Martin-Vivaldi, J. L., 406
Maschke, 0. , 142
Mason, B., viii
Mason, C. W., 37
Maxwell, James Clerk, 38, 42
Meionite, 289
Melanite, 355
Melatope, 95
Melilite, 288, 289
p eg structurc, 289
Melon, 402
Melts, immersion , 149
Merwin , H. E., 57, 142, 151
Mesitylene, 149
Mesolite, 297, 298
Metacryst, 358 , 375, 402
Metamict, 229, 343, 361
Metamorphism, dyn a mi (;, 338
Mcteor crater, 247
Methyl meth ac rylatc mOl 1111 ill g. II
Methylenc iodide, 53, '14 H, I/If)
Meyer, C., 8
Meyrowitz, R. , 150, :I 5 1
Mica, compcnsa tor, 29
of first class, 384
platc, 26, 28, 93
polymOll)hs, 384
of second cl ass, 384
Mi ca group , 381- 391
Mi ch cl, K ., 37
Mi chel-Levy mClhod , 2.'57, 2:;11, 2'( 1
Mi cro amorpholl s, 1.26
Mi croclinc, 268
Microgra nitc , 33 1
Mi crolil cs, 125
M icromcler, Ilil:ll', 20
gm l in g. 20
()(' Ili li l'. 20
foi 1ng n, 2 1
436
Microperthite, 250
Microscope, 57
accessories, 26
adjustment, 34
American Optical, 14
Bausch and Lomb, 12
binocular, 11
care of, 29
centering, 34
illumination, 19
lamps, 30
Leitz, 13
magnification, 23
phase, 11
polarizing, 11
precautions in use, 28
reHecting, 11
sectional view, 14, 16
stage, 34
Zeiss, 16, 17
Miers, H. A. , 85
Milner, H. B., 184
Mineral chip, 5
Mineral descriptions, 181
Mineral groups, 182
Mineral plate, 71
Mineral preparations, 3
Mineral saw, 5
Mineral tables, 152-177
axial angles, 176, 177
biaxial indices, 174, 175
birefringence, 167, 168
cleavage, 161, 162
color chart, 168
colored, 156, 157
form, 158-160
isotropic, 166, 172
key to, 152
negative (biaxial) , 171
opaque, 155
positive (biaxial) , 170
refractive indices, 163-165
structures, 160
uniaxial, 169, 173
Mineraloids, 420-424
Minimum deviation angle, 54
Mirror, 26
Molloy, M. , viii
Mon azite, 228, 229
a-Monobromn apthalene, 149
Monochlomapthalene, 149
l ",DEX
Monochromatic light, green, 85

Monoclinic crystals, 134
Monticellite, 344, 350, 35 1
Montmorillonite, 406, 408, 412, 413
Montmorillonite group , 408
Mordenite, 291
Morey, G. W. , 85
Mosaic structure, 127
Mountain leather, 414
Mounting fragments, 142
Muir, I. D., 275, 301
Mullite, 369-371
artificial, 370
porcelain, 370
Multiple oxides, 198-201
Multiple SiO, structures, 374, 375
Multiple tetra11edral groups, 182
Muscovite, 385-388
cleavage, 137
Myrmekite, 238
Nacrite, 405, 408

Nagy, B. , 4 15
Natroalunite, 227
Natrojarosite, 228
Natrolite, 35, 295-297
fragments, 147
radial, 296
Needlelike crystals, 129
Nepheline (nephelite ), 284-286
euhedral, 134
Nephrite, 326
Nesosilicates, 182
Newton, Sir Isaac, 38, 45
Nicholson, J. W ., 85
Nicol prism, 69, 70
Nicols, adjustment, 35
crossed, 34
Nomenclature, 276
Nontronite, 406, 408
Norbergite, 353
Norite, 306
Nosean, 287
Noselite, 287
Numerical aperture, 22
Ob ject field , 15, 19

Objcct slide, 27
137
I NDEX
Objecti vo, 11( 1" ' ''"111 1, ', ~). I

apochrolll il l k , ~:,
flu orilc, 2 1
light CO Il t' , 22
nUlllel'i C'1I 1 li lli' '' 11 11 '. ~~
oil-irnll l(' rsio // , 2 1, 22
Obliqlle illlllllillll i iOll , (j I
Obsidian , 420
Obtusc bis('clrl." or;
Ocular, 18
Hu ygclliall , I()
negative, ID
positi vc, I D
Ramsde n, 19
Oligoclnse, 277, 278
Olivinc, 346-349
euhed ral, 134
Olivinc gabbro, 348
Olivine group, 344--351
Omcga ( w ), 68
Omphacite, 308
Ooliths, 399
Oolitic calcite, 211
Oolitic phosphorite, 234
Opal, 242- 244
amorphous character, 126
cellular structure, 126
Opaque minerals, 152, 155, 185
table, 155
Optic axes, biaxial, 101
emergence, 95
plane, 95
primary (binormals ), 101
secondary (biradials ), 101
Optic axis figure, 96, 106
biaxial, 106, 107
with quartz wed ge, 107
Optic norm al, 95, 96
Optic sign, biaXial, 104, 105
uniax ial, 93
Optical indi catrix, biaxial, 68, 99, 100
uniax ial, 68
Optical system, 13
Ordinary ray, 67, 90
Orcgo n jade, 317
Organi c malerial s, 126
Orgallisl, D. M., 4
Ori('"ll1l i,," , I:)H, IHI
hili illl (''' "II pll'' 1:\0
hi" IIhlt "" I" 1'\l II II pll" I 10
O "l dlll. :'01 I
Orthoamphiboles, 319
Orthoehlorite, 396
Orthoclase, 263
crystallization, 254
fragme nts, 147
molecule, 248
twinning, 255
Orthopyroxenes, 304--306
Orthorhombic crystals, 134
Olt hoseopic observation , 13, 18
Ottrelite, 400, 401
Oxides, 191- 198
Palagonite, 424
Palygorskite, 406, 408, 414
Para woll astonite, 381
Parrish, W., 151
Parting, 135
Parts of microscope, 18
Peacock, M. A., 381
Pectolite, 318, 381
Peeled films, 8
Peg structure, 289
Pen nine, 398
Pennine law, 399
Penninite, 395, 398
Percussion figure, 384
Periclase, artificial, 192
Pericline twilmin g, 260, 261
inclination of, 262
Peri cline twins, 255
Peridotite, 310
Perlite, 420
Perovskite, 201
Perrin, F. H. , 45
Perthite, 250, 252, 269, 277
Peh'oleum di still atcs, 149
Petrotome, 8
Phase differcncc, 73
Phase microph otographs, 33
Phase mi croscope, 1 I
P hase mi croscopy, 30
P h:1se shift, 31
P henyldiodoa rsin <" 149
l'hlogop itc, 3DO- .'3 D2
I'IHlI lI)lill ', .'3 1/1., .'3 15
1'1 ""Jlli a l('S, 200, 22H 2:1;;
1'1" " 1'1 ,, " Ilo. 2:l2. 2:1"
l ' II () I IIIIIi" I () I~ " ll'l dl' ,"11111 "" , :H
111 11 ,IIl ill ie '11)1'\1" 1II 1111 : , ~~
438
Phyllite, 358
Phyllosilicates, 183, 383-420
Picotite, 198, 199
Piedmontite , 339-341
Pigeonite, 311, 312
Piller, H., 33, 37
Pilolite, 406
Pinite, 380
Piperine, 149
Pisolitic bau xite, 126
Pisolitic structure, 206
Pistacite, 337
Pitchstone, 420
Plagioclase, birefringence, 274
cleavage, 273
decimal grouping, 300
extinction on, 257
glass, 274
high temperature, 272, 275
methods, 271
normal, 272
2V, 275
twins, 259, 260
Plagioclase group , 271-282
Planck, M. , 39
Pleochroism , 124
Pleonaste, 198, 199
Plumbojarosite, 228
Plumose barite, 220
Pockels, F., 45
Polariscope, 64
Polarization, 64
by abso,ption, 65
by reflection, 64
by refra ction, 66, 67
by toum1aline, 65
Polarized light, 64
convergent, 86
Polarizer, 25
Polarizing microscope, 11
Polarizing plates, 12
Polaroid, 12, 64, 66
Polder va art, A. , viii, 307, 343, 361 , 382
Polished surfaces, 3
Polyhalite, 189, 225, 226
Polymorphism, 183
Polymorphs, 384
Polysynthetic twinning, 255, 257, 260,
261
Polzenite, 351
Porphyroblast, 375
INDEX
439
I NDEX
Prehnite, 418
Prescott, Basil, 350
Principal plane of ray surface, 91
Principal sections of ellipsoid, 100, 101
Prism method, 54, 56
Prisms, Ahrens, 70, 71
nicol, 69, 70
Thompson , 70
Proehlorite, 395, 396
Pseudoj ade, 316, 360, 399
bowenite, 316
ealifomite, 316
grossul arite, 317
pseudophite ( chlorite), 317
Pseudoleucite, 284
Pseudophite, 317, 399
Pseudoh'idymite, 244
Pseudowollastonite, 381
Ptilolite, 291
Pumice, 422
Pyralspite, 353
Pyrite, 187
Pyrope, 353
Pyrophyllite, 404, 405
Pyroxene, euhedral, 135
Pyroxene group , 302-333
chemical relation s, 303
extinction angles, 303
soda, 304
Pyroxenoids, 318
Pyrrhotite, 187
Ray, of light, 40
ordinary, 67, 68
surface, 96
biaxial, 98
Reaction series, 253
Reference clay minerals, 407
Reflectin g microscope, 11
Reflection of light, polarization by, 64
total, 50
Refraction, 46
angle of, 48
double, 51
index of, 51
of light, 49
Refractive index, 40
absolute, 48
Refractometer, 51
Abbe, 54, 55
hemispherical, 52
prism , 54, 56
Reinhm'd, M., 123, 275, 301
Relief, 62, 63, 181
Resolution, 24
in analyzer, 72, 73
Retardation, 72, 73
equation of, 72
full wavelength, 74
half wavelength, 74
Rev, George, 4
Rhodoclu'osite, 209, 210
Rhodonite, 318
Rhombic section, 260
Rhombohedral carbonates, 209
Riebeckite, 330
Rin g groups, 182
Ring structures, 375-382
Ripidolite, 396
Robelts, Fred , 4
Robinson, K. , 424
Rock salt (halite ), 190
Rock slice, 7
Rogers, A. F. , vii, 141, 142, 151, 231,
241, 244, 245, 329, 388
Rosenbusch , H., 184
Rosenthal, P., 34
Ross, C. S. , 57, 142,364,409
ROllballlt, M. , 36
Rowland, E. 0 ., viii, 8, 9
Howlall d saw, 8
Hulil p, 10
l'l ood lnlillll, 12\ )
Quadrille structure, 268

Quanta, 39
Quartz, alpha, 237, 238
beta, 237, 240
synthetic, 238, 300
Quartz sphere, 67
Quartz wedge, 26, 28
Ra az, F. , 37
Radial aggregate, 127
Radiol aria, 126
Ram sdell, L. S., 141, 300
Ramsden ocular, 19
Rankama, K., 9
Rankin , G. A. , 381
Hay, 40
eX h'aordin ary, 67, 68
. I
Sandstone, 238
Sanidin e, 266, 267
Saponite, 406 , 408
Saund ers, F. A. , 45
Savchenkov, T. V., 406
Saylor, C. P., 62, 63
Scapolite group, 289- 290
Schairer, J. F ., 382
Schaller, W. T. , 189, 208
Schiller structure, 129, 130, 304
Schist, 333, 336, 358
glaucophane, 333, 336
hornblende, 336
staurolite, 358
Schmidt, E. , 262, 301
Sehorlite, 377
Schroeder VaI1 der Kolk, J. L. C. , 1/12,
151
Schuster, A., 85
Schuster's method, 256, 257, 27 1
Scolecite, 299, 300
Secondary optic axes, 101
Sectional view, 14, 16
Sections, thin, 4-9
Selenium melts, 149
Selfridge, G. c. , 415
Seminephrite, 326
Sensitive violet, 77
Sepiolite, 406, 408, 414 , 41 5
Sericite, 385, 387, 388
Serpentine group, 415
Serpentinite, 418
Serpophite, 416
Shannon, E. V. , 364
Shatter cracks, 125, 160
Sheet structures, 183, 383 .1120
Siderite, 215, 216
Sign, biaxial fi gurc, lOti , 105
uniax ial fi gure, 93
Silica brick, 245, 247
Silica group , 236-2 /18
min erals of, 237
Silicate gro llps, 182, 3t11- .'3H2
Sillimanite, 365-367
I1 a mboY::lIlt, 127
frag mcnts, 117
II ccdlc like, 128
Silliln :l llil c fa nlil y, 36 /1 :l7tl
Singl!' SiO" 3t1tl- 37 /1
~l ll g l ( . l< 'lrn J.I'ti nd g' () lIp.\ IH
SIIIII" , :11:3
440
Skeleton crystals, 131
Slow ray, 81
Smith, J. R., 249, 250, 251 , 253, 301 , 343
Smith, J. V. , 262, 263, 267, 272, 273,
:300, 301, 384, 424
Smithsonite, 209
Snell's law, 46, 48
Soda amphiboles, 319
Soda aplite, 315
Soda granit6, 315
Soda microcline, 270
Soda pyroxenes, 304
Soda-lime feldspars (plagioclase ), 271
Sodalite, 287
Sodium light, 57, 58
Sorosilicates, 182, 374, 375
Sosman, R. B., 237
South African jade, 316
Spectrum, electromagnetic, 44
visible, 43, 44
Speed of light, 41, 42
Spessartite, 353
Sphalerite, 186
Sphene, 358, 359
twin crystals, 129, 130
Spheroid, oblate, 68
prolate, 68
Sphemlites, 422
Spilites, 277
Spinel, 198, 199
Spinel group, 198-201
Spitta, E. J., 37
Spodumene, 317, 318
Stage, centering, 34
micrometer, 21
universal, 111
Staurolite, 356-358
euhedral, 135
Stereographic projection, 114, 115
Stewart, D. B. , 189, 208, 249-251, 301
Stewart, F. H. , 189
Stilbite, 293, 294
Stilpnomelane, 400, 401
Strontian apatite, 230
Stmctures, banded, 160
bone, 127
bow-tie, 418
cellular, 126
colloform, 160
flow with phenocrysts, 160
grid, 268
INDEX
4-11
INDEX
Stmctures, herringbone, 310

hourglass, 309
lithophysae, 160
microfossil, 126, 127
mosaic, 127
oolitic, 160
organic, 160
peg, 289
p erlitic cracks, 160
pisolitic, 160
quadrille, 268
radial, 127, 128
Schiller, 129, 130, 304
shards, 160
shatter cracks, 160
sphemlitic, 159
Stuart, A., 37, 85
Styrian jade, 317, 399
pseudo-ophite (penninite ), 399
Subhedral, 132
Substage assembly, 25
Sulfates, 209, 218-228
Sulfides, 186
Sulfur melts, 149
Syenite, 314, 315, 331
Sylvite, 189
Syngony, 351
Thin section, prep aration of, 3

qu artzitc illustration , 80
thickn ess determi nation , 80
Thompsun, S. P., 45, 85
Thomsonite, 298, 299
Thorite, 361
Thulite, 334
Thuringite, 400
Tickel!, F. G. , 184
Tiger's eye, 331
Tihonravov, Alexander, 4
Titanite ( sphene ), 358
Tolman, C. F. , 231
Tomkeieff, S. I., 347
Topaz, 372-374
Total reflection , 50, 52
Tourmaline, absorption , 65
microscope ad justment, 36
radial, 130
Tourmaline group, 377-379
Tourmaline suns, 378
Tremolite,324, 325
Trichites, 125
Trichroic, 124
Triclinic crystals, 135
Tridymite, 237, 244, 245
artificial, 245
Troger, W . E., 249, 253, 301 , 343
Tsuboi, S., 273
Tube length, 22
Tunnell, G., 85, 102
Turner, F . J., 123, 141, 184, 326, 327
Tuttle, O. F., 254, 263, 300, 301
Tutton, A. E. H. , 85, 109
Twinning, Carlsbad-albite, 259, 260
of feld spars, 255
periclin e, 259
polysynthetic, 131
Tables (mineral) , 152-177

birefrin gent minerals, 167, 168
isotropic minerals, 166
key to, 152
optical character, 169-171
transparent minerals, 153, 156-177
Tachylyte, 314, 315, 423
T alc, 402-404
T echnicians, 4
T ectosilicates, 182, 236-301
T ephrite, 330
T ephroite, 344, 349
Tertsch, H., 37
Tetragonal crystals, 133
Thenardite, 189
Theories of light, corpuscular, 38
electromagnetic, 38
Thiel, G. A., 301
Thin section, covering, I:s
cross section of, 7
large-Size, 9
polished, 9
Ugrandi te, 354

Ulexite, 189
Ultramarinc, 287
Un compahgritc, 289
Unconsolidated materials, I hin svc[ iuIIS
of, 4
Uniaxial crystal s, IIcgal iv\.!, 91
!)osit ivc, 9 1
Ullia xill l nglll c, 1l7, HH
l'cn'IIl, it', HI)
xtrllordhl lll Y I llY III , UO
(
l
Uniaxial figure, negative, 93, 94

ordinary ray in, 90
positive, 93, 94
sign, 93
strong doubl e refraction, 90
vibration directions, 92
weak double refraction , 90
Unia-xial mineral tables, 169
Uniaxial ray surface, 91
Universal stage, III
adjusbnent, 116
assembly, ] 11, 112
axes, 112
axis location, 117
with biaxial crystals, 119
circles, 112
crystal orientation, 116
exercises, 120, 121
illumination, 116
illustrative mounts, 119, :I 20
stereographic net, 122, 123
Utility clamp, 31
Uvarovite, 353
Variation with directioll , fasl my, HI

slow ray, 81
Vector, electric, 41
light, 41
magnetic, 41
Vermicular growth s, ] 29
Vesuvianite, 359
Vibration, direc tion , :m
fast and slow rays, 8 1
planes, 35
Violet, se nsitive, 77, 7H
Viridine, 365
Voelckcrite, 230
Volca ni c g lass, 42C}-/12:'
Von lIucne, Hmlolph, 4
Wage r, L. It , 382
' '''ahlstrom, E. E. , :37 , 110, I !.!:l , I IVI
Walers, A. C ., 42"
Wa ve crcsl, "0
Wavo displ lll'(' III(' IIt , :\\)
"VIIV(' 1'1 t'qII ll llC)', 110 , II
WIiV" III (l llo ll , /12
"V ,IVll IH llil/ \II (,I'i1 l1l1', :111
W ,IV"
",,,,,"d, :11), (II)
442
W ave period, 40
'Nave phase, 40, 43
W ave trough , 40
\Vave velocity, 69
Wavefront, 40
Wavelength, 39
W eatherhead, A. V., 10
W ebster, D. L. , 45
W einschenk, E., 85, 141, 184
Wells, A. K., 185
W ern erite, 289
W est, C. D. , 151
Weymouth, A. A., 10
Wheny, E. T., 413
Wh.ittaker, E. T. , 45, 415
Wilkeite, 230
Williams, H., 141, 184
Wilson, D . A. P. , 10
Winchell, A. N., 85, 110, 141, 184, 311,
343,354
Wollastonite, 318, 380-382
Wood tin, 374
INDEX
Wright, F. E. , 60, 63, 66, 85, 1l0, 151,

261, 381
Wright arcs, 112, 113
Xenomorphic form, 132
Xylol, 8
Yoder, H. S. , Jr., 249, 250, 251 , 253,
301 ,384,385,424
Zeiss microscope, 16, 17
Zeiss refractometer, 54, 55
Zeolites, 290-300
Zernike, F., 37
Zinnwaldite, 390
Zircon, 360, 361
Zoisite, 333--335
ferrian, 334
manganian, 334
non-fenian, 334
Zussman, 415

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Optical Mineralogy (3rd Ed) (Paul F. Kerr) McGraw-Hill

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OPTICAL MINERALOGY

Paul F. Kerr, Ph.D.

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

1959 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.

Copyright, 1933, 1942, by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Printed in

PART ONE. MINERAL OPTICS

General Features-Optical System- Parts of the Microscope-Precautions to

Theories of Light- Nomenclature of the Wave Theory- Light Vector- Speed

Snell's Law. The Index of Refraction- Dispersion- Critical Angle- Total

10. Systematic Identification

Pyroxene Group: Enstatite--H ypersthene--Diopside--Augite--Pigeonite-Hedenbergite--Aegirine-augite--Aegirine-J adeite--Spodumene.

Color and Pleochroism- Form or Aggregation- Natural Crystal Form in Thin

Single SiO, Structures.

PART TWO. MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS

Chapter 12. Carbonates, Sulfates, and Phosphates

Chapter 13. Silicates: Framework Structures (Tectosilicates ).

bito--Oli goclasc-And cs in c~Labradorilc-Bytownitc-Anorth1te .

Foldspath oids: L Cllcilc- Ncphclinc - Cancrinito--Sodalite--I Iuiiyne- .

Muscovite Group: Muscovite-Lepidolite-Phlogopite--Biot:it~.

Isotropic . .. . . ... .. . . . . .. . . ... . .

Mineral t ype to which index

n = index of refra ction.

t he di ~ p o l'~ i() II [0 " v iolct.

= the axial angle observed in air.

Mineral Preparations for Microscopic Study

Types of Preparations. The preparation of minerals for microscopic

MINERAL PREPARATIONS FOR MICROSCOPIC STUDY

When a chip is ready, a smooth surface is polished on one side by

MINERAL PREPARATIONS FOR MICROSCOPIC STUDY

should be made of copper or brass and grooved. A helical groove pattern

.bout 0.17 mm or less). The preparation is then cooled, and excess

O. Rowland. (ClItrock Engineering

cuts the precIsely held chIp to a

MINERAL PREPARATIONS FOR MICROSCOPIC STUDY

Weatherhead, A. V.: A New Method for the Preparation of Thin Sections of

The Polarizing Microscope

General Features. TIle polarizing microscope is widely employed to

A list of firm s that manufacturc or distribute polarizing microscopes is given h ere:

MINE RAL OPTICS

THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE

analyzer (Ahrens type ) , Amici-Bertrand lens, and the eyepiece. In this

prism, and eyepiece. As aligned, the instrument would yield orthoscopic

, Micrometeri fine ndilJ<tmpnt~

Protecting plate -~, .

'--Upper iris diaphragm

2-3. Sectional view of a standard polarizing microscope (American Optical Co.).

yields interference figures which represent an optical effect caused by the

THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE

If the best results are to be achieved, regardless of the source of

Cross Jines plan.

Eyepiece slee ve - - - - ---'

Mill ed ring for od iu, ting th e tube len gth _ __ _

'.Iilled rin g for the tu be diap hragm

De viat ing prism

1-- - - -- Tube head

Analyze r filter -----~

Substag e cond enser

Fine ad justm en t head

ring for radiant field .stop

Screw ring for b ulb _ _ -'-_ _ _ _ _ _.J

6V. 15W. bulb - -- - -_ _ __ ---1

THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE

THE POLARIZING MICROSCOPE