Frederick S Woods Elementary Calculus

ELEMENTARY CALCULUS
BY
FREDERICK
S.
WOODS
AND
FREDERICK
PIlOlfMSSOUS
H.
BAILEY
0V MATHEMATICS IN THK MASSACHUSETTS

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
GINN AND COMPANY

ItORVOK
ATLANTA
NI3W
AM.A8
LONDON
OHtCAGO
SAN PBANOISOO
COLUMBUS
YORK
COPYRIGHT,
1922,
BY FREDERICK
WOODS
AND FREDERICK H BAILEY

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PRINTED IN THB UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
I
82611
153
GINN AND COMPANY PROPRIETORS BOSTON V.S.A.

.
>
PKEFACB
This book
is
adapted to the use of students in the
first
year
in technical school or college, and is based upon the experience

of the authors
teaching calculus to students in the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology immediately upon entrance.

It is accordingly assumed that the student has had college-
entrance algebra, including graphs, and an elementary course

in trigonometry, but that he has not studied analytic geometry.
The first three chapters form an introductory course in
which the fundamental ideas of the calculus are introduced,

including derivative, differential, and the definite integral, but
the formal work is restricted to that involving only the polynomial. These chapters alone are well fitted for a short course
of about a term.
The definition of the derivative is obtained through the

concept of speed, using familiar illustrations, and the idea
of a derivative as measuring the rate of
change of related
quantities is emphasized. The slope of a curve is introduced
This is designed to prevent the student from
acquiring
the notion that the derivative is
fundamentally a geometric
later.
concept. For the same reason, problems from mechanics are

prominent throughout the book.
With Chapter IV a more formal development of the
subject
begins, and certain portions of analytic geometry are introduced
as needed. These include,
among other things, the straight line,
the conic sections, the cycloid, and
polar coordinates.
The book
contains a large number of

well-graded exercises for
Drill exercises are placed at the end of most seca miscellaneous 'Set of exercises, for review or further
the student.
tions,
work,
and
is found
at the end of each chapter

except the first.
ui
PREFACE
iv
Throughout the book, the authors believe, the matter is presented in a manner which is well within the capacity of a firstyear student to understand. They have endeavored to teach
the calculus from a common-sense standpoint as a very useful
tool.
They have used as much mathematical rigor as the
student is able to understand, but have refrained from raising
the more difficult questions which the student in his first
course
is
able neither to appreciate nor to master.
Students who have completed this text and wish to continue

their study of mathematics may next take a brief course in
differential equations and then a course in advanced calculus,
or they may take a course m advanced calculus which includes
differential equations. It would also be desirable for such students to have a brief course in analytic geometry, which may
either follow this text directly or come later.
This arrangement of work the authors consider preferable to
for a long time common in American colleges
the one
by
in higher algebra and analytic geometry precede
the calculus. However, the teacher who prefers to follow the
older arrangement will find this text adapted to such a program.
which courses
WOODS
H BAILEY
F. S.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
EATES
I.
SECTION
PAGE
Limits
Average speed
True speed
3.
....
....
Algebiaic method
Acceleiation
Rate of change
The
8.
Differentiation of a polynomial
Sign of the derivative
4.
...
...
Velocity and acceleration (continued)

11 Rate of change (continued)
12 Graphs
13 Real roots of an equation
14 Slope of a straight line
.
...
....
Slope of a curve
16
17.
The second derivative

Maxima and minima
18
Integration
Area
Differentials
21.
Appioximations
....
....
.15
18
20
...
...
....
21
24
27
30
.31
36
.39
...
19
.11
....
...
15
...
...
41
44
47
...*...
General exercises
...
CHAPTER
Area by summation
23.
24.
The
The
26
Yolume
50
...
....
22.
5
8
DIFFERENTIATION
II.
10
20
CHAPTER
derivative
...
.......
........
.
1
3
53
.
.55
SUMMATION
III.
.
definite integral
....
...
00
.
62
.66
general summation problem

25. Pressure
68
71
...
General exercises
76
CONTENTS
vi
CHAPTER IV. ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

PAGE
SECTION
...
27 Distance between two points
...
28. Circle
29.
...
Parabola
....
79
...
79
81
30 Parabolic segment
...
81. Ellipse
32
87
91
33.
36.
.93
....
94
Formulas
37 Differentiation
38 Tangent line
The
40.
Motion in a curve
104
differentials dx, dy, ds
41. Related velocities
106
...
...
Ill
43
113
CHAPTER
measure
107
and rates
General exercises
42. Circular
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
V.
.
Graphs of trigonometric functions
....
119
121
...
...
124
44. Differentiation of trigonometric functions

45.
Simple harmonic motion
46
....
The
cycloid
...
...
...
....
131
189
51 Polar coSrdinates
differentials dr, dO, ds, in polar coordinates

.
General exercises
CHAPTER
54.
VI.
142
The
53.
185
137
50. Curvature
53.
127
130
of inverse trigonometric functions
Graphs
47 Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions
48. Angular velocity
49.
101
102
...
of implicit functions
...
39.
83
85
Hyperbola
Other curves
34 Theorems on limits
35. Theorems on derivatives
.
146
149
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
The exponential
The logarithm
function
.
....
154
154
55. Certain empirical equations
159
56. Differentiation
163
57.
The compound-interest law
166
General exercises
168
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
vii
SERIES
VII.
SECTION
PAGE!
58.
Power
59.
Maclaurm's
series
60. Taylor's
General exercises
Partial differentiation
62.
Higher
Rate of change
General exercises
a function of two variables
66. Integral of
195
199
...
.
205
...
73-74 Integration by parts

Integration of rational fractions
76.
Table of integrals
General exercises
75
...
CHAPTER
....
...
225
229
78. Infinite limits, or integrand
Area in polar cobrdmates
80.
Mean
81.
Length
82.
Work
value of a function
of
230
....
233
235
a plane curve
237
General exercises
CHAPTER
...
XI.
84.
85.
Center of gravity
...
239
REPEATED INTEGRATION
Double integrals
Area as a double integral
83.
216
217
220
APPLICATIONS
X.
79.
207
208
212
...
191
194
Other algebraic integrands

Integrals of trigonometric functions
Review problems
185
71-72. Substitutions
184
INTEGRATION
IX.
un
181
.189
.
70. Integrals of exponential functions
77.
...
177
179
CHAPTER
65. Introduction
69
...
partial denvatives
63. Total differential of
67-68
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
VIII.
61
64
173
seuos
CHAPTER
172
series
...
.
244
246
249
CONTENTS
yiii
PAGE
SECTION
86
Center of gravity of a composite area
255
87 Theoiems
88.
89
Moment of inertia
Moments of inertia about
Space cooidinates
91. Certain sui faces
92.
Volume
93
Center of gravity of a solid

Moment of inertia of a solid
General exeicises
257
260
parallel axes
90
94
....
....
266
269
271
.277
282
283
286
ANSWERS
291
INDEX
315
ELEMENTARY CALCULUS
CHAPTER
RATES
Since the calculus
Limits.
1.
is
based upon the idea of a
necessary to have a clear understanding of the word.

examples already familiar to the student will be sufficient.
limit it
Two
is
In finding the aiea of a
circle
plane geometry
it is
usual
to begin by inscribing a regular polygon in the circle. The area

of the polygon differs from that of the circle by a certain
As
amount.
the
this difference
number
becomes
of sides of the
less
and
less.
polygon
Moreover, if
is
increased,
we
take any
can find an inscribed polygon whose area

differs from that of the circle by less than e\ and if one such
of
polygon has been found, any polygon with a larger number
area from the circle by less than e. The
sides will still differ
small
number
0,
we
area of the circle
is
said to be the limit of the area of the
inscribed polygon.
As
another example of a limit consider the geometric progresan unlimited number -of terms
sion with
The sum
of the first
two terms
of this series
is
1,
the
sum
of the first three terms is If, the sum of the first four terms
and so on. It may be found by trial and is proved in
is
1-J,
the algebras that the sum of the terms becomes more nearly
are taken becomes
equal to 2 as the number of terms which
greater.
e is
it
may
be shown that
if
any small number
of terms n so that
possible to take a number
of these terms differs from 2 by less than e. If a value
it is
sum
n has thus been
the
of
Moreover,
assumed,
found, then the

1
sum
of a
number
of
terms
RATES
2
greater than
number 2
is
will
differ
still
from 2 by
said to be the limit of the
sum
less
than
of the first
e.
The
n terms
of the series.
In each of these two examples there is a certain variable

namely, the area of the inscribed polygon of n sides in one case
and the sum of the first n terms of the series in the other case
and a
certain constant, the area of the circle
and the number 2
respectively. In each case the difference between the constant

and the variable may be made less than any small number e by
taking n sufficiently large, and this difference then continues

e for any larger value of n.
to be less than
This
is
the essential property of a limit, which
may be
defined
as follows:
constant
A is
said
to be the limit
of a variable Xif, as
the vari-
able changes its value according to some law, the difference between
the variable and the constant becomes and remains less than
any
small quantity which
The
limit.
do
be assigned.
may
definition does not say that the variable never reaches its
In most cases in this book, however, the variable fails to
so, as in
the
never exactly a
2.
exactly
two examples already given. For the polygon

circle,
nor
is
is
the sum. of the terms of the series
Examples may be given, however,
of
a variable's
becoming equal to its limit, as in the case of a swinging pendulum

finally coming to rest. But the fact that a variable may never
reach its limit does not make the limit inexact. There is nothing
inexact about the area of a circle or about the number 2.
The student should

"
remains" in the
the significance of the word

If a railroad train approaches a
notice
definition.
the difference between the position of the train and

a point on the track opposite the station becomes less than any
number which may be named but if the train keeps on by the
station,
station, that difference
no
does not remain small.
Hence there
is
limit
If
approached in this case.

is a variable and A a constant which
limit, it follows
from the
definition that
X**A + e,
X approaches as a
we may
write
(1)
SPEED
where
a quantity (not necessarily positive) which

made, and then will remain, as small as we please.
e is
be
may
Conversely, if as the result of any reasoning we arrive at a

is a variable and A a constant,
formula of the form (1) where
and if we see that we can make e as small as we please and
that it will then remain just as small or smaller as
varies,
can say that A is the limit of X. It is in this way that we

shall determine limits in the following pages.
2. Average speed. Let us suppose a body (for example, an
automobile) moving from a point A to a point B (Fig. 1), a
we
distance of 100 mi
If the automobile takes 5 hr. for the trip,
we
are accustomed to say that it has traveled at the rate of

20 mi. an hour. Everybody knows
B
p Q
that this does not
mean
that the
'
'
'
automobile went exactly 20 mi. in

each hour of the trip, exactly 10 mi. in each half hour, exactly
5 mi in each quarter hour, and so on. Probably no automobile
ever ran in such a
way
The
as that.
"
expression
20 mi. an
"
may be understood as meaning that a fictitious automobile

would actually
traveling in the steady manner* just described
cover the 100 mi. in just 5 hr. but for the actual automobile
"
"
20 mi. an hour gives only a certain
which made the trip,
hour
average speed.
So if a man walks 9 mi. in 3
hr.,
3 mi. an hour. If a stone falls 144
he has an average speed of

in 3 sec., it has an average
ft.
speed of 48 ft. per second. In neither of these cases, however,

does the average speed give us any information as to the actual
of its motion.
speed of the moving object at a given instant
The point we are making is so important, and it is so often

overlooked, that we repeat it in the following statement:
If a
"body traverses
a distance in a certain time, the average speed
of the body in that time
is
given ly the formula,

,
average speed
but this
= distance
time
at any
formula does not in general give the true speed
given time.
KATES
EXERCISES
A man
1.
average speed
runs a half mile

feet per second ?
A man walks
2.
mm
and 3
sec.
What
is
his
a mile
m 25 min.
What
is his
average speed in
yards per second ?
3.
What
4.
600 ft. long takes 10 sec. to pass a given milepost.

?
average speed in miles per hour
train
is its
stone
the side of the
296
down
ft.
thrown directly downward from the edge of a
is
Two
vertical cliff
seconds afterwards
cliff,
and 4
sec
the side of the
after
cliff
it
passes a point 84 ft down

thrown it passes a point
is the average speed of the
it is
What
stone in falling between the two mentioned points ?

5.
A railroad train runs
on the following schedule
Find the average speed between each two consecutive
stations
and
for the entire trip.

6.
A body moves
What
1 min.
is its
four times around a circle of diameter 6

average speed in feet per second ?
ft in
block slides from the top to the bottom of an inclined

7.
plane which makes an angle of 30 with the horizontal. If the top
is 50 ft. higher than the bottom and it requires f mm. for the block
to slide down,
what
Two roads
toward C from a
8.
is its
average speed in feet per second
intersect at a point
starts along one road

and walks at an average
point 5 mi. distant from C

starts along the
speed of 3 mi an hour. Twenty minutes later
other road toward C from a point 2 mi. away from G At what
walk if he is to reach C at the same instant
average speed must
that
9.
arrives ?
man rows
mi. farther
straight lines
down
across a river $ mi. wide and lands at a point

the river. If the banks of the river are parallel
and he takes ^
hr. to cross,
in feet per minute if his course
is
what
is
a straight line ?
his average speed
SPEED
A trolley car is
running along a straight street at an average

speed of 12 mi. per hour. A house is 50 yd. back from the car track
and 100 yd. up the street from a car station. A man comes out of
the house when a car is 200 yd away from the station What must
be the average speed of the man m yards per minute if he goes in
10.
a straight line to the station and arrives at the same instant as

the car ?
3. True speed.
How then shall we determine the speed at
which a moving body passes any given fixed point P in its
motion (Fig. 1) ? In answering this question the mathema-
policeman in setting a trap for

and determines the
takes a point Q near to
and the time it takes to pass over that distance.
tician begins exactly as does the
speeding.
distance
He
PQ
Suppose, for example, that the distance PQ is ^ mi. and the

time is 1 min. Then, by
2, the average speed with which
the distance
is
traversed
is
mi.
hr
= 30
mi. per hour.
This is merely the average speed, however, and can no more

than could the 20 mi.
be taken for the true speed at the point
an hour which we obtained by considering the entire distance
A3. It is true that the 30 mi. an hour obtained from the
interval
PQ
was the 20
PQ
is
ini.
B than
likely to be nearer the true speed at
an hour obtained from AS, because the interval
is shorter.
last statement suggests a method for obtaining a still

better measure of the speed at
;
namely, by taking the interval
is taken as
still smaller. Suppose, for example, that
The
PQ
PQ
calculation shows that the

the time is 6J sec.
fa mi. and that
was 36 mi.
average speed at which this distance was traversed
an hour. This is a better value for the speed at P.
seen that we get a better value for the speed at
Now,
having
each time that we decrease the size of the interval PQ, we
can find no end to the process except by means of the idea of a
1. We say, in fact, that the speed of a moving
limit denned in
body at any point of its path
the limit
approached ly the average
RATES
at that point, the

speed computed for a small distance beginning
limit to be determined by taking this distance smaller and smaller.
This definition may seem to the student a little intricate, and
we
shall proceed to explain it further.

In the case of the automobile, which we have been using for
an illustration, there are practical difficulties in taking a very
small distance, because neither the measurement of the distance
nor that of the time can be exact. This does not alter
the fact, however, that theoretically to determine the speed

of the car we ought to find the time it takes to go an
extremely minute distance, and the more minute the dis-
tance the better the result.
For example,
^
that
ble to discover that an automobile ran
we
should be pretty safe in saying
if it
were
in. in
possi-
-^^-g- sec.,
was moving
at
a speed of 30 mi. an hour.

Such fineness of measurement is, of course, impossible
but if an algebraic formula connecting the distance and
_p
it
is known, the calculation can be made as fine as

and finer. We will therefore take a familiar case in
which such a formula is known namely, that of a falling body.
Let us take the formula from physics that if s is the distance
through which a body falls from rest, and t is the time it takes
the time
this
to
fall
the distance
st
then
s
= 16* 3
(1)
and let us ask what is the speed of the body at the instant
be the point from which the body
when t SB 2. In Fig. 2 let
falls, % its position when t
2, and 7 its position a short time
later. The average speed with which the body falls through the
distance
PP
is,
takes to traverse
by
it.
2,
We
that distance divided

shall proceed to
make
by the time
it
several succes-
sive calculations of this average speed, assuming

corresponding time smaller and smaller.
7^
and the
it will be convenient to introduce a notation as

Let ^ represent the time at which the body reaches 2?,
and ta the time at which it reaches J%. Also let ^ equal the
distance OP^ and a the distance OPa
Then s^-s^P^ and
In so doing
follows
SPEED
^
tf
the time
is
it
takes to traverse the distance
average speed at which the body traverses Ufa

So
P^. Then the
is
Si
(2)
of our particular problem,
Now, by the statement

Therefore, from (1),
We
1= 16 (2)
= 64.
assume a value of ta a little larger than 2, compute

s from (1), and the average speed from (2). That having been
a
done, we shall take tz a little nearer to 2 than it was at first, and
again compute the average speed This we shall do repeatedly,
shall
each time taking ta nearer to 2.

Our results can best be exhibited in the form of a table, as
follows
ta
70.56
2.1
It
-L
.1
201
646416
2 001
64.064016
.001
2.0001
64 00640016
.0001
is
656
.6416
064016
.00640016
656
64.16
64 016
64 0016
from the above arithmetical work that as

^ and the corresponding distance ss s become
the more nearly is the average speed equal to 64.
fairly evident
the time
smaller,
01
i?
Therefore we are led to infer, in accordance with

1, that the
speed at which the body passes the point J$ is 64 ft. per second.
In the same manner the speed of the body may be computed
at any point of its path by a purely arithmetical calculation. In
the next section
we
go farther with the same problem and
shall
employ algebra.
EXERCISES
Estimate the speed of a falling body at the end of the third
= 16 t z exhibiting the work in a table.
second, given that s
1.
2.
Estimate the speed of the body in Ex. 1 at the end of the
fourth, second, exhibiting the
work in a
table.
RATES
distance of a falling body from a fixed point, at, any th

100
16 t*. Estimate the speed of t
is given by the equation s
body at the end of the fourth second, exhibiting the work in a tab
3.
The
4.
falling so that the distance traversed in the tiuu
is
body
10 1 Estimate tho speed of

16 1 2
given by the equation s
2 sec , exhibiting the work in a table.
body when t
is
1,1
6.
its
body
= 100 1
thrown upward with such a speed that
is
distance from the surface of the earth
16
a
.
Estimate
at.
any
tin
given by tho equsitu

speed at the end o a sexumd, exhibi
its
is
ing the work in a table.

6. The distance of a falling
body from a fixed point a,t any tiin
50 -f- 20 1
16 1*. Estimate its spee
at the end of the first second,
exhibiting tho work in a table.
is
4. Algebraic
In this section we shall show how it

an algebraic formula for the speed, still con
method.
possible to derive
fining ourselves to the special

equation of motion is
s
example of the
= i.o
.,
body whos<
falling
2
.
(1
Instead of taking a definite numerical value for

keep the algebraic symbol tr Then
f
t
wo
Also, instead of adding successive small qimntit,ie,s to

2 , we shall represent the amount added
by the al
dial
to
get
symbol^. That
is,
and, from (1),
Hence
This
*2
.
,
z== 16
- ^ = 16^+ A) - 10
tf. 82
2
a general
expression for the distance / V* in Ffj.
Ti, and therefore the
average speed with
body traverses
S is represented
by tho expression
is
Now tz -t =
%P
It is obvious that
if
Ji
is
taken smaller and
age speed approaches 32 ^ as a
limit,
In
i'aufc,
smidH
Iho nver-
tho quantity
83^
ACCELEKATION
satisfies
any number, no matter how
is
10
exactly the definition of limit given in
1.
we have simply
small,
For
if e
to take
<e
in order that the average speed should differ from 32

^
by less than e ; and after that, for still smaller values of h, this
Ti
d iff 01 once remains
less than
e.
We
have, then, the result that if the space traversed by a

1
ailing body is given by the formula
the speed of the body at any time
It
may
is
given by the formula
be well to emphasize that this
would be obtained by dividing
by
is
not the result which
t.
EXERCISE
3 by the method
Find the speed in each of the problems in

explained in this section.
Let us consider the case of a body which is

if s is the distance in feet and t is the
Acceleration.
5.
supposed to move so that

time in seconds,
Then, by
the
method
=t
of
we
4,
feet per second,
We
v
see that
= 27
second.
= 1, v = 3
That
on.
We wish
this out, let
to find
us take a
is,
(V)
find that
=3i
when
and so
the speed in
is
when
the body
how
if
is
= 2,
12
fast it is gaining speed.
specific time
(,-4.
The speed
at this time
i=
Take
then
we
3 (4)
call v lt so that,
2
= 48 ft.
*
2
when
by
ft.
(2),
per second.
=5;
= 3 (5) 2 ~ 75
= 3,
gaming speed with each
per second.
To
find
RATES
10
48 = 27 units of speed in
Therefore the body has gained 75
1 sec. This number, then, represents the average rate at which
the body is gaining speed during the particular second considered. It does not give exactly the rate at which the speed
is
increasing at the beginning of the second, because the rate
is
constantly changing.
To find how fast the body
gaining speed when ^ = 4, we

finding the speed itself.
is
must proceed exactly as we did in

That is, we must compute the gain
of speed in a very small

time.
interval of time
and compare that with the
Let us take
t.=
a
Then
and
^^=2.43.
Then
is
4.1.
= 50.43
the
body has gained 2.43 units

2 43
-~-
at the rate of
Again, take
Then
v2
and
of
speed hi
.1 sec.,
which
24.3 units per second.
=4.01.
= 48.2403
^^=.2403,
A
'
.
gain of ,2403 units of speed in .01 sec.
=24.03
units per second.
one other obtained
The
in the
same way,
4,1
60.43
.1
4.01
48.2403
.01
4.001
48.024003
rate at
We
001
is
at the rate of
exhibit these results,
and
in a table:
2.48
24.3
.2403
24,08
.024003
24.003
which a body
is gaining speed is called its

discussion suggests that in. the example before
us the acceleration is 24 units of speed per second. But the
acceleration.
Our
unit of speed is expressed in feet per second, and so

that the acceleration is 24 ft. per second per second.
we
say
KATE OF OHANG-E
By
the
11
in determining speed, we may get a

to determine the acceleration from equation (2).
method used
general formula
take
We
va =
Then
and
vz ~Vi=
The average
which the speed
rate at
is
gamed
is
then
h,
and the
h becomes smaller and smaller,
limit of this, as
obviously 6tt
is
This is, of course, a result which is valid only for the

example that we are considering.
general statement
meaning of acceleration is as follows:
= limit
,.
,.
Acceleration
.,
of
special
of the
in speed
change
.
5
change in time
EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
= 4 find the speed and the acceleration when t = #r

If s =
+ find the speed and the acceleration when t = 2.
If s = 3 t + 2 1 + 5, how far has the body moved at the end
If s
1*,
rf
1*,
of the fifth second ?
how
With what speed does
it
reach that point, and
fast is the speed increasing ?
= 4 i + 2 1 + 1 + 4, find the distance traveled and the

t = 2.
5. If s = $ t + 1
10, find the speed and the acceleration when
t=z>2 and when t = 3. Compare the average speed and the average
3
4. If s
speed when
-t-
acceleration during this second with the speed

at the beginning and the end of the second.
and the acceleration
= at + show that the speed is constant.

show that' the acceleration is constant.
at + to +
s = at* + bt* + ct +/, find the formulas for the speed
6.
If s
7.
If
8.
If
&,
G,
and
the acceleration.
6.
of change. Let us consider another example which

solved by processes similar to those used for determining
Rate
may be
speed and acceleration.
KATES
L2
thrown into
still water, forming

ripples which
from the center of disturbance in the form of circles
Tig. 3). Let r be the radius of a circle and A its area. Then
stone
is
,ravel
/-I
"J
A=irr.
We wish to
,hen
^t
we
If
adius.
a
= 167T.
1 unit in
)f
compare changes
take r t
?*,
= 3,
That
when
is,
in the area
then A^
a change
3,
(1)
with changes
and
9 TT;
if
we
the
take
causes
change of 7 TT units in A. We are

êmpted to say that A is increasi
ng
times as fast as r. But

making such a statement it
TTT
jefore
s
well to see whether this law holds
'or all
changes
'rom r1 =
jhanges in
made
in
starting
r,
and especially for small
8,
r.
We
will again exhibit the calcuation in the form of a table. Here
^=3, A^Qnr, and
rz
nuch
3.
different
from
is
^ IQ
a variously assumed value
A,,- A!
1
9.61
01
9.0601
.001
The number
TT
TT
9,006001
.1
.01 TT
.01
.0001
001
ra
of r not
- rx
ITT
6.01
7T
000001
IT
TT
6 001
TT
column changes with the number

to measure the rate at which A is
3hanging as compared with r at the instant when r = 3, we must
bake the limit of the numbers in the last column. That limit is
a
in the last
r^ Therefore,
if
we wish
abviously 6 TT.
say that at the instant
We
when r 8, the area of the circle is

times as fast as the radius. Hence, if the radius
changing at the rate of 2 ft. per second, for example, the area
changing at the rate of 12 TT sq. ft. per second. Another way
changing 6
Is
is
TT
of expressing the saine idea is to say that
when, r
ts 3, the rate
RATE OF CHANGE
13
of A
with respect to r is 6 TT. Whichever form of expresof change

sion is used, we mean that the change in the area divided by
the change in the radius approaches a limit 6 TT.
The number
r
= 3,
TT
with which
was, of course, dependent upon the value

started. Another value of
^ assumed at
we
the start would produce another result. For example, we may

compute that when rx = 4, the rate of change of A with respect
to r is 8-rr; and when r^= 5, the rate is 10 ?r. Better still, we
may derive a general formula which will give us the required
any value
rate for
To
do
of
r^.
this take
A = TT (r* + 2 rji + A )
A - A = TT (2 r h + )
2
Then
and
7i
SO that
The
A2
T
'z
= 2 TH* +
'l
limit of this quantity, as
Hence we
7i7T.
Ti
is
taken smaller and smaller,
see that from formula (1)
that the rate of change of
we may
with respect to r
is
is
derive the fact

2
TIT.
EXERCISES
In the example of the text, if the circumference of the circle
winch bounds the disturbed area is 10 ft and the circumference is
increasing at the rate of 3 ft. per second, how fast is the area
1.
increasing ?
2.
In the example of the text find a general expression for the
rate of change of the area with respect to the circumference.

3.
soap bubble
is
the radius of the bubble
how
fast is the
expanding, always remaining spherical. If

is increasing at the rate of 2 in. per second,
volume increasing ?
Ex
3 find the general expression for the rate of change

of the volume with respect to the radius.
4.
In
5.
If a soap bubble is expanding as in Ex. 3,

its surface increasing 9
area of
how
fast is the
BATES
14
6.
In Ex. 5 find the general expression for the
rate of change
of the surface with respect to the radius

7.
cube of metal
is
expanding under the influence of
heat.
Assuming that the metal retains the form of a cube, find the rate of
change at which the volume is increasing with respect to an edge.
8. The altitude of a right circular cylinder is always equal to
the diameter of the base. If the cylinder is assumed to expand,
always retaining its form and proportions, what is the rate of change
of the volume with respect to the radius of the base ?
9. Find the rate of change of the area of a sector of a circle of
radms 6 ft with respect to the angle at the center of the circle.
10. Find the rate of change of the area of a sector of a circle

with respect to the radius of the circle if the angle at the center
7T
of the circle is always j.
radius
is
in. ?
What
is
the value of the rate
when
the
CHAPTER
II
DIFFERENTIATION
7. The derivative.
The examples we have been considering
in the foregoing sections of the book are alike in the methods
used to solve them.
shall proceed now to examine this
We
method so
In the
as to bring out its general character.
first place,
we
notice that
we have
to
do with two
quantities so related that the value of one depends upon the

value of the other. Thus the distance traveled by a moving
body depends upon the time, and the area of a circle depends
upon the radius. In such a case one quantity is said to be
a function of the other. That is, a quantity y is said to be a
function of another quantity, x, if the value of y is determined ly
the value of x.
The fact that y is a function of x is expressed by the equation
y=/<v>,
and the particular value
value a
is
of the function
then expressed as /(a).
f(x)
when x has
Thus,
a definite
if
= x*- 3 aM-42j + l,
/(2)=2-3(2) +4(2) + l = 5,
/(0)=0-3(0) + 4(0) + 1 = 1.
3
It is in general true that a change in x causes a change in

the function y, and that if the change in x is sufficiently small,
the change in y is small also. Some exceptions to this may be
noticed later, but this is the general rule.

change in a; is
called an increment of x and is denoted by the symbol Ao? (read
"
delta x "). Similarly, a change in y is called an increment of
y and
is
denoted by Ay.
For example, consider

15
DIFFERENTIATION
16
# = 12.
When
= 2,
x is
and the change
in
.1,
When
a?
Ay = .71.
Aa = .l,
So, in general,
of #, then
if
a^ is
Ax =
and
xs,i
=2.1, y = 12.71. The change

and we write
is .71,
one value of
xl1
or
a;,
and xz a second value
#2=0^4- Are;
yx and y 2 are the corresponding values
if
ty=yz -Vv
(1)
of y, then
y2 =ya 4Ay.
<*
(2)
increment really means "increase," but as we are

dealing with algebraic quantities, the increment may be negative when it means a decrease. For example, if a man invests
The word
$1000 and
wealth
is
increment
at the
$200.
the
is
of a year has $1200, the increment of his

$800 at the end of the year, the
So, if a thermometer registers 65 in the
If he has
$200.
is
morning and 57
ment
end
at night, the increment
is
,8.
The
incre-
always the second value of the quantity considered minus
first
value.
Now, having determined increments of x and of y, the next

step is to compare them by dividing the increment of y by
the increment of x. This is what we did in each of the three
3-6. In finding speed we began
problems we have worked in
by dividing an increment of distance by an increment of time,
in finding acceleration we began by dividing an increment of
speed by an increment of time, and in discussing the ripples in
the water
we began by
dividing an increment of area by an
increment of radius.
The quotient thus obtained
Ay _ increment
AJC
An
That
is,
y _ change
x change
in
is -
Ax
of
increment of
examination of the tables of numerical values in
shows that the quotient
^ depends upon
and that
it
in each
problem
was necessary
3, 5,
the magnitude of
Asc,
to determine its limit
17
DEEIVATIVE
as
A#
approached
with respect
to x,
fy = v
~
ax
This limit
zero.
and
-j.
limit oi
At
is
called the derivative of
denoted by the symbol
is
Ay = v
limit
Ax
present the student
is
of
-~-
change
.
We
have then
in a
v
.
change
to take the
in
symbol
-^ not as a
dx
fraction, but as one undivided symbol to represent the derivaLater we shall consider what meaning may be given to
tive.
dx and dy
separately.
The
and
we
At
the fraction
this stage the
form
-^ suggests simply
(%>*Xs
^, which has approached a definite limiting value,
process of finding the derivative is called differentiation,

are said to differentiate y with respect to x. From the
definition and from the examples with which we began the book,
is seen to involve the following four steps :
the process
2.
The
The
assumption at pleasure of Ax.

determination of the corresponding Ay.
8.
The
division of
4.
The
1.
in step
this
method
x,
By
J
and y,-
xi
-J*-
when y
7i.
^l^-J.;
(2),
division,
Ay-
11
T^ =
Ax
Let x t
the corresponding value of y.
x^x^h.
(1),
Then
whence, by
to finding
Ax =
Take
Then, by
3.
Aw
Ax
form -*-
determination of the limit approached by the quotient
be a definite value of
2.
Aa: to
as the increment assumed in step 1 approaches zero.
Let us apply
1.
Ay by
asf+AiS
DIEFEBENTIATION
18
4.
zero,
By
it is
inspection
is
which
is
evident that the
h approaches
limit, as
the value of the derivative
when
x-=x*.
xl
But x^ may be any value
x ; so we
of
may drop the subscript
1 and
write as a general formula
dx
3?
EXERCISES
Pind from the definition the derivatives of the following
pressions
6.
= *+2a*+i.
3.
7.
4
a:
~a
y-rf + i.
2
2.
8
.
=i
~~
x
i
y
ex-
-y=2+*
y
y
"+ \x*+ x - 5.
3a;2
~~
+1
a polynomial. We shall now obtain forwhich the derivative of a polynomial may be

written down quickly. In the first place we have the theorem
8.
Differentiation of
mulas by means
of
The derivative of a polynomial

its
is the
sum of
the derivatives of
separate terms.
This follows from the definition of a derivative if we reflect

that the change in a polynomial is the sum of the changes in its
terms.
We
more formal proof will be given later.

have then to consider the terms of a polynomial, which
have in general the form #af. Since we wish to have general

formulas, we shall omit the subscript 1 in denoting the first
values of x and y. We have then the theorem:
If y =s
ax*)
where
is
a positive
integer
and a
1.
Take
whence
this,
apply the method of
Aa?=A;
jc
a constant, then
(1)
^ '
dx
To prove
is
= x + h.
POLYNOMIAL
2.
Then
y3
Ay == a (x + A)"
whence
19
=ax2 = a(z + A)";
are"
.4
3.
By
division,
= a(nx^- + n ^n
ZA3/
~ 1^
tf-'h
as
Ji
+ A""
)-
>
By inspection, the limit approached by

n ~l
zero, is seen to be anx
4.
>
approaches
Therefore
~
= anx ~\
dx
n
The polynomial may

is
as
also
was to be proved.
have a term of the form
= l,
only a special case of (1) with w
ax.
This
but for clearness
we
say explicitly:
If y = ax, where a
is
a constant, then
(2)
dx
Finally, a polynomial
we have
If y
may
have a constant term.
c.
the theorem:
G,
where c
is
a constant, then
(3)
fÔ.
ax
The proof of this is that as c
no matter what the value of A
and therefore
As an example
is
is.
constant, A<? is
always zero,
Hence
0.
ax
of the use of the theorems, consider
We
For
this
write at once
^
ax
DIFFERENTIATION
20
EXERCISES
Find the derivative of each of the following polynomials
s
1. 3.2 + a- 3.
6. x + 7 x
21 8
2.
3.
4.
5.
+2a; + l.
4
2
8
o: + 4a5 +6a; +4a; +
x6 + |a:4 +2a;2 +3.
2
6
4
a; -4a: + a: -4a;
8
x*-
7.
o;
l.
8.
9.
aa
10. a
If ~
dx
- 14
+ 4a - 1
x*
+ bx +
z
ca;
+ ex
as
6
.
9.
Sign of the derivative.
is positive,
an increase in the
dy
is negative,
If
dx
,
value of
x causes an increase in the value of y.
an increase in the value of x causes a decrease in the value of
To prove
this theorem,
Then, since ~dx
is
us consider that
let
is
the limit of
->
it
follows that
y.
positive.
-jj-
is
positive
values of Aa;; that is, if A# is assumed

also positive, and therefore an increase of x
for sufficiently small

positive,
ky
is
causes an increase of
y.
Similarly,
if
Aw
that
if
is
-j-
is
negative,
it
negative for sufficiently small values of Aa:
Arc is positive, A?/
follows
that
must be negative, so that an increase
is,
of
causes a decrease of y.
In applying this theorem it is necessary to determine the

In case the derivative is a polynomial, this
may be conveniently done by breaking it up into factors and
sign of a derivative.
considering the sign of each factor. It

of the form x
a is positive when x
when x
is
is
obvious that a factor

greater than
a,
and
than a.
Suppose, then, we wish to determine the sign of
negative
is
less
There are three factors to consider, and three numbers are imnamely, those which make one of the factors equal to
zero. These numbers
3, 1, and 6.
arranged in order of size are
portant
We have the four cases

1. x<
3.
All factors
:
Dative.
are
negative
and the product
is
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
< x < 1,
2.
< <
> 6.
The
6.
As an example
two
first
21
and the others
is positive.
factors are positive
of the use of the theorem, suppose
#=X
what values
and ask
factor is positive
and the
Therefore the product is negative.

All factors are positive and the product
negative.
4.
first
Therefore the product
are negative.
3. 1
x
is
The
for
We
increase in y.
is
last
positive.
we have
- 3;y*-Q x + 27,
of x an increase in y will cause an

form the derivative and factor it. Thus,
a
^==3a
//*
-6a3-9==3(a: + r)(a;-3).
Proceeding as above, we have the three cases:

1.
x<
-^
1.
2.
is
dx
increases y.
<x<
-^
3.
dx
decreases y.
3.
> 3.
a;
positive,
and an increase in x therefore
is
negative,
and therefore an increase in x
-^
is
positive,
and therefore an increase
in
in-
creases y.
These results
may
be checked by substituting values of x in
the derivative.
EXERCISES
Pind for what values of x each of the following expressions will
increase if x is increased, and for what values of x they will decrease
if x is increased
:
2.
-4aj + 6.
3aa +10a; +
3.
4.
7_3a._3a;2
5.
1.
>
6.
a!
+ Ssc-a:
8
je
+3a;
7.
2
.
- 12 + 17.
7.
xa - x*- 5x
8.
9.
10.
+5
+ 6x +12a: + 8oj
-3
6 + 60; + 6a - 2
12 - 12a - 6a; + 4a; +
2
The method by
10. Velocity and acceleration (continued).
which the speed of a body was determined in 4 was in reality
a method of differentiation, and the speed was the derivative of
the distance with respect to the time. In that discussion, howwas positive
ever, we SQ arranged each problem that the result
DIFFERENTIATION
22
and gave a numerical measure (feet per second, miles per hour,
etc.) for the rate at which the body was moving. Since we may
now expect, on occasion, negative signs, we will replace the word
speed by the word velocity, which we denote by the letter v.
In accordance with the previous work, we have
da
-,
The
words,
ical
distinction
is
a)
*
between speed and
velocity, as
The speed
simply one of algebraic sign.
is
we
use the
the numer-
measure of the velocity and is always positive, but the

may be either positive or negative.
velocity
From
s increases
9 the velocity is positive when the body so moves that

with the time. This happens when the body moves in
the direction in which s

velocity is negative
with the time. This
is
On
measured.
the other hand, the
when the body so moves that s

happens when the body moves in
decreases
the direc-
which s is measured.
For example, suppose a body moves from A to B (Fig. 1), a
distance of 100 mi., and let P be the position of the body at a
time t, and let us assume that we know that AP = 4 1. If we
measure s from A, we have
tion opposite to that in
whence
= ds- = 4.
dt
On
the other hand,
if
whence
we measure
from
J5,
we have
4.
dt
"We will
now
define acceleration
by
the formula
dv
*=w
in full accord
we may
write
with
or, since
is
found by
differentiating
s,
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

where the symbol on the right
twice in succession.
entiated
indicates that *
The
result
is
is
23
to be differ-
called a second
derivative,
A positive
acceleration means that the velocity is increasing,

must be remembered that the word increase is used in
the algebraic sense. Thus, if a number changes from
8 to
but
it
5, it
Hence,
algebraically increases, although numerically

if
larly, if
a negative velocity
is
it
decreases.
increased, the speed is less.
is
but if the velocity is

There are four cases of combinations of signs which
occur
Simi-
negative, the velocity is decreasing,

negative, that means an increasing speed.
the acceleration
may
The body is moving in the direction

measured and with increasing speed.
2. v
positive, a negative. The body is moving in the direction
in which s is measured and with decreasing speed.
1.
v positive, a positive.
in which s
is
8. v
negative, a positive. The body is moving in the direction
opposite to that in which s is measured and with decreasing
speed.
4. v negative, a negative. The body is moving in the direction opposite to that in which 8 is measured and with increasing
As an example, suppose a body thrown vertically into the air

with a velocity of 96 ft. per second. From physics, if s is measured up from the earth, we have
From
this equation
we compute
v
When t<
3,
is
positive
= 96 - 32
t,
and a is negative. The body is going

is negative and a is
up with decreasing speed. When t > 3, v

negative. The body is coming down with
increasing speed.
the other hand, suppose a body is thrown down from a
if 8 is measured
height with a velocity of 96 ft. per second. Then,
On
DIFFERENTIATION
24
down from
from
the point from which the body
physics,
from which we compute

v
thrown,
is
we
have,
= Wt+lQt*,
= 96 + 32
= 32.
1,
Here v is always positive and a is always positive. Therefore the hody is always going down (until it strikes) with an
increasing speed.
EXERCISES
In the following examples

and determine when the body
s is measured and when in the
find the expression for the velocity

is moving in the direction in which
opposite direction
= t* 3t + 6.
s = 10* - tf
1. s
2.
3. s
4.
5. s
's
is
25
expressions for the velocity

periods of time during which
increasing and those during which
= 3z5-4i + 4
s = 1 + 5t - #.
6. s
7.
9.
it is
decreasing
= %t* 2
s = t* - 5t* + St + 1.
2
8. s
10. s
= -
In the following examples find the

and the acceleration, and determine the
the velocity
= t* Qt* + 24* + 3.
= 8 + 12* - 6i + <
= 1 + 4 + 2t*
8
.
11. Rate of change (continued). In

6 .we have solved a
problem in which we are finally led to find the rate of increase
of the area of a circle with respect to its radius. This
problem
is
typical of a good
many
others.
Let x be an independent variable and y a function of x.

change Aa; made in x causes a change Ay in y. The fraction
compares the change in y with the change in
ple,
if Aa;
= .001,
and
Ay = .009061,
then
'
change
in
is at
the average rate of
x.
we may
For exam-
say that the
= 9.061
per unit
This does not mean that a unit

change
change in a? would
actually make a change of 9.061 units in y, any more than the
in x.
RATE OF CHANGE
statement that an automobile
is
moving
25
at the rate of
40
mi.
an
hour means that
it
actually goes 40 mi. in an hour's time.
fraction then gives a measure for the
average rate at
The
which y is changing compared with the change in x. But this

measure depends upon the value of A#, as has been shown in
the numerical calculations of
6.
To obtain a measure of the
instantaneous rate of change of y with
respect to x which shall
not depend upon the magnitude of A#, we must take the limit
of
~
Ax
We
as
we
did in
G.
have, therefore, the following definition
Tlie derivative
measures the rate of change ofy with respect to a\

-jax
Another way of putting the same thing is to say that if -^

has the value m, then y is changing m times as fast as x.
Still another way of expressing the same idea is to
say that
the rate of change of y with respect to x is defined as
meaning
the limit of the ratio of a small change

in y to a small change in x.
We
will illustrate the above general

and at the same time show
discussion,
how
it
may be
practically applied,
by the
following example, which we will first

solve arithmetically and then by calculus.
Suppose we have a vessel in the shape of

a cone (Fig 4) of radius 3 in. and altitude
9 in. into which water is being poured at
the rate of 100 cu.
in. per second.

Required the rate at which the depth of the
water is increasing when the depth is 6 in.
From
similar triangles in the figure,
water and r the radius of

of water,
We
its
,
if
-.
surface, r
.
FlG. 4
is
the depth of the
If
Fis the volume
,^
are asked to find the rate at which the depth is increasing

when h is C in. Let us call that depth
so that 7^= 6. Then
DIFFERENTIATION
26
y=8
and
Now we
TT.
how
see
change
in
will increase
by successive small amounts
great an increase in V^
that is, how much water
the depth by that amount.

follows
The
is
necessary to cause that

in to raise
must be poured
calculation
may
be tabulated as
.407 IT
.1
04007
01
/i
4 07
ir
4.007 v
TT
0040007
.001
The
AT
AF
Ah
4.0007 TT
TT
numbers in the last column is evidently 4 TT.

Therefore the volume is increasing 4 IT times as fast as the
depth. But, by hypothesis, the volume is increasing at the rate
of 100 cu. in. per second, so that the depth is increasing at the
limit of the
rate of 47T
We
= 7.96 in.
per second.
have solved the problem by arithmetic to exhibit again
the meaning of the derivative.
We
quicker.
The
solution
by calculus
is
much
begin by finding
dV
,3
aTe**'
This
is
the general expression for the rate of

change of
A, or, in other words, it tells us that V is instan-
with respect to
taneously increasing \ rf times as fast as li for any given

Therefore, when A = 6, V is increasing 4 TT times as fast as
and as V is increasing at the rate of 100 cu. m. per second, A
= 7.96 in.
increasing at the rate of
7T
A.
A,
is
per second.
EXERCISES
1.
An
which is melting, is always in the form of a right

which the vertical angle is 60
Find the rate of
the volume of the icicle with respect to its length.
icicle,
circular cone of
change
2.
which
of
series of right sections

the vertical angle is 90
is
made
How
in a right circular cone of

fast will the areas of the sec-
tions be increasing if the

cutting plane recedes from the vertex at
the rate of 3 ft. per second ?
GRAPHS
27
being poured into a conical filter at the rate of

5 cc per second and is running out at the rate of 1 ce. per second
The radius of the top of the filter is 10 cm. and the depth of the
filter is 30 cm
Find the rate at which the level of the solution is
3.
solution
is
rising in the filter

4.
tical
when
it is
one fourth of the way* to the top.
peg in the form of a right circular cone of which the verangle is 60 is being driven into the sand at the rate of 1 m.
per second, the axis of the cone being perpendicular to the surface
of the sand, which is a plane. How fast is the lateral surface of the
peg disappearing in the sand when the vertex of the peg

below the surface of the sand?
5.
trough
is in
is
in.
the form of a right prism with its ends equi-
lateral triangles placed vertically The length of the trough is 10 ft

It contains water which leaks out at the rate of
cu ft per minute.
Find the
is
rate, in inches per
sinking in the trough
minute, at which the level of the water

the depth is 2 ft.
when
6. A trough is 10 ft. long, and its cross section, which is

vertical,
a regular trapezoid with its top side 4ft. in length, its bottom
side 2 ft and its altitude 5 ft. It contains water to the depth of
is
ft
and water
rate of
ft.
A balloon
7.
is
running in so that the depth is increasing at the

How fast is the water running in ?
in the form of a right circular cone with a hemi-
per second.
is
spherical top. The radius of the largest cross section is equal to

the altitude of the cone. The shape and proportions of the balloon
are
assumed to be unaltered as the balloon is inflated. Find the

volume with respect to the total height of
rate of increase of the
the balloon.
8.
tric
A spherical shell
with
it.
The
of ice surrounds a spherical iron ball concenis 6 in. As the ice melts,
radius of the iron ball
how fast is the mass of the ice decreasing with respect to its
The
thickness ?
between a variable x and a function

y may be pictured to the eye by a graph. It is expected that
students will have acquired some knowledge of the graph in
the study of algebra, and the following brief discussion is given
for a review.
12. Graphs.
relation
OX
Take two lines

and 07 (Fig. 5), intersecting at right
angles at 0, which is called the origin of codrdinates. The line
called the axis of as, and the line 0rthe axis of y ; together
DIFFERENTIATION
28
On OX
they are called the coordinate axes, or axes of reference.

equal to any given value of x, measurlay off a distance
OM
we
x is positive and to the left if x is negative.

erect a perpendicular MP, equal in length to the
to the right if
ing
From
M we
value
of y,
The
measured up
point
x and y and
P
is
if
y is
positive and down if y is negative.

is said to have the coordinates
thus determmed
denoted by
(x, y).
It follows that the numerical
value of x measures the distance

of the point P from OY, and the
numerical value of y measures the
distance of P from OX. The coordinate x is called the abscissa, and
the
coordinate
y the
It is
ordinate.
evident that any pair of coordinates

(x, y)
fix
a single point P, and that

has a single pair of
any
point
coordinates.
be
plotted
111
this
The point P is
when its position
said to
is
_,
fixed
way, and the plotting
is
conveniently carried out on
paper ruled for that purpose into squares.

If y is a function of x, values of x may be assumed
and
-^
at pleasure
pair of
y computed. Then each
the corresponding values of
values (x, y) may be plotted and a series of points found. The

locus of these points is a curve called the graph of the function.
It may happen that the locus consists of distinct portions not
connected in the graph. In this case it is still customary to say
that these portions together form a single curve.
For example,
r
let
y~bz
... _
ar.
(1)
We assume
values of x and compute values of

are exhibited in the following table
y.
The
results
-i
'
2/-60
0-0
These points are plotted and connected by -a Smooth curve*

F-ig. 6. This -curve should have the
giving the result shown in
GEAPHS
29
property that the coordinates of any point on it satisfy equation (1) and that any point whose coordinates satisfy (1) lies
on the curve. It is called the graph both of the function y and
of the equation (1),
and equation (1)
called the equation of
is
the curve.
Of course we
desired,
are absolutely sure of only those points
we have
coordinates
more points must be found
7
.
shape of the curve between the points
We take, therefore,
= 6|. This gives
us another point to aid us in draw-
(2, 6)
and
(3, C).
find
ing the graph.

calculus,
we can show
>
'
(
of the
by use
/ \
Later,
is
by assuming fractional values of x.

For instance, there is doubt as to the
#=2^- and
whose
If greater accuracy
actually computed.
-1
that this last
0^1
"
point is really the highest point of

the curve.
The curve
-2
-s
~4
gives us a
graphical representation of the way
in which y varies with x.
see, for
(Fig. 6)
"^
We
example, that
when x varies from
increasing; that when x

varies from 3 to 6, y is decreasing; and that at some point
between (2, 6) and (3, 6), not yet exactly determined, y has its
to
2,
is
largest value.
It is also evident that the steepness of the curve indicates in
some way the rate at which y is increasing with respect to x.
For
when #
1, an increase of 1 unit in x causes an
example,
increase of 6 units in
in x causes
therefore steeper
Now we
an increase
while
when a =1, an
when x =
1 than
it
is
have seen that the derivative
increase of 1 unit
The curve
when x = 1.
of only 2 units
y.
is
measures the rate
ax
of change of y with respect to x. Hence we expect the derivative

to be connected in some way with the steepness of the curve.
*Hr.
gs \%. and" 15.
^ QTL
shaft tihmwfnro /iianr..
B'lore
Lib
USc
We
515N22
in IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIII
Q
13838
~
DIFFERENTIATION
30
1
EXERCISES
Plot the graphs of the following equations
2.
= 2x -|-3.
2x + 4.
y=
3.
1.
6.
is
What
is
Show by
+4
a;
a;
+ 6.
+8
7.
8.
3 a;
a;
9.
= 8
=
x*
y
= 8
y
zc
j/
a:
4aj
1.
meaning of
m?
the effect on the graph of
What
values are assigned to b ?

12.
-5a;
this indicate as to the
11.
2
a;
the effect on the graph of y

mx 3 if different
? How are the graphs related ?
What
values are assigned to
does
?/
5.
5.
What
10.
=
y=
4.
is
= 2x + J
if
different
the meaning of & ?
similar triangles that
= mx
is
always a straight
line passing through 0.
By the use
13.
of Exs. 11
and 12 show that y
= mx + b is
always
straight line
13. Real roots of an equation. It is evident that the real roots

of the equation f(x)
determine points on the axis of x at
which the curve y=f(x) crosses or touches that axis. More-
x1 and
<*
are two values of x such that f(x^)

2( t
2)
) are of opposite algebraic sign, the graph is on one side
of the axis when x
x and on the other side when ic
a; .
over,
if
and/(
i,
must have crossed the axis an odd number of times

between the points x = zl and x = xz
Of course it may have
touched the axis at any number of intermediate points. Now, if
Therefore
it
1
f(x) has a factor of the form (x a) the curve y =/(#) crosses
the axis of x at the point x = a when k is odd, and touches the
axis of x when k is even. In each case the equation /(#)
is
said to have Jc equal roots, x
a. Since, then, a
point of crossing
corresponds to an odd number of equal roots of an equation, and a
,
point of touching corresponds to an even number of equal roots,

it follows that the equation
f(x) = has an odd number of real
roots between x^ and xz if
/(#,) and / (:c2) have opposite signs.
The above gives a ready means of locating the real roots of
an equation in the form /(z) = 0, for we have only to find two

values of x, as xl and a? for which f(x) has different
signs.
2
then know that the equation has an odd number of real roots
,
We
STEAIGHT LINE
31
between these values, and the nearer together xl and #2 the

more nearly do we know the values of the intermediate roots.
In locating the roots in this manner it is not necessary to con,
struct the corresponding graph, though
it
may
be helpful.
Ex. Find a real root of the equation Xs + 2 x 17 = 0, accurate to two

decimal places.
3
Denoting x + 2 x 17 by f(x) and assigning successive integial values
we find/(2) =
5 and/(3) = 16 Hence there is a leal root of the
equation between 2 and 3.
We now assign values to x between 2 and 3, at intervals of one tenth,
to x,
1, 2 2, 2.3, etc., and we begin with the values nearei 2; since /(2) is
nearer zeio than is/(3). Proceeding in this way we find jf (2.3) =
233
and/(2 4) = 1.624 hence the root is between 2.3 and 2.4.
as 2
Now, assigning values to a? between 2 3 and 2.4 at intervals of one hunwe find /(2.31) = - .054 and /(2.32) = 127, hence the root as
diedth,
between 2 31 and 2.32.

To determine the last decimal place accurately, we let x = 2.315 and
= .037. Hence the root is between 2 31 and 2 315 and is
2.31, accurate to two decimal places
If /(2 315) had been negative, we should have known the root to be
between 2 315 and 2.32 and to be 2 32, accurate to two decimal places.
find /(2.315)
EXERCISES
Find the
real roots, accurate to
ing equations
+2a;-6 = 0.
1.
a8
2.
a8 + o;+ll
*-lla:
3.
two decimal
+ 6 = 0.
Let
OX GS
2,
move
j*- 4a8 + 4
5.
a:
= 0.
- 3ic2 + 60: - 11 = 0.
LK (Figs.
OY, and
7 and 8) be any
let J? (a^,
y^ and
points on it. If we imagine a point to

on the line from 1 to P^ the increment of x is #2 x and
y3 ) be any two
P
y^y^ We
the increment of y is
ratio of the increment ofy
We
4.
6.
14. Slope of a straight line.

straight line not parallel to
P (#
places, of the follow-
have then, by
to the
shall define the slope as the
increment ofx and denote
definition,
it
by m.
DIFFERENTIATION
82
A
if
For
is easily given.
a line parallel to OJf, and through J^ a
and call R the intersection of these lines,
geometric interpretation of the slope
we draw through
line parallel to
then xz
xl =
which the
line
JFJ
OF,
and
PE
1
y^y^RP^
makes with
Also,
OX measured
:
if
is
the angle
as in the figure, then
tan 0.
C )
from the figures as well as from formula (2) that

the value of m is independent of the two points chosen to define
it, provided only that these are on the given line. We may thereIt is clear
fore always choose the
two
points so that
is
positive.
FIG. 8
EIG. 7
Then
y^y^
the line runs
to the right, as in Fig.
7,
up
2
a^ is
positive and the slope is positive. If the line runs down to the
is
is negative.
Therenegative and
right, as in Fig. 8, xz
o^
determines the general direction in
fore the algebraic sign of
if
which the
line runs, while the magnitude of

determines the
steepness of the line.
Formula (1) may be used to obtain the equation of the line.
be given a fixed value and the point I^(x^ y^) be held

but let Ji^ be allowed to wander over the line, taking on,
therefore, variable coordinates (a?, y). Equation (1) may then
be written
(3)
^).
Let
fixed,
y-y^m(x-
the equation of a line through a fixed point (a^, y^

with a fixed slope m, since it is satisfied by the coordinates of
any point on the line and by those of no other point.
This
is
STRAIGHT LINE
33
be taken as the point with coor-
In particular,
P^ (x^ y^) may

dinates (0, i) in which the line cuts OY.
y = mx +
becomes
Then equation (3)
l.
(4)
OX
or to OY intersects
Since any straight line not parallel to
somewhere and has a definite slope, the equation of any
such line may be written in the form (4).
OY
examine
It remains to
the line
is parallel
to
lines parallel either to
OX, we have no triangle as
but the numerator of the fraction

fore say such a line has the slope
0.
(1)
is
OX or to
OF.
and
If
in Figs. 7
8,
and we
there-
zero,
Its equation is of the
form
(5)
consists of all points for which this equation is true.

If the line is parallel to OY, again we have no triangle as in
since
it
Figs. 7
and
and
8,
but the denominator of the fraction in (1)
is
zero,
m accordance with established usage we say that the slope of
the line
is infinite,
or that
m=oo. This means
that as the position
of the line approaches parallelism

with OY the value of the fraction
The
(1) increases without limit.

equation of such a line is
x=
we
Finally
tion of the
a.
(6)
notice that any equa-
form
^ + 5y + (7=0
(7)
from the fact that

always represents a straight line. This follows
the equation may be written either as (4), (5), or (6).
Tbe line (7) may be plotted by locating two points and
drawing a straight
through them.
line
Its slope
may
be found
The
by writing the equation in the form (4) when possible.
coefficient of x is then the slope.
If two lines are parallel they make equal angles with OX.
Therefore,
from
If
if
and
two
are the slopes of the lines,
(2),
it is
have,
(8)
=m,.
and make angles <^ and

evident from Fig. 9 that a = 90+
lines are perpendicular
respectively with OX,
we
<
^> s
DIFFERENTIATION
34
tan $ == ~
whence
slopes of the lines,
$ =
we have
Hence,
cot
if
m^ and
are th
easy to show, conversely, that
if
equation (8) is satis
they are parallel, and that if equation (9) i
satisfied, they are perpendicular. Therefore equations (8) am
(9) are the conditions for parallelism and perpendiculant
It is
by two
fied
lines,
respectively.
Ex.
and
1.
and
(1, 2)
(2,
By
- 3)
(1) the slope of the line determined

g
2
5
_ _
3)
(2,
Find the equation of a straight line passing through the pom

parallel to the straight line determined by the two points (4, 2
is
=-
line is
which i educes to
by the two points
(4, 2)
am
Therefore, by (3), the equation of the requiiei

n
i\
2 = R /
i (a;
2y
- 1),
0.
Ex. 2. Find the equation of a straight

and perpendicular to the line 2 a:
3 ?/ + 7
line
through the point
(2,
The equation of the given straight line may be written in the forn
which is form (4). Therefore m =
y = 3x +
Accordingly, by (0)
the slope of the required line is
By (3) the equation of the requim
.
line is
which reduces to
3x
2y
= -|(a;-2),
- 0.
Ex. 3. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the poinl
3 =
anr
3, 3) and the point of intersection of the two lines 2 a?
y
The coordinates
of the point of intersection, of the
two given
lines
musl
satisfy the equation of each line. Therefore the codrdinates of the poinl
of intersection are found by solving the two equations
The
result is (1,
We now
(- 3,
3)
and
Therefore,
simultaneously,
- 1)
have the problem to pass a straight line through the points
1). By (1) the slope of the required line is

(3), the equation of the line is
(1,
by
which reduces to
+ y = 0.
J*
+ 1 = - 1.
STRAIGHT LINE
35
EXERCISES
Find the equation of the straight line which passes through
with the slope 3
1.
(2,
- 3)
3, 1)
Find the equation of the straight line which passes through

with the slope
$
Find the equation of the straight line passing through the
2.
3.
points
(1,
and
4)
(f ,
).

- 3).
points (2,
3) and (- 3,
5. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the
point (2,
2) and making an angle of 60 with OX.
4.

of 135 with OX.
|) and making an angle
^7. Find the equation of the straight hue passing through the
= 0.
point ( 2,
3) and parallel to the line x + 2 y + 1
6.
point Q,
8.
point
9.

12 =0.
2,
3) and perpendicular to the line 3 a; + 4 ?/
and parallel to the straight line determined by the two
)
point (,
points
10.
(i
points
11.
#j and
(f,
and
|)
(J,
Find the equation of the straight

1)
(2,
If
<
to Fig 9
/? is
and (-
passing through
determined by the
3, 5).
the angle between two straight lines which make angles
with OX, prove from a diagram similar

2 > <j) respectively
= m^ and tan = w prove by
that /3 = 2
r If tan
(<j!>
<
<f>
tan
Find the
tj> z
trigonometry that
12.
line
i) an(^ perpendicular to the straight line
ft
a,
l
.
+ m Wj
f
angle between the
lines
2?/-fl=;0 and
Find the angle between the lines 2x

4^ + 5 = and
6= 0.
y
14. Find the angle between the lines
y = Sas + 4 and a?H-3y-f-7=0.
15. The vertex of a right angle is at
(2,
4) and one of its sides
passes through the point (- 2, 2). Find the equation of the other side.
16. Find the foot of the perpendicular from the
origin to the line
13.
DIFFERENTIATION
36
An
Let
(Fig. 10) be any curve serving
as the graphical representation of a function of a\ Let 1\ be any
point on the curve with coordinates y; l OM^ //,= yl/j/J. TU\o
15. Slope of a curve.
l^xM^ and
draw the perpendicular J/a /j, fixing the point
on the curve with the

M
in QÔQ
LiiixajUco
Draw
(iT(/T
'-'' 2*
*T*
^jj""""
Q/
"
1\/T
"""
,yjj
PR
\a
and
Jlf.,Pa
= ArK.
M, 11
the
straight line
prolonging it to form a
secant
^V"
/
= A?/,
r>t>
Ax
Draw
j,
W.M"..
Then, by
J?
^r>
jr
/R
Then
7jj J5
T*
-*'*j*j"
^J? parallel to OX.
14,
-^
-K
JT IU .
is
to
the slope of the secant J>8, and
be called the average slope of tho curve between the

points
JJ and Pv
To obtain a number which may be used for tho actual slope
of the curve at the point / it is
necessary to uso tho limit
process (with which the student should now bo familiar), by
which we allow kx to become smaller and smaller and the
point
Tho result is tho derivative
z to approach P
l along the curve.
may
of
with respect to #, and we have tho

following result
slope of a curve at any point u yiven, ly the value of tfo
:
The
derivative
-^
dx
As
at that point.
f
this limit
takes
process
place, tho point / approaching t!u
point Py it appears from the ligure thai, the secant 7A' approaches
a limiting position 1{T. The line
1\T is called a tanymt to 1,lu>
curve, a tangent Iriny then by deflnitwn the Una
approached an tt
limit by a secant throuc/h two
point* of the curve a tht* two point*
coincidence. It follows that tho
slope* of tho tangent is
the limit of the
slope of the secant, Therefore,
approach
slope of a curve at
*angent at that point,
any point
in the
mme
an the dope of
tfta
'
/a
coor-
SLOPE OF A CUEVE
From
and
9 AVO
the derivative
If
If
this
is
at once
may
curve runs
the
positive,
37
deduce the theorem
the derivative is negative, the curve runs
down
up
the right.
to
to the
right.
Jf
the derivative is zero, the tangent to the curve is parallel to OX.

If the derivative is infinite, the tangent to the curve is perpendic-
ular
to
OX.
The values
of x which
dif
make ~~
dx
zero or infinite are of par-
the plotting of a curve. If the derivative

changes its sign at such a point, the curve will change its cliiection from down to up or from up to down. Such a point will
ticular interest
be called a turning-point. If y is an algebraic polynomial, its

derivative cannot be infinite; so we shall be concerned in this
chapter only with turning-points for which
^
=
Ax
They
Ex.
1.
are illustrated
Equating
~ to zero
12,
8
a;
a:
when x<-
2.
is
=-
positive,
as a possible turning-
and when
#>-
is
2 dx
corresponds to a turning-point of the curve at
2
a high point of the
2^\2
and solving, we have x
It is evident that
negative Therefoie x =
which the lattei changes
dx
its direction
from up to down
It
may be
called
cmve
Consider
^ = |(*
o
Here
(IX
Equating
-~- to
turning-points
we
5x
=5-2
^
dx
Plere
Ex.
the two following examples:
Consider equation (1) of

y
point
0.
see that
zero
From
when y <
- 2* - 3) = |(a: - 3) (a + 1).
o
and solving, we have x = 1 and x = 3 as possible

dv
the factored form of -^, and reasoning as in
9,
1,
is positive
when
1< c < 8,
^r
is
negative
DIFFERENTIATION
38
1 and x = 3 give turmngTherefore both x

dx
the former giving a high point, and the latter a low pointSubstituting these values of x in the equa-
when x >
is positive.
3,
points,
tion of the curve, we find the high point to

be
lj 4f ) and the low point to be (3, |).
(
The graph
It
is
shown
in Fig 11
to be noticed that the solu-
is
tions of the equation

^
do not
dx
always give turning-points as illustrated in the next example.

Ex.
Consider
3.
= xz -
Here
dx
= (x
3)
= 0, we have x = 3 but since the derivative is a perfect

dx
never negative Therefore x = 3 does not give a turning-point,
although when x = 3 the tangent to the curve is
parallel to OX. The curve is shown in Fig. 12.
Solving
square, it
The
at
is
equation of the tangent to a curve

is easily written down
(a^, yx )
a point
We
let
-^
represent the value of

,,
VaaJ/!
the point (a^, yx ).
from (3),
Ex.
4.
Then
-^
at
dx
m = f-^j,
and,
I,
14, the equation of the tangent is
Find the equation of the tangent at
We have
dx
and
Therefore the equation of the tangent
wljich reduces to
is
0.
(1,
1) to the curve
SECOND DERIVATIVE
From
also follows that if $ is the angle which

(2),
the tangent at any point of a curve makes with OX, then
14,
it
EXERCISES
Locate the turning-points, and then plot the following curves
1.
2.
3.
'
7.
= 3a -f-4a: + 4.
?/=3 + 3a!-2a;
= -3a: -j-4.
a
4.
2/
5.
6.
ce
2/
2/
a-
a;
2/
?/
= - 6 # + 9 + 3.
= (2o; + 3a: -12a;- 20)
= 2 + 9ce -f 3a;a x*
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y

which x = 2
2x
-f-
a2
at the point for

8.
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 2/=l+3a:

which x =
1.
as
3a;
at the point for
a8
9. Find the points on the curve y
the tangents to the curve have the slope 6
10.
Find the equations of the tangents
+ 3a:
3a;
+1
at
which
to the curve
= x + 2x* - x + 2
s
which make an angle 135 with
OX
Find the equations of the tangents to the curve y =a58 -f-a;a

which are perpendicular to the line 3: + 2y + 4 =
11.
12.
16.
is
Find the angle

2
8
oj
of intersection of the tangents to the curve

1 and x
1 respectively.
2 at the points for which x
-}- as
The second
derivative.
called the second derivative
-=-(]
We
-,
ax*
or
ax \dx/
Since
means
~
dx
is
The
and
derivative of the derivative

is
indicated
by the symbol
have met an illustration of this in the
case of the acceleration.

derivative
2x
We
wish to see
now what
the second
for the graph.
equal to the slope of the graph, -we have

d*y
(slope).
j& ^ -=dx
dor
DIFFERENTIATION
40
From
and
this
we have
the following theorem
If the second derivative is positive,

increases and if the second derivative
creasing as x increases.
;
We
the slope is increasing as x

is negative, the slope is de-
accordingly use the second derivative to distinguish
may
between the high turning-points and the low turning-points of

a curve,
as follows:
when x
If,
a,
and
is
dx
tive,
is
increasing through zero

-jCu3s
is
evident that
if,
when x =
du
-&
is
CbX
du
-~
is
nega-
=a
point for which x
9.
by
d'ii
a,
a,
<lr
The
positive.
therefore a low turning-point,

Similarly,
when x <
hence,
> a,
and when x
evident that
is positive, it is
-r
/7
-^
and
-^-
d^y
-~
decreasing through zero
is
negative,
hence,
when x
it
is
<
a,
and when x > a, -?- is negative. The point for

dx
dx
which x = a is therefore a high turning-point of the curve, by 9.
These conclusions may be stated as follows:
-Z- is
positive,
If
is
and
-j^
-=-*
"^
a low point of
is positive at
"
rlai
the curve.
If
-J-
a point of a curve, that point

fjîtl
and
point of a curve, that point
is
-~
is
ClX
CliK
a high point of
negative at
In addition to the second derivative, we may also have

fourth, and higher derivatives indicated
etc.
the curve.
by the symbols
third,
d?u
d^ti
'^
-,'{>
These have no simple geometric meaning.
EXERCISES
Plot the following curves after determining
points by the use of -^ and
dx
= 3a;
-r
tlieir
high and low-
dor
3.
=7
18x
3a- H- 4,r8
MAXIMA AND MINIMA

17.
Maxima and minima.
If
f(a)
is
41
a value of
/()
which
greater than the values obtained either by increasing or by

decreasing x by a small amount, /(ff) is called a maximum value
is
of f(p). If /() is a value of /(#) which is smaller than the

values of f(j) found either by increasing or by decreasing x by
a small amount, /(a) is called a

It is evident that if we place
minimum value
of /(a?).
of this equation, a maximum value of /(of)

occurs at a high point of the curve and a minimum value at a
low point. From the previous sections we have, accordingly,
and make the graph
maxima and minima:
the following rule for finding
To find
the values of
x which give
of y, solve the equation
^=
maximum
minimum
or
lvalues
0.
dx
If x
=a
whether
two
it
tests
TEST
is
a root of this equation, it must bo tested to see

maximum or minimum, and which.
have
We
gives a
If the
I.
sign of
-^
changes from
to
as
If
the sign of
increases
Cv*&
through
-~-
a,
changes
then
&=a
from
(jives
to
as
maximum
(K&
value of y.
increases through a, tJien
x=a
gives
then
#=#
a minimum value of y.
TEST
gives a
II.
H'U
If x = a makes -^ =
dx
maximum
positive, then
value of y,
may
Jf x
netHttive.
do*
,
/y
ff *aj
y
-~
=
a mal(e
a gives a minimum value of
Either of these tests

It
dîi
and -~~
ty^fj
and
-~~.
cfj
y.
may be
applied according to convenience,

be noticed that Test I always works, while Test II fails
to give information
d\i
if
---^
CtJs
when x
a.
It
is
also frequently
by the application of common sense to a problem to

determine whether the result is a maximum or minimum, and
possible
neither of the formal tests need then be applied.
DIFFERENTIATION
42
a square from
rectangular box is to be formed by cutting
the resulting
each, corner of a rectangular piece of cardboard and bending
20
in by 30 m.,
of
cardboard
The dimensions of the piece
being
figure.
Ex.
1.
required the largest box which can be made.

Let x be the side of the square cut out. Then,
if the cardboard is bent

of the box are 30 - 2 x,
along the dotted lines of Fig 13, the dimensions
2 x, x. Let V be the volume of the box.
20
Then
p=
7V
(20
a:)
(30
- 2 *)
- 200 x + 12
= 600
dx
Equating
-2
a;
8Q&3D
2.
"j
-.
fiy
___ to zero,
-------
we have
13
whence
The
= 25
To apply Test
= 3.9
7.
amount cannot be cut twice

corresponds to a possible maximum,
write
dV
3.9
in the factored
form
dx
gives a
To apply Test
II
dVax
changes from
maximum
we
find
to
as x increases through 3.9
value of V.
dsV
dyr
= - 200 +
24 x and substitute x
= 3.9.
Therefore x = 3.9 gives a maximum value of V.

value of V is 1056 + cu. in., found by substituting
result is negative.
The maximum
x
we
appears that
it
Hence x
The
or 12
result 12.7 is impossible, since that
fiom the side of 20 in The result

and the tests are to be applied.
when
= 3.9
=s 3.9
in the equation for V.
A piece of wood is in the form of a right circular cone, the

and the radius of the base of which are each equal to 12 in. What
the volume of the largest right circular cylinder that can be cut from
Ex. 2.
altitude
is
this piece of
the cone ?
wood, the axis
of the cylinder to coincide
Let x be the radius of the base

and V its volume. Then
of
the required cylinder, y
V= vx*y.
We
it
with the axis of
its altitude,
(1)
cannot, however, apply our method directly to this value of V, since

involves two variables x and y. It is necessary to find a connection
MAXIMA AND MINIMA
43
between x and y and eliminate one of them. To do so, consider Fig. 14,
which is a cross section of cone and cylinder. From smiilai triangles we have
FE _AD
EC DC'
t
that18'
whence
12
Substituting in (1),
dV
whence
x.
we have
24 vx
irx*.
dx
dV
to zero
Equating dx
x
and
The value x =
solving,
we
find
evidently not a
solution of the problem, but x = 8 is a possible
or
8.
is
solution.
Applying Test
dx
changes
24 ir
(IX
I,
we
find that as
sign from
its
when
6 irx is negative
corresponds to a
to
x increases through the value

Applying Test
= 8.
We
we
value of V. To find
have V = 256 ir cu. in.
V substitute
8,
find that
Either test shows that x
maximum
expression for V.
II,
=8
in the
EXERCISES
1.
side of
piece of wire of length 20 in.
which
is
a:.
Find the maximum,
is
bent into a rectangle one
area.
2.
gardener has a certain length of wire fencing with which to
fence three sides of a rectangular plot of land, the fourth side being
made by a wall already constructed. Required the dimensions of
the plot which contains the maximum area.
3.
is to lay out a flower bed in the form of a sector

If he has 20 ft. of wire with which to inclose it, what
gardener
of a circle.
radius will he take for the circle to have his garden as large as
possible ?
In a given
20 and altitude 10 a recFind the rectangle of maximum area.

6. A right circular cylinder with altitude 2 as is inscribed in a
sphere of radius a. Find the cylinder of maximum, volume,
4.
tangle of base
isosceles triangle of base
is inscribed.
DIFFEEENTIATION
44
6.
to
A rectangular
box with a square base and open at the top

a given amount of mateiial. If no allowance
be made out of
made
is
is
for the thickness of the material or for waste in construction,

are the dimensions of the largest box that can be made ?
what
7.
piece of wire 12 ft. in length is cut into six portions, two
of one length and four of another Each of the two former portions
is bent into the form of a square, and the corners of the two squares
are fastened together by the remaining portions of wire, so that the.

completed figure is a rectangular parallelepiped Find the lengths
into which the wire
must be divided
so as to produce a figure of
maximum volume
8. The strength of a rectangular beam, varies as the product oE
breadth and the squaie of its depth Find the dimensions of the
strongest rectangular beam that can be cut from a circular cylindrical log of radius a inches
its
9. An isosceles triangle of constant perimeter is revolved about

base to form a solid of revolution. What are the altitude and
the base of the triangle when the volume of the solid generated is
its
maximum ?
10 The combined length and girth of a postal parcel is 60m.

Find the maximum volume (1) when the parcel is rectangular with
square cross section (2) when it is cylindrical
,
11.
A piece
of galvanized iron 5 feet long
bent into a U-shaped water drain
I feet long.
and a
If
feet
wide
we assume
is to
be
that the
cross section of the drain is exactly represented by a rectangle on

top of a semicircle, what must be the dimensions of the rectangle
and the semicircle in order that the drain may have the greatest
capacity (1)
on top ?
12.
when
the drain
is
circular filter paper
right circular cone.
closed on top 9
10m.
(2)
in diameter
when
is
it is
open
folded into a
Find the height of the cone when
it
has the
greatest volume
18. Integration. It is often desirable to reverse the process of

For example, if the velocity or the acceleration
differentiation.
of a
is given, we jftay wish to find the distance

the slope of a curve is given, we may wish to
moving body
traversed
or
if
find the curve.
INTEGKATION
45
The
inverse operation to differentiation is called integration,

and the result of the operation is called an integral. In the case
of a polynomial it may be performed by simply working the
formulas of differentiation backwards.

integer and
Thus,
if
is
a positive
then
The
is
term
first
of this
formula
justified
is
justified
by the fact that
if it
exactly aa?. The second term is

the fact that the derivative of a constant is zero.
differentiated, the result
by
is
may have any value whatever and cannot be

determined by the process of integration. It is called the constant
of integration and can only be determined in a given problem by
The
constant
The examples
special information given in the problem.

this is to be done.
will
show how
if
Again,
^=
dx
then
;/
This
= ax + C.
(2)
only a special case of (1) with
is
n=
0.
if
Finally,
= a r + a^" +
n
ax
+ an ^x + an
C8)
Ex.
line
1.
The
How
far will the
time from
If
when
to find
P,PS
which a body
velocity v with
AB (Fig. 15) is given
body move in the
to
By
J'IG.
15
=2
the body
is
at
Pv
and
when
if
=4
it is
at
PB we
,
are
(IV
hypothesis,
Therefore
moving along a straight
= 4?
=2
is
by the equation
= 10 + 5.
1
-j
s
- B i* +
C.
(1)
DIFFERENTIATION
46
have
first to
determine C. If
when
Therefore, substituting in (1),
s la
measured from
s
2>
we have
= 8(2) 2 + 5 (2) +
C=-42,
3
s = 8
+ 5 - 42.
whence
and (1) becomes
P v it follows that
o.
C;
(2)
This is the distance of the body from P l at any time /. Accordingly, il>
remains for us to substitute t = 4
(2) to find the loquiied distance 1\I\,
_
2
Thei e results
_ 42 _ 106>
If the velocity
is
in feet per second, the required distance
is
in foot.
Ex. 2. Required the curve the slope of which

at any point is twice the abscissa of the point.
By
hypothesis,
-jCIX
Therefore
2x
= JB* + C
(1)
curve whose equation can be derived

fiom (1) by giving C a definite value satisfies
the condition of the problem (Fig. 16) If it
Any
is required that the curve should pass through

the point (2, 3), we have, from (1),
3 = 4 + <?;
C = 1,
whence
and therefore the equation
of the curve is
PICK 10
But
if
it is
we have, from
required that the curve should pass through
8, 10),
10
whence
and the equation
= 9 + C;
C = 1,
2
+1
y=
(1),
is
EXERCISES
In the following problems v
a moving body at any time t
l.
If v
= 32 1 + 30,
how
is
the velocity, in feet per second, of
far will the
body move
in the time
from
AEEA
from
3.
second
4.
If v
21
and sixth seconds

5.
47
= 3 1* + 4 1 + 2, how far will the body move in the time

= 1 to = 3 f
If v = 20 + 25, how far will the body move in the fourth
If v
2.
32
192
If v
+ 4,
how
far will the
body move in the
fifth
?
1,
how
far will the
body move before
curve passes through the point (1,

1), and its slope at
any point (x,y) is 3 more than twice the abscissa of the point.
What is its equation ?
2
7. The slope of a curve at any point (aj,
4, and
y) is Go; + 2x
the curve passes through the point (0, 6) What is its equation ?
6.
8. The slope of a curve at any point (x,

3# jc2, and
y) is 4
the curve passes through the point ( 6, 1). What is its equation ?
9.
2), and its slope at any
point
(05,
10.
What is its equation ?
y) is one half the abscissa of the point
A curve passes
any point
(x, y) is
2
a;
through the point ( 2,

4), and
1. What is its
x
equation ?
its
slope at
19. Area. An important application of integration occurs in

the problem of finding an area bounded as follows
Let US (Fig. 17) be any curve with the equation y =/(&), and
:
leitkED
and
BC
be any two ordinates.
area bounded by the curve RS,
It is required to find the
the two ordinates J3D and J3C,

and the axis of x.
Take -MP, any variable orMD and J3<7,
dinate between
and
let
area
EMPD
us denote by
the
bounded by the
curve, the axis of #, the fixed

ordinate J8I>, and the variable
ordinate
jf
jj
jy"
-^
MP.
jUlG J7
It is evident that as values
are assigned to
ing values of
a;
=OJf,
different positions of
are determined.
which we will find
dA
-r
ax
Hence
MP and correspond-
is
a function of x for
DIFFERENTIATION
48
Take MN=Ax and draw the

Then the area MNQP=&A. If L
corresponding ordinate NQ.
the length of the longest

and NQ, and s is the length
ordinate of the curve between
of the shortest orduiate in the same region, it is evident that
is
MP
for
L&x
A#
< Au4 < LAa;,
the area of a rectangle entirely surrounding AJ, and

the area of a rectangle entirely included
A^t.
is
is
Dividing by A&, we have

s
<.
A.1
r
< i.
Aa;
As
JVQ approaches coincidence with MP,

which are always between NQ and MP,
approach coincidence with MP. Hence at the limit we have
Aa; approaches zero,
and hence
and
L,
~ = MP^ y =/(*).
(1)
Therefore, by integrating,
A=F(x) + C,
is
derivative
/(#)
We
is
must now
ED, the area
is
Let OE = a.
That is, when
find C.
zero.
x=
whence
(2)
used simply as a symbol for any function whose
where F(x)
A=
a,
When MP
coincides with
0.
we have
C=
F(a),
and therefore (2) becomes
^=^(00-^(0).
(8)
Finally, let us obtain the required area JSBCD. If

will
be obtained by placing x
=b
in (3).
OB
Therefore
we
ft,
thin
have,
finally>
JFta).
(4)
AEEA
49
In solving problems the student is advised to begin with

formula (1) and follow the method of the text, as shown in
the following example:
Ex. Find the area bounded by tho axis of
ordmates x = 1 and x = 3.
BE is
In Fig 18,
the line x
= l, CD
is
x,
the curve y
the line x
z
^x , and the
= 3, and the required
area is the a.re&J3CDE Then, by (1),
=
S
~dx
'
X*'
A ~ \x + C
8
whence
When = 1, A = 0, and therefore

a;
whence
C=
and
A=
Finally,
-J,
a:
when
x
s=3,
EXERCISES
Find the area bounded by the curve y
and the lines x = 1 and a: = 3.
1.
x,
= 4a

and the lines x =
2.
6 and x =
2.
a;
2
,
the axis of
= s* + 8 + 18,
a;
the
axis of x,
3.

and the lines x = 1 and a; = 2
= 1C + 12 x
xs the
,
axis of x,
4.
axis of x.
= 2x
6.
and the
Find the area bounded by the axis of x and the curve
5.
a;
a;
2
.
Find the smaller of the two areas bounded by the curve

x a the axis of x, and the line x = 1.
5 x*
7.
curve
8.
Find the area bounded by the axis of
Ayx
605
x,
and the
axis of x.
the axis of y,
and the
= x*~ 2
<taj
+ 9.
3
+8
DIFFERENTIATION
50
denotes the area bounded by the axis of y, the curve

to OX,
a; =/(y), a fixed line y
b, and any variable line parallel
prove that
7
If
9.
10. If A denotes an area bounded above by the curve //=/(*")>

below by the curve y
(t,
F(x), at the left by the fixed line x
and at the right by a variable ordinate, prove that
The
20. Differentials.
Aa?
~.
This symbol
clx
form
in the fractional
is
derivative has been denned as the limit
and has been denoted by the symbol
of
fraction,
but thus far
to suggest that it
we have made no
is
the limit of a
attempt to treat
it
as
a fraction.
is, however, desirable in many cases to treat the derivative
a fraction and to consider dx and dy as separate quantities.
It
as
To do
this it is necessary to define
dx and dy
that their quotient shall be the derivative.
in such a
We
manner
shall
begin by
defining dx, when x is the independent variable; that is, the
variable whose values can be assumed independently of any oilier
quantity.
We
shall call dxth& differential of x and define it as a change

x which may have any magnitude, but which is generally
regarded as small and may be made to approach aero as a
in
limit.
In other words, the differential of the independent variable

with the increment of x ; that is,
is identical
dx
sss
A*.
(1)
After dx has been defined, it is necessary to define dy so

that its quotient by dx is the derivative. Therefore, if y =/(V)
and
we have
dx =/'(;),
-j-
dy
That
the differential of the function y is equal to the derivative

times the differential of the independent variable x.
is,
DIFFERENTIALS
51
In equation (2) the derivative appears as the coefficient of dx.

For this reason it is sometimes called the diff&renticd coefficient.
It
The
important to notice the distinction between dy and Ay.

dy is not the limit of the increment A#, since both
is
diff erential
dy and ky have the same
Neither
limit, zero.
to a very
Ay equal
is
small increment A#, since it generally differs in value from Ay.

It is true, however, that when dy and Ay both become small, they
by a quantity which is small compared with each of them.

These statements may best be understood from the following examples
differ
Ex.
1.
Let
A be the area of
a square with
the side x so that
If
is
a;
= dx, A
increased by Ao;
is
increased
by A.4, where
A4 =
(2),
- x* = 2 x dx +
dA = 2zdx,
and dA
differ
(a?
Now, by
so that A.I
dxf
(dx)
a.
&
FNJ. ig
by (dx)'
Referring to Fig 19,. we see that dA is represented by the rectangles (1)
(2), while A.4 is represented by the rectangles (1) and (2) together
with the square (3) and it is obvious from the figuie that the square (8)
and
very small compared with the rectangles (1) and (2), provided djc is
taken small. For example, if x = 5 and dx = .001, the rectangles (1)
and (2) have together the area 2 z die = .01 and the square (3) has the
is
area .000001.
Ex.
where
If
Let
2.
$ is
is
- 16
s
,
= dt, we have
As = 10 (t + dt)* - 1C & - 32 tdi + 16 (dt}\
ds = 32 dt
(2),
increased by Al
and, from
so that
the distance traversed by a moving body in the time
As and
The terra 16 (rf/) is very small

(dt)
4
BZtdt, if dt is small. For example, if f
ds differ
by 16
pared with the term

dt - .001, then 32 tdt = ,128, while 16
(eft)
com-
and
.000016
In this problem As is the actual distance traversed in the time dt, and
which would have been traversed if the body had moved
dt with the same velocity which it had at the begin-
da is the distance
throughout the time

ning of the time dt.
DIFFERENTIATION
52
y=f(%) and we make a graphical representawe may have two cases as shown in Figs. 20 and 21.
&v = dx and RQ=ky, since HQ
In each figure, WN = PR
In general,
if
tion,
is
If
the total change in y caused by a change of dx = M.N in x.

PT is the tangent to the curve at P, then, by 15,
so that, by (2),
dy
= (tan HPT) (P7?) = R T.
N
PIG 21
FIG. 20
In Fig. 20, dy < A#, and in Fig. 21 dy >&y; but in each case
the difference between dy and Ay is represented
magnitude
by the length of QT.
This shows that RQ = Ay is the change in y as the point JP is

dy is
supposed to move along the curve /=/(^') while RT
is supposed to move
the change in the value of y as the point
along the tangent to that curve. Now, as a very small arc docs
much from its tangent, it is not hard to see graphiQ is taken close to P, the difference between
and RT, namely, QT, is very small compared with RT.
not deviate
cally that
RQ
if
the point
more rigorous examination of the difference between the
increment and the differential
lies
outside the range of this
book.
EXERCISES
1.
If y
2. If
3.
If
= x - 3ic + ix + 1,
= x + 4 - x* +
6
6.-B,
is
find dy.
find dy.
the volume of a cube of edge x, find both
and interpret geometrically.
AF and dV
APPROXIMATIONS
If
4.
is
the area of a circle of radius
53
find both Avl
and dA.
that A.4 is the exact area of a ring of width dr, and that dA
the product of the inner circumference of the ring by its width.
5. If V is the volume of a sphere of radius r, find
and dV.
Show
is
r,
AF
Show
dr,
that
A V is
dV
and that
the shell by
If
6.
its
is
geometrically
If
7.
and v the
s is
the exact volume of a spherical shell of thickness

is the product of the area of the inner surface of
thickness.
the area described in
how
this differs
19,
show that dA
= ydx
Show
from A/i
the distance traversed by a moving body, t the time,

vdt. How does ds differ from A& 9
show that ds
velocity,
=x
and x
the numerical difference between

.001, and
01, dx,
dy and A?/, with successive assumptions of dx
dx = .0001.
If y
8.
5, find
9. If y
x8 and x = 3, find the numerical difference between dy
and Ay for dx = .001 and for dx = 0001
10. For a circle of radius 4 in. compute the numerical difference
between dA and AJ. corresponding to an increase of r by .001 in.
Eor a sphere of radius 3 ft. find the numerical difference

dV and A V when r is increased by 1 in.
11.
between
21. Approximations.
The previous
section brings out the fact
from the increment of y by a

very small amount, which becomes less the smaller the increment of x is taken. The differential may be used, therefore, to
that the differential of
make
tion
differs
certain approximate calculations, especially when the questo determine the effect upon a function caused by small
is
This
changes in the independent variable.
is
illustrated in the
following examples:
Ex.
1.
Find approximately the change
2 in. caused
by an
increase of .002 in.
Let x be the side
of the square,
A = x2
Placing x
2 and dx
=* .002,
and
we
in.
in the area of a square of side
the side.
its area.
dA =
find
Then
2 xdx.
dA = .008, which
is
approximately
the required change in the area.

If we wish to know how nearly correct the approximation is, we may com8
2=
.008004, which is the exact change in A. Our
pute A4 = (2.002)
(2)
approximate change is therefore in error by .OOOQOAj a very email amount.
DIFFERENTIATION
54
Find approximately the volume of a sphere of radius 1.9 in.

The volume of a sphere of radius 2 in. is -^ TT, and the volume of the
the change in the volume of
required sphere may be found by computing
Ex.
2.
a sphere of radius 2 caused by decreasing its radius by .1.

If r is the radius of the sphere and V its volume, we have
F=
Placing
r = 2
Tjr
and dr
d V = 4 vr*dr.
and
.1,
we
find
dV=
1.6
TT.
Hence the volume
of the required sphere is approximately
To
find
how much
we may compute exactly the volume

by the formula
this is in error
of the required sphere
V=
The approximate volume
^7r(1.9)
is
9.1453
ir.
therefore in error by .0786
TT,
which
is less
than 1 per cent of the true volume.
EXERCISES
side of a square is measured as 3 ft. long. If this length
is in error by 1 in , find approximately the resulting error in the area
1.
The
of the square.
2. The diameter of a spherical ball is measured as 2 in., and the
in. has boon
volume and the surface are computed. If an error of
made in measuring the diameter, what is the approximate error in
the volume and the surface ?
3. The radius and the altitude of a right circular cone are measured as 3 in. and 5 in. respectively. What is the approximate error
in the volume if an error of
in. is made in the radius ? What is
in. is made in the altitude ?
the error in the volume if an error of
4.
Find approximately the volume of a cube with 3.0002
in.
on
each edge.
5. The altitude of a certain right circular cone is the same as
the radius of the base. Find approximately the volume of the cono
if the altitude is 3.00002 in.
moving body from a fixed point of its

16 t a -f- 100 1
50.
given by the equation $
the
Find approximately
distance when t s= 4.0004.
7. Find the approximate value of v?
x
2 when x =s 1,0003.
6.
The
distance * of a
path, at any time
t,
is
8.
Find approximately the value of
as*
+ * + 4 when = .99989.
a
GENERAL EXERCISES
55
Show
that the volume of a thin cylindrical shell is approximately equal to the area of its inner surface times its thickness.
9.
10. If
is
the volume and
cone with radius of
V s=
7n ctn a and S
a thin conical shell
the curved area of a right circular

its vertical angle 2 a, show that
= irr
is
surface multiplied by
base r and
its
<s
esc a Thence show that the volume of

approximately equal to the area of its inner
thickness.
its
GENERAL EXERCISES
Find the derivatives of the following functions from the definition
3
+ 2x
6.
VJB>
'
'
*
2.
4.
Prove from the definition that the derivative of
8.
is
By
9.
of (2 x
of (a
+ 5)
+ 1)
expanding and differentiating, prove that the derivative

8
is
6(2a;
+ 5)
2
.
By expanding and
10.
is
6 a; (a
+ 1)
prove that the derivative
differentiating,
2
.
By expanding and
prove that the derivative

a positive integer.
12. By expanding and differentiating, prove that the derivative
2
of (a;
as) n is 2 nx(xi + a2)"- 1 , where n is a positive integer.
11.
of
(a;
+ a) n is n(x + a)""
differentiating,
where %
is
13.
when
14.
when
Find when x*+ 8 a; 8 4- 24 a8

x increases.
+ 32 + 16
is
a-
increasing
and
decreasing, as
24 of
8 x* -f- 32 x
Find when 9 x*
x increases.
+ 11
is
increasing and
decreasing, as
15. Find a general rule for the values of x for

increasing or decreasing, as x increases.
which
is
16. Find a general rule for the values of x for

increasing or decreasing, as x increases.
which x*
is
ace
+ bx + e
a?x
+1
17.
right circular cone of altitude x is inscribed in a sphere of
radius a. Find when an increase in the altitude of the cone will cause
an increase in
its
volume and when
* HINT, In these examples
make use
it will
cause a decrease,
of the relation
vA'vIt =
A-B
DIFFERENTIATION
56
A particle
18.
its
is
moving
is
in a straight line in such a manner that

A of the straight line, at any time t,
distance x from a fixed point

s
t
given by the equation x
particle
be approaching A
The
&+
15
+ 100.
When
will the
velocity of a certain
moving body is given by the equation

During what time will it be moving in a direction
opposite to that in which s is measured, and how far will it move ?
20. If a stone is thrown up from the surface of the earth with a
velocity of 200 ft. per second, the distance traversed in t seconds is
16 a Find when the stone moves
given by the equation s = 200 1
19.
71
-f-
10.
z5
up and when down

21. The velocity of a certain moving body, at any time t, is given
2
Find when thu velocity of the
8 1 + 12
by the equation v = t
body is increasing and when decreasing.
22.
At any
time
the distance s of a certain
moving body from a

= 16 24 1 -f 9 2 f.
and
when
velocity increasing
decreasing ? When is its
speed increasing and when decreasing ?
23. At any time t, the distance of a certain moving
body from a
fixed point in
When
its
t,
path
is
fixed point in its path
When
tf
is its
is its
is given by the equation s

t
speed increasing and when decreasing ?
1* -j-
+1
24. A sphere of ice is melting at such a rate that its volume is

decreasing at the rate of 10 cu in. per minute. At what rate is the
radius of the sphere decreasing when the sphere is 2 ft. in diameter ?
25. Water is running at the rate of 1 cu. ft. per second into a
basin in the form of a frustum of a right circular cone, the radii of
the upper and the lower base being 10 in and 6 in.
and
the depth being 6

it is
in.
How fast
respectively,
is
the water rising in the basin
wluw
at the depth of 3 in. ?
26.
vessel is in the form of an inverted right circular cone the
vertical angle of which is 60. The vessel is
originally filled with
liquid which flows out at the bottom at the rate of 3 cu. in. per minutw.
<.
At what
rate is the inner surface of the vessel

being exposed
is at a depth of 1 ft. in the vessel ?
when
the liquid
27.
Find the equation
the point
28.
(2,
(4,
of the straight line

6) with the slope
Find the equation

and (- 3, 4).
- 3)
which passes through
of the straight line through the points
GENERAL EXERCISES
Find the equation of the straight
-4) and (2, 4).
29.
(2,
30.
lino
57
determined by the points
Find the equation of the straight line through the point,

2 y -f- 7 =
and parallel to the line a?
Find the equation of the straight lino tli rough the point
and perpendicular to the lino 2 -f 4 // + 9 =
3)
(1,
31.
(2, 7)
Find the angle between the straight

and y + 3 x -f- 1 = 0.
32.
lines 2,r
-|-
3//
+H=
Find the turning-points of the following curves and draw the

graphs
34.
y=3 as-ai"
= 16c -40a- + 25
35.
33.
36.
37.
38.
2/
(x
-4
- 2).
= a* - 6 a* - 15 x +
14.
9
+3
y=
y
5.
as*
3-
a:
Find the point of intersection of the tangents to the curve

2
a;
x s at the points for which y =
1 and a? = 2
=x+2
respectively
39.
Show
that the equation of the tangent to the curve y
+ 2bx + G at the
40.
Show
+ ax +
41.
fi
point (x 1} y^)
is
-f-
= 2 (ca^-f
Find the area of the
ya )
is
(3
o"
)*"
0.
a
a*
-|_ />.
triangle included between the coordintitc

8
at the point (2, 8).
a;
y
Find the angle between the tangents
a;
a,r,
/;),
that the equation of the tangent to the curve y
at the point (a^,
axes and the tangent to the curve

42.
at the points the abscissas
to the curve //=-2./'"

1 and 1
of which arc
respectively.
43.
-+
4.x
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y

12 which has the slope 1.
44. Find the points on the curve

tangents are parallel to the lino x
y
;//
=3
= 0.
B
.r,
2
a*,
=s
xn
at which the
46. A length I of wire is to be cut into two

portions which
be bent into the forms of a circle and a square
respectively.
1
that the
is
sum
of the areas of those figures will bo least
cut in the ratio
IT
4.
3 a;9
when
aw
to
Show
the wire
DIFFERENTIATION
58
A log in the
of a -frustum of a cone is 10 ft. long, the

diameters of the bases being 4 ft. and 2 ft. A beam with a square
cross section is cut from it so that the axis of the beam eoiuuidos
with the axis of the log. Find the beam of greatest volume that
can be so cut
46.
form
47. Required the right circular cone of greatest volume which can
be inscribed in a given sphere.
The total surface of a regular triangular prism is to be Jt. Find

altitude and the side of its base when its volume is a maximum.
48.
its
A piece of wire 9
49.
and
length
in.
long
is
Each
and the
three of another
into an equilateral triangle,

connected by the remaining three
triangular prism.
volume ?
If
50.
t is
cut into five pieces, two of ouo

of the two equal pieces is bent
vertices of the two triangles are
pieces so as to
form a regular
How is the wire cut when the prism has the largest
time in seconds, v the velocity of a moving body in

= 200 32 1, how far will the body move in
feet per second, and v
the
first
sec. ?
32 1, where v is the velocity of a moving

If v = 200
body
in feet per second and t is time in seconds, how far will the
body
51.
move
in the fifth second ?
62.

8), and its slope at
twice the abscissa of the point.
any point is equal to 3 more than

Find the equation of the curve.
53.
point
Find
54.
axis of
55.
curve passes through the point

a
is oj
2x
+ 7.
Find
its
(0, 0),
and
its
slope at
the area bounded by the curve
a
s
16 =
and
llio
ao,
Find the area bounded by the curve y = 2 as8
15 a? 4. 3G
the ordinates through the
turning-points of the curve, and OX.
a
56. Find the area between the curve
y x and the straight
any
equation.
-f-
+1
lint?
6.
57.
Find
58.
The
the area between the curves y =* jc and

18
a8
y
curve y
ax* is known to pass
through the point (h, Jc),
Prove that the area bounded by the curve, the axis of
a-, and the
line x
h is hk.
.
59.
Compute
&A and dA for the area 4 of

corresponding to an increase of .01 in the radius.
the difference between
a circle of radius
5,
GENERAL EXERCISES
60.
Compute
59
AF and dV for the volume V

corresponding to an increase of 01 in the
the difference between
of a sphere of radius 5,
radius
61. If a cubical shell is formed by increasing each edge of a cube
by dx, show that the volume of the shell is approximately equal to
its inside surface multiplied by its thickness.
62. If the diameter of a sphere is measured and found to be 2 ft
and the volume is calculated, what is the approximate error in the
in has been made in obtaining
calculated volume if an error of
,
the radius ?
63. A box in the form of a right circular cylinder is 6 in deep
and 6 in. across the bottom. Find the approximate capacity of the
box when it is lined so as to be 5 9 in deep and 5 9 in across the
bottom.
64.
rough wooden model
gular pyramid 3
in. tall
and 3
is
in.
form of a regular quadranon each side of the base. After it

in the
is smoothed down, its dimensions are all decreased

the approximate volume of the material removed ?
65.
By
by
.01.
What
is
use of the differential find approximately the area of a

What is the error made in this approximation ?
circle of radius 1.99.
6
66. Find approximately the value of a; + 4
and when x = 2.9998.
67.
68.
s
+ a when x = 3.0002
The edge of a cube is 2.0001 in. Find approximately its surface.

The motion of a certain body is defined by the equation
+3 +9
i*
27.
in the interval of time
Find approximately the distance traversed

from t = 3 to t = 3.0087.
CHAPTER
III
SUMMATION
Area by summation. Let us consider the problem to find
2
the area bounded by the curve y
^ # the axis of r, and the
3 (Fig. 22). This may be solved by the
ordmates x = 2 and x
method of 19 but we wish to show that it may also be considered
22.
as a
problem in summation, since the area is approximately equal
to the
We
sum
of a
number
divide the axis of
each of which
we
call
of rectangles constructed as follows :

3 into 10 parts,
x between x 2 and x
Ax =
A#, so that
3
r
=.1.
If
xl
is
the
xa the second point, and so on, and

point
rectangles are constructed as shown in the figure, then the
of division,
first
altitude of the first rectangle is
tangle
first
rectangle
is
2
Accordingly,
we make
2,
0^=2.1,
#2 =2.2,
z8 =2.3,
z4 =2.4,
aj =2.5,
a
a; =2.6,
6
z7 =2.7,
z8 =2.8,
tf=2.9,
.
that of the second rec-
The
area of tho
2
^(2) Ao;=.08, that of the second rectangle
and so on.
s=
is
Aa; = |(2.1) A=.0882,
(2)
z 2 =|(2. 1) 2 =.882, and so on.
is
the following calculation:

3
-|(2) Aa;= .08
.0882
%(xy&x=
(z2 ) Az =
l(xy&x=
%(xy&x=
O6) Aa=
%(x^&x=
|(r ) A^=
2
.1250
.1458
.1508
-1G82
(z8 ) Aa;=
Ar=
.1058
.1152
his is a first
.0968
.1352
approximation to the area.

For a better approximation the axis of x between #= 2 and 05= 3
may be divided into 20 parts with Aa;= .05. The result is 1.241 8.
60
ABJEA
61
If the base of the required figure is divided into

Az .01, the sum of the areas of the 100
rectangles constructed
above
as
100 parts with
is
1.26167.
The larger the number of parts into which

the base of the figure is
,
more nearly
the required area obtained. In fact, the redivided, the
is
quired area
is
the limit
approached as the number

of parts is indefinitely
increased and the size of
"~
Q
FIG. 22
approaches zero.
shall now proceed to generalize the
We
Let
LK
OEa
problem just handled.

y =/(), and let
(Fig. 23) be a curve with equation

b.
and OB
It is re-
quired to find the area bounded
by the curve LK, the axis of #,

and the ordmates at E and B.
For convenience we assume
that a
in the first place
<b
and that f(x) is positive for

all values of x between a and b.
We
will divide the line
into
n equal
EB
parts by placing
and laying
MI
Jf J/
Mj
M B
t
FIG. 28
off the
_ 1 J5=Aa: (in Fig.
lengths EM^-
23,n=9).
Let
_ 1), and
.
.,
JfÂ*
parallel to
OX.
/(a)Aa;=:the area of the rectangle

/(#].) AOJ
= the
/(*2) As? = the
area of the rectangle

area of the rectangle
the area of the rectangle
Then
alsc
SUMMATION
62
The sum
/(a) A* +/(aOA* +/(aA* +
+/(^_
)Aa;
(1)
is then the sum of the areas of these rectangles and equal to

the area of the polygon EDR^R^
R^^^li^B. It is evident
that the limit of this sum as n is indefinitely increased is the
area bounded by ED, EB, BC, and the arc DC.
.
The sum (1)
expressed concisely by the notation
(sigma), the Greek form of the letter S, stands for the

sum," and the whole expression indicates that the sum
to be taken of all terms obtained from/(,)Aa; by
giving to i
succession the values 0, 1, 2, 3,
., n
1, where x ~a.
word
is
where
in
is
"
The
sum
limit of this
is
expressed by the symbol
Ja
where /is a modified form
Hence
/(#)<fa;
of S.
= Lim^/(a; )A:c=:
area
isO
i/a
It is evident that the result
is
not vitiated
if
ED
or J3C is of
length zero.
23.
The
the area
definite integral.
EBCD
of
We
have seen
in
19 that
if
is
22,
where F(x) is any function whose derivative

is/(). Comparing
with the result of 22, we have the important formula
this
Ja
The
limit of the
sum
(1),
22,
which
is
denoted by
C /(*) dx,
Jn
is
called a definite integral, and the numbers a and b are

called
DEFINITE INTEG-KAL
68
the lower limit and the upper limit*, respectively, of the definite
integral.
On the
integral
fined in
other hand, the symbol
is
f(x)dx
called an indefinite
and indicates the process of integration as already de18.
Thus, from that section, we have
0,
G,
and, in general,
We
To find
x=
f(x)dx=F(x)+
C,
any function whose derivative is /(#)

may therefore express formula (1) in the following rule
where F(x)
and
is
the value of
x:
=a
f(x)dx, evaluate \f(x)dx,
successively,
and
substitute
subtract the latter result
from
the former.
It is to
be noticed that in evaluating
of integration is to be omitted, because

appears in the subtraction, since
In practice
it is
f(x)dx the constant
if it
convenient to express
is
F^
added,
it
dis-
Fâ) by the
symbol [^ ()]> so that
Ex.
1.
The example
of
22
may now be
completely solved.
The required
area is
27
The
10
student should notice that the word "limit" is here used In a

from that in which it is used when a variable is said to approach
quite different
a limit (1).
SUMMATION
64
The expression /(a;) dx which appears in formula (1) is called

In
the element of integration. It is obviously equal to dF(x).
from 19 that
fact, it follows at once
dA=ydx = f(x) dx.

In the discussion
of
dA
is
positive,
curve
so that
Fig. 23
22 we have assumed that y and dr are

If
positive.
is
that
negative
and
below the axis of x

negative and the
is
if
dx
is
is, if
the
positive,
the product ydx is

area found by formula (1) has a negative sign. Finally, if the area required
axis of x and
partly above the
is necessary to find
partly below, it
each part separately, as in the follow-
is
ing example:
Ex.
it
Fmd
=x
2.
curve y
a;
the aiea bounded by the

6 x and the axis of a-
Plotting the curve (Fig 24), we see that

crosses the axis of x at the points
B (-2, 0), 0(0, 0), and C(3, 0). Hence

axis of x and
part of the area is above the
shall find it
part below. Accoidingly, we
necessary to solve the pioblem in two parts,
first
finding the aiea above the axis of x

To find the
and then finding that below

first
area
we
proceed as in
22, dividing
the area
each of
up into elementary rectangles

which
8
whence
fox-
FIG. 24
- 6 *) dx
A- C\x*- x*-Qx)dx = [I* - 3?
dA = ydx =
(a.
a;
jj
Similarly, for the area below the axis of x
dA
But in
this case y
= xs
tlx
jc
xs
is
we
find, as before,
xs
negative and hence
dA
is
negative,
we are making x vary fiom to 8, and therefore dx is positive, Tlioiofoie we expect to find the result of the summation negative.
In faot,
for
we have
A-
-s
JI o
(X
- x* -
x^dx
[|
a:
as*
-^(3)-3(3)]-0 = -15i
DEFINITE INTEGRAL
65
As we
aie asked to compute the total aiea bounded by the ciuve

the axis of x, we discard the negative sign in the last summation aud
aud
add
5J and 15 f, thus obtaining 21 ^ s as the required result.

If we had computed the definite integral
i
xz
a.)
dx,
we should have obtained the icsult

10 fy, which
the two portions of area computed separately.
Ex.
the algebraic
is
Find the area bounded by the two curves y
3.
We diaw the curves

?/
y
and
.r
and y
sum
=8
of
a;
2.
(Fig 25)
= xr a
=8-
f\
"\
(.*-}
a; ,
(2)
.8
and by solving their equations we

find that they mtcisect at the points
(2,
4)aud>3 (-2,4)
The reqiuiod area OP^JIPÔ is evidently twice the area OJ\liO, since
both ciuves aie symmetiical with lespect to OY.
find the area
Accoidmgly, wo shall
OP^BO and multiply it

by 2. This lattei area may be found
by subtracting the aic>a ON^PÔ from
the area ON^P-^BO, each of these areas
being found as in the pievious example ;
or
we may proceed
as follows
Divide ON^ into n parts dx, and

through the points of division draw
stiaight lines paiallol to
intersect-
OY,
ing both curves. Let one of those lines

be M^ Q l Q 2 Through the ] 101 nts Q: and
(2 2
draw
OX
straight linos parallel to
until they
meet the next
the rectangle
dA and may
Q^ = A/^
of a point
vortical line
to the right, thcnoby forming
Q^SQy, The
aroa of such a rectangle may be takon as

be computed as follows: its base is ih and ids altitude IH
8
u
2 .ca for M^Q^ is tho ordinato
j
j"
M^Q,! = (8
)
%
=8
on the curve
(2)
Thcicfore
and J/j^ the ordinate of a point ou

,
A=
C \R
Finally, tho required area is
- 2 ra)
rl,r
=[83--
2(10) = 21 }
?,
3*]
(1).
SUMMATION
66
EXERCISES
2
Find the area bounded by the curve 4 y

2 and x = 2.
and the lines x
1.
of x,
2.

= 1 and as = 3
x, and the lines x
as
= a?
0, the axis
7 X*
8a
+ 16
the axis of
3.
the axis of
4.
= 25 x
10 a;2
8
-f- oi
and
a.
Find the area bounded by the axis of x and the curve
= 25 - a
5.
the axis of
6.
Find the area bounded by the curve
y=4aj
-3 and
4aj
x.
Find the area bounded below by the axis of x and above by

= #8 4 a2 4 x + 16.
the curve y
7.
and
=4
as
9cc+18
Sec
the axis of #.
8.

6 = 0.
x-)-2y
x*
8=0
+ 2y
and tho
straight line
9.
Find the area bounded by the curve 3y

2x + y 9 =
aj
and the
straight line
10.
two
11.
a2
Find the area of the crescent-shaped figure bounded by the

= x* + 7 and y = 2 xz -f- 3
curves y
Find the area bounded by the curves 4y=sa3 a

+ 42/ 24 = 0.
4 a; and
4o:
12.
the axis of
24.
o;
+3=
2y and
2/
y.
The general summation problem. The formula
rf
Ja
F(a)
has been obtained by the study of an area, but

a much more general application. For if f(x)
(1)
it
may be
given
any function
of x whatever, it may be graphically represented by the curve
y =/(). The rectangles of Fig. 23 are then the graphical repis
resentations of the products f(z)dx, and the symbol
f f(x)dx
Ja
GENERAL PROBLEM
sum
represents the limit of the
6T
of these products.
We may
accordingly say:
which requires the determination of the limit of the
Any problem
sum of products of
the type
f(x) dx may
be solved
by the use of
formula (1).
Let us
illustrate this
by considering again the problem, already
solved in
from
18, of determining the distance traveled in the time

t to t
a body whose velocity v is known. Since
t
3 by
ds
"*#'
ds = vdt,
we have
which
approximately the distance traveled in a small interval

Let the whole time from t = t^ to t = tz be divided
into a number of intervals each equal to dt. Then the total distance traveled is equal to the sum of the distances traveled in
is
of time dt.
and hence is equal approximately to the

vdt This approximation becomes better
the intervals dt becomes smaller and their number
the several intervals
sum
dt,
of the several terms
as the size of
larger,
and we conclude that the limit of the sum of the terms vdt
is
the actual distance traveled
is
the total distance traveled,

a
If v
= 16 + 5,
1
if s
vdt.
now, we know v in terms of
If,
Ex.
*
by the body. Hence we have,
t,
we may apply formula (1).

from = 2 to
find the distance traveled in the time
= 4.
We
have directly
s
= f *(16 + 5) dt =
1
[8
1*
*]
= 106.
EXERCISES
1.
At any time
the velocity of a moving body
is
3&
4-
1 ft.
per
How far will it move in the first 6 sec.?

How far will the body in Ex. 1 move during the seventh second ?
second.
2.
3.
At any time t the velocity of a moving body is 6 + 5 1 & ft. per

Show that this velocity is positive during the interval from
1 to t f= 6, and find how far the body moves during that interval.
second,
t
SUMMATION
68
At any time
24 f +11 ft.
the velocity of a moving body is 4)53
per second. During what interval of time is the velocity negative, and
how far will the body move during that interval ?
4.
6. The number of foot pounds of work done in lifting a weight in

the product of the weight in pounds and the distance in feet through
which the weight is lifted. A cubic foot of water weighs 021 lb.
Compute the work done in emptying a cylindrical tank of depth 8 ft.
and radius 2 ft
of work done in
considering it as the limit of the sum of the jnort'rt

each thin layer of water to the top of the tank.
lifting
25. Pressure. It is shown m physics that the pressure on

one side of a plane surface of area A, immersed in a liquid tit a,
uniform depth of h units below the Kin-face of the liquid, is equal
to wJul, where w is the weight of a unit volume of the liquid.
This may be remembered by noticing
that wliA is the weight of the column
of the liquid which would be supported
"
by the area
A.
Since the pressure is the same in

all directions, we can also determine
the pressure on one side of a plane
surface which
hence
Let
not
is
^ IQ
2Q
perpendicular to the surface of the liquid
and
uniform depth.
ABC (Fig. 26) represent such a surface and RS the line of
intersection of the plane of ABC with the surface of the liquid.
Divide ABC into strips by drawing straight lines parallel to Jttf.
Call the area of one of these strips dA, as in 28, and the depth of
is
at a
one edge h. Then, since the strip is narrow and horizontal, tho
depth of every point differs only alightly from 7i, and tho pressure on the strip is then approximately wMA, Talcing P m tho
total pressure,
The
we
write
^p_
3*
total pressure
is the sum of tho pressures on the several
strips and is therefore the limit of the sum of terms of tho
form whdA, the limit being approached as the number of tho
strips is indefinitely increased
decreased.
Therefore
and the width
P=
/
I
wlidA,
of each indefinitely
PEESSUKE
69
where the limits of integration are to be taken so as to include

the whole area the pressure on which is to be determined. To
evaluate the integral it is necessary to express both h and dA
111 terms of the same variable.
Ex. 1. Find the pleasure on one side of a rectangle BCDE (Fig 27),
wheie the sides BC and ED aiu each 4 ft. long, the sides BE and CD are
each 8 ft. long, immersed in watei so that the plane of the rectangle is
peipendiculai to the surface of the
is paiallel
water, and the side
BC
to the surface of the watei
below
and 2
&
ft.
at
LK
is the line of interIn Fig. 27,

section of the surface of the water
and the plane
Let
of the rectangle.
be the point of intersection of

and BE produced Then, if x is
LK
measured downward from
and
along
BE, x has the value 2
at the point
x has the value 5 at the point E.
We now
BE
divide
draw straight
into parts dx, and through the points of division

to BC, thus dividing the given rectangle
lines parallel
into elemental y rectangles such as
dA =
Therefore
Since
MN
rectangle
is
area of
MNP.S
MNR S = MN MS - 4 dx.
-
at a distance x below
LK,
MNRS is approximately wx(4:
the pressure on the elementary
dx').
Accoidmgly, we have
P=
and
f 4 nxdx =
t/2
Hence we have
[2
2 w(6)
vxffe*
^
w - 02 J
For water,
finally
Ib
- 2 w(2) 2 = 42
20
^ T.
P = 2625 Ib. = 1 T% T
Ex. 2. The base CD (Fig. 28) of a triangle BCD is 7 ft., and its altitude
from B to CD is 5 ft This triangle is immersed in water with its plane
CD parallel to the surperpendicular to the suiface of the water and with
face, and 1 ft below it, B being below CD Find the total pressure on one
side of this triangle.
LK
of the triangle
represent the line of intersection of the plane
be per*
Let
of the water. Then B is 6 ft below
distances
measure
will
at
and intersect
pendicular to
and denote them by x. Then, at the point B,
from B in the direction
Let
LK
and the surface
CD
LK
T We
BX
x has the value
and at
T, x
has the value
5.
BX
SUMMATION
TO
Divide the distance BT into parts dx, and through the points of division draw straight lines parallel to CD, and on ouch of these linen n
sire
lower base construct a rectangle such as MNJR8, where J'l and
two consecutive points of division
onBX.
BE = x,
EF = dx,
Then
and, by similar triangles,
BT
CD
MN
whence
and
dA = the
Then
Since
area of
below LK, and
is C ft.
MNRS =
BE = x,
below LK.
Hence the pressure on the rectangle
dP = (&
a"
?*)
(6
or)
is
w = (-V
it
J xdx,
follows that
is (fl
- a;) ft.
approximately
war
?/JJK
rfj?,
/*"
/o
= (105 to - iJA w) -
= JL^
- to
2010^
Ib.
Ii4 T.
EXERCISES
gate in the side of a dam is in the form of a square, 4 ft.

on a side, the upper side being parallel to and 1C It. bolow the surfaoo
of the water in the reservoir. What is the pressure on the gate '(
s/ 1.
v*
2.
Find the
total pressure
on one side of a triangle of base 6
and altitude 6 ft., submerged in water so that

and the vertex is m the surface of the water.
</
is
ft.
vertical
on one side of a triangle of base 4 ft.

submerged in water so that the base is horizontal,
and
the vertex above the base and 4 ft, from tlio
vertical,
Find the
3.
and
the altitude
altitude 6
total pressure
ft.,
the altitude
surface of the water.
an isosceles triangle is 8 ft. and the equal sidas

The triangle is completely immersed in water, its baae
and 6 ft. below the surface of the water, its altig perpendicular to the surface of the water, and its vertex
,uove the base. Find the total pressure on one side of the
e base of
ft.
allel to
uc.ijmg
triangle.
VOLUME
v
71
Find the pressure on one side of an equilateral triangle, 6 It.

on a side, if it is partly submerged in water so that one vortex is
6.
one foot above the surface of the water, the corresponding altitude
being perpendicular to the surface of the water.
\s. The gate in Ex. 1 is strengthened by a brace which runs

diagonally from one corner to another. Find the pressure on each
of the two portions of the gate
one above, the other below, the
brace.
A dam is in the form of: a trapezoid, with its two horizontal

300 and 100 ft. respectively, the longer side being at the top
and the height is 15 ft. What is the pressure on the dam when the
water is level with the top of the dam ?
7.
sides
8. What is the pressure on tho dam of Ex. 7

reaches halfway to the top of the dam ?
when the water
9. If it had been necessary to construct the dam of Ex. 7 with

the shorter side at tho top instead of the longer side, how much
greater pressure would the dam have had to sustain when the
reservoir is full of water ?

10.
The
center board of a yacht
is
in the form, of a trapezoid in
which the two parallel sides are 3 ft and 6 ft., respectively, in length,
and the side perpendicular to these two is 4 ft. in length. Assuming
that the last-named side is parallel to the surface of the water at
a depth of 2 ft., and that the parallel sides are vertical, find the
pressure on one side of the board.
11. Where shall a horizontal lino be drawn across tho gate of
Ex. 1 so that tho pressure on the portion above tho lino shall equal
the pressure on the portion below ?
26.
viding
of the
Volume. The volume of a solid

it
into
sum
n elements
of volume,
of these elements as
is
may be computed by didV^ and taking the limit*
increased indefinitely, tho
magnitude of each element at the same time approaching aero.

The question in each case is the determination of the form of
the element dr. We shall discuss a comparatively simple case
of a solid such as is shown in Fig, 29.
In this figure let Olf be a straight line, and let tho distance
of any point of it from
be denoted by h. At one end tho solid
is bounded Tby a plane
perpendicular to OH at <7, where 00 ~ a>
SUMMATION
72
and
at the other
OH at
B, where
end
it is
OS =
bounded by a piano perpendicular
to
has parallel bases.

The solid is assumed to be such that the area A of any plane
section made by a plane perpendicular to Oil at a point distant
can be expressed as a funch from
tion of
5,
so that
it
h.
To find the volume of such a solid

we divide the distance CB into n parts
dh,
and through the points
of division
We
pass planes perpendicular to OH.

have thus divided the solid into slices
of which the thickness
Since
slice,
is
is
dh
the area of the base of a
and since the volume of the
slice
approximately equal to the volume

of a right cylinder of the same base
is
and thickness, we write
dV=Adli.
The volume
of the solid is then the limit of
the sum of terms
of
the above type, and therefore
F=
/"'
Adh.
Jo.
above discussion
It is clear that the
or both of the bases corresponding

reduces to a point.
is
valid even
toh=a and
7t
fi,
when one
respectively,
Ex.1. Let OY (Fig. 30)

be an edge of a solid such
that
all its sections
made
by planes perpendicular to
OFaie rectangles, the sides

of a rectangle in a plane
distant y fiorn
being re-
We
z
spectively 2 y and y
shall find the volume in-
cluded between the planes

and?/ = 2 J.
j, IO
go
Dividing the distance from # = 0toy = 2& into n parts <li/, and passing
planes perpendicular to OY, we form rectangles such as MffttS, wlioro, if
VOLUME
OM = y, MN - y* and MS = 2 y
73
MNRS = 2 y
volume of the elementary cylinder standing on MNRS as a base
Hence the area
s
,
and the
is
thatls'
V=
Therefore
Ex. 2. The axes of two equal light circular cylinders of radius o interRequired the volume common to the two cylinders.
sect at right angles.
OA and OB
Let
OY
cylmdeis and
(Fig. 31) be the axes of the

common perpendicular to
the
OA and 013 at then point of intersection 0. Then

OA D and OBD are quadrants of two equal chcles
cut from the two cylinders by the planes through
perpendicular to the axes OB and OA, and
OY
OD = a
Then the figure represents one eighth

of the requned volume.
divide the distance
into n parts dy,
and through the points of division pass planes per-
We
OD
pendicular to OY Any section, such as LMNP,

is a square, of which one side
is equal to
NP
V OP
ON* OP =
a,
being a radius of one of the cylinders, and hence,
ON= y,
as
NP = Va - f
z
z
Accordingly, the area of LMNP = a
y and
mentary cylinder standing on LMNP as a base is
2
V = f "(aa - y^ dy -
whence
Hence the
total
volume
is
[a
//
the volume of the
- J y] =
ele-
a8
/ a8
-1
This method of finding volumes

the sections of the solid
made by
particularly useful when

parallel planes are bounded
is
circles.
Such a solid may be generated by the revolution of a plane area around an axis in its
by
circles or
plane,
and
is
by concentric
called a solid of revolution.
examples of solids of revolution
We take the following
Ex. 3. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about

2 =
4 *, the axis of x, and the line x =
?y
the area bounded by the curve
The generating area

Hence
OA
s= 3,
is
shown
in Fig. 32,
where
AB
is
the line
a-
OX
8.
8.
SUMMATION
74
OA
into n parts dx, and through the points of division pass

straight lines parallel to OY, meeting the curve. When the area is revolved
about OX, each of these lines, as MP, JVQ, etc., generates a circle, the plane
Divide
of
which
perpendicular to
is
of the circle generated

z
is
irMP which
,
is
Hence the area

the solid
by
equal to
of
OX The
MP,
area
for example,
z
iry
= 7r(4 x), if
any plane section of
made by a plane
perpendicular to
OX can be expressed in terms of its distance from 0, and we may apply the pievious
method for finding the volume.
Since the base of any elementary cylinder
is
4 TTX and
Hence
its altitude is dx,
V=f*4
vxdx
[2
we have
= 18
**
Find the volume of the ring surface generated by

revolving about
the axis of x the area bounded by the line y = 5 and the curve
y = 9 x~
The line and the curve (Fig 33) are
Ex.
4.
seen to intersect at the points P l

5)
and the ring is generated
z (2, 5),
by the area P^BP^P^ Since this area is
and
(2,
symmetrical with respect to OY,

dent that the volume of the ring
the volume generated by the area
it is eviis
twice
AP BA.
Z
Accordingly, we shall find the latter volume
and multiply
it
by
2.
= 2 (Mz being
We divide the line
Z
the projection of
on OX) into n parts
2
and
the
dx,
through
points of division draw
OM
straight lines parallel to
OY and intersect-
ing the straight line and the curve One

of these lines, as
QP, will, when revolved
about OX, generate a circular ring, the
MP
outer radius of which is

=y
and the inner radius of which is
Hence the area of the ring is
= Q~x*
=5
*=.y
MQ
Accordingly,
jjf
= TT (56 - 18 x9 + a?<).
FIG-
S3
dV = TT (56 - 18 w2 + a;*) dx
Accordingly, the volume of the ring is 2 (70$ w)
= 140$ TT.
'M
VOLUME
75
EXERCISES
The section of a certain solid made by any plane perpendicular
1.
OH
and its center

to a given line Oil is a circle with one point in
If the
on a straight line OB intersecting Oil at an angle of 46
along Oil is 4ft., find its
height of this solid measured from
volume by integration.
2. A solid is such that any cross section perpendicular to an
axis is an equilateral triangle of which each side is equal to the
square of the distance of the plane of the triangle from a fixed point
on the axis. The total length of the axis from the fixed point is 5.
Find the volume.
3.
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about

OX and the curve y = 4 as a2
the area bounded by
OX
4. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about OX

2 3
x*
the area included between the axis of x and the curve y
5.
Find the volume of the
y=
and y =
line
solid generated
by revolving about the
2 the area bounded by the axis of

2
2, and the curve y = 3 a:
y, the lines
=3
6. On a spherical ball of radius 5 in. two great circles are drawn

intersecting at right angles at the points A and B* The material of
the ball is then cut away so that the sections perpendicular to
AB
are squares with their vertices on the two great circles.
volume
Find the
left.
Find the volume generated by revolving about the line x = 2

8 a?, the axis of a?, and the
the area bounded by the curve if
line x = 2.
7.
plane section of a certain solid made by a plane perpenis a square of which the center lies on OY and two
4 as2 Find the volume of the
opposite vertices lie on the curve y
solid if the extreme distance along OYis 3.
9. Find the volume generated by revolving about OY the area
2
2.
8 x and the line x
bounded by the curve y
8.
Any
dicular to
OF
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about OX

2
8
as and
6 a? + 10.
the area bounded by the curves y = 6 x
y s=
10.
flj
11.
The
cross section of a certain solid
made by any plane perpen-
OX is a square, the ends of one of whose sides are on the

12, Find the volume of this solid
y?
y? and 4 y
curves 16 y
between the points of intersection of the curves.
dicular to
SUMMATION
T6
GENERAL EXERCISES
The
1.
time
t is
velocity in feet per second of a

41
4 Show that the body
t*
the direction in which
during the
2.
from
to
the velocity in feet per second of a moving

many feet will the body move in the
+ 5 How
At any time
21
far it
any time
move in
will move
= 9.
direction opposite to that in which s is
is t*
how
measured, and find
s is
=6
At any time
is
4.
moving in
will move
second
fifth
in the time
3.
far it
velocity in feet per second of a moving body at

4 1. Show that after t
4 the body will always
the direction in which
body
always
how
measured, and find
s is
The
t*
t is
moving body at any

is
measured?
the velocity in miles per hour of a moving body

If the initial moment of time is 12 o'clock noon, how
3.
body move in the time from 11.30 A M. to 2 p M. ?

z
9 y = a:3
y 5 Find the area bounded by the curves 9 y = 4 x and 45
6. Find the total area bounded by the curves ?/2 =4a; and
2
= 4 a8 4 ax.
T/
far will the
.
''
7.
Find the
total area
= 4 x.
straight line y
bounded by the curve y
8. Find the total area bounded by the curve y

and the straight line y = 4 (a;
1).
9.
BC
ABCD
=2
ft.,
is
AD
in the surface
a quadrilateral with
= x and
= x (x
1)
= 90, AB
the
3)
(03
90,
ft.,
4 ft. It is completely immersed in water with AB
and AD and BC perpendicular to the surface. Find
J3
the pressure on one side

10. Prove that the pressure on one side of a
rectangle completely
submerged with its plane vertical is equal to the area of the rectangle
multiplied by the depth of its center and by w (consider only the
case in which one side of the rectangle is
parallel to the
surface).
11. Prove that the pressure on one side of a
triangle completely
submerged with its plane vertical is equal to its area multiplied by
the depth of its median point and
by
(consider only the case in
which one side of the triangle is parallel to the
surface).
12.
The end of a trough,
full of water, is
assumed to be in the
form of an equilateral triangle, with its vertex down and its
plane
vertical. What is the effect
upon the pressure on the end if the
level of the water sinks
halfway to the bottom?
GENERAL EXERCISES
A
77
on a side is immersed in water, with one vertex

in the surface of the water and with the diagonal through that
13.
square 2
ft
How
vertex perpendicular to the surface of the water.

much greater
the pressure on the lower half of the square than that on the
is
upper half?
14. A board is symmetrical with respect to the line AJB, and is of
such a shape that the length of any line across the board perpendicular to AB is twice the cube of the distance of the line from A.
AD is 2 ft. long The board is totally submerged in water, AB being
perpendicular to the suiface of the water and A one foot below the
surface. Find the pressure on one side of the board.
15. Find the pressure on one side of an area the equations of whose
2
boundary hues are x = 0, y = 4, and v/ = 4 x respectively, where the
axis of x is taken in the surface of the water and where the positive
y axis is downward and vertical.

Find the volume generated by revolving about
2
bounded by OX and the curve 4 y = 16
a;
direction of the
16.
OX
the area
17. Find the volume generated by revolving about OX the area

bounded by the curve y = a2 + 2 and the line y = 3.
18. Find the volume generated by revolving about OX the area
bounded by OX and the curve y = 3 x
x8
19. Find the volume generated by revolving about the line y =
1
2 a;2
the area bounded by the curves 9 y = 2 x* and 9 y = 36
I,-
20.
An axman
makes a wedge-shaped cut in the trunk of a
Assuming that the trunk
tree.
a right circular cylinder of radius 8 in.,

that the lower surface of the cut is a horizontal plane, and that the
is
is a plane inclined at an angle of 45 to the horizontal

and intersecting the lower surface of the cut in a diameter, find the
amount of wood cut out.
upper surface
21.
On a system
of parallel chords of a circle of radius 2 there
are constructed equilateral triangles with their planes perpendicular

to the plane of the circle and on the same side of that plane, thus
forming a
22.
about
solid.
solid.
Show
OY
that the volume of the solid generated by revolving

a
the area bounded by OX and the curve y
Ix* is
equal to the area of the base of the solid multiplied by half

23. In a sphere of radius
base and altitude /*.
its altitude.
a find the volume of a segment of one
SUMMATION
78
24.
A solid is
sucli that
any cross section perpendicular to an axis
with its radius equal to the square root of the distance of

the section from a fixed point of the axis. The total length of the
a
is
axis
circle,
from the fixed point
is 4.
solid.
A variable
square moves with its plane perpendicular to the

axis of y and with the ends of one of its diagonals respectively in
16 x and
4 x, which are above
the parts of the curves y*
the axis of x Find the volume generated by the square as its plane
25.
moves a distance 8 from the
The plane
^=
origin.
moves so as to be perpendicular
2
a;
and
OX, and the ends of a diameter are on the curves y
2
cc
8 Find the volume of the solid generated as the plane
of
intersection
of the curves to the other.
moves from one point
26.
of a variable circle
to
y= 3
made by planes perpendicular

are isosceles triangles. The base of each triangle is a line
to
its
ends in the curve y
4 a:2. The
OY, with
perpendicular
27. All sections of a certain solid

to
OF
drawn
altitude of each triangle is equal to its base Find the volume of

the solid included between the planes for which y
and y
6.
made by planes perpendicular

to
Y are right isosceles triangles One leg of each triangle coincides
with the line perpendicular to OY with its ends in OY and the curve
28. All sections of a certain solid
y*
4 x. Find the volume of the

and y = 8.
29. Find the
solid
between the sections for which
work done in pumping all the water from a full

and radius 3 ft., to a height of
cylindrical tank, of height 15 ft.

20 ft. above the top of the tank.
Find the work done in emptying of water a full conical

and radius 3ft., the vertex of the cone
being down.
30.
receiver of altitude 6ft
CHAPTER IV
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
27. Distance between two points. Let 1 (a^, / x ) and z (rz , /a )

that the
(Fig. 34) be any two points in the plane XOY, such
straight line
P!
to
P^PZ
is
not parallel either to
OX or
to
OY. Through
draw a straight line parallel

OJT, and through P2 draw a
straight line parallel to OY, and

denote their point of intersection
by R.
iPlTATl
UOll
JL
T^ 7?
JL^J.V
Al
"-"
A-l*t/
1" " -" ty

t'g
*t*j
and
In the right triangle P^RPZ
C1 )
whence
If
is parallel
J?J
In like manner,
formula reduces to
if
to 0JT,
= JBa-
^-x^ P^
and the formula reduces
is
to
(2)
parallel to
OF, and the
Since a ciVc?e is the locus of a point which is

28. Circle.
always at a constant distance from a fixed point, formula (1)
of P
27, enables us to write down immediately the equation
circle.
Let C(h, 7c) (Fig. 35) be the center of a circle of radius r.

27, a? and
if P(x,
y) is any point of the circle, by (1),
Then,
y must
satisfy the equation
-^ =^
a
79
(1)
ALGEBKAIC FUNCTIONS
80
Moreover, any point the coordinates of which satisfy (1),

must be at the distance r from C and hence be a point of the
circle.
Accordingly, (1)
If (1) is expanded, it
!
is
the equation of a
circle.
becomes
-2Aa;-2^ + A
an equation of the second degree

2
with the coefficients of a; and / a
+F
=0,
(2)
with no term in xy and
equal.
Conversely, any equation of the

second degree with no xy term and
2
with the coefficients of a; and y*
equal (as
O
where A, G,
and
F,
are
any con-
^ 1Q
g5
stants) may be transformed into

the form (1) and represents a circle, unless the number corz
responding to r is negative (see Ex. 3, page 81), in which
case the equation is satisfied by no real values of x and y and
accordingly has no corresponding locus.
The
circle is
most readily drawn by making such transfor-
mation, locating the center, and constructing the circle with
compasses.
Ex.1.
This equation
may be
written in the form
(x*-2x
+ (y2-4y
0,
and the terms
in the parentheses may be made perfect squares by adding

1 in the first parenthesis and 4 in the second parenthesis As we have
total of 5 to the left-hand side of the equation, we must add an
equal amount to the right-hand side of the equation The result is
added a
Cr
- 2a: + 1) + (f - 4?/ + 4) = 5,
which may be placed in the form
(-l) + <y-a)-5,
the equation of a
circle of radius
V5
with
its
center at the point (1, 2).
CIRCLE
Ex.
2.
a:
+ 9f-9x +
81
- 8 = 0.
Placing 8 on the right-hand side of the equation and then dividing by

9,
we have
**
+ ,*-*+
3,
|,
which may be treated by the method used in Ex.
the equation of a circle of ladius JV5, with
Ex.3.
9a; 2
its
1.
The
result
center at (\,
is
i).
+ 9y2 -6a;-|-12y + ll =
Proceeding as in Ex.
2,
we
have, as the transformed equation,
an equation which cannot be satisfied by any real values of js and y, since

the sum of two positive quantities cannot be negative Hence this equation
corresponds to no real curve.
EXERCISES
Find the equation of the
the radius 3
circle
with the center
(4,
2)
and
Find the equation of the
circle
with the center
(0,
1)
and
1.
2.
the radius 5.
3.
Find the center and the radius of the

9
4.
circle
= 0.
Find the center and the radius of the
circle
- 6v - 15 = 0.
5. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the
center of the circle
and perpendicular
to the line
2aj
6.
Prove that two
+ 3v/
circles are concentric if their
equations differ
only in the absolute term

29. Parabola. The locus of a point equally distant from a fixed
The fixed
point and a fixed straight line is catted a parabola.
the
point is called the focus and the fixed straight line is called
directrix,
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
82
(Fig. 36)
parabola.
Through
Let
be tho focus and A\V the directrix of a

F draw a straight line perpendicular to
it at JP, and let this lino be the axis of jr.

Let the middle point of T>F be taken as 0, tho origin of coordinates, and draw the axis QY. Thon, if tho distance, PA* is 2 <, Urn
r.
coordinates of F are (0, 0) and tho equation of H$ is sr -~
Let /^(.r, y) be any point of tho parabola, and draw Uu
gy
straight line FP and tho straight lino NP
perpendicular to US.
ftS, intersecting
NP = +
FP- V('
Then
and, by
27,
whence, from tho definition
<0
/J
//*
of tho parabola,
(a-*)** if- Or +<0"

which reduces
to
2
,?/
=4
**
6'a;.
(1 )
p x(li
,w
Conversely, if the coordinates of any point /* satisfy (1), it

can be shown that the distances FP and
aru equal, and
is a point of the parabola.
hence
Solving (1) for y in terms of a-, we havo
NP
We
assume that
2VS,
(2)
Thon
evident that if a
negative value is assigned to #, y is imaginary, and no corresponding points of the parabola can bo located. All poKitivo vahu'M
may
be assigned to
entirely
on the
e is positive.
JR,
positive
it
is
however, and hence tho parabola

sidtj
of tho axis
IICH
OF.
Accordingly, wo assign positive valuos to #, compute tho norresponding values of y, and draw a smooth curve through tho
points thus located.
It is to be noticed that to every value tWHigncd to w lhro aro
two corresponding valuos of ?/, equal in magnitude and opposite
in algebraic sign, to which there correspond two points of tho
parabola on opposite sides of OX and equally dintant from it.
Hence the parabola is ttymmMoal with rospect to CUT, and accordingly OX is called the gunk of the parabola.
The point at which its axis intersects a parabola is called the

tew of the parabola. Accordingly,
is
the vertex of the parabola.
PARABOLA
Returning to Fig.
coordinates (
equation x
c,
c,
0),
36,
if
and
F is
RS is
83
taken at the
left of
with the
taken at the right of
with the
equation (1) becomes
f = -kcx
(3)
and represents a parabola lying on the negative side of OY.

Hence we conclude that any equation in the form
f=fa,
where k
is
(4)
a positive or a negative constant,
is
a parabola, with
(kZ'
and
its directrix
the straight line
Similarly, the equation
x*=
x'-^*
(5)
Icy
and with its axis coinrepresents a parabola, with its vertex at

ciding with the positive or the negative part of OY, according
as & is positive or negative. The focus is always the point
0,
-^ j
^"Y
and the
directrix is the line
y=
- whether k be
positive
"i
or negative.
An
is
30. Parabolic segment.

important property of the parabola
contained in the following theorem
:
The square of any two chords of a parabola which are perpendicular
to
its
axis are to each other as their distances
from
the
vertex of the parabola.
This theorem may be proved as follows

Let %(%!, #j.) and Pz (x^ 7/3 ) be any two points of any parab:
ola
/=
Then
and
whence
whence
Tex
(Fig. 37).
y*= lex^
yl
7ca ;
~ X*
yl
**
y\
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
84
From the symmetry of the parabola, 2#1

and hence
But a? = OM^ and x,==
Z
OM
and 2#2 =
becomes
(1)
and the theorem is proved.

The figure bounded by the parabola
and a chord perpendicular to the axis
of
the parabola,
is
called
as QÔP^ (Fig. 37),

a parabolic segment. The
FIG. 37
segment, the vertex of the

parabola is called the vertex of the segment, and the distance
from, the vertex to the base is called the altitude of the segment.
chord
is
called the lase of the
EXERCISES
Plot the following
1.
!/*
2.
cc
5.
The
base
its
8x
=42/.
is
dicular to
the
parabolas, determining the focus of each
altitude of a parabolic
16
ft.
straight line
its axis is
10
ft.
long.
3.
2/
4.
aj
=:6a5.
= -7y.
is 10 ft., and the length of

drawn across the segment perpenHow far is it from the vertex of
segment
segment ?
6.
An
arch in the form of a parabolic curve, the axis being
vertical, is 50 ft. across the bottom, and the highest point is 15 ft.
above the horizontal. What is the length of a beam placed horizontally across the arch 6
7.
The
parabola.
ft.
from the top ?
cable of a suspension bridge hangs in the form of a

The roadway, which is horizontal and 400ft. long, is
supported by vertical wires attached to the cable, the longest wire

being 80 ft. and the shortest being 20 ft. Find the length o a
supporting wire attached to the roadway 75 ft. from tho middle.
8. Any section of a given
parabolic mirror made by a plane
passing through the axis of the mirror is a parabolic segment of
which the altitude is 6 in. and the length of the base 10 in. Find
the circumference of the section of the mirror made by a piano
perpendicular to its axis and 4 in. from, its vertex
ELLIPSE
85
"Find the equation of the parabola

having the line x
directrix and having its focus at the
origin of cooidmates.
9.
10.
its
=3
Find the equation of the parabola having the line y

and having its locus at the point (2, 4).
as its
2 as
directrix
31.
Ellipse.
The
locus of a point the
sum of whose
from two fixed
points is constant is called an ellipse.

fixed points are called the foci.
Let
distances
The two
F and
F'F be
F' (Fig. 38) be the two loci, and let the distance
Let the straight line determined by F' and F be
the axis of x, and the
taken as
c.
middle point of
F'F be taken
as 0, the origin of coordinates,

and draw the axis OY. Then
the coordinates of F' and

are respectively (
(*,
0)
c,
and
0).
Let P(x, y) be anj' point

of the ellipse, and 2 a represent the constant
sum
n'
of its
Ju
distances
from the
foci.
ICr
00
uO
Then,
from the definition of the ellipse, the sum of the distances F'P
and FP is 2 a, and from the triangle F'PF it is evident that
2 a > 2 G whence a > c.
;
By
27,
FP=
and
whence, from the
definition of the ellipse,

2
2
V(s-M) +# W(a-c)
Clearing (1) of radicals,
+/= 2
O - > + ay = a - aV.
2
Dividing (2) by a*
(1)
we have
2
aV, we have
(2)
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
86
But
><?, a*
since
denoted by
3
,
c* is
a positive quantity which
be
may
and (3) becomes
satisfy (4),
Conversely, if the coordinates of any point
ia 2
can be shown that the sum of the distances Jf'P and
FP
it
a,
P is a point of the ellipse.

Solving (4) for y in terms of #, we have
and hence
>/-**
y=s
(5)
It is evident that the only values which can be assigned to x

less than a; for if any numerically larger
must be numerically
values are assigned to r, the corresponding values of y are

imaginary, and no corresponding points can be plotted. Hence
a and x
the curve lies entirely between the lines x
a.
We
may, then, assign the possible values to #, compute the

corresponding values of y, and, locating the corresponding points,
draw a smooth curve through them. As in the case of the parabola, we observe that OX is an axis of symmetry of the ellipse.
We may also solve (4) for x in terms of y, with the result
as
= 5^-^.
(0)
form of the equation we find that the ellipse lies

entirely between the lines ,y = --iandy = 5 and is symmetrical
with respect to OY.
Hence the ellipse has two axes, A'A and B'JB (Fig. 88), which
are at right angles to each other. But A 1 A = 2 a and JR'13
2
and since a > 5, it follows that A' A > B'B, Hence A' A is called
the major axis of the ellipse, and fl'JJ is called the minor axis
From
this
of the ellipse.
The ends of the
major
axis,
A' and A, are called the wrtwes of

between the vertices is called
the ellipse, and the point midway

the center of the ellipse ; that is,
and
it
1) ;
is the center of the

ellipse,
can be readily shown that any chord of the ellipse which
passes through
is
bisected
by that
point.
ELLIPSE
From
the definition of
the foci are
The
V<r
-----
(thai
/>,
87
Va a
and the coordinates
#*,
0).
is,
the ratio of the distance of the focus
from the center)
to the distance of either vertex
and
called the eccentricity of the ellipse
is
denoted by
t>.
M'^VtfCjS,
Vrt
and hence
whence
less
it
of
OF
ratio
from the center

is
c=*
lint
(7)
i*
-
(8)
\ /
>
followa that the eccentricity of an ellipse
is
always
than unity.
form (4), in which I'2 > a2 represents

center at 0, its major axis on 6>J", and its
equation in
Similarly, any
an ellipse with its
minor axis on CLY.
Then
the foci are the points
(0,
the vertices are the points (0,
vV
*),
and
&),
In either case the nearer the foci approach coincidence, the

e becomes and the more nearly b = a.
Hence a drde
inat/ le considered an an ellipse with dointxdfnt fovi and equal axes.
smaller
Its eceentrieity
of course, zero.
is,
EXERCISES
Plot tho following ellipses, finding the vertices, the
eceentrieity of eaoh
Toci,
and the
1.
9 â
+1
2.
9 w! 8
+ 4 ?/
144.
if
30.
tc
4. 2
a;
3.
+ 4 ?/ 2.
+ 3 y s= 1.
a
Find tho equation of the ellipse winch lias its foci at tlie points
2, 0) and ((>, 0) and which has the sum of the dis lances of any
(
point on it from the foci equal to 10.
6. Find the equation of the ellipse having its food at the points
and having the length of its major axis equal to 7.
(0, 0) and (0,
)
6.
The locus of a point the difference of whose

faced points is constant is called a hyperbola.
fixed points are called the foci*
32. Hyperbola.
,
distances
The two
from two
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
88
F and
Let
F'F bo 2
0.
F' (Fig. 30) be the two foci, and lot tho distance
Let the straight line determined by F' and F bo
and the middle point of F'F be taken

.P,
the origin of coordinates, and draw the axis O Y. Then
taken as the axis of

as 0,
the coordinates of
F are
and
respectively (
(c,
and
0)
<?,
0).
?/) be any point
hyperbola and 2 a
Let jP (a;,
of the
represent the constant difference of its distances from

the foci.
Then, from the
definition of the hyperbola,

the difference of the dis-
'
1?ia *
80
F'P and FP is 2 a,
for the
and from the triangle F'PFii is evident that 2 < 2
difference of any two sides of a triangle IH loss than the third
tances
side
whence
By
<
a.
27,
;*+;
and
whence either
V(* + 0'+^-V(? ::: ^+7-2a,
or
(1)
(2)
according as JRP or ^"/* in the groatcsr diHtance.

Clearing either (1) or (2) of radicals, wo obtain tho aamo
result
Dividing (3) by
V, we have
a*
'
cr
But since
denoted by
"T
it
ra
"1
* *
fA.\
\*J
*
is a negative quantity whiuh may bo
<c,
a
and (4) becomes
ft
HYPJEEBOLA
89
the coordinates of any point

Conversely,
satisfy (5), it
can be shown that the difference of the distances F'P and FP
if
is
is a
a, and hence
point of the hyperbola.
Solving (5) for y in terms of #, we have
y=
(6)
-î?-d\
we may assume
In this equation
for x only values that are
numerically greater than a, as any other values give imaginary

values for y. Hence there are no points of the hyperbola bea and x = a. The hyperbola is symmetrical
tween the lines t =
with respect to OX.

As the values assigned to x increase numerically, the corresponding points of the hyperbola recede from the axis OX. We
m the form
may, however, write (6)
5?
(7)
Now
yx and
if
the straight lines
i/a
are the ordinates of points of (7)
y = -x respectively,
w
and
of
then
7
oa
Lim (#a
whence
Hence, by prolonging the straight lines and the curve indefiwe can make them come as near together as we please.
Now, when a straight line has such a position with respect
nitely,
two are indefinitely prolonged the

them approaches zero as a limit, the straight
to a curve that as the
dis-
tance between
line
is
called
an asymptote of the curve.
y = -x and y =>
CL
(t
If
as
we had
It follows that the lines
are asymptotes of the hyperbola (Fig. 39).
solved (5) for a in terms of y, the result would
have been
(8)
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
90
all values may be assigned to #, and.

an axis of symmetry of the hyperbola.
The points A' and A in which one axis of the hyperbola intersects the hyperbola are called the vertices, and the portion of the
from which
it
OT is
that
appears that
also
axis extending
point
from A' to
midway between
is
The
called the transverse axis.
the vertices
is
called the center ; that
is,
the center of the hyperbola, and it can readily be shown

that any chord of the hyperbola which passes through O is
is
by that point. The other axis of the hyperbola, which

perpendicular to the transverse axis, is called the conjugate axis. This axis does not intersect the curve, as is evident
bisected
is
from the
figure,
but
useful in fixing the asymptotes
it is
and
thus determining the shape of the curve for large values of x.

From the definition of 5, c Va2 + 62, and the coordinates of
the foci are
If
we
OF
(V
+5 2
define the
hyperbola as the ratio
we have
a
a quantity which
_
^+*
eccentricity of the
>
( 1 0)
evidently always greater than unity.
is
Similarly, the equation
is
Therefore
0).
the equation of a hyperbola, with its center at 0, its transOF, and its conjugate axis on OX. Then the ver-
verse axis on
tices are the points (0,
5),
V&2 +a2),
the foci are the points (0,
the asymptotes are the straight lines
y=
-#, and
7"
Cv
If 5
= a,
in either (5) or (11), the equation of the hyperbola
assumes the form
a2 -2/2 =a2
and the hyperbola
or
y-a^=:a
(12)
an equilateral "hyperbola. The equations of the asymptotes become y =*

x ; and as these lines
are perpendicular to each other, the hyperbola is also called a
is
rectangular hyperbola.
called
CURVES
91
EXERCISES
Plot the following hyperbolas, finding the vertices, the
asymptotes, and the eccentricity of each
foci,
the
2.
3.
9o;
32/
4?/
=36.
5.
-2jca =6
6.
Find the equation of the hyperbola having its foci at the points
0) and (4, 0), and the difference of the distances of any point on
7.
(0,
it
from, the foci equal to 2.
8. The foci of a hyperbola are at the points

(
and the difference of the distances of any point on
is 4. Eind the equation of the hyperbola, and plot.
4,
it
2) and (4, 2),

from the foci
33. Other curves. In the discussion of the parabola, the ellipse,

and the hyperbola, the axes of symmetry and the asymptotes
were of considerable assistance in constructing the curves more;
knowledge that there could be no points of the curve

in certain parts of the plane decreased the labor of drawing
the curves. We shall now plot the loci of a few equations,
noting in advance whether the curve is bounded in any direction or has any axes of symmetry or asymptotes. In this way
we shall be able to anticipate to a con^
siderable extent the form of the curve.
over, the
Ex.
1.
(y
Solving for
3)
y,
(x
- 2) a
(a;
+ 1).
we have
we see that the only

be assigned to x are greater
than
1, and hence the curve lies entirely on
the positive side of the line x = 1. FurtherIn the
first place,
values that
may
49
more, corresponding to every value of a?, there
are two values of y which determine two points at equal distances from
8 is an axis of
the line y =
8. Hence we conclude that the line y
<
symmetry of the curve.

Assigning values to x and locating the points determined,
curve
(JFig. 40).
we draw
the
ALGEBKAIO FUNCTIONS
92
Ex.
2.
Solving foi
y,
xy
= 4.
=4.
we have
It is evident, then, that we may assign to x any real value except xero,
in which case we should be asked to divide 4 by 0, a process that cannot
be carried out. Consequently, there can be no point of the curve on the
# = 0; that is, on OY. We may,

however, assume values for x as near
to zero as we wish, and the nearer they
are to zero, the nearer the corresponding
points are to OF; but as the points
come nearer to
they recede along
the curve. Hence OF is an asymptote
of the curve.
If we solve for x, we have
line
OY
x^
Fm.
41
and, reasoning as above, we conclude

that the line y =
(that is, the axis OX) is also an asymptote of the curve.
The curve is drawn in Fig. 41. It is a special case of the curve
=
k
is
a
ical constant which may be either positive or negative,
where
k,
xy
and is, in fact, a i octangular hyperbola leferiod to its asymptotes as axes.
It is customaiy to say that when the denominator of a fraction is SMTO,
the value of the fraction becomes infinite The curve just constructed
shows graphically what is meant by such

an expiession.
Ex.
3.
sry
Solving for
y,
or
0.
we have
from which we conclude that the line

a? =
1 is an asymptote of the curve.
Solving for
x,
we have
Fio. 42
2+y
from which we conclude that the line ?/= 2 is also an asymptote of the curve.
We accordingly draw these two asymptotes (Fig. 42) and the curve
through the points determined by assigning values to either x or y and
computing the corresponding values
The curve
and y
SB
is,
2 as
of the other vai table.
in fact, a rectangular hyperbola, with the lines x
its
asymptotes.
CUEVES
aX8
Ex.4.
Solving for
y,
we have
Vx*
2a~a;
5
whence
'
evident that the curve is symmetrical with respect to OX The lines x

and x = 2 a, corresponding to tlie values of a?
it is
which make the numuiatoi and the denominator of the fraction under the ladical sign
lespectively zero, divide the plane into three
and 2 a
stups; and only values between
can be substituted for
make y imaginaiy.
y,
since all other values
It follows that the curve
in the strip bounded

and x 2 a.
lies entirely
lines
by the two
By the same reasoning that was used in

Exs 2 and 3, it can be shown that the line
= 2 a is an asymptote of the curve.
The curve, which is called a cuboid, is drawn
FIG. 43
in Fig. 43.
EXERCISES
Plot the following curves
1.
2.
3.
a
2/
a
2/
a
2/
a
a
y =a:
6.
34.
+ 4).
=4(o;-8).
4.
7.
=aja (te
6.
=o;8
a)
5cc-f
2
7/
9.
xy
10.
6.
2
(a?
=
=4
8.
3y
11. xij
4).
a?.
5.
oj//
2aj
=aj8
Theorems on
limits.
In.
obtaining more general formulas

theorems on limits will be
for differentiation, the following
assumed without formal proof

1.
to the.
2.
egual
The limit of the sum of a
sum of
finite number
the limits of the variables.
of variables
is equal
The limit of the product of a finite number of variables

to the
product of the limits of the variables.
is
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
94
a constant multiplied by a variable is equal to

the constant multiplied by the limit of the variable.
The
3.
limit of
4. The limit of the quotient of two variables is

equal to the
quotient of the limits of the variables, provided the limit of the
divisor is not zero.
35.
Theorems on derivatives. In order to extend the process
of differentiation to functions other than polynomials,

need the following theorems :
The derivative of a constant
1.
This theorem was proved
The
2.
we
shall
is zero.
8.
derivative of a constant times a function is
equal
to the
constant times the derivative of the function.
Let u be a function of x which can be differentiated,

a constant, and place
_ G&6i
,. -^
U
let c be
Give x an increment Ax, and

sponding increments of u and y.
Ay =
(u
AM and Ay
be the corre-
Then
+ AM)
cu =s c AM.
Ay
- = AM
Ax
Ax
<,
TT
Hence
and, by theorem
3,
34,
T
Ay
Lim
-TAx
~i~
Therefore
AM
T
-Lim
Ax
.
ax
by
let
T~
dx
the definition of a derivative.
Ex.
3.
1.
=5
3
(a;
3 xz
+ 1).
The derivative of the sum of a
egual
to the
Let
M, v,
tiated,
and
sum
and
let
finite
number of functions
is
of the derivatives of the functions.
be three functions of x which can be differen-
DERIVATIVES
95
Give x an increment Aa;, and let the corresponding increments

of u, t>, w, and y be AM, Av, Aw, and A#. Then
Ay = (M H- Aw + v + At) + w
= Aw + Aw + Aw
+ Aw)
(w
+ v + w)
AM Aw Aw
Ay
^ = -7
+ Aa; + 7Aa;
A# Aa; T~~
Now
whence
approach zero.
let Aa;
By
theorem
1,
Aw
AM T
A0
Ay T
Lini ^ = Lim
+ Lim Ax- + 7Lim AxAx
Aa;
,
that
is,
by the
definition, of
dy
__
duo
The proof
is
34,
a derivative,
du
dx
dv
dw
dx
dx
evidently applicable to any finite
number
of
functions.
Ex.
2.
= x* - 3 x s + 2 xz - 7x.
The derivative of the product of a finite number of functions

the products obtained "by multiplying the
equal to the sum of
derivative of each factor by all the other factors.
4.
is
Let u and v be two functions of x which can be

andlet
= uv.
differentiated,
Give x an increment Aa;, and let the corresponding increments

v, and y be Aw, Av, and A#.
of u,
Then
and
Ay
uv
(it + Aw) (v + Av)
= u Av + v AM + AM Av
Ay = w Av + Au + AM
T~
Aa?
Ax
Ax T-"
Ax
.
^
A
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
96
If,
now,
Ax
approaches zero,
Aw
Aw
Lim -~ = u TLim r
Ao;
Aa;
-.
and
dy
ax
,,
theretore
have, by
Aw
-
34,
AM
+ v Lim Aa; + Lim Are
Lim Aw =
But
we
-^-
T
A
Lim
Aw.
.
0,
= w dv 4- w du
,
ax
ax
y = uvw.
Again, let
Regarding uv as one function and applying the result already

we have
obtained,
-+
at
= m dw- + w d(uv)
dy
-JL
ax
dx
dw
\ du
= uv-=--)-w\u
+v
<
dx
dx
\_
= UV dw + UW dv
ax
The proof
Ex.
3.
is
t
tu?
du
-f
dx
VW -rdx
clearly applicable to any finite
numbers
of factors.
3a:dx
= (3 x - 5) (z" + 1) (3 2) + (3 x = (18 8 - 25 2 + 12 - 15)a:2

a;
a;
a;
5)a; (2
a;)
2
(a:
+ I)* 8 (3)
a:
The derivative of a fraction is equal to t7ie denominator times

the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the deriva5.
tive of the denominator, all divided
ty the square of the denominator.
nt
Let y
-> where u and v are two functions of x which can be

v
differentiated. Give x an increment

be the corresponding increments of
.
%=
Ao:
and let Aw, Av, and

and y. Then
_ u + Aw _ u _ v Aw
v-f-A'y
and
Aa;,
w, v,
An
w--A.;
uAz>
A^^
+ w Aw
w Aw
+'uAw
A?/
DERIVATIVES
Now
A* approach
let
By
zero.
97
34,
-- u TLim A?J-
A-M
T
v Liin .
A/
-
Lim
=
du
01
efa/
_________
Ex.4. J
y
=~
rty
difo
v*
~
2
l)(27:)-(a;
(x*
-l)2r_
I)
(a,'
.1?
+ I) 2
of the nth power of a function
TJie derivative
dv
_l
+l
x*
(^_(a,
6.
>
dx
multiplying
rilj
<fcc
dx
T8
Aa;
T
,,
tr+vLmiAv
Aa;
whence
times
(nT)th
the
is
obtained ly
the function ly the
power of
derivative of the function.
Let y
entiated
= un
where u is any function of x which can be differand n is a constant. We need to distinguish four cases
CASE
I.
When n
is
a positive integer.
Give x an increment Aa, and

sponding increments of u and y.
let
AM and
A?/ be the corre-
Then
Ay = (u 4- Aw)"
un
whence, by the binomial theorem,
A?/
^L = nu
Aa;
Now
2,
34.
let Aa;,
The
_iAw
l ~
n(n
AM
1)y wwB _ 22A
Au- h
,
ft
the last equation
^ ^
a*
is
is zero,
the limit of
Aa;
is
Aa;
^*, and the

ajc
on the right-hand
first
side of
since each contains the factor AM.
d
n ~ 1 du
^. = nw
T-
ax
'
and apply theorems 1 and
Aa;
except the
Aa;
AM, A?/ approach zero,

limit of
limit of all terms
Therefore
Aa?
dx
<
ALGEBKAIC FUNCTIONS
08
CASE
II.
Let n =
When n
a positive rational fraction.
is
ny
where
and
q are positive integers,
and place
By raising both sides of this equation to the gth power, we have

y=u.
Here we have two
values o
functions of x which are equal for
all
derivative of both sides of the last equation,

since p and q are positive integers,
we
x.
Taking the
have, by Case
I,
^-1^==*-^.
yy
dx P
dx
Substituting the value of y and dividing,
fîtf-
dx
Hence,
**.
dx
in this case also,

_
,du
nun ~ l
dy
dx
-^-
CASE
we have
III.
Let n
When n
m, where
is
ax
a negative rational number.
m is
a positive
m s=
ys=U~
9
Then
^=
dx
number, and place
-m
u
**
(by 5)
uzm
m~l
mu
(by Cases I and II)
mu~ m ~^~r
dx
Hence, ui
this case also,
d_
dx
_i^w
dx
DERIVATIVES
CASE IV. When n
The formula
is
is
99
an irrational number.
true in this case also, but the proof will not
be given.
It
It
appears that the theorem is true for all real values of n.

be restated as a working-rule in the following words:
may
To
as a
power of any quantity, bring down the exponent

write the quantity with an exponent one less, and
differentiate a
coefficient,
multiply ly the derivative of the quantity.

Ex.
5.
+ 4 x* -
(x
x + 7) s
^ = 3 (a: + 4 a2 8
tlJG
+ 7) 2 -f (a;3 +
3
Ex.
6.
4 xz - 5 x
U3S
= 3 (So;2 + Bx - 5) (.e +
4a:
- 5 x + 7)
+ 7)
= Vtf + -.* = ^ + xdx
3
*'
Ex.
7.
(a:
+ l)Va;8
= (z + 1) [ J
2
(a
2
(a;
+ I)" *
ar]
(a
+ !)
+x
2 a8
4- 1
/Li
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
100
a function of
derivative of x with respect
of y with respect to x.
7.
If y
is
x,
then x
to
a function of
is
y,
and
the
the reciprocal of the derivative
is
Let A# and A?/ be corresponding increments of x and y. It is

immaterial whether b*.x is assumed and A?/ determined, or A#
is assumed and Aa; determined. In either case
1
A.r
A^~"Ay'
Aa;
_.
Lun
whence
A,r
Ay'
Lim A?/
T
Aas
that
dx
--
is,
1
-
8. If y is a function of u and u
function of a*, then y is
a function of x, and the derivative of y with respect to x is equal
to the product of the derivative of y with respect to u and the
derivative of u with respect to x.
v'
An increment Aa; determines an increment Aw, and

determines an increment Ay, Then, evidently,
A?/ __ A?/
Aw
Aw
A:#
Ax
Aw
T
~ = ,Lim A?/- TLim AM
Lim
A:B
,
that
dy
^
dx
is,
Ex.
9.
A?t
dy du
.X.
du
turn
whence
this in
Arc
dx
a u3 + 8 u + 1, whoro w = 1+
The same result

value of u in terms
is
of
obtained by fmbHtituting in the expression for y the

a;
and then
differentiating.
DERIVATIVES
36. Formulas.
We
may now
tiation in the following table
^=
dx
rf
101
collect our formulas of differen-
0,
(1)
co = *,
dx
dv
C2 )
tf
d(u4-v)
dx
d Cuv)
\
dx
,
/?/\
d(-)
_du
dv
dx
dx
dv
du
-UT
+ V 1T'
,
dx
dx
du
dx
dx
v--- M
\v/
dy^y.
dx
du
d*
dx
(4 )
,
dv
/g-)
^
^
dy
^
=
dx
dx
(9)
du
a combination of (7) and (8).
may be changed to corresponding formulas for differentials by multiplying both sides of each equation
by
J
Formula (9)
is
The
formulas
dx.
first six
They
J
are
da
= n0,
_<
(10)
(11)
Zw,
d (uv)
w\
udv
vdu
+ v du,
udv
(12)
(1 3)
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
102
EXERCISES
Find -~
in each of the following oases
2.
2
(a;
- 2 + 3)
1
3
(a:
+60:
16.
17 '
+ 9).
H-l
"**
14.
>
'/
re
V<.)
= (' +
18.
8 X?/
= (4 + 3 x + I)
4 X* + 1.
fl
jr
3
-
37. BijEferentiatlon of implicit functions.
Consider any equatwo variables a? and

If one of them, EH jr, in
chosen as the independent variable and a value is assigned in
it, the values of y are determined,
Hence tho given equation
tion containing
defines
not
as a function of
rr.
If the equation is solved for
y in
called an earpKoit function of x, If the
equation
solved for y, y is (jailed an
function of #* For
terms of
is
,?/,
a,
is
implidt
example,
^+8aM-4y + 4^ + 2^ + 4^0,
which may be written

9
# + (4 aj + 2)y + (8
defines
as
9
.-K
-|-
an implicit function of
If the equation
is
4-
4)
a?.
solved for y, the renult
2j
lVa^T8
expresses y as an explicit function of
#.
0,
IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
103
required to find the derivative of an implicit function,

the equation may be differentiated as given, the result being an
If
it is
equation which may be solved algebraically for the derivative.

This method is illustrated in the following examples
:
Ex.
1.
is
If
that
z2
5.
the independent variable,
2x
is,
whence
Or the
derivative
= 0,
ydx
Jl = -.
dx
y
be
found
may
by taking the differential of both
as follows:
that
sides,
+ /) = d(5) = 0;
2 xdx + 2 ydy = 0,
is,
^=_.
dx
whence
It is also possible first to solve the given
equation f or
V5-ff2
y,
thus
whence
V5
rfa;
a:
a result evidently equivalent to the result previously found.
The method
function
Ex.
2.
is
second derivative of an implicit
of finding the
illustrated in the following
Find
^f
if
(IJS
We know from Ex. 1
that
example
^L
dx
=_ 2
fSUfLft
dor
ax \y/
Therefore
.*-*(!)
a
?y
f
since
^ +
a;
= 5,
from the given equation
a-
5
8
2/
'
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
104
EXERCISES
"Find
~ from each of tho following equations
CtJC
+/-3
1.
a*
2.
2
aj // -f-
Pind
6.
^ and
9
.
= ~~-
3.
v/
4.
V + + V^
-|- //
'
,r
//
--
-~. from each
oJ'
tho following (wuiationa
2xa
6.
4 a-3
ai+jf-a.
8.
= 0.
*y
V = 8a
a*
9v/
=3C.
io
= <A
38. Tangent line.
curve, and
/x..\
lot
(^)
^V v
VWi
11.
Let
J^C^'j,
Ô
bo the value of
bo a clioHou
'/// >*
when
<M
point, of
any
aj=sw ^ and ;/-://,.

^
(
is the slopo oC tho curve at, iho point J^ and also

\dx/\
the slopo of tho tan gout line ( 1H) to tho ourvo at that point,
Then f-^J
Accordingly, tho equation of the tang-out line at
Ex. 1. Find tho equation

tho point (3, ).
By
differentiation
(if
J{
tho lungojit lino to tho parabola
15)
8 ss
JJ
.r
at
wo have
whence
//SB.'-.,
ti //
Hence, at tho point

equation is
or
(3,
JJ),
is J,
and
itH
y-3-1 (*-)
ar
The
tho Hlopn of tho tangont lino
?/
= 0.
two curves
is tho angle betwoon

angle
their respective tangontu at the point of iutenwotiun. The
method of finding tho anglo of intersection i illustrated in the
example
of mteraeotion of
on.
tho following pago*
TANGENT LINE
Ex.
Find the angle
2.
the parabola
The
ar
105
of intersection of the cncle
#2
8 and of
y.
points of intersection are
(2, 2)
and />(- 2, 2) (Fig 44), and fioiu the symnietry of the diagram it is evident, that the
and z aie the
angles of intersection at
l
same.
Diffeientiating the equation of the circle,
we have 2
JT
2 y
0,
'
we
labola,
find
Hence at
whence
ux
(Ijc
and differentiating the equation
of tlTb pa-
Fid 44
i.
Pi
the slope of the tangent to the circle is

of the tangent to the parabola is 2
if
Accordingly,
/? denotes the angle of intersection, by
1
or
= tan~
1,
Ex
and the
slope
11, p 35,
3.
EXERCISES
8
lino to the ourve x
Find the equation of the tangent

16 y - 8 =
at the point (2, 2).
1.
Find the equation
2.
=4y
Find the point
3.
4.
z
2
a- //
at
which the tangent to the curve 8 y
8
a;
at
Find the angle of intersection of the tangents to the curve

9
at the points for which x = 1
=x
5.
Show that
9T
the equation of the tangent to the ellipse ~j
at the point (a^, y,)

6.
2
a;
intersects the curve again.
(1, &)
of the tangent lino to the p,urve 5
at the point (2,1).
Show
=1
|j
Y.
that the
Show that
If
+ ^=1
+ -M = L
equation of the tangent to the
at the point fo,
at the point (x
lt
Draw
is
^)
is
^ - %& =
hyperbola
I.
the equation of the tangent to the parabola ?/
y^
is
y$ =
1:
(as
+a
= kx
,).
eacli pair of the following curves in
mine the angles at which, they intersect
one diagram and deter-
ALCKEBRAK! FUNCTIONS
106
8.
a:
9.
a;
a
fl
10.
11.
12.
y
x
13.
aj
+ y = S,
= 3 #, U
j
~4
= 2.r,
';
+ if - U ^ H- 4 -
>/
8 a-.
<* 'I' //"
--
f>
0.
fi
.<//- 18.
J
//
+y
a-
a
//
~2,
0,
a
>,
.<'
.r
- -
j'
-1
-//-
if
0.
".
The differentials <?#, dy, ds. On any given <uw li-t tinfrom somo Jixod initiul point moasmvd alnnjjf the cur\i
is
if /' lifs in
whcro
to any point P bo donoiwd by
posit.ivt*
one direction from the initial point, and negative if /' lies in In39.
distance
apposite direction. Tho (jlit)ico of tho

positive direction is purely arbitrary.
We
^
./
shall take as the positive direc-
tion of the tangent that
which shown
the positive direction of the ourvo,

and shall denote the angle between
//
Now for a fixed

initial
'/f
'
the positive direction of (L\ and the

positive direction of the tangent by 0,
curve and a fixed
point the position of a point
/'
p, (Ji
given. Hence &

and y, the coordinates of J\ are functions of which in
are continuous and may bo differentiated. \V Hhall now Mhuw tlmt
is
determined
if a is
dx
-7-
Let
As
is
arcP0=Afl
positive.
dy aa BUI O,
.
COS
ds
G>,
</
(Fig. 45), whenj 7* and Q are so

AJJ and A*<y
A^/, and
Then 1'R
As
arc /'(
tiro
"
Aa
chord PQ
00
/%;
chord /</
<hnm
thai
MOTION IN A CURVE
We
assume without proof that the
shall
to its arc is very nearly equal to unity,
"=1
curve.
limits,
as the point
At the same time

we have
dx
107
ratio of a small chord
and that the
approaches the point
RPQ =
the limit of
(1)
l*O
ttrO
If the notation of differentials is used, equations
cos 0,
whence, by squaring and adding,

ds
dyds'
sin
(2)
#, y,
by the triangle of Fig. 46. This figure

device for memorizing formulas (1) and (2), but
is not rigorously
mind that
RQ
dy ( 20), nor is
ously equal to ds. In fact,
and PQ = As
but
if
(1) become
resented
equal to
we obtain the important equation
= dx + dy
This relation between the differentials of
along the
Hence, taking
<f>.
^ = sm ^
^ = cos &
dx = ds
limit of
PQ rigorRQ = Ay,
and
is
often repconvenient as a
it
should be borne
s is
this triangle is
regarded as a plane right triangle,

we recall immediately the values of
which have
sin^>, cos<, and tan<
been previously proved.
40. Motion ia a curve. When a
,
.IT
body moves
sion of velocity and acceleration

as the directions as well as the
need to be considered.
We
FIG. 46
becomes somewhat complicated,

magnitudes of these quantities
shall not discuss acceleration,
shall notice that the definition for the
or the speed, is the
same
JL
a curve, the discus-
magnitude
but
of the velocity,
as before (namely,
ds
V=S 3I'
dt
where
s is
distance measured on the curved path)
and that the
direction of the velocity is that of the tangent to the curve.
I UNCTIONS
ALGEBRAIC
108
Moreover, as the body moves along a curved path through a

distance PQ=&s (Fig. 47), x changes by an amount PII&K,
and y changes by an amount
RQ=&y. We have then

= -^ = = velocity
Lim
at
A
of
<y
the body
Lim
in its path,
Ax
At
dx
= vx = component
= -7,
dt
of velocity parallel to OX,
Lim
^
=^=
At
dt
vJv
component
r
FIG 47
of velocity parallel to Y.
Otherwise expressed, v represents the velocity of P, vr the
velocity of the projection of
of the projection of P on OY.
Now, by
(8),
36,
and by
x
upon
0-3T,
and
vv the velocity
39,
_ dx _ dx
dt
ds
ds
dt
= V COS <,
,
and
v.
(1)
dy = -*
dy
ds
dt
dt
= v sm
ds
(2)
<p.
Squaring and adding, we have
v*=v*+ V;.
(3)
Formulas (1), (2), and (3) are of especial value when a

particle moves in the plane XO F, and the coordinates x and
of
any time t are each given as a function of t. The

moving particle may then be determined as follows
Assign any value to t and locate the point corresponding to
the values of x and y thus determined. This will
evidently be
the position of the moving particle at that instant of time. In
its position at
path
of the
this way, by assigning successive values to

other points through which the
particle is
we can
moving
The
sponding
mined
a curve which, is
evidently the path of the
is
locate
at the corre-
instants of time.
locus of the points thus deterparticle.
MOTION IN A CURVE
109
The two
equations accordingly represent the curve and are

called its parametric representation, the variable t being called a
36, the slope of the curve is given by
parameter.* By (9),
1
the formula
jal
dx
vx
dt
In. case t can be eliminated from the two given
equations, the
result is the (#, /) equation of the curve, sometimes called the
Cartesian equation; but such ehmmation is not essential, and
often
is
not desirable, particularly

is to be determined.
if
the velocity of the particle
in its path
Ex.
1.
A particle moves m the plane XOY so

a;
where
a, &,' c,
=a+
and d are any
velocity in its path

To determine the path
the result
bt,
=c+
Determine
real constants
we
eliminate
df
c = -(x
that at any time
its
path and
its
from the given equations, with

..
d),
the equation of a straight line passing through the point

slope
t,
dt,
(a, c)
with the
Fiom
the given
d
-
In this case the path may

equations
the path
we
find dx
l dt,
also
be determined as follows
is
always the same (that
ddt\ whence
and dy
is,
'-
As the
slope of
*'
rA
-I, the path
must be a
straight line
the point determined when t

0.
(a, c)
the velocity of the particle in its path we find, by differentiating the given equations,
which passes through the point
To determine
dx
whence, by
>
(3),
= V&
>
dt
2
Hence the particle moves along the

* It
= di/ = d
*=jr l
H-
d\
straight line with a constant velocity.
may be noted
passing that the parameter in the parametiic representation of a curve is not necessarily time, but may be any third variable in terms
of
which a and y can be expressed.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
110
Ex. 2. If a projectile starts with an initial velocity v in an initial direction which makes an angle a with the axis of x taken as horizontal, its
position at any time t is given by the parametnc equations
x
JTind
its
cos a,
=v
sin
\ gt
velocity in its path.
We have
dx
vx
vv
= dy ~'
cos a,
t
~f
= Vi>
Hence
=v
at
2 gv
a + g*P.
sin
EXERCISES
1.
The
coordinates of the position of a
time t are given by the equations x = 2 1, y

of the particle and its speed in its path
2.
moving particle at any

s
t
Determine the path.
The
coordinates of the position of a moving particle at

any
2
are given by the equations x
t
t
1 Determine the
y
and its speed in its path.
time
path
of the particle
= +
3. The coordinates of the

position of a moving particle at any
time t are given by the equations x = 2 1, y == f t
$ t*. Determine
the path of the particle and its speed in its path.
4. At what point of its path will the
particle of Ex. 3 be moving
most slowly ?
5. The coordinates
of the position of a
time t are given by the equations x = ?

the path of the particle and its speed in
6.
The
3,
its
coordinates of the position of a
time t are given by the equations x = 4 &, y

the path of the particle and its speed in its
moving particle at any

9
t + 2. Determine
y
path
moving
4 (1
particle at
2
t)
any
Determine
path.
Find the highest point in the path of a

projectile.
Find the point in its path at Trhich the
speed of a projectile
is a minimum.
9. Find the
range (that is, the distance to the point at which
the projectile will fall on
OX), the velocity at that point, and the
at
which
the
angle
projectile will meet OX.
7.
8.
Show that in general the same

range may be produced by
different values of
a, and find the value of
which produces
greatest range.
10.
two
the
11.
Find the
(a,
y) equation of the path of a projectile,
and
plot.
VELOCITIES AND RATES
111
41. Related velocities and rates.
Another problem of somewhat different type arises when we know the

velocity of one
point iii its path, which may be straight or curved, and wish to
find the velocity of another
point which is in some way connected
vviUi tho first but, in

general, describes a different path.
in general, is to form an
the
The method,
equation connecting
distances traveled by the two

points and then to differentiate
tho equation thus formed with
respect to the time t. The result
is an equation
connecting the velocities of the two
points.
Ex. 1 A lump is 00 ft. above tho ground. A stone is let

drop from a
point on tho same lovol us the lamp and 20 ft, away from. it. Find the speed
of the stone's shadow on the ground
at the end of 1
HOC., assuming that the

distance traversed by a falling body in
the time
Lot
is 1(5 < a .
AC
(Fig, 48) be tho surface of

tho ground which is assumed to be a
homontal plane, L the position of the
the point from which the stone
lamp,
was dropped, and

stone at any time
S
t.
the position of the

Then Q is the posi-
^ I0
shadow of S on the ground,

LSQ being a straight line. Let OS = x and BQ, = ?/. Then L
and BS = 60
a?.
In the similar triangles LOS and SBQ,
4g
tion of the
whence
We know x =16
SB
~ = 82
7
< ,
whence
20.
(2)
^
3
and wish to find ?, the velocity of Q.
at
at
Difterontiating (2) with respect to
t,
s=
sec,,
=s
16,
and
=s
at
~&
we have
x*
dt
When
= 20, BO = 60,
ss
82
dt
whence, by substitution, we find
150
ft.
per second.
dt
The
result is negative because y is decreasing as time goes on.
In
6 and 11, if the
was known, we were able
two related quantities

to find the rate of the other quantity.
rate of one of
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
112
This type
of problem
may
also
be solved by the same method
We
the problem of related velocities has been solved.

shall illustrate by taking the same problem that was used
in
11.
by which
being poured at the rate of 100 cu. in. per second into
of a right circulai cone of radius 3 in. and altitude
9 iu. Required the rate at which the depth of the water is increasing when
Ex.
Water
2.
is
a vessel in the shape
the depth
As
in
is
6 in.
11,
V=
we have
dV =
whence
^
1
-^
= 100, h = 6
We have given
irh
,
*z
a
;
d1i
from which we compute
^ = 25 =796
dt
EXERCISES
1.
point
is
2
moving on the curve y =
OX is 2 per second
2. A ball is swung
ft.
What
is
sc
The
in a circle at the
velocity along
x
2?
OY when
the velocity along
end of a cord 3
ft
long so
as to make 40 revolutions per minute. If the cord breaks, allowing

the ball to fly off at a tangent, at what rate will it be receding from
the center of its previous path 2 sec after the cord breaks, if no
allowance
is
made
for the action of
The mside of a
any new force
the form of an inverted regular

quadrangular pyramid, 4 ft square at the top and 2 ft deep. The
vessel is originally filled with water which leaks out at the bottom
at the rate of 10 cu. in. per minute. How fast is the level of the
3.
water
falling
when
vessel
the water
is in
is
10
in.
deep
The top of a ladder 20 ft long slides down the side of a vertical wall at a speed of 3 ft per second. The foot of the ladder slides
on horizontal land. Find the path described by the middle point of
the ladder, and its speed in its path.
4.
A boat
with the anchor fast on the bottom at a depth of 40 ft.

the rate of 3 mi per hour, the cable attached to the
anchor slipping over the end of the boat At what rate is the cable
leaving the boat when 50 ft of cable are out, assuming it forms a
straight line from the boat to the anchor ?
5.
is drifting at
GENERAL EXERCISES
6.
7.
A trough
solution
113
being pouied into a conical filter at the rate of

5 cc per second and is running out at the rate of 2 cc. per second.
The radius of the top of the filter is 8 cm and the depth of the filter
is 20 cm. Find the rate at which the level of the solution is
rising
in the filter when it is one third of the way to the
is
top.
in the form of a right
is
triangles placed vertically. It

8 in. deep It contains water
prism with its ends isosceles

long, 1 ft across the top, and
is 5 ft
which leaks out at the rate of 1
qt.
(57| cu. in ) per minute Find the rate at which, the level of the
water is sinking in the trough when the depth is 3 in.
8. The angle between the
straight lines AB and BC is 60, and
AB is 40 ft. long. A particle at A begins to move along AB toward
B at the rate of 5 ft per second, and at the same time a particle at
B begins to move along BC toward C at the rate of 4 ft per second. At
what
two
rate are the
end
each, other at the
approaching
particles
of 1 sec
9. The foot of a ladder 50ft.

long rests on horizontal ground, and
the top of the ladder rests against the side of a pyramid which makes
an angle of 120 with the ground. If the foot of the ladder is drawn
directly away from the base of the pyramid at the uniform rate
of 2 ft. per second, how fast will the top of the ladder slide down
the side of the pyramid ?
GENERAL EXERCISES
Plot the curves
+ 7 f = 21
1.
3 a2
2.
a
== 9.r.
4?/
*
3.
9a;
4.
2/
9.
10.
y*=lG.
- 2y =
8a
_
y
a
a;
+ or ) =
(4
?/-
a;
z
a
a,
+ 2 a? - 1.
?/
x
x
cc
(4
- a2
).
12.
-rf+4a"'
IS.
6.
7,
(7/-a )
8.
(*
+ yf
=9-a
+ 2).
Find the turning-points

16.
17.
==
>
f(y
15.
of the following curves
= (2 + oO(4 - 2).
y = (x + 3)
2
a-,)
(a:
'
J=
(x
JB
^T4*
xY + 36 = 16 f
- I)
+1
3
'
and plot the curves
ALGKEBBAIC FUNCTIONS
114
to the curve
20. Find the equation of the tangent
-g->
~6/
to the curve x*
21. Find the equation of the tangent
at the point
(a;.,^,
and
5, ^-)
(jVTE
tfvj
is
of contact
point
A
4
2
?/
7o
therefore
has the slope

its
?/
ft
&
m
,^
V arm + 67)
+6
Va m2 + i
,
Vrt 2?^ 2
= wcc
is
+ ~U = 1 has the slope m,
an ellipse
of contact is (
its point
^
?;?,
equation
a
JE
is
J&
7/t'
23. Prove that if a tangent to
its equation
+ y* =
3^).
22. Prove that if a tangent to a parabola

its
03
3 a 6a\
the point
a
f = x ~- -x at
and therefore
that a tangent to a parabola makes equal angles with

the axis and a line from the focus to the point of contact.
24.
Show
25.
Show that a tangent to an ellipse makes equal
two
drawn
lines
Find the angles of
26.
28.
a;
29.
a:
30.
2/
2
2
angles with the
from the point of contact
to the foci
intersection of the following pairs of curves
=
-4y-4=0,
=o;8
2/
a?
=(2-a;)
+ 12y - 36 = 0.
8
.
31.
32.
33.
The coordinates
tions x
y=
3
tf
of a
2
(1
tf
)^.
moving particle are given by the equaFind its path and its velocity in its
path.
34.
35.
path and
moves so that
particle
x = 2t, y =
2
.
Find
projectile so
its
its
its
path and
moves that x
velocity in
its
path.
coordinates at the time t are

its velocity
= at,
in
= bt
its
path.
^g^. Find
its
GENERAL EXERCISES
36.
and
body so moves that x
velocity in
its
37.
its
tf$,
115
= 1 -f
t.
Find
its
path
path.
A particle is moving along the curve if
4.
4,
x; and when as
increasing at the rate of 10 ft. per second. At what
the abscissa then changing, and how fast is the particle moving
ordmate
rate is
its
is
in the curve
Where
changing ten times as fast
will the abscissa be
as the ordmate ?
38.
speed v
39.
its
A particle describes
the parabola
a-component of velocity
velocity
40.
moves
and
its
velocity in
is
its
equal to
ct
= 4 ax
Find
with a constant
in such a
its
2 "Vt
2 1, y
&
particle moves so that x
to t
around a semicircle in the time from t
At 12
way that
y-component of
path.
its velocity in its
41.
+y =a
particle describes the circle o;

Find the components of its velocity.
Show that
= 1,
it
and find
path during that time.
o'clock
a vessel
is
sailing
due north at the uniform rate
of 20 mi. an hour. Another vessel, 40 mi. north of the first, is sailing

at the uniform rate of 15 mi an hour on a course 30 north of east.
At what
rate
is
the distance between the two vessels diminishing at

What is the shortest distance between the
the end of one hour ?
two vessels
The top of a ladder 32 ft. long rests against a vertical wall,

is drawn along a horizontal plane at the rate of 4 ft.
in a straight line from the wall. Find the path of a
second
per
on
the
ladder one third of the distance "from the foot of the
point
42.
and the foot
ladder,
and
its
velocity in
its
path.
A man
standing on a wharf 20 ft. above the water pulls in a

rope, attached to a boat, at the uniform rate of 3 ft. per second Find
with
the velocity
which the boat approaches the wharf
43.
44. The volume and the radius of a cylindrical boiler are expanding at the rate of .8 cu. ft. and .002 ft. per minute respectively. How
fast is the length of the boiler changing when the boiler contains
40 cu. ft. and has a radius of 2 ft. ?
45. The inside of a cistern is in the form of a frustum of a regular
quadrangular pyramid. The bottom is 40 ft. square, the top is 60 ft.
square, and the depth is 10 ft, If the water leaks out at the bottom
at the rate of 5 cu. ft. per minute, how fast is the level of the water
falling when the water is 5 ft, deep in the cistern ?
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
116
The
is in the form of a frustum of a right

circular cone of vertical angle 90. The cistern is smallest, at the
base, which is 4 ft in diameter. Water is being poured in at the rate
46.
of 5 cu
when
ft.
it is
inside of a cistern
per minute.
2 ft deep ?
How
fast is the
water rising in tho cistern
47. The inside of a bowl is in the form of a hemispherical surface of radius 10 in If watei is running out of it at the iat,o of
2 eu in. per minute, how fast is the depth of the water decreasing
when the water is 3 in deep ?
How fast
48.
is
the surface of the bowl in
Ex 47 being
exposed
The
inside of a bowl 4 in deep and 8 in. across the top is in

the form of a surface of revolution formed by revolving a parabolic
its axis
about
Water is running into the bowl at the rate
segment
49.
of 1 cu in per second
it is 2 in deep ?
How
fast is the water rising in the
bowl
when
50. It
is
required to fence off a rectangular piece of ground to con-
tain 200 sq ft one side to be bounded by a wall

already constructed.
Find the dimensions which will require the least amount of
,
fencing.
51.
sides
52.
The hypotenuse of a right

if
the area
The
is
triangle
is
given.
Find the other
maximum
stiffness of a
rectangular beam varies as the product of the

breadth and the cube of the depth. Find the dimensions of the stiffest
beam which can be cut from a circular cylindrical log of diameter 18 in.
53. A rectangular
_plot of land to contain 384 sq. ft. is to be inclosed by a fence, and is to be divided into two
equal lots by a fence
to
one of the sides What must be the dimensions of tho
parallel
the
that
least amount of
rectangle
fencing may be required ?
54. An open tank with a
square base and vertical sides is to havo
a capacity of 500 cu ft Fiud the dimensions so
that the
cost of
lining
55.
it
may be a minimum
rectangular box with a square base and open at the

top is
made out of a given amount of material. If no
allowance is
for thickness of material or for
waste in construction, what are
dimensions of the largest box which can be
made ?
to be
made
the
56.
metal vessel, open at the

top, is to be cast in the form of a
right circular cylinder. If rt is to hold 27 TT cu in and the
thickness
of the side and that of the bottom are
each to be 1 in, what will be the
inside dimensions when the least
amount of material is used ?
^
GENERAL EXERCISES
57
oil
gallon
can (231 cu
in ) is io
be
made
117
in the form, of a
The material used for the top and the bottom

per square inch as the material used for the
the radius of the most economical can that can be
right chcular cylinder.

costs twice as
side
What
made
if
is
much
no allowance
is
made
for thickness of material or waste in
construction ?
tent is to be constructed in the form of a regular quadran58.

gular pyiauucl Find the ratio of its height to a side of its babe when
the air space inside the tent is as great as possible for a given wall
surface
59. It is required to construct from two equal circular plates of
radius a a buoy composed of two equal cones having a common base.
Find the radius of the base when the volume is the greatest
60. Two towns, A and I>, are situated respectively 12 mi. and
18 mi. back from a straight river from which they are to get thoir
water supply by means of the same pumping-station. At what point
on the bank of the river should the station be placed so that the least
amount of piping may be required, if the nearest points 011 the river
from A and B respectively are 20 mi. apart and if the piping goes
9
directly from the pumping-station to each of the towns
61.
A man 011
one side of a
to be parallel straight lines

the opposite side of the river
river, the banks of which are assumed

mi apart, wishes to reach a point on
and 5 mi. further along the bank If
he can row 3 mi. an hour and travel on land 5 mi. an hour, find the
route he should take to make the trip in the least time.
62. A power house stands upon one side of a river of width I miles,
and a manufacturing plant stands upon the opposite side, a miles
downstream. Find the most economical way to construct the connecting cable if it costs m, dollars per mile on land and n dollars a
mile through water, assuming the banks of the river to be parallel
straight lines.
63.
vessel
is
sailing
due east at the uniform rate of 8 mi.
she sights another vessel B directly ahead and 20 mi.

at the uniform rate
away. B is sailing in a straight course S. 30
of 6 mi per hour. When will the two vessels be nearest to each other?
per hour
64.
ship
when
The number of
is 0.2
+ 0.001 v*
consumed per hour by a certain

the speed in miles per hour. Find
tons of coal
where v
is
an expression for the amount of coal consumed on a voyage of

1000 mi. and the most economical speed at which to make the voyage.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
118
65.
The
consumed by a certain steamship in an hour

the cube of the velocity which would be given
fuel
portional to
is
proto the
steamship in still water. If it is required to steam a certain distance

against a current flowing a miles an hour, find the most economical
speed.
66.
An
isosceles triangle is inscribed in the ellipse
Ct
(a
> 6),
with
its
^ 4- ~~ = 1,
()
vertex in the upper end of the minor axis o
the
ellipse and its base parallel to the major axis Determine the length
of the base and the altitude of the triangle of greatest area whiuli
can be so inscribed.
CHAPTER V
42. Circular measure. The circular measure of an angle is the
quotient of the length of an arc of a circle, with its center at
the vertex of the angle and included between its sides, divided
by the radius
of the arc,
of the arc.
and r the
Thus,
radius,
if
is
the angle, a the length
we have
-~
is
CD
The unit of angle in this measurement is the radian, which

r in (1), and any angle may be said
the angle for which a
to contain a certain
formula (1)
is
number
of radians.
an abstract number, and
But
it is
the quotient
also
in
customary to
- without
speak of the angle 6 as having the magnitude
using
word
the
radian.
the angle
In
all
>
Thus,
we speak
of the angle 1, the angle
-|,
etc.
work involving
calculus,
and in most
theoretical
work
angles which occur are understood to be expressed in radians. In fact, many of the calculus formulas would
be false unless the angles involved were so expressed. The
of
any kind,
all
student should carefully note this fact, although the reason for
not yet apparent.
it is
From
this point of
view such a trigonometric equation as
y = sin x
(2)
be considered as defining a functional relation between two

3
a;
For
quantities exactly as does the simpler equation y
we may, in (2), assign any arbitrary value to x and determine
may
the corresponding value of y.
This
119
may be done by
a direct
120
computation (as will be shown in Chapter VII), or it may be

done by means of a table of trigonometric functions, in which
case we must interpret the value of x as denoting so many radians.
One
is
that
of the reasons for expressing an angle in circular measure

it makes true the formula
bill
*T
Lim
A-+0
where the left-hand member

"
the limit of
fv
= 1,
xrtx
*4
(3)
fl
of the equation
is
to be
as h approaches zero as
^-y
read
JB
a limit."
To prove this theorem
we proceed
as
follows:
Let h be the angle

radius of the arc
AB
->.
^%
A OB
(Fig. 49), r the

described from
as
a center, a the length of AB, p the length

to OA,
of the perpendicular BC from
x ""
Ti
//
'
^j/
B
'
and t the length of the tangent drawn from B to meet OA

produced in D.
Revolve the figure on OA as an axis until B takes the position
B'.
Then the chord BGB'=2p, the arc BAB' =2 a, and the
B D=tliG
f
tangent
tangent
BD.
Evidently
BD + DB' > BAB' >BCB';

whence
Dividing through by
t>a>p.
r,
we have
r
that
is,
tan h
> h > sin h.
Dividing by sin A, we have
cos h
or,
by inverting,
cos h
sin
<^
A
^
'
< 1.
GRAPHS
Now
121
as h approaches zero, cos h approaches
1.
Hence
r
ft
which
between cos h and
lies
1,
may
a fl
2 sin3 2
_
~
sin
n
2 /I
is,
as
It
'I/
sm-
_h
For we have
c\
cos h
that
be used to find the limit of
approaches zero as a limit

1
also approach 1
A- o
This result
must
7t
sm-
Now as h approaches zero

by (3). Therefore
r
Lira
as a limit,
approaches unity,
h
cos h
A-O
A
=0.
(4)
V '
7i
We
43. Graphs of trigonometric functions.

may plot a trigonometric function by assigning values to x and computing, or
taking from a table, the corresponding values of y. In so doing,
any angle which may occur should be expressed in circular
measure, as explained
In this connec-
the previous section.
remembered that TT is simply the number 3.1416,

and that the angle w means an angle with that number of radians
and is therefore the angle whose degree measure is 180.
The manner of plotting can be best explained by examples.
tion it is to be
Ex.
1.
= a sin fa-
convenient first to fix the values of x which make y equal to aero

the sine is zero when the angle is 0, IT, 2 w, 3 IT,
2 TT, on iu
TT,
it is
Now
general, kv,
therefore,
where k
we have
*
The
sine takes
OTT
5 TT
e>'~2"' ~n~'
if
values of
or,
eifcc<
=a
is any positive or negative integer.

to place bx
kv, whence
To make
2w
rb
>
its
a*
maximum
n *kis
* s> *
IT
U,
>
TT
~)
b
~j
>
'.
+ 1 when the angle has the values

TT
5 TT
TT
"when x =
etc. For these
~,
value
case >
= 0,
8w
2ir
--
>
122
The
that
is,
sine takes its
in this
minimum
These values of x
for
value
case, when x =
17
'
_
etc
20 2o
which the sine
values of x for which the sine
when the angle
rr
'-,
is
Foi these values of

1
is
etc.
ii
r,
halfway between the
lie
is
FIG 50
These points on the graph are enough to determine its general shape
Other values of x may be used to fix the shape more exactly The graph
is shown in Fig 50, with a = 3 and I = 2
The curve may be said to repre-
The
sent a wave.
distance from peak to peak,
the height a above
Ex
As
2. y
in
an angle
Ex
is
OX is the
is
-,
the wave length, and
amplitude
= a cos Ix.
1,
we
zero
multiple of \>
At
fix first
the points for which y
when the angle
is
->
=
,
Now
etc
the cosine of
that
is,
any odd
We have, therefore, y = when

STT
26'
26'
2b
FIG. 61
Halfway between these points the cosine has

or its minimum value - 1
alternately, and y =
in Fig 51, with a
= 3and& = 2
its
a.
a.
maximum
value
The graph
is
+1
shown
GKRAPHS
Ex.
3.
We have
= a sin (bx + c).

y = when bx + c = 0,
TT,
TT,
128
rr, c>tc.;
]?i&.
when
is,
52
Halfway between these values of x tho HHIQ has

and its minimum value
1 alternately, and y
same
that
2ir
its
maximum
db a.
value
Tho tmvvo
4.
sin a;
The graph
and y
is
4 sin
,x.
found by adding the ordinatcs of tho two curves y
^ sin 2 x, as
shown
in Fig. 58.
sin
3?io.
x+i sin 8*0
68
EXERCISES
1. y us 2 sin 3 a:.
6. y
7/
= 3oos
8,
Ssinfaj
3.
4.
6.
+1
tho
as in Ex. 1, but is shifted ~ units to the loft (Fig.

52).
Ex,
2.
is
^2008
y
*a
sin
(as
~V
9.
SOOCB.
2/
^x
10.
11.
12,
tan 2 SB,
-j.
2),
vers
gin
jr.
4. s i n
sin x
TKIGONOMETKIC FUNCTIONS
124
functions. The formulas

44. Differentiation of trigonometric
functions are as follows,
for the differentiation of trigonometric
:
where u represents any function of x which can be differentiated
du
d
sinM = cosM dx
dx
du
d
cosM = sinw
dx
dx
.
>
du
d
2
tan u = sec u ->
dx
dx
.
A ctn W = -csc w^,

dx
2
(4)
dx
= sec u tan u du
dx
du
d
=
ctn
u
u
u
esc
esc
d
sec u
dx
XCN
o)
X /J N
(6)
dx
dx
These formulas are proved as follows:

sin w, where u is any function of a; which may be
1. Let y
differentiated. Give x an increment A and let AM and Ay be
the corresponding increments of u and y. Then
Ly = sin (u -f- Aw)
sin
= sin w cos AM + cos u sin A% sin u

= cos u sin AM (1 cos Aw) sin u
;
AV
- = cos M sin AM
AM
Au
whence
Now
T
Lim
let
sinAit
-
AM
Ar and
therefore
,A^
= ^1, and, by (4),
,
~
=
du
cos AM
AM
AM
,
42,
approach zero.
1 cosAw
T
Lim
.
<fo/
But by
(8),
and therefore
36,
cos u.
=
^
dx dudx
-^ = cosw-^
aa:
sm M.
dx
Aw
By
42,
(3),
= A0. m
Therefore
.
3
2.
To
wo
cos w,
find
write
= sin
d
rrn
Then
cos u
-7-
d
/
/7T
= -~
sm
?/ )
\2
sin
d
u -~ cos ?*
tfo
?23
= coal '7T
3.
To
---
find
tan
wo
7/,
write
djc
,
tan?<
,,
Then
tan u
sin
?/
cos
?/,
= ~a
dx cos u
cos u
d-
sin
eos
tt
VVH
cos w
f?.
;i
To
4.
find
~^~
cinu.
wo
write
j?
,
ctn u
COS 7^1
= -i
u
d cosw
.- -:
ax Bin u
d-
sin
rn ,
I
hen
d
d.r,
ctn
?/
sin
cos
cos u -=-
fiin
TRIGONOMETBIC FUNCTIONS
126
To
5.
find
we
sec u,
ax
secw
write
cos
Then
sec
,
^1\
= (COSM)
= - (cos
sum
cos u
)~*
(by (6),
36)
(by (6),
36)
<2
To
6.
find
esc w,
we
aa;
esc
u=
write
sin
Then
esc
= (sin. u)~\
7
u=
sin u
(sin w)~
Ex.
1.
= tan 2
tan3 a;
a;
^=
dx
= tan 2 x
sec 2 2 x-j- (2 a)
'
dx^
= 2 seo 2 2
Ex.
2.
= sin
= (2 sec*ar +
sec 8
a:
^8
8.
tana;
dx
2 tan a; sec 2 a:.
a;
3 sec a a;) sin
x.
+ 6 sec x ~- (sec a) + (2sec*a: + 3 sec2 a:)-^(sina;)

*-! (see a)
J
= sin x (8 sec*a; tan x + Q sec

= (1 coss (8 sec + 6 sec
= 8 sec
3 sec
a:)
(tan a:)
- 2 v(tana)J
a:
a;
a;
tan a:)
8
a;)
(2 sec*a;
(2 sec
a:
3 sec
3 sec s
a:) cos
a;)
ar.
EXERCISES
nd
in each of the
following cases
=2
tan|sw.*2x.
= & sin
6.
7.
^rs
8.
s 5aj.
5a!
sin5
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

9.
2/
10.
cos 8
-2cos.
11.
x
o ctn
* -.
2
,o
12.
ctn-
14.
16.
17.
18.
= sec + ton
a*
as
= sin (2 + 1) cos (2
1).
= tan 3
3 tan 3 x + 9
y = see 2 tan 2 x.
5 cos 2
y = ^ (3 cos 2 8
= 0.
sin 2 a + tan 3
= 0.
asy + ctn xij
13.
15.
127
a?
a;
ie.
a;
a:
os).
?/
move
45. Simple harmonic motion. Let a particle of mass
in a straight line so that its distance s measured from a fixed
point in the line
is
given at any time

s
where
s=a
(1)
We
have for the velocity v and
and b are constants.
the acceleration a
^ cbcos ^
When
= -j^r*
2
0, 8
When
and
v
>a
so that the particle
When
is
between
t is
,
A
is
moving from
25
and
(3)
Ztf.
particle is at
particle is at
between
t is
c6 sin
and the
and the
s =s c
(2 )
a sss
by the equation
G sin Si,
To
,.
v
,-,
(Fig. 54),
where OA**
positive
to
A with
and a
is
negative,
decreasing speed.
is
]?i<*.
When
o,
64
negative and a is negative, so that

with increasing speed.
the particle moves toward
When
71"
==--, the particle is at 0.
As
varies from
speed from
to
Finally, as
from
J5
to
(9
?b
J?,
8
to -^?? the particle
26
where OJ? =*
varies
from
|^
2o
to
moves with decreasing
o.
-,
o
with increasing speed.
the particle moves back
128
then repeated, and the particle oscillates between

and A, the time required for a complete oscillation being, as
The motion
B
we
have
is
27T
=-
seen,
The motion
harmonic motion. The quantity

2
the amplitude, and tho
7T
interval -=
the period.
Since force
the force
of the particle is called simple
c is called
which the motion repeats
after
is
is
called
proportional to the mass times the acceleration,

particle is given by the formula
F acting on the
F kma =
kmcb s sm bt=
This shows that the force
from the point
itself,
is
The negative
0.
Jcmb*s.
proportional to the distance s

sign shows that the force pro-
duces acceleration with a sign opposite to that of s, and therefore slows up the particle when it is moving away from
arid
increases its speed when it moves toward 0. The force is therefore always directed toward
and is an attracting force.
If, instead of equation (1), we write the equation
s
= c8mb(t-t ),
(4)
the change amounts simply to altering the instant from which the
time is measured. For the value of s which
t
corresponds to t
in (1) corresponds to t = t +t in
l
(4). Hence (4) represents
simple harmonic motion of amplitude
But (4) may be written
s
which
is
= G cos fa
sin bt
and period
o sin bt cos
bt,
the same as
where
s = A sin bt + B cos bt,

A = c cos bt B = c sin bt
,
A and B
we
may have any values in (5), for

have, from the last two equations,
c=V^ +5
a
which determines
and
in
2
,
tanfa
(4).
if
= --,
and
B are
given,
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
129
Therefore equation (5) also represents simple harmonic motion

2 7T
z
a
with amplitude VA +jB and period -7
In particular,
If in (4)
we
if
in (5)
place
A = and 33 = c, we
8 = G COS It.
*j
which
is
differs
'
from (6) only
have
(6)
becomes
it
&
=<! cos
fi
(-*),
in the instant
(7)
from which the time
measured.
EXERCISES
moves with constant speed v around a circle.

Prove that its projection on any diameter of the circle describes
harmonic
motion
simple
1.
particle
2. A point moves with simple harmonic motion of period 4 sec.

and amplitude 3 ft Find the equation of its motion.
3. Given the equation s = 5 sin 2 1
Find the tune of a complete
oscillation and the amplitude of the swing.
4. Find at what time and place the speed

motion defined by the equation s = G sin It
is
the greatest for the

the same for the
Do
acceleration.
5. At what point in a simple harmonic motion
and at what point is the acceleration zero ?
is
the velocity zero,
6. The motion of a particle in a straight line is expressed by the

2 cos 3 *. Express the velocity and the acceleration
equation s = 5
in terms of s and show that the motion is simple harmonic.
A particle moving with a simple harmonic motion of amplitude

has a velocity of 8 ft. per second when at a distance oj! 3 ft.
7.
ft
from
8.
of 6
its
mean
position.
Find
its
period.
A particle moving with

ft.
per second when
simple harmonic motion has a velocity

at a distance of 8 ft. from its mean position,
and a velocity of 8 ft. per second when at a distance oC 6

mean position. Find its amplitude and its period.
9.
equation
ft.
from
its
point moves with simple harmonic motion given by the

*=
# sin et. Describe its motion,
130
46. Graphs
The equation
of inverse trigonometric functions.
x=
sin
(1)
defines a relation between the quantities x and y which may be

stated by saying either that x 'is the sine of the angle y or that
the angle y has the sine
x.
of expressing the relation,
the equation
When we
we
wish to use the
latter
form
write in place of equation (1)
y = sm -^,
(2)
not to be understood as a negative exponent but as

1
To avoid the possible ambiguity
part of a new symbol sin"
formula (2) is sometimes written
where
is
y = arc
sin x.
Equations (1) and (2) have exactly the same meaning, and
the student should accustom himself to pass from one to the
other without difficulty. In equation (1) y is considered the
independent variable, while in (2) x is the independent variable.
Equation (2) then defines a function of x which is called the
anti-sine of x or the inverse sine of x. It will add to the clearness
of the student's thinking, however, if he will read equation (2)
"
as
y is the angle whose sine is x."
= cos#, then y = GOS~'L x; if x ioxiy, then
Similarly, if a
1
y tan" a; and so on for the other trigonometric functions. We
get in this way the whole class of inverse trigonometric functions.
It is to be noticed that, from equation (2), y is not completely
determined when x is given, since there is an infinite number
;
of angles with the same sine.
STT 18
-~>
IT
>
,
etc.
_..
1ms
For example,
if
causes a certain
amount
ft
=2
#=>
>
&
of ambiguity in
using inverse trigonometric functions, but the ambiguity is removed if the quadrant is known in which the angle y lies. We
have the same sort of ambiguity when we pass from the
tion
x = y*
to the equation
are two values of
To
may
y=
equa-
Va;, for if
is
given, there
y.
obtain the graph of the function

expressed in (2) wo
change (2) into the equivalent form (1) and proceed as
GRAPHS
131
evident that the graphs of the inverse

trigonometric functions are the same as those of the direct functions but differently placed with reference to the coordinate
In this way
43.
in
it is
axes. It is to be noticed particularly

that to any value of x corresponds an
infinite number of values of y.
FIG 56
FIG. 55
= sin- 1 *
From this, x = sin y,
Ex.
1.
and we
may
plot the graph
by assuming values of
y and computing those of a (Fig. 55).
Ex.
2.
Then
= tan-
==
tan
y,
*.
and the graph
is
as in Fig. 56.
EXERCISES
1.
2.
tan- 1 2
=3
7.
47.
x.
3.
ctn-^cc.
4.
?/
= cos-^jc
= sin"
y = tan-
of
inverse
1).
(a:
8.
2).
Differentiation
(* + 1).
5.
6.
sin-^S x
=1+ cos"
= ^tan" ^
4. 1)
1
:*;.
--
trigonometric functions.
The
formulas for the differentiation of the inverse trigonometric

functions are as follows:
1.
-7- sin""
ax
^=
-r-
vlx
wua
when
<*x
in the first or the
is
,,
sin-^f
is
diL
when
A/ "Ix M_
sin""
,.
lourth quadrant
QI^
QiX
,t
in the second or
i
the third quadrant.
TKIGONOMETKIC FUNCTIONS
132
-
2.
cos"
^=
=
d
O
4.
(Jtjf
dx
ctn
_j
sec"
5.
u=
?*
+w
when
when
CSC"
M=
=
The proofs
1.
sec"
when
uvu
x
^ ie
sec"
in the first or the
is
f our tli
is
in the
second or
quadrant.
el/Mi
J.
-7-
uvu
,
the third or the
du
u^/u2 -l dx
fj
is
quadrant
=
6
cos" 1 ^
f ourth
dx
m the first or the
** is
ax
dx
du
dx
cos"
second quadrant;
VI - u2
L.
~z
when
-7-
vlw
^x
when
1
|.j
when
-r-
csc" 1 ^
is
in the first or
third quadrant;
ie
csc""
is
in the
second or
of these formulas are as follows:
y = sin~X
If
then
y = u.
dy du
sin
TT
Hence, by
A A
44,
co S2
=
,^ -;
-1
cfc
--
whence
dx
cos
du
y dx
But cos y = Vl u2 when # is m the first or the fourth quadand cosy = Vl u2 when y is m the second or the third
rant,
quadrant.
2.
If
then
Hence
cos
y=
cos" ^,
u-
_ sin 9
dx
=^
dx
whence
eta
sin
DIFFERENTIATION
But
rant,
sin
Vl
y
and am y
183
M a when y is in the first or the second quadVl u2 when y is in the third or the fourth
quadrant.
3.
it
tan y
ence
tan' 1 it,
It'
then
= u.
du
2
d?t
sec u ~^~
/yVp
Lt*v
/yif>-
dv*t
dy
-~
whence
4.
?/
(iV
41
(/
!/,
V UV
~=
If
du
are
+ w" -7;
yssseo'X
then
sec
ence
dx
= w.
(??/
whence
+u
yssctir
ctn
V T
If
then
5.
du
dx
sec y tan
?y
?/
-~ =
-r-
ti*y*
ft'V
d'i/
-
whence
= M.
;
<??*
-=-*
sec
djc
;y
tan y dx
But Rcoyss?/, and tan,y = V?â --l when

the third quadrant, and tan ?/:=-~-vV 1
second or the fourth quadrant.
M
T$
_r
Hence
whence
esc
y=
dy
esc y otn y
j~
rvM/
?a;
?/,.
du
-f-
is
=s
\4iJu
esc
in the first or
when y
rtiart '""'J'^f
/j/
then
?/
ofo&y
-r-
dx
is
in
the
134
But cscy = w, and ctn^=Vw2
when y
is
in the first or
the third quadrant, and ctn# =

Vw 2 1 when y is in the
second or the fourth quadrant.
If the quadrant in which an angle lies is not material in a
problem, it will be assumed to be in the first quadrant. This
applies particularly to formal exercises

Ex.
1.
1
y = sin" Vl
dv
dx
This result
Ex.
2.
xz where y
,
4ar
^
a>\|
Vl -
dx
also be obtained
sec" 1 V4a:a
differentiation.
an acute angle
.fLn.
L-(l-a 2)
may
is
by placing sin- 1 Vl
xz
= cos" 1
a:.
2.
dx
dy
dx
V4 x* + 4 x +
V(4
2
a,-
4x
2)
-1
~
~2a;2 +
2a,--
EXERCISES
Find
-7^ in
each of the following cases
2.
= sin"
_ sin -ift
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
11.
= COS~
13.
= tan" Va - 1 +
16.
18.
y ss
-.
= cos -1 3a;
2
y = tan~
y = tan" Vcc
y = ctni
2 x.
^-
y
y
= sec"
= csc~
,
10,
1
1
y-tan->
5 a.
2aj.
a;
2\a
+6
Vl
aj
a;/
+a5003~
Vl
wa
ANGULAR VELOCITY
135
Angular velocity. If a line OP (Fig. 57) is revolving in

a plane about one of its ends 0, and in a time t the line
OP has moved from an initial position
to the position OP,
the angle MOP = 6 denotes the amount of rotation. The rate
48.
OM
of change of
with respect to
called the angular velocity of OP.
angular velocity
by the Greek
is
commonly denoted
so we have
letter
the formula
<
JQ
42 the angle 8
In accordance with
is
t is
The
taken in radians
so that
if t is
in
seconds, the angular velocity is in

radians per second. By dividing by
the angular velocity
2-Tr,
may be reduced
to revolutions per second, since one revolution

is equivalent to
TT radians.
describes
point Q on the line OP at a distance r from
a circle of radius r which intersects

of the arc of the circle
AQ
s
Now
ds
-r- is
dt
OM at
A.
If s
is
the length
measured from A, then, by
42,
= rO.
(2)
called the linear velocity of the point $, since
measures the rate at which

ds
s is
described ; and
from (2) and
it
(1),
d0
showing that the farther the point Q
is
from.
the greater
is
its linear velocity.
Similarly, the angular acceleration,

relation
,
,
a2 o,,
aft>
which
is
denoted by
oc,
is
denned by
J the
This
formula
is
connected with the linear acceleration
-=-5
by the
136
Ex
1.
formula
to
is given by the
in the time from t = 2
If
a wheel revolves so that the angular velocity
u>
1,
how many
revolutions will it
make
5?
We
take a spoke of the wheel as the line
dQ
=8
OP Then we
have
tdt
Hence the angle through which the wheel revolves in the given time
6
C B
tdt
[4 fif
=100 - 16 =
is
84.
1/2
The
result
The answer
ir.
is
in radians. It
is 13.4
may be reduced
to revolutions
by dividing by
revolutions
Ex. 2. A particle traverses a circle at a uniform rate of n revolutions

a second Determine the motion of the projection of the particle on a
diameter of the circle
P (Fig 58) be the particle,

the diameter of the circle, and
Let
OX
M the projection
of P on OX
= a cos 6,
Then
the radius of the
circle.
where a
is
hypothesis the angular velocity

of OP is 2 nir radians per second
By
Therefore
o>
= 2 mr
dt
FIG. 68
whence
If
we
= 0, the particle is
x = a cos 8 = a cos 2 rart = a cos
consider that
Therefore
when
on OX, then
(7
0.
/,
<at.
The point
therefore describes a simple harmonic motion
simple harmonic motion is often defined in this way
In
fact,
EXERCISES
flywheel 4ft in diameter makes 3 revolutions a second.

Find the components of velocity in feet per second of a point on the
rim when it is 6
above the level of the center of the wheel.
1.
A point
on the rim
of a flywheel of radius 5 ft which is 3 ft.

above the level of the center of the wheel has a horizontal component
2.
of velocity of 100 ft per second

per second of the wheel.
Find the number of revolutions
CYCLOID
If the horizontal and vertical projections of a point descr

simple harmonic motions given by the equations
3.
show
49.
= 5 cos 3t,
= 5 sin 3
that the point moves in a circle and find
The
cycloid.
If a
wheel
rolls
upon
1,
its
angular velocity
a straight line, ea
point of the rim describes a curve called a cycloid.

Let a wheel of radius a roll upon the axis of #, and let
(Fig. 59) be its center at any time of its motion, JV its point
N
FIG. 59
the point which describes the cycloi

6L3T, and
as the origin of coordinates, 0, the point found by rollu
meets OX.
the wheel to the left until
contact with
Take
P
ON= arc PN.
Then
Draw
MP
and CN, each perpendicular to OX,
PR parallel
OX, and connect C and P. Let

angle
Then
x=
NGP
a<j>
Hence the parametric
<j>.
OM = 0-ZV- JfJV
a sin <.
a cos
representation (
a&=a(<f>
#=
(!
sin<),
-cos<).
40) of the cycloid
138
If
we
the wheel revolves with a constant angular velocity
i)
cos
C\.
a,
-*<f>")
= Q>* (1
= a sm -If- = am sw.
?;
whence
to
=
-^
40,
have, by
<j>
=a
2 2
co
<f>
cos
<p),
',
at
2
(2-2 cos <) = 4 a 6)
sin
= 2 aco sm ^>
as an expression for the velocity in

run of the wheel.
its
path of a point on the
EXERCISES
A
1.
Prove that the slope of the cycloid
at
any point
is
ctn
^-
on the rim
2. Show that the straight line drawn from any point
of a rolling wheel perpendicular to the cycloid which that point is
of the rolling wheel.
describing goes through the lowest point
3. Show that any point on the run of the wheel has a horizontal
to the vertical height of
component of velocity which is proportional
the point
4.
Show
that the highest point of the rolling wheel moves twice

two points whose distance from the ground as
as fast as either of the
half the radius of the wheel

5. Show that the vertical component of velocity is
when the point which describes the cycloid is on the
maximum
level of the
center of the rolling wheel.
6. Show that a point on the spoke of a rolling wheel at a distance

from the center describes a curve given by the equations
a<f>
b sin <,
and find the velocity of the point in
=a
its
path.
b cos
<j>,
The curve
is called
trochoid.
7.
curve
8.
Find the slope of the trochoid and
find the point at
which the
is steepest.
Show
that
when a
point on a spoke of a wheel describes a
trochoid, the average of the velocities of the point when in its highest
and lowest positions is equal to the linear velocity of the wheel
CUJftVATUKE
50. Curvature.
change of
motion may be measured by the change of the
direction of its
angle
<
139
If a point describes a curve, the
15).
For example, in the curve of Fig. 60, if AJ%= s and ./J^ = As,
and if fa and fa are the values of
for the points Pl and Pz
is the total
respectively, then </>2
change of direction of the
curve between J? and Py If
Y
<j&
fafa = A<,
expressed in
circular measure, the ratio
the average change
is
As
of direction per linear unit

of the arc PJ\. Regarding
as a
function of
taking the limit of
As approaches zero
limit,
we have
-f->
and
s,
as
As
as
FIG CO
which
is
called the curvature of the curve at
as
the point P. Hence the curvature of a curve is the rate of change

of the direction of the curve with respect to the length of the arc.
is constant, the curvature is constant or uniform ; otherIf
ds
wise the curvature is variable. Applying this definition to the
circle of
center
is
we have
As
Fig. 61, of which the

the radius is a,
C and
A<
= a Arf>.
di
Hence --
P^CP^,
and hence
Therefore
As
-j
- and
the circle is
as
a
a curve of constant curvature equal
to the
reciprocal of
its radius.
The
reciprocal of the curvature is called the radius of curvature and will be denoted by p.
FIG. 61
Through every point of a curve

radius equal to p, which shall have
the same tangent as the curve at the point and shall lie on the
we may pass
a circle with
its
140
same
Since the curvature of a circle is

side of the tangent.
uniform and equal to the reciprocal of its radius, the curvatures
of the curve and of the circle are the same, and the circle shows
the curvature of the curve in a manner similar to that in which
the tangent shows the direction of the curve.

called the circle of curvature.
From
the definition of curvature
_
If the
equation of the curve
it
The
circle is
follows that
ds
in rectangular coordinates,
is
ds
by
(9),
36,
~
dx
To
transform this expression further,
,2
we
note that
,2
whence, dividing by dx* and taking the square
Since
<j>
= tan-
root,
we have
1
,
(by
15)
dx3
dx
< fdy\
.
\dx,
Substituting,
we have
^2y
d
dx*
In the above expression "for p there is an apparent ambiguity of

sign, on account of the radical sign. If only the numerical value
of p is required, a negative sign may be disregarded.
CUBVATUEE
141
3,2
Ex.
1.
Find the radius of curvature

dy
-f
da;
Here
Therefore
Ex.
2.
of the ellipse
a
y2
= 1.
*j
&
= - -=a
a:
ay
-^ = a(l
We have
cos<)
of the cycloid (
<s
a<p
d?/
= a sin
=s
/>
n
2 a
A
i
sm J cos ^
&
it
d<p
Therefore, by (9),
49).
= 2asin2 2,
36,
f^
= ctn^.
2
dx
and
EXERCISES
Find the radius of ourvature of the curve
2.
Find the radius of curvature of the curve x*

2
at the point for which x
3.
4.
Show that
y = sin
the circle
at the point for

curvature at that point.
B.
a;
6.
7T\
-r- )
of the curve
taa-â;
<]!>
+ y = 1 is tangent to the curve

= and has the same radius of
2
-jr,
= cos
t,
= 0,
a<j!
1)
Find the radius of curvature of the curve x
sin A, y =s a sin
7.
which x
-fa a*.
y*
Find the radius of curvature of the curve x
at the point for which
a<
222
+ =
1.
= cos 2
= a cos
<
1,
-{-
cos <.
Prove that the radius of curvature of the curve

lias its greatest
value
when
<j>
TT
as
= o.cos
<,
142
So
51. Polar coordinates.
we have determined
far
tion of a point in the plane by two distances, x and y.

however, use a distance and a direction, as follows
the posi-
We
may,
Let
OM,
let
(Fig. 62), called the origin, or pole, be a fixed point, and

called the initial line, be a fixed line. Take
any point
Then
by 6
For example, the point

uring
and the angle
MOP
r and 6 are called the polar coor-
dinates of the point P(r, 0),

will completely determine P.
by laying
OP by r,
and draw OP. Denote
in the plane,
the angle
off
and when given
15)
(2,
MOP =15
is
plotted
and meas-
OP= 2.
OP, or
r,
is
called the radius vector,
and
6 the veotorial angle, of P. These quantities may be either

positive or negative.
negative value of 6 is laid off in the
direction of the motion of the hands of a clock, a positive
angle
m the opposite direction.
After the angle 6 has been constructed,
positive values of r are measured

line of 0, and negative values of r
extension of the terminal line.
may have more than one

dinates. Thus (2, 195),
along the terminal

along the backward
It follows that the same point
pair of coor(2,
- 345)
(-2, 15), and (- 2,

the same point. In practice
ally convenient to restrict
from
from
-165),
refer to
it is
usu-
to positive
values.
Plotting in polar coordinates is facilitated by using paper ruled as

Figs. 64
and
65.
"
The angle 6 is determined from
ElG 63
the numbers at the ends of the straight
hnes, and the value of r is counted off on the concentric circles,
either toward or away from the number which indicates
6,
according as r
The
is
positive or negative.
between (r, 0) and (x, y) is found as follows

Let the pole
and the initial line
of a system of polar
coordinates be at the same time the
origin and the axis of # of a
of
system
rectangular coordinates. Let P (Fig, 63) be any point
relation
OM
POLAR COORDINATES
143
of the plane, (a;, #) its rectangular coordinates, and (r, 0) its

polar coordinates. Then, by the definition of the trigonometric
functions,
Whence
XJ
cos 6
= X-
sm
2-.
follows, on the one hand,
= r cos
= r sin
(1)
i
and, on the other hand,
sin0
By means of (1)
cos
a transformation can be
to polar coordinates,
and by means
of (2)
(2)
made from
from polai
rectangular
to rectangular
coordinates
When an equation is given in polar coordinates, the corresponding curve may be plotted by giving to 6 convenient values,
computing the corresponding values of r,
plotting the resulting
points,
and drawing a
curve through them.

Ex.
1.
a cos $
a constant which
may be given any convenient value We may
then find from a table of
a
is
natural cosines the value
which corresponds
any value of 9. By
of r
to
plotting the points corxesponding to values of 6
from
to
aw
MS
J
*
FIG 04
90, we obtain
ABCO (Fig. 64). Values of 6 from 90 to 180 give the arc ODEA.
Values of 6 from 180 to 270 give again the arc ABCO, and those fiom 270
to 860 give again the arc ODEA. Values of 6 greater than 360 can clearly
give no points not already found. The curve is a circle.
the arc
144
Ex.
2.
r= a sin 35.
to a as 9 increases
to 30, r increases from
6 increases from
the point (r, 0) traces out the loop
r decreases from a to
,
to the radius
(Fig. 65), which is evidently symmetrical with respect
As 6 increases from
As
from 30 to 60,
040
OA.
90, r is negative
to
decreases from
60
to
and
increases from
a as
90 to 120, r increases from
the
a to
;
point (r, 0)
traces out the loop OBO
As & increases from 120
to 180, the point (r, 6}
traces out the loop OCO.
;
isoj
values of & give

points already found, since
sin 3 (180 + 5) = - sm 3 6.
Larger
The
three loops are congiu-
ent, because sm,3 (60
+ 0) =
sin30 This curve is called

a rose of three leaves.
Ex.
3.
r2
Solving for
r,
we have
= i a V2 cos 2 0.
Hence, corresponding to any values of 9 which make cos 2 9 positive, there

will be two values of r numerically equal and opposite in sign, and two
corresponding points of the curve symmetrically situated with respect
to the pole
If values are
assigned to 9 which
make
cos 2 9 negative, the
corresponding values of r will be

imaginary and there will be no
points
on the
curve.
Accordingly,
from
ically
as
increases
45, r decreases numerfrom aV2 to 0, and the
$f
to
portions of the curve in the first

and the third quadrant are constructed (Fig 66) as 9 increases from 45
there is no portion of the curve between
finally, as 9 increases from 135 to 180, r
aV2, and the portions of the curve in the
;
are constructed
135, cos 2 9 is negative, and

the lines 9 = 45 and 9 = 135
,
increases numerically from

to
second and the fourth quadiant
The curve is now complete, as we should

if we
assigned further values to 0,
curve already found

lemniscate.
FIG 06
to
only repeat the

called the
it is
GRAPHS
The
Ex. 4.
spiral
145
of Archimedes,
= a8.
In plotting, 6 is usually considered

in cncular measuie When &= 0, r =
,
and as 6 mci eases,

the cuive winds an
inci eases, so that
infinite uiuubei of
times around the ongin while leceding from it (Fig 67) In the flgme the
heavy line represents the poitiou
of
the spiral coriespondmg to positive values of

portion coriespondmg to negative values of 6
and the dotted
0,
line the
EXERCISES
Plot the graphs of the following curves
1.
2.
3.
= a sm 6
r = asm 20
r = a cos 30
9.
10.
?'
11. ?*
= a sin--
4.
5-
r=acos
6.
7-
7.
?'
12.
,,
13. r
8.
'
14. r
= 3 cos + 5
= 3 cos + 3.*
r = 3 cos
+2
= a sin
a
8
= a sin
=
= a (l _ cos 2 0).
= a(l+2cos20)
2
=atan0
15.
= a tan 2
16
'
1
1
+ cos
Find the points of intersection of the following pairs of curves
= 2 sm
r = a cos
r = 1 + sin
r =a sin0,
17. r
18.
19.
20.
0,
;-
0,
0,
Transform the following equations

21
.r?/
22
a;
= 4.
+f- 4
'
</a?
- 4 ay =
r= sec 6
= 2 n cos
to polar coordinates
xz +
24. (a*
2 2
2/ )
=a
28. r
= atan0.
= a cos 2
* The curve
is
called a cardioid
The curve
is
a parabola with the ongui at the focus.
y*-2ay =
a
0.
to rectangular coordinates
27. r
ft
26. r
0.
23.
Transform the following equations

25.
= 2-x/S cos
= a sin 2
= 2 sin
=a2 sm30
2
Z/
146
The
52.
differentials
<?r,
d9, ds, in polar coordinates.
We have
seen, in
39, that the differential of arc in rectangular coordinates

is given by the equation
(1)
If
we
wish to change this to polar coordinates, we have to
place
x = r cos
r sin 6
0,
dx
ds*
This formula
"
may
we have
= dr + r*d6
z
(2)
be remembered by means
being
P
(r,
of
an
"
elemen-
(Fig. 68), constructed as follows

be a point on a curve r =/(0), the coordinates of P
= r and
= 6. Let Q be increased
0), where OP
tary triangle
Let
= cos 6dr r sin 6 d6,

=
dy sin Qdr + r cos 6d6.
whence
MOP
by an amount d0 thus determining another

as a center
point Q on the curve. From
and with a radius equal to r, describe an
t
arc of a circle intersecting
= OP =
OQ
in
so that
Then, by 42, PR, = rdd. Now

EQ is equal to Ar, and PQ is equal to As.
-^ 6g
We shall mark them, however, as dr and da
respectively, and the formula (2) is then correctly obtained by
treating the triangle PQJR as a right triangle with straight-line
sides. The fact is that the smaller the
triangle becomes as Q
approaches P, the more nearly does it behave as a straight-line
triangle ; and in the limit, formula (2) is exactly true.
Other formulas may be read out of the triangle PQR. Let us
denote by i/r the angle PQJR, which is the angle made
by the
curve with any radius vector. Then, if we treat the
PQR
O.E
r.
as a straight-line
right-angle triangle,
we have
triangle
the formulas
dr
(3)
J
k
DIFFERENTIALS
The above is not a proof
proof we need to go through
We
connect the points
147
To supply
of the formulas.
the
a limit process, as follows:

and Q by a straight line (Fig. 69)
and draw a
perstraight line from

pendicular to OQ meeting OQ at S.
PQS
Then the triangle

line right-angle triangle,
,
chord
a straight-
is
and therefore
PQ
SP
'
arcPg
PQ chord PQ'
Now angle POQ = A0, arc PQ = As,
arc
and, from the right triangle OSP,
FIG. 69
SP = OP
sin
POQ =
sm
A0.
Therefore
rsuiA *
Ag
arcP
A0
chord P<2
As
chord
PQ
Now let A0 approach zero as a limit, so that Q approaches P

along the curve. The angle SQP approaches the angle OPT,
where
PT
proaches
aic
1,
is
the tangent at P.
42
by
A/9
-
angle
''
approaches
JL
1,
the same time
ap-
rlfi
T>/~)
CllOlXl
At
approaches
39.
by
by
definition
and
In this figure we denote the
ty
OPT by
>/r
and have, from
(4),
smf = r
.
dB
,CN
(5)
which is the first of formulas (3). It is true that in Fig. 69 we

have denoted OPT by -^ and that in Fig. 68 ^ denotes OQP.
But if we remember that the angle OQP approaches OPT as a
limit when Q approaches P, and that in using Fig. 68 to read off
we are really anticipating this limit process, the

difference appears unessential.
be obtained by a limit process
The other formulas
the formulas (3)
(3)
may
similar to the one just used, or they
may be
obtained more
TEIGONOMETEIC FUNCTIONS
148
For, from (2) and (5),
quickly by combining (5) and (2).
we have
whence
cos
-\lr
(6)
ds
By
dividing (5) by (6)
we have
rdd
/7N
CO
dr
In using (7)
may be convenient
it
tan
i/r
to write
it
in the
form
(8)
dr
d0
since the equation of tho curve
usually given in the form
is
t?rt
r =/(#), and
is
cLu
found by direct
Ex. Find the angle which the cmve

vector 6
Here
= a sin 4
makes with the radius
80
= 4 a cos 4
^
do
Substituting
Therefore
differentiation.
j/r
0.
= 30,
= 156
tan ^
Therefore, fiom (8),
^
T
we
have
tan
^=
" sin 4
=
4
tan 120
^ = 4i tan
'I
cos 4 6
= - | V3 = - 4 MO
35'.
EXERCISES
1.
Find the angle -which the curve
radius vector 6
2.
Find the angle which the curve
radius vector 6
= a cos 3
makes with the
= 45
= 2 + 3 cos
makes with the
90
A
3.
Find the angle which the curve r
= a2 sin
makes with the
initial line.
4.
Show
that for the curve r
Show
a,
9
sin 8 5 j
i/r
= -6
3
that the angle between the cardioid r

cos 0) and
a(l
radius vector is always half the angle between the radius vector
5.
any
and the
initial line.
GENEHAL EXERCISES
6.
Show
149
2
that the angle between the lemniscate r
=2
2
.
cos 2 9
TT
and any ladms vector
is
plus twice the angle between the
always
radius vector and the initial line

7.
Show
a
that the curves r
=a
sin 2 6
and
2
?-
=a
cos 2 6 inter-
sect at right angles
GENERAL EXERCISES
Find the graphs of the following equations
= 4sm a
1
4-
1.
?/
2.
y = cos (2 x
3.
4.
ys= Jsin2aj
Find
5.
6.
3)
= tan-
-f^ in
7-
+ ^8in8a5.
the following cases
8.
o
/
L ^
y = Ssmlas +
TT
= tan x.
- 2)
=
y
2cos2(o!
a
vy
?/
= 3cos3h +
CtttXj
9.
10.
= 2x
= tan (3 K + 2) +
,J
12. tan (x
+ 5ctn
fi
13.
y=3ctn
14.
?/
= csc
16.
?/
= sm 4 x cos*2
?/
= - cos
17.
?y=atan
19.
20.
?/
28.
+ tan (x
|.
+ 2 ctn 4 x
4x
18.
Show
?/)
2a!
a;
tan8 (3 x
y)
+ 2).
= 0.
21. y
22.
?/
23>
cos
>
a.a_|_
2 cos ~
24.
= ctn"
2/
= csc"
^tan2C+03.
25.
Vsc
2x.
2
t
SC "y" 1
= sin
= cos"
particle
moves in a straight
which, the particle
line so that s
=6
about
simple harmonits and find the center
oscillates and the- amplitude of the motion.
that the motion
is
150
29.
20
i+^=1
?/
particle
moves on the
ellipse
so that its projeq-
upon OX describes simple harmonic motion given by x = a cos kt.

Show that its projection upon OF also describes simple harmonic
tion
motion and find the velocity of the particle in its path.

30. A particle moving with simple harmonic motion of period
has a velocity of 9 ft per second when at a distance of 2
mean position. Find the amplitude of the motion.
31.
moves according
particle
to the equation s
from
ft.
= 4 sin
\t
7T
-r
its
that the motion is simple harmonic and find the

amplitude of the swing and the time at which the particle passes
5 cos
t.
its
through
32.
Show
mean
position.
point for which x
of the curve
= x sin-
7T
Find the radius of curvature of the curve ?/ =

= TT
point for which x
a sin' 1
34. Find the radius of curvature of the curve y
at the
33.
at the point for
35.
which x
V,
which
<j>
=a
37. ra
=a
38. r
39. r
40. r
.r*
I sin
<{>,
IT
= -r-
CL
Plot the graphs of the following curves

36.
7!!
'
Find the radius of curvature of the curve x => a cos <, y =
at the point for
at the
41. r
sm|-
42. ra
sin40
..
43.
v
=a(l-sin0).
'
=a(l+cos20).
46.
30
+ sin -7p
45. r =* 1
intersection of the following pairs of curves
47. r BS a cos
0,
2 sin
0,
49. r
=l + sm s
.
r*=3cos20,
48. r
r*=
44. r
= a(l + 2 sin 0).
Find the points of
=1-20.
=
~a(l + sin 20),
s
?-
= 2cos
r2 BB
7-'
B*
a2
0.
sin 2
4 sin 2
0.
0.
2
r =? 4 a'siii 2
0.
GENERAL EXERCISES
151
Transform the following curves to polar coordinates
50.
"
Transform the following curves

2
=2a
to ^-coordinates
sm20.
52
?'
54.
Find the angle
53. r
at
which the curve r
= a(l
=3+
cos0)
sin 2 6 meets the
circle r
Find the angle of intersection of the two curves r

and r2 = 4 sin 2
55.
56.
Find the angle of intersection of the curves r
= a sin 2
57. If a ball is fired
What
is
= a cos
and
B.
from a gun with the
of which
the equation
describes a path
i
r
where a
= 2 sin 6
is
i/
J
initial velocity
= x tan a
is the angle of elevation of the gun and

the value of a when the horizontal range
OX
is
is
it
as?
'
horizontal
greatest ?
58. In measuring an electric current by means of a tangent galvanometer, the percentage of error due to a small error in reading is
ctn x. For what value of x will this percentproportional to tan x
?
age of error be least
59.
A tablet
the tablet
is
29
high is placed on a wall so that the bottom of

from the ground. How far from the wall should
ft
ft.
a person stand in order that he may see the tablet to best advantage
the lines from his eye to the top and
(that is, that the angle between
to the
his eye
60.
bottom of the tablet should be the

is 5 ft. from the ground ?
One
side of a triangle is 12 ft.

of the triangle
Find the other angles
greatest),
assuming that
and the opposite angle is 36

its area is a maximum
when
61. Above the center of a round table of radius 2 ft is a hanging

the table in order that
lamp. Plow far should the lamp be above
the edge of the table may be most brilliantly lighted, given that
the illumination varies inversely as the square of the distance and
of incidence ?
directly as the cosine of the angle
a force F. If
62.
weight P is dragged along the ground by
the coefficient of friction is k, in what direction should the force be
applied to produce the best result ?
L52
An
open gutter is to be constructed of boards in such a way

,hat the bottom and sides, measuied on the inside, are to be each
3 in
wide and both sides are to have the same slope How wide
63.
should the gutter be across the top in oider that

je as great as possible ?
its
capacity
may
64. A steel girdei 27 ft long is to be moved on rollers along a

Dassageway and into a corridor 8 ft. in width at right angles to the
Dassageway. If the horizontal width of the girder is neglected, how
vide must the passageway be in order that the girder may go around
-he corner 9
65.
Two
particles are moving in the same straight line so that

a cos kt and
from a fixed point are respectively x
iheir distances
= acosud -f
& and a being constants

qOj
hstance between them
e'
66.
Liid
Find the greatest
Show that for any curve in polar coordinates the maximum

minimum values of r occui in general when the radius vector
the
perpendicular to the curve.

67. Two men aie at one end of the diameter of a circle of 40 yd
adius. One goes directly toward the center of the circle at the
rate of 6 ft. pei second, and the other goes around the
.ircumference at the rate of 2 TT ft per second How fast are they
eparatmg at the end of 10 sec. 'f
miform
Given that two sides and the included angle of a triangle are
10 ft and 30 respectively, and are changing at the rates of
3 ft and 12 per second respectively, what is the area of the
?
riangle and how fast is it changing
68.
>
ft
ft
mi offshore makes one

revolving light in a lighthouse
evolution a minute If the line of the shore is a straight line, how
ast is the ray of light moving along the shore when it passes a
69.
ioint
70.
one mile from the point nearest to- the lighthouse ?

BC is a rod a feet long, connected with a piston rod at C, and
with a crank AB, b feet long, revolving about A. Find C's
elocity in terms of All's angular velocity.
71.
,s
At any time
=2
re
3 cos
t,
the coordinates of a point moving in the ajy-plane

3
2 sin t Find its path and its velocity in
= +
it have a maximum
speed?
72 At any time t the coordinates of a moving point are x = 2 sec 3 1,
4 tan 3 1. Find the equation of its path and its velocity in its path.
path.
.
At what
points will
GENERAL EXERCISES
153
The parametric equations of the. path of a moving particle are

2cos 8 <, 2/=2sin 8
If the angle
increases at the rate of
73.
O3
<
<
2 radians per second, find the velocity of the particle in its path
74.
particle moves along the curve y = smo3 so that the
a-component of its velocity has always the constant value a Find
the velocity of the particle along the curve and determine the points
of the curve at which the particle is moving fastest arid those at
which
75.
moving most slowly

Find the angle of intersection
it is
of the curves
= smx
and
of intersection of the curves
= sma;
and
since
and
= cos x
76.
Find the angle
/
= sm(a:
+^
,
2/
Find the angle of intersection of the curves y

and ce = 2 TT.
cos 2 x between the lines x =
77.
= sin 3 x between the lines x =
78.
Find the points
and x =
TT
since and
T/
Determine the angles
of intersection of the curves
at the points of intersection.
cos x and
and x = 2 TT, and
between the lines x =
determine the angles of intersection at each of the points found.
79.
Find
= sin 2 x
all
the points of intersection of the curves y
which,
lie
CHAPTER VI
The exponential
53.
where a
is
The equation
function.
*,
any constant, defines y
x called the
as a function of
exponential function.
If
= n,
power by
If
an integer, y
determined by raising
is
a,
to the nth
multiplication.
#=*-
a positive fraction, y
is
the jth root of the plli
power of a.
If x is a positive
irrational number, the approximate value of

y may be obtained by expressing oc approximately as a fraction.
If
x=
0,
The graph
= a=l.
If
=- m, y = a~ m =
of the function
Ex. Find the
is
readily found.
= (1
5y. By giving convenient values to x

we obtain the curve shown in Fig 70 To determine the shape of the
curve at the extreme left, we place a equal to a large negative number,
say x
which
gi
aph of y
= - 100 Then
(1.5)-
^J
It is obvious that the

very small
larger numencally the negative value of x
the
smaller y becomes, so that the
becomes,
is
curve appi caches asymptotically the negative

portion of the a:-axis.
On the other hand, if # is a large positive
number, y
_.
O
FIG. 70
is also large.
54. The logarithm. If a number

may be obtained by placing
an exponent L on another number a and computing the result,
then L is said to be the logarithm of .2V to the base a. That is, if
N=
then
d>,
(1)
L = loga JV.
(2)
154
LOGARITHMS
155
Formulas (1) and (2) are simply two different ways of expressing the same fact as to the relation of ,JV" and L, and the
student should accustom himself to pass from one to the other
as convenience may demand.
From these formulas follow easily the fundamental properties
of logarithms; namely,
M = log
=loga N,
(3)
loga l=0,
loga
- = -log
JV.
or 1, may be used as
Theoretically any number, except
the base of a system of logarithms. Practically there are only
two numbers so used. The first is the number 10, the use of
as a base gives the common system of logarithms, which
are the most convenient for calculations and are used almost
which
exclusively in trigonometry.
Another number, however,
discussions, since
denoted by the
where
it
more convenient
is
gives simpler formulas.
letter e
and
is
in theoretical
This number
21=1x2, 31=1x2x8, 41=1x2x3x4,
Computing the above

e
is
expressed by the infinite series
series to
etc.
seven decimal places,
we have
= 2,7182818....
An important property of this number, which

finding the derivative of a logarithm, is that
is
necessary in
156
To check
this arithmetically
values of h and
make
When &=.!,
we may
h =.01,
When
h = .001,
When
h =.0001,
= 2.59374.
(1+ A)*=(1.01) = 2.70481.
= 2.71692.
(1 + hy= (1.001)
= 2.71815.
(1+ hy= (1.0001)
(1+ A)*= (1.1)
When
take successive small
the following computation

10
100
1000
10000
algebraically, we
...
theorem, obtaining
expand (1+A)
Working
_._.
11
if
JS represents the
Now it may be shown
by the binomial
i~1 V -
A*
8!
2!
where
...
sum
of all terms involving
by advanced methods that
zero, B, also approaches zero
as
A,
7i
7i
etc.
h approaches
so that
When the number e is used as the base of a system of logarithms, the logarithms are called natural logarithms, or Napierian
shall denote a natural logarithm by the symbol
logarithms.
We
In*; thus,
N ~*>
L = In N.
then
(4)
Tables of natural logarithms exist, and should be used if

In case such a table is not available, the student
possible.
* This notation is
generally used by engineers. The student should fenow
that the abbreviation "log" is used by many authors to denote the natural
logarithm.
In
this
book " log "
is
used for the logarithm to the base 10.
LOGAEITHMS
find the natural logarithm
logarithms, as follows-
may
Let
it
common
= In 213,
= ev
(3), log 213 = log
x
by
213
(4),
whence, by
a?
e,
log 213
2.3284
Iog2.7183
0.4343
or
Certain graphs involving the number

e
157
of a table of
be required to find In 213.
If
then,
by use
are important
and
are
shown
in the
examples.
Ex.
1.
= In
o
or.
Giving x positive values and finding

obtain Fig 71.
Ex.
2.
we
= e-*?
The curve (Fig

above OX. When
approaching zero.
72)
a;
is
= 0,
Hence
FIG. 71
symmetrical with respect to OY and is always

y = 1 As a: increases numerically, y decreases,
OX
FIG. 72
Ex.3. y
y,
is
an asymptote
FIG. 73
This is the curve (Fig. 73) made by a cord or a chain held at the ends
and allowed to hang freely. It is called the catenary.
Ex.
The
4.
~ *" sin Ix.
values of y may be computed by multiplying the ordmates of the

curve y = <s~ oa! by the values of sin bx for the corresponding abscissas. Since
the value of sinZw oscillates between 1 and -1, the values of e-
158
cannot exceed those of e-** Hence the graph

= e~ ax
plane between the curves y
y
= e ~ ax When a: is a mul-
and y
lies
in the portion of the
tiple of -, y is zero.
The graph
therefore crosses the axis of x
number
infinite
an
Fig. 74
of times
shows the graph when a = 1, b = 2 TT

Ex.
5.
When
?a*
ex
x approaches zeio, being

without limit
positive, y increases
-1
''
74
When x approaches zero, being negapproaches zeio for example, when

= e1000 ' and when x ~ ~~
Ttnjff' y
The function is therefore
e 1000 =
ative, y
x
11
J
=
=
"W
glOOO
discontinuous for x
The line y - 1 is an asymptote (Fig. 75),
for as x increases without limit, being positive or
negative,
6.
The use
and y
0,
75
1.
appioaches
Ex.
approaches
= ea
of r
and 6 indicates that we are
using polar coordinates.

When 6 = 0, r 1. As increases, r increases, and the curve winds around the origin
at increasing distances from it (Fig 76).
When
ically
without
is
negative and increasing numerlimit, r approaches zero.
Hence the curve winds an

of times
infinite
number
aiound the
origin, continually apdotted line in the figure
proaching it The
corresponds to negative values of 6
The curve is called the logarithmic spiral
FIG. 76
EXERCISES
!
= ()*
5-
= x&x
9.
12.
'a:
13.
r=e-* e
10.
7.
3.
y= B
4.
8.
= log2o:.
= log sin x.
= log tan
= e~ sin4ai.
= e~ x cos 3
y
y
y
y
11.
ar.
2ar
a;.
EMPIKICAL EQUATIONS
159
Certain empirical equations. If x and y are two related

quantities which are connected by a given equation, we may
plot the corresponding curve on a system of ^-coordinates, and
55.
every point of this curve determines corresponding values of
x and
y.
Conversely, let x and y be two related quantities of which

some corresponding pairs of values have been determined, and
let it be desired to find by means of these data an equation connecting x and y in general. On this basis alone the problem
cannot be solved exactly. The best we can do is to assume that
the desired equation is of a certain form and then endeavor to

adjust the constants in the equation in such a way that it fits
the data as nearly as possible.
may proceed as follows
We
Plot the points corresponding to the
known values
of
x and
y.
The
lie
simplest case is that in which the plotted points appear to

on a straight line or nearly so. In that case it is assumed
that the required relation
where m and I
The next step
may be put
y = mx + *,
in the
form
(1)
are constants to be determined to
fit
the data.
is to draw a straight line so that the plotted

points either lie on it or are close to it and about evenly distributed on both sides of it. The equation of this line may be
found by means of two points on it, which may be either two
points determined by the original data or any other two points

on the line.
The
resulting equation
is
called
an empirical equation and
expresses approximately the general relation between x and y.

In fact, more than one such equation may be derived from the
same data, and the choice of the best equation depends on the
judgment and experience

Ex.
1.
of the worker.
Corresponding values of two related quantities x and y are given
by the following
table
ai
10
1.8
2.2
2.9
3.9
6.1
Find the empiucal equation connecting them.
160
We
(2, 2).
and draw the straight line, as shown, in

(a;, y)
straight line is seen to pass through the points (0, 1) and
is
therefore
equation
plot the points
The
Fig. 77.
Its
?/
which
is
+ 1,
the required equation
many
111
T7"
cases,
however,
the plotted points will not

appear to lie on or near a
We
straight line.
sider here only
cases,
shall con-
two of these
which are
~o
closely con-
FIG
?7
nected with the case just
which
be anticipated
from previous experience that the required relation is either
of the form
considered.
They are the
cases in
it
y=db*,
(2)
where a and
b are constants, or of the
where a and
form
y=atf,
Both
case
may
(3)
are constants.
may be brought directly under the first

the logarithm of the equation as written. Equa-
of these cases
by taking
tion (2) then
becomes
log y
= log + x log
a,
6.
(4)
log a and log I are constants, if we denote log y by y',

(4) assumes the form (1) in x and y\ and we have only to
plot the points (#, y'~) on an o^'-system of axes and determine
a straight line by means of them. The transformation from. (4)
back to (2) is easy, as shown in Ex. 2.
Taking the logarithm of (3), we have
As
log y
If
we
as
shown
= log a + n log x.
(5)
denote logy by y' and logo; by x\ (5) assumes the form

(1) in. a/ and /, since log a and n are constants. Accordingly
we plot the points (V, y r~) on an a/?/-system of axes, determine
the correspond ing straight line, and then transform back to (8),
in
Ex.
3.
EMPIKICAL EQUATIONS
Ex.
161
Corresponding values of two related quantities x and y are given
2.
by the following table
a;
10
12
14
16
18
20
3.2
40
73
98
152
240
364
Find an empirical equation of the form y = dbf*

Taking the logarithm of the equation y = ob*, and denoting log y by
we have
y',
'
if
log a
Determining the loganthm of each

table of corresponding values of x and
x
if
= logy
We
10
12
14
16
18
20
6028
8633
9912
1.1818
1.3909
15611
Its equation
is
log a
Therefore
9 7965 - 10, whence a
a scale
20
i e
15
10
= .626 and
= .08858, whence & = 1 22. Substituting
J,
20354
y'-axis
= .08858 x - .20354.
equation,
we form
choose a large-scale plotting-paper, assume on the
'
log &
of the given values of y,

y', as follows :
5051
the
tnat on tne
four times as laige as that
tour
or-axis, plot the points (x, /), and
draw the straight line (Fig 78)
H-iivM-in-li
+.Vo -fifaf. o.nrl tliA HTvKh
through the first and the sixth
point.
x log i.
>
10 12 14 16 18 20
FlG
?g
these values in the assumed
we have
as the required empirical equation The result may be tested by substitxitThe computed values of y will
ing the given values of x in the equation.
Le found to agree fairly well with the given, values.
volume taken from an
Ex. 3. Corresponding values of pressure and

indicator card of an air -compressor are as follows:
18
21
205
33.5
44
62
.035
.656
.476
.897
.321
.243
Find the relation between them in the tormpv"
~ c,
162
Writing the assumed relation, in. the form p

logarithms of both sides of the equation, we have
log p
=n
log v
log
cv~ n and taking the
c,
or
where
= log
jtjj
The corresponding values

x = logu
1972
y = logp
2553
of x
and
3222
= log c.
and y are
- .3233
2549
= log v,
4012
-.4935
1 5250
1 6435
4232
6144
7994
For convenience we assume on the ar-axis a scale twice as large as that on

the y-axis, plot the points (x, ?y), and diaw the straight line as shown in
The construction should

made on large-scale plottingThe
line is seen to pass
paper.
through the points (- 05, 1 075)
Fig 79
be
and
Its equation is
.46, 1.6)
therefore
y=- 128 x +101

Hence n 1 28, log c = 1 01,
c = 10 2, and the required relation between p and v is
pv
as
-.55-50- lt5-W-SS-SO~25-0-15 10- OS
= 10 2
FIG. 79
EXERCISES
1.
line,
Show
that the following points lie approximately on a straight
and find
its
equation
46
21
13
20
22
25
30
12
12 9
14,5
18.2
2. For a galvanometer the deflection D, measured in millimeters

on a proper scale, and the current /, measured in microamperes, are
determined in a series of readings as follows
:
291
48.2
72.7
92.0
118.0
140.0
165.0
109.0
0.0493
0.0821
0123
0.154
0197
0234
0.274
0328
Find an empirical law connecting
D and
/.
EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS
163
'
Corresponding values of two related quantities x and y are

given in the following table
3.
01
03
0.5
3316
4050
4046
0.7
0.9
0.6041
0.7379
1.1
1.5
1008
1.3445
9013
Find an empirical equation connecting x and y in the form y = ab*.

In a certain chemical reaction the concentration c of sodmm
acetate produced at the end of the stated number of minutes t is
4.
as follows
00837
00700
00586
00492
00410
Find an empirical equation connecting c and t in the form c = atf

The deflection a of a loaded beam with a constant load is
found for various lengths I as follows
5.
1000
900
800
700
600
7.14
5.22
3.64
242
1.50
Find an empirical equation connecting a and I in the form a = nlf

6. The relation between the pressure j and the volume v of a gas
found experimentally as follows
1
is
20
23.5
31
42
59
78
0019
0.540
0.442
0358
0277
0219
Find an empirical equation connecting p and v in the form pvn
The formulas
56. Differentiation.
c.
for the differentiation of
the exponential and the logarithmic functions are as follows,

where, as usual, u represents any function which can be differentiated with respect to #, In means the Napierian logarithm, and
is
any constant:
-r-log a tt
das
--aa?
In
a e du
= loga-r
fi
1 du
u = - 3-,
u ax
da
,1
(1)
^ o^
(2)
164
EXPONENTIAL AND LOaAEITHMIC FUNCTIONS

dx"
d
dx
The
~dx
(3)
B du
dx'
-'
proofs of these formulas are as follows:
.j
To
~-
find
Then, if u
Ay, where
loga M place y
is
= log
M.
given an increment AM, y receives an increment
Ay = loga (M + AM) - log M
Aw,
AM\ A
'
u
the transformations being
Then
Now,
made by
54.
(3),
AM
as
as A of
AM
approaches zero the fraction
54.
be
u may
taken
Hence
Lim fl 4M
A-0\
Y"=
e.
and
2.
If
y = hi u, the base a
e=l, we have
of the previous formula
since log
dy _ 1 du
u dx
dx
is
and
DIFFERENTIATION
165
#=
u
In y = In a = u In a.
3. If
",
we have
Hence, by formula (2),

1 dy
-= lna du
,
dy = a
~
ax
whence
4. If
= ew the
1.
^.
dx
= In (a; -4 a + 5).
2
dy
da;
Ex.2. y
Ex.
= e-
3.
du
In a ax
ul
previous formula becomes
^
=
dx
Ex.
ax
y ax
2x
_
a;
4 a;
'-
^ = cos bx dx (e~
dx
EXERCISES
Find
dx
in each of the following cases
I~sin2aj
-2.
y*=
3.
JJ^-.
4.
y= a
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
sln
""X
12. y
= e"
a>e
sin 3
cc.
y^ln
*
= lnV2a;a +6a; + 9.
-_
-3
In
w
x + 35
= ln(flj + Vaj + 4).
==
-J
14. y
a;
16.
68a (9
e*
a2
(2 sin
a:
6ai
3/
a:
=
17.
= sec x tan + In (sec

03
VaTTl-1
In
.
18.
a? -f-
tan *).
+ 2).
cos
).
EXPONENTIAL AND 'LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
166
The compound-interest law. An important use of the exponential function occurs in. the problem to determine a, function
whose rate of change is proportional to the value of the function.
57.
If
is
where
We
such a function of
~k
#, it
must
satisfy the equation
a constant called the proportionality

write equation (1) in the form
is
may
ldrV-7f
/fc
factor.
ydx
whence, by a very obvious reversal of formula (2),
In
where C
From
y = kx 4-
the constant of integration
is
this,
by (1) and
56,
we have
(7,
(18).
54,
(2),
c
Finally we place e =A, where A may be any constant, since
any constant, and have as a final result
is
(2)
The constants
tions of a particular
The law
of
interest law,
must be determined by other

18.
problem, as was done in
and
Jc
condi-
change here discussed
because of
its
is often called the compoundoccurrence in the following problem :
Ex. Let a sum of money P be put at interest at the rate of r% per annum.
A
The
interest gained in a time
years.
But the
interest is
Ai
is
-Pr^
an increment
Ai,
where A*
is
expressed in
of the principal P, so that
In ordinary compound interest the interest
is
computed
we have
for a certain
interval (usually one-half year), the principal lemaming constant during

that interval The interest at the end of the half year is then added to the
principal to
make a new
principal on
which
interest is
computed
for th.9
COMPOUND-INTEREST
LAW
167
next half year. The principal P therefore changes abruptly at the end of
each half year.
Let us now suppose that the principal changes continuously that is,
that any amount of interest theoretically eained, in no matter how small
a time, is immediately added to the puncipal. The average rate of change
of the principal in the peuod Ai is, fiorn
11,
;
To obtain
(1),
From
dp
this, as in
100
we must
the rate of change
and have
= lL
Ai
let
A< approach zero in equation
,
?
we have
the text,
P=Ae
lo
(2)
To make the problem conci ete, suppose the original principal were $100
and the rate 4%, and we ask what would be the principal at the end of 14 yr.
We know that when = 0, P = 100. Substituting these values in (2), we
t
A = 100,
have
so that (2) becomes
JL,
P = 100e 100 =100e20

Placing
now
= 14, we
P = 100 ei
have to compute
The
value of
may be taken from a table if the student has access to tables of powers of e
In case a table of common logarithms is alone available, P may be found
by
first
taking the logarithm of both sides of the last equation. Thus
logP
= loglQO +
it loge
= 24053;
P = $254, approximately
whence
EXERCISES
The rate, of change

and when x = 0, y =
1.
\
y,
The rate
and when x =
2.
3.
The
of y with respect to x is always equal to
10, y
= 50.
Find the law connecting y and x,

y with lespect to x is always 0.01 times
Find the law connecting y and x.
5.
of change of
rate of change of y
= 7, and when x = 2,
0, y
ing y and x.
4. The sum of $100 is put at interest
When x =
at the rate of
5%
per
under the condition that the interest shall be compounded

instant of time.
?/,
x is proportional to y,
y = 14 Find the law connect-
with respect to
How much will
it
amount
to in
40 yr.?
annum
at each
168
6.
At a
years later
certain date the population of a town is 10,000. Forty

25,000. If the population increases at a rate which
it is
always proportional to the population at the time, find a general

expression for the population at any time t.
is
6. In a chemical reaction the rate of change of concentration of

a substance is proportional to the concentration at any time. If the
is
when t 0, and is T T
connecting the concentration and the time.
y^
concentration
when
= 6,
find the law
7.
rotating wheel is slowing down in such a manner that the
angular acceleration is proportional to the angular velocity. If the
angular velocity at the beginning of the slowing down is 100 revolutions per second, and in 1 min. it is cut down to 50 revolutions per
second, how long will

per second ?
it
take to reduce the velocity to 25 revolutions
GENERAL EXERCISES
2.
= ($)"*
y = e -*.
3.
y=e
4 y
el
5.
y=
~x
-
(e*
-*).
8.
9.
y=*y?&-*.
J
e?.
= aser*.
GOSX.
6.
y= e'+e"*
J
For a copper-nickel thermocouple the relation between the

temperature t in degrees and the thermoelectric power p in microvolts is given by the
following table
10.
24
50
100
160
200
25
26
26.9
27.5
Find an empirical law connecting

11.
The
and p.
safe loads in thousands of
pounds for beams of the same

cross section but of various
lengths in feet are found as follows
:
Length
Load
10
11
12
18
14
16
123.6
121.5
111.8
107.2
1018
90.4
Find an empirical equation

connecting the
data.
GENERAL EXERCISES
169
In the following table s denotes the distance of a moving

body from a fixed point in its path at time t
12.
10
4678
6400
0410
0.1024
Find an empirical equation connecting s and

In the following table
a substance at the time t
13.
in the
0164
= ab*.
form s
denotes the chemical concentration of
10
00060
00048
0.0033
0.0023
00016
Find an empirical equation connecting

time
and
t in
the form
= ah*.
The
14.
t
relation between the length I (in millimeters) and the

(in seconds) of a swinging pendulum is found as follows :
I
634
805
90.4
1013
107.3
1406
0.806
0892
0.960
1010
1038
1.198
Find an empirical equation connecting
and
t in
the form
Tdn.
For a dynamometer the relation "between the deflection
15.
when the unit

as follows
2ir
= -r-rri
and the current
I,
measured in amperes,
8,
is
40
86
120
160
201
240
280
320
362
0.147
0215
0.252
0293
0.329
0360
0.390
0.417
0442
Find an empirical equation connecting J and 6 in the form I
k$"
In a chemical experiment the relation between the concentration y of undissociated hydrochloric acid and the concentration x
16.
of hydrogen ions
1.68
is
1.22
676
82
shown
in the table
784
426
216
074
0.092
0085
047
0.00815
0096
0.00036
0.0049
00014
Find an empirical equation connecting the two quantities

form y = kxn
.
the
170
c, determine
Assuming Boyle's law, pv
the following pairs of observed values
17.
graphically from
Tind
39.92
42.17
45.80
48 62
51 80
(J0.47
40.37
38.32
85.32
33.29
31.22
2080
-JCCSs
in each of the following cases
19.
?/
=
= In sin
_ = tan" e e
20.
21.
= In (2as + V4
a-.
&
22. y
=xe
23.
24.
25
Bx-2
18.
a
aj
= I tan oas + In cos ax.

y = x tan- ^
$ In (1 +
2
2
a;
).
amount x is being decomposed

is proportional to a;. If x = 3 12 when t = 0, and
=
t
40 min., find the value of x when t = 1 hr.
26.
A substance
27.
a;.
A substance
2a osc"^
l) +
_a
CMS 1)7
of
is
at a rate
which
== 1.30
whun
cc
being transformed into another at a rate whiith
proportional to the amount of the substance still imtranafovnuid,

If the amount is 50 when t
4 hr., lind how
0, arid 15.6 when t
is
long
it
will be before
y^
of the original substance will rumain.
28. According to Newton's
law the rate
at
which tho temperature
of a body cools in air is proportional to the difference botwoou tho

temperature of the body and that of the air. If the tempwraturo of
the air
when
is
kept at 60, and the body cools from 130 to 120" in 300
will its temperature be
100
sue.,
29.
Assuming that the rate of change of atmospheric prnssuro p

a distance h above the surface of the earth is proportional to tho
pressure, and that the pressure at sea level is 14.7 Ib. per square inch
and at a distance of 1COO ft. above soa level is 18.8 Ib. per square
at
inch, find the
law connecting^ and
h.
GENERAL EXERCISES
171
Prove that the curve y = e~ Zx sm Sec is tangent to the curve

2*
y = e- at any point common to the two curves.
31. At any time t the coordinates of a point moving in a
plane
2t
are x = a~'2t cos 2 1, y
o~' sin 2 1. Find the velocity of the
point at
any time t Find the rate at which the distance of the point from
the origin is decreasing. Prove that the path of the point is a loga30.
rithmic spiral.
Show that
32.
tho logarithmic spiral r
e"
cuts all radius vectors
at a constant angle
Find the radius
33.
the point for which x
of curvature of the curve
ft
=a
-f-
common
35
36.
( 5
n^+e
n
that tho catenary y
) and the parabola
^
1 3
- a; have tho same
slope and the same curvature at their
Show
34.
= e~ Za sin 2x at
7T
Q>
point.
Find the radius of curvature of the curve x =s
Show
e sin t,
y=
e*
cos t.
that the product of the radii of curvature of the curve
=s
ae
37.
"
at the two points for which
is
+ e" )
= In
1 8
a?(e
Find the radius of curvature of the curve
?/
a;
and
its
least value.
38.
Find the radius of curvature of the curve y
point for
which x
7T
= -=
= er cosaj
at the
CHAPTER
VII
SERIES
58.
Power
The
series.
expression
+ a x + ajK? + a$+ ajf-\----
fl
(1)
where aQl a^ az ,
are constants, is called a power series in x.
The terms of the series may be unlimited in number, in which
case we have an infinite series, or the series may terminate after
a finite number of terms, in which case it reduces to a polynomial.
If the series (1) is an infinite series, it is said to converge
for a definite value of x when the sum of the first n terms
approaches a limit as n increases indefinitely.
Infinite series may arise through the use of elementary operations.
Thus, if we divide 1 by 1 a; in the ordinary manner,
we obtain the quotient
and we may write
LX
(2)
^ '
we extract the square root of 1 + x by the rule

Similarly,
taught in elementary algebra, arranging the work as follows;
if
l+x
2
172
POWER SERIES
the operation
may
173
We
be continued indefinitely.
may
write
The results (2) and (3) are useful only for values of x for
which the series in each case converges. When that happens
the more terms we take of the series, the more nearly is their
sum equal to the function on the left of the equation, and in
that sense the function is equal to the series. For example, the
series (2) is a geometric progression which is known to converge when x is a positive or negative number numerically less
than 1. If we place x = % in (2), we have
"which is true in the sense that the limit of the sum of the terms
on the right is f If, however, we place x 3 in (2), we have
.
which
is
false.
reason for this difference
may be
seen
by
considering the remainder in the division which produced (2)

but which is neglected in writing the series. This remainder is
l-x
x
is
after
n terms
of the quotient have
numerically less than
1,
been obtained ; and
if
the remainder becomes smaller and
if x is numerically greater than 1,

the remainder becomes larger. Hence in the former case it may
be neglected, but not in the latter case.
The calculus offers a general method for finding such series
smaller as
increases, while
by the special methods which led to (2) and

in the following section.
(3). This method will be given
shall assume that a function can
59. Maclatirin's series.
a power series which is valid for apbe
as those obtained
We
expressed by
of the function may
propriate values of x, and that the derivative
be found by differentiating the series term by term. The proof
of these assumptions lies outside the scope of this book. Let us
begin by
proceed to find the expansion of sin x into a series.
usually
We
writing
where
$oLv s*A+Bx +
-4, J?,
(7,
etc.
Cx*+Dx*+Ex*+Fx*+
-,
are coefficients to be determined.
(1)
SERIES
174
By
differentiating (1) successively,
we have
+ 4.3 2.Je + 5.
sin z = 4- 3- 2- J+5. 4- 3 2 Jfc
cosa;=3.2.
J>
-3
.4
substituting x
By
lowing equations,
we
in equation (1)
and each
of the fol-
get
= 0, 5=1, C=0, 3.2.D = -1, J?=0, 5.4.3.2.^ = 1;

5 = 1, tf= 0, -O = -^T
#=<>, ^=^JL = 0,
o
whence
X
__ + __...,
8
sma;
we have
Suhstitutuig these values in (1),
SQ^
a;
(2)
and the law of the following terms is evident.

The above method may obviously be used for any function
which may be expanded into a series. We may also obtain a
for a general
general formula by repeating the above operations
I
auction /(a;).
We
and,
= A + Bz + C3?+J)x*+lSz +
l
place f(x)
by
(3)
differentiation, obtain in succession
f"(x)
=3
Z>
+4
Ex+
.,
where ff (x), /"()/'"(); and/ v (a;) represent the first, second,

and fourth derivatives of /(#).
third,
We now
place
a;
of that substitution
in these equations, indicating the results

left of the equations by the symbols
on the
MACLAUKIN'S SERIES
>
f" ()>
etc
We
175
thus determine A, B, C, D, E,
etc.,
and, substituting in (8), have
A*) =AOHAO>+ÂoX+^/"(OX+ ^<oy+This
is
- (4)
called Madaurin's scries.
Find the value
to foui decimal places.
of sin 10
Ex.
1.
Wo
tuny use sones (8), but have? to remembei
eiivuhii measure.
Hence wo
significant figmes in ordei

iigiU'O of the result.*
Subntibutmg in
(2),
i>lace
= -~~
42) that x must be in
17458, where
loO
to insure accuracy in the
wo
fomth
take five
significant
we have
TT
sin
,_,_
f.17458)
v
'
.17451}-
ia
.17458
Ilonco to four decimal places
00089
am 10=
+,
.17804.
.1736.
We have u.scd only two terms of the series, since a rough calculation,
which may bo made with a = 2, shows that the third term of the series
will not affect the fourth decimal place.
Ex. 2. Find the value of sin 61 to four decimal places.

In radians the angle 01
is
~-.TT=
include
find
chow
all
which
series for
1.0647.
If this
nuxnbei were sub-
luO
Htituted in the sonos (2), a great
many terms would have
affect the first four
8in(~+oA
and afterwards place
the angle ~^(~ (10) because
We
decimal places.
it is
o:
to be taken to
shall therefore
j~(=l).
an angle near 61
for
We
which we
obtained by the method by

may
which (2) was obtained, For variety we shall use the general formula (4).
i
_.
Wo have then
\
know
The
the nine and cosine.
series
b(5
/(O)
This
two or
JH
men
tnn|
|V;
not a general rule. In other cases the student may need to cany
three more significant figures in the calculation than are needed
in the result.
"
SERIES
176
Therefore, substituting in (4),
we have
= -^- = .01745 and perform the arithmetical

loO
We have sin 61= sin(^ + ~}= 8746.
In this we place x
tion.
calcula-
180/
\o
Ex. 3. Expand In (1 + a)
The function In x is an example of a function which cannot be expanded
into a Maclaurm's series, since if we place /(a;) = In a;, we find /(0),/'(0),
etc to be infinite, and the series (4) cannot be written We can, however,
expand ln(l + a;) by series (4) or by using the method employed in obtaining (2). The latter method is more instructive because of an interesting
We place
abbreviation of the work
ln(l
= A + Bx + Cxz + Dx3 +
a;)
Eat
Then, by differentiating,
=B+
2 CJB
3 Dx*
+ 4 Ex s +
But we know, by elementary algebra, that

-
=1
+x
+ xz
Hence, by comparing the last two
xs
series,
we have
C = -k Z>=, E=-%, etc.

in the first series, we find In 1 = A, whence .4 = 0. We
JB=1,
By placing x
have, therefore,
^ + _-_+....
^
= x -_
8
In (1
a;)
EXERCISES
Expand
1.
(a
the following functions into a Maclaurin's series
tan" 1 ^
6.
tan a;.
3.
2. cossc.
d*.
5.
8.
each, of
sinf-j
7.
a?).
ln(2
sin" 1 ^.
aj).
Prove the binomial theorem
o;)
+wan -
n =a'...
l
i
1
aj4-
n(n
v
1)/
an
~2
a5
+ n(n
.
i\
sin 5
decimal places
Compute
10. Compute cos 62* to four decimal places.
9.
4.
to four
'IVw
yv
O
O\
2)/
an
-8
a5*4---
TAYLOR'S SERIES
60. Taylor's series.
series, as given
usually necessary to restrict ourThis is for two reasons. In the
in the previous section, it is

selves to small values of x.
the series
first place,
and in the second
177
In the use of Maclaurin's
may
not converge for large values of x\
converges, the number of

necessary to take to obtain a
required degree of accuracy may be inconveniently large. This
difficulty may be overcome by an ingenious use of Maclaurin's
place,
terms of the series which
even
if it
it is
We
series as illustrated in Ex. 2 of the previous section.

may,
however, obtain another form of series which may be used when
Maclaurin's series is inconvenient.
Let f(x) be a given function, and let a be a fixed value of
x for which the values of /(#) and its derivatives are known.
Let * be a variable, or general, value of x which does not differ

a that is, let x
a be a small number, positive or
negative. We shall then assume that/(a;) can be expanded in
a that is, we write
powers of the binomial x
much from
f(&=A+(x-a) + C(x-a)*+I)(x-a)
and the problem
We
is
to determine the coefficients
8
-\
-4,
B,
C,
differentiate equation (1) successively, obtaining
In each of these equations place x
f(a)~A, /<
whence
4=/(a),
B =/'(),
Substituting in equation (1),
= a. We
/"(a) =2,1
f" (ch
2'
C^^f
we have
(7,
have
etc.;
#= f"8(a\
'
et<>-
as the final result
a)^
- ..
(2)
as Taylor's series. Since, as has been said, it

This
a a small quantity, the
valid for values of x which make x
is
is
(1)
known
SERIES
function /(a?) is said to be
expanded in the neighborhood of
x
a.
It is to be noticed that
Taylor's series reduces to
Maclaurin's series when a = 0. Maclaunn's series is therefore
an expansion in the neighborhood of x
0.
Ex. Expand In a; in the neighborhood of x = 3.

Here we have to place a = 3 in the general formula. The calculation of
the coefficients
is
as follows
/():= In a,
/(3)
= ln3,
and therefore
f~
BT (
- 3QNfl
)
This enables us to calculate the natural logarithm of a number near

3,
provided we know the logarithm of 3. For example, let us have given
In 3 = 1 0986 and desire In 3. Then x - 3 =
and the series gives
,
= 1.0986 +
= 1 2527.
The
last figure cannot
1667 - .0139
0015
- .0002 +
be depended upon, since
. .
we have used
only
four decimal places in the calculation.
EXERCISES
Expand each
of the following functions into a

Taylor's series,
using the value of a given in each case
:
1.
In*, a
= 5.
4. cos
2.
a;,
TT
-
a = 2.
TT
a=
3.
sin x,
8.
Compute sin 46
to four decimal places
by Taylor's
series.
9.
Compute
cos 32
by Taylor's
series.
10.
Compute
1 -1
by Taylor's
series.
GENERAL EXEECISES
179
GENERAL EXERCISES
Expand each of the following functions
1.
ln(l
2.
seco;.
3.
,~
8.
into series in powers of a;
,1+as
ln=
4.
6. cos(-7r
x by that for cos
fir
+
sm(v
\b
6.
-a?
7.
).
Verify the expansion of tan a? (Ex
series for sin

9.
a?).
'
/z
3'
59) by dividing the
3,
x.
Verify the expansion of sec x (Ex. 2) by dividing 1 by the
series for cos x.
1
10.
Expand
JL ~T~ tC
by Maclaurin's
series
and verify by dividing
the numerator by the denominator

11.
Expand
e* cos
into a Maclaurin's
multiplying the series for &

12.
Expand e^sime
into a Maclaurin's
multiplying the series for

13.
Expand
by that for
tf*
by that
ln(l+aj) into a Maclaurin's

e
00
by that
Compute
cos 15 to four decimal places
15.
Compute
sin 31
16.
Compute
e*
17.
series,
and verify by
for ln(l-|- K).
14.
1,
and verify by
series,
for sin a;.
multiplying the series for
Ex.
and verify by
series,
cosaj.
by the
series
found in
59.
Using the
series for
ln(l+
x~),
compute Inf to
five decimal
places.
18.
places,
Using the series found in Ex. 4, compute In 2 to five decimal

and thence, by aid of the result of Ex. 17, find In 3 to four
decimal places.
19. Using the series found in Ex. 4, compute In | to five decimal
6 to
places, and thonce, by aid of the first result of Ex. 18, find In
four decimal places.
20. Using the series found in Ex.
places,
and thence, by aid
4,
compute ln$ to four decimal

Ex. 18, find In 7 to three
of the result of
decimal places.
21.
Compute the value
1
pansion of sin- a5 (Ex.
4,
of TT to four decimal places,
59)
and the
relation sin-
from the
= IT
-g
ex-
SEEIES
180
22.
Compute
pansion of tan23.
(Ex.
8,
24.
(Ex. 8,
the value of IT to four decimal places, from the ex-
1
;*;
Compute
and the relation tan- 1 - + 2 tan" 1 - =
-v/17 to four
59), placing
Compute
59)
(Ex. 5,
"\/26 to four
59), placing
decimal places by the binomial theorem
= 16,
= 27, x =- 1.
/"*
25. Obtain
the integral
pansion.
26. Obtain
the
= 1.
decimal places by the binomial theorem
integral
expansion
pansion.
x
I
28. Obtain the integral
C&C
i/o
dx in the form of a
in
the form
of
series
series
in the form of a series expansion.
x5
in the form of a series expansion.
Uo
/*
e'^dx
f*x
27. Obtain the integral
X o-\r\
~T"
CHAPTER
VIII
A quantity is a function of two

x and y when the values of x and y determine the
quantity. Such a function is represented by the symbol /(#, #).
For example, the volume V of a right circular cylinder is a
function of its radius r and its altitude h, and in this case
61. Partial differentiation.
variables
Similarly,
we may have
a function of three or more variables
represented by the symbols /(a;, #, z),f(x, y, 2, w), etc.

Consider now /(*, jr), where x and y are independent variables so that the value of x depends in no way upon the value
of
y nor does the value
may change x
a change in /.
derivative of
of
y depend upon that of x. Then we

y, and the change in x causes
without changing
The
limit of the ratio of these changes
with respect to x when y

/
be represented by the symbol

Similarly, the derivative of
is
constant,
is
the
and may
JTJ?\
\ dxJv
v^
with respect to y when x
is
represented by the symbol i-j- Y These derivatives

\dy/x
with respect to x and y reare called partial derivatives of
used
indicates
The
by the letter outside
symbol
spectively,
constant,
is
the parenthesis the variable held constant in the differentiation.

When no ambiguity can arise as to this variable, the partial deflf
ftf
rivatives are represented
dx
\dx
by the symbols
Aa;
A*-*!)
+ A^>
Ay
181
and
thus:
^-,
182
So, in general,
if
we have
a function of any
number
of variables
., 2), we may have a partial derivative with respect to

f(x, y,
each of the variables. These derivatives are expressed by the symA
rvj*
QJ?
'
'
'
'
orsometimesby/*C*>
*'
To compute
these derivatives
we
y>
have to apply the formulas
for the derivative of a function of one variable, regarding as

constant all the variables except the one with respect to which
we
differentiate.
Ex.
1.
Consider a perfect gas obeying the law v
=
P
We may change
the temperature while keeping the pressure unchanged. If A* and

corresponding increments of t and v, then
P
8v
and
= -c
AJ>
are
dt
Or we may change the pressure while keeping the temperature unchanged If Ap and Ai? are corresponding increments of p and v, then
A
*L
dp
and
Ex. 2.
/=
a;
?L = 3
-.
p*
- 3 x*y + y,
2
a;
Ex.
3.
- 6 xy,
/= sin
%-
Ex. 4. In differentiating in this
way
care
= 2--
a;
2
(re
+ y2),
cos (x*
v
must be taken
functions expressed in terms of the independent variables.
r cos 9t
Then
= r sin 6
or
fa
-
c9
or
r sin 6,
fy =
A
~
r cos
dd
where r and 6 are the independent variables.
6,
w y),
^
to
Let
have the
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
183
Moreover, since r
8r
= sin0,
Sx
(2)
where x and y are the independent
variables.
fix
be emphasized that
It is to
in (1)
is
not the reciprocal of

ftr
/ON
/-IN
In fact, in (1),
^ '
and,in(2),
dr
in (2).
=
(
and because the variable held constant is different in the two cases, there is no reason that
one should be the leciprocal of the other. It
happens in this case that the two are eqiial, but
this is not a general rule. Graphically (Fig. 80),
if
OP = r
is
PQ = Ar, while 6 is
PR = Aa: is determined Then
PR
n
T
Lim. - - = cos 0.
increased by
constant, then
fdx\
9j,
Sr
\drja
PQ,
Moreover (Fig. 81),
if OM = x is increased by
MN-PQ, = Aa;, while y is constant, then R Q= Ar
dr
T
m,
= /dr\ = Lim
Then
is determined
.
-,
8x
It
cos0.
\dx/v
ST
happens here that

-
in (1),
and
in (2),
fix
f^y
But
-5?
co
ox
or
are neither equal nor
reciprocal.
EXERCISES
n
and
Jx
~ in each of the following cases

6. ,
=
y
6.
3-1
t
9,
J35
sm
2ajv
Ji
-
ZS.M
If *
10. If
= ln<X - 2xy +
= Va; +
2
a
2/
+ 3aj -
K
2
2/ e-
prove
a;
+y
prove
*.
PAETIAL DIFFERENTIATION
184
62.
The
Higher partial derivatives.
partial
derivatives of
/(#, y) are themselves functions of x and y which
may have
partial derivatives, called the second partial derivatives of /(a-,

d /3A
rrn,
/2A 2 /9A 2 /9A T> 4. -4.
They
17
are
)'
dx\dxj
8y\dx/
TT-
8x\dy/
TT-(
)'
y~).
vi
^ ut ^ mav
J b shown
dy\dy/
that the order of differentiation with respect to x and y is immaterial when the functions and their derivative fulfill the ordinary
conditions as to continuity, so that the second partial derivatives
are three in number, expressed
by the symbols
a/8/\
3/3A
dx\Zy)
dy\dx]
dxcy
Similarly, the third partial derivatives of /(#,
/)
are four in
number; namely,
So, in general,
T;
signifies
""
j /gA "
the result of difEerentiating
y) p times with respect to a?, and g times with respect to

the order of differentiating being immaterial.
In like manner,
9r
signifies the result of differentiating
/(#, y, g) jp times with respect to #, q times with respect to y,

and r times with respect to 2, in any order.
TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL
185
EXERCISES
1.
If
2.
If
3.
= (x +
z
tan- 1
^ find
&
y), find ^-3
e"sm(x
3V
If
Verify
17
2
2/
^-^] = -^-[^- m
each of the following cases
4. *
K
O.
g
w
+ 2 ye+y
a:?/
7
I
8.
If^
9.
If
In (a;2
-.
y
Vflj 4-
= tan-
V=
is>
= sm-
x
1
= 0.
a2/), prove a2
ji
cos w<, prove n*r
63. Total differential of
j/
&*
82
O2 /
10. If
6.
te
By\faJ
&e\<ty/
g-g
-r/\
^^
a function
+ w (w + ^)ii = ^two
of
variables.
the differential of a function of a single variable,

defined by the equation
In
is
is
(1)
ay=f'(x)dx,
where /* (#)
20
y =/(),
the derivative of y.
But
/(aO=Lim;
and hence, according to the
(2)
definition of a limit (
|2=/0) +
1),
(8)
e,
where e denotes the difference between the variable

limit f (x) and approaches zero as a
Multiplying (3) by As, we have
limit as
+ Aas) -/(),
its
> 0.
Ay=/(a;)Aa? + Ac.
But Az = dx and Ay =/(
and
(4)
so that (4)
may
be
written in the form
-/(SB)
=/ () * + e <n
(5)
186
In the case of a function of two variables, /(, y),

is
we
changed,
f(x + Az, y) -/(a, y) = ^dfc +

the theory being the same
variable, since
by the symbol
Similarly,
y is held
dxf.
x
if
is
x alone
df
(6)
OJJ
The term
constant.
+ Ay) -/(*,
dx may be denoted
alone
y) =
^ dy
is
changed,
we have
4- e cZy,
2
be denoted by the symbol d
dy may
e^
as in the case of a function of one
held constant and
/(a, y
and
if
have, by (5),
(7)
f.
dy
and y both change.
Finally, let x
Then.
A/=/CB+AZ, y+Ay)-/(a;, y)
==/(+ Aas, y+ Ay)-/(z+ As, y)4-/(z+ Az,y) -/(,y>
(8)
Then, by (6),
/(a + As, y) -/O, y) = |

and
by
similarly,
/(as
+ As,
<fc
+ Ay) -/<> + As,
y)
OJ?
where
is to
of
is
+ ^db;
(9)
(7),
be computed for the value
a continuous function, as
we
shall
+ e/rfy,
^dy
*
+ Aa;, y).
(a?
assume
it is, its
(10)
But
if
value
oy
+ A#, y) differs from its value for (x, y) by an amount

which approaches zero as dx approaches zero. Hence we may
write, from (8), (9), and (10),
for (x
A/=
cj?
where both
We now
dx +
+ ^rfg + e3 rfy,
and ^- are
^
dx
dy
write
computed for
df = j dx +
ox
(x,
^
y\
aj
dy,
(1 2)
dy
A/= 4f+ e^ + e dy,
so that
and
(11)
ay?
(13)
?f is called the total differential of the function, the expres-
sions dfc/
and
being called the partial differentials.
TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL
187
by analogy with the case of a function of a

single variable, that a partial differential expresses approximately
the change in the function caused by a change in one of the
independent variables, and that the total differential expresses
It is evident,
approximately the change in the function caused by changes in

both the independent variables. It is evident from the definition that
,.
,,
,.
._,
Ex. The period of a simple pendulum with small oscillations
whence
Let
,.
is
g
I
= 100 cm
T = 2 sec.
mm
with a possible error of ^

in measuring,
with a possible error of ^ $ y sec. in measuring. Then <ll =
Moreover,
dg
and we obtain the

site signs,
say dl
=-
dl
= ^, dT =
dg
and
-^
=j- dT,
largest possible error in
Then
The
(14)
v f.
g by taking
dl
and dT
of
oppo-
-j^.
*ra
^+
= 1.05 v* as 10.36.
ratio of error is
<!l
=^_2
I
~T =
.0005
.01
- .0105 = 1.05%.
EXERCISES
1.
s=s
a8
4 icy
2.
A and dz wlien
aud Ay = dy =.001
Calculate the numerical difference between
An
a
y a
,
angle
<
is
= 2, =
?/
3, Aas
cZaj
s=
01,
determined from the formula
<
= tan"
^
x
Toy
measuring the sides x and y of a right triangle. If x and, y are

found to be 6 ft. and 8 ft. respectively, with a possible error of one
tenth of an inch, in measuring each, iind approximately the greatest
possible error in <.
3.
If
is
motive force
the strength of an electric current due to an electroalong a circuit of resistance R, by Ohm's law
188
made in measuring E and R, find

approximately the greatest possible percentage of error in computing C
4. If F denotes the focal length of a combination of two lenses
in contact, their thickness being neglected, and /x and /2 denote the
respective focal lengths of the lenses, then
If errors
of 1 per cent are
I= l
* A
/.'
If x and/2 are said to be 6 in and 10 in respectively, find approximately the greatest possible error in the computation of F from the
above formula if errors of .01 in. in /t and 0.1 in. in fz are made
The
5.
given
eccentricity e of
an
ellipse of axes
by the formula
2 a and 2b (a
>
I) is
The axes of an ellipse are said to be 10 ft. and 6 ft. respectively.

Find approximately the greatest possible error in the determination
of e if there are possible eriors of .1 ft.
a and .01 ft. in 5.
6.
The hypotenuse and
7.
The
one side of a right triangle are respectively

13 in and 5 in. If the hypotenuse is increased by .01 in., and the
given side is decreased by 01 in , find approximately the change in
the other side, the triangle being kept a right triangle
v
horizontal range R of a bullet having an initial velocity of

an elevation a, is given by the formula
fired at
Ji
=
9
Find approximately the greatest possible error in the computation

of R if v = 10,000 ft per second with a possible error of 10 ft
per
60 with a possible error of 1' (take g = 32).
second, and a
The
8.
density
of a body
determined by the formula
is
*
w
where
If
is
w=
w'
w the weight in water.

220,400 gr., find approximately the
caused by an error of 5 gr. in w and an
the weight of the body in air and
244,000
gr.
and
largest possible error in

error of 10 gr. in w',
w'=
HATE OF CHANGE
189
QJ7
Rate
64.
The
of change.
of change of
partial derivative
gives the rate
ox
with respect to x when x alone varies, and the
partial derivative -j- gives the rate of
change of / with respect
to y when y alone varies. It is sometimes desirable to find the

rate of change of/ with respect to some other variable, t. Obviously, if this rate is to have any meaning, x and y must be
functions of
thus
t,
making/
also a function of
the rate of change of
To
we have simply to
obtaining m this way
with respect to
63,
by
dt,
8x dt
dt
The same
11,
.
divide df, as given
By dt
be obtained by dividing A/, as given by

63, by At and taking the limit as At approaches zero as
(11),
Now, by
at
obtain this derivative
by (12),
t.
the derivative
t is
result
may
limit.
Ex. 1 If the radius of a right circular cylinder is increasing at the rate

of 2 in per second, and the altitude is increasing at the late of 3 in per
second, how fast is the volume increasing when the altitude is 15 in. and the
radius 5 in
Let
V be the
volume, r the radius, and h the altitude.
_
~
'
dh dt
dr dt
dt
dr
nd7i
+ 7ira -~.
dt
dt
=
By hypothesis, ~
dt
2,
~=
= 5, = 15.
Therefore
7t
3,
~ = 375
IT
cu. in.
dt
dt
per second.
Then
may be obtained without partial differentiation by ex

= 5 + 2 1, 7i =15 + 3 1
pressing V directly in terms of t. Foi, by hypothesis, r
when r = 5 and 7i = 15. Therefore
if we choose t =
The same
result
7= (8 75 + 375 + 120 a +12

i
~=
whence
When
0,
(375
240
*- = 375 TT cu. in.

dt
+ 36
)7r;
) *-.
per second, as before.
190
Ex. 2.
The temperature
of a point in a plane is given
by the formula
The
rate of
change of the temperature in a direction parallel to
accordingly,
to
(a:
2 2
jr
gives the limit of the change in the temperature

change in x when x alone varies
compared with a
Similarly, the rate of change of u in a direction parallel to
Suppose
now we wish
to find the rate of
change
makes an angle a with OX

a fixed point, and P (x, y) a moving point
on the line through Px making an angle a
with OX, and s is the distance P^P, we have
whence
x
y
and
=x
Replacing
Pig. 82,
if
P^(xv
y^)
is
p
jo"
= xt + s cos a,
= y^ + s sin a,
^.
dy
^ = sma.
by s in formula
(1),
PIGI 82
and substituting the values of -- and

ds
dii
as
of the tempei ature in a
From
x1
dx
= cos a,
~ which we
OF is
?/
direction which
P! R
is,
'
which
Jw
OX
2*
&*__
~"~
lust found,
we have
du
as
du
cos
dx
du
sin a
dy
_ _ 2 x cos ex + 2 y sin ex
Formula (1) has been written on the
hypothesis that x and y
t
only. If x and y are functions of two variables, t and s, and (1) is derived on the
assumption that t
alone varies, we have
simply to use the notation of 61 to write
are functions of
at once
a
which may
also
be written
dt
as
dx dt
%y dt
GENERAL EXERCISES
191
EXERCISES
1.
=e
If 2
tan
with respect to
= tan"
If
2.
1
1
-f-
-:
with respect to
of
= sin
x}
y=
tf,
cos
t,
find the rate of change of
= sin
when
cos
t,
find the rate of change
t,
t
jL
V=
If
3.
any direction are

If
4.
F=
all
find the rate of change of
deiivatives
its
( 0,
at the point
making an angle of 45 with OX.
If the electric potential F-at a,ny point of a plane is given by

a
2
In Vcc
y find the rate of change of potential at
point (1) in a direction toward the origin ; (2) in a direction at
the formula
any
equal to zero at the point
Va;2 + yz
(1, 1) in a direction
5.
V and
6""*) cos ay, prove that
(a
V=
right angles to the direction toward the origin

If the electric potential
B.
by the formula
-\/(g>
F= In
any point of the plane
at
+W
2
ff*)
V(o;H-a) -|-y
potential at the point (0, a) in the direction of the axis of y,
the point (a, a) in the direction toward the point (
a, 0).
and
GENERAL EXERCISES
,
1.
= sin xy
TJ!
If
+1
x -z-- ^y 5ox
fa
80
prove
i
>
xy
2
A
= 0.
oy
/?/
"i
'
If
3.
If
at
4.
If
# = e-y cos a
B.
If 3
6.
If
/i
= f + ye*
prove
-f
oj
O2
r\2
a2
(7c
= e-c-wx s n
cc),
/CCj
prove that
prove that
= e-**sin (TO?/ + x Vft
'
2
,
jr-j
f
t
4-
^=
0.
= <*.- 1
2
7c ).
x
prove that
*
W'
rtrr
/IN
F= <?**cos (a
In r),
7. If
fc
'
given
find the rate of change

b of
is
2
?
^^
*T. *
prove that -5-5or
Sfr
0>'
4-
-~
H-
== 0.
1
-5-75
ir 0*
at
PAETIAL DIFFEKENTIATION
192
an altitude 8 ft. and a radius

Find approximately the change in the volume caused by decreasing the altitude by .1 ft. and the radius by .01 ft.
9. The velocity v, with which vibrations travel along a flexible
8.
right circular cylinder has
ft.
string, is
given by the formula
t is the tension of the string and

the mass of a unit length.
Find approximately the greatest possible error in the computation of v if t is found to be 6,000,000 dynes and m to bo .005 gr.
per centimeter, the measurement of t being subject to a possible
error of 1000 dynes and that of m to a possible error of .0005 gr.
where
of
it
10. The base AB of a triangle is 12 in. long, the side AC is 10

in.,
and the angle A is 60. Calculate the change in the area caused
by increasing A C by 01 in and the angle A by 1. Calculate also
the differential of area corresponding to the same increments.
11.
The
distance between
two points
A and B on
opposite sides
C and measuring
60. Find approximately the
greatest possible error in the computed length of AB caused by
possible errors of 4 in. in the measurement of both AC and BC.
of a
pond
is
determined by taking a third point
AC = 90 ft BC = 110 ft
,
BCA =
and
12. The distance of an inaccessible

object A from a point B is
found by measuring a base line B C 100 ft the
angle CBA =s<x= 45,
and the angle BCA =
60. Find the greatest possible error in
,
0=
the computed length of
a and
AB
caused by errors of 1' in

measuring both
13. The equal sides of an isosceles

triangle are increasing at the
uniform rate of .01 in. per second, and the vertical
angle is increasing at the uniform rate of .01 radians per second. How fast is the
area of the triangle

increasing
when
long and the angle at the vertex
is
the equal sides are each 2
45
ft.
a
Prove that the rate of change of * = In
(a; -J-Vjc + f) in the
direction of the line drawn from the
origin of coordinates to
14.
any
equal to the reciprocal of the length of OP.

The altitude of a right circular cone increases at the
uniform
rate of .1 in per
second, and its radius increases at the uniform rate
of .01 in. per second How fast is
the lateral surface of the cone
point P(x, y)
is
15.
increasing
when
its altitude is
2 ft. and
its
radius 1 ft.?
GENERAL EXERCISES
16.
Given
= tan"
*t
~\
ffi
1
1-
tan"
193
JL* >
Find the general expres-
along the line drawn from the origin of

coordinates to any point. Find also the value of this derivative at
the point (1, 1).
sion for the derivative of
17.
In what direction from the point
of the function
maximum
18.
tion
tt
is
rate ?
Find a general expression

s= &-v sin x
maximum
the rate of change

the value of that
(3, 4) is
kzy a maximum, and what
+ -3 e-*v sin 3
cc
for the rate of
change of the func-
at the point
value of the rate of change.
-77
\3
).
Find
also the
CHAPTER IX
INTEGRATION
18 and 23 the process of integration
defined as the determination of a function when its derivadenoted the process of
tive or its differential is known.
65. Introduction.
In
was
We
integration
by
the symbol
/;
that
Cf(x) dx
then
where C
is,
if
= F(x) +
C,
the constant of integration (18).

The expression f(x) dx is said to be under the sign of integration, and/(a;) is called the integrand. The expression J<\J'} + ('
is
is
called the indefinite integral to distinguish

23.
it
from the
definite
integral defined in
it
by
Since integration appears as the converse of differentiation,

is evident that some formulas of integration may bo found
direct reversal of the corresponding formulas of differentia-
with some modifications, and that the correctness

any formula may be verified by differentiation.
In all the formulas which will be derived, the constant C will
be omitted, since it is independent of the form of the integrand;
but it must be added in all the indefinite integrals found
by
means of the formulas. However, if the indefinite integral is
found in the course of the evaluation of a definite integral, the
tion, possibly
of
constant
may be omitted, as it will simply cancel out
previously been written in ( 23).
The two formulas
/
*
I
cdu =
if it
du
has
(1)
ft
and
/](du
i
>,
+ dv + dw-\
-
.^
)
= Cdu +
194
Cdv + Cdw
(2)
INTEGEAL OF
are of fundamental importance.
follows
w*
195
Stated in words they are as
(1)
constant factor
of integration
The
(2)
the
sum of
To prove
changed from one side of the sign
we
(1),
c du
note that since
cdu
d (cu)
cu
du -H dv + dw
it
follows that
du.
= d(u + v + w +...),
we have
(du + dv
+ dw H-
d (u + v
du
+ +
+ w+
u+v
dv
-H
I
The
d(cu),
=c
manner, to prove (2), since
like
be
integral of tJie sum of a finite number of functions is

the integrals of the separate functions.
In
may
to the other.
dw +
application of these formulas is illustrated in the follow-
ing articles.
66. Integral of
u".
Since for
or
values of
all
/wm\
)=wm
except
m=
\m/
it
Cum ~ l du =
follows that
J
Placing
m == n +1,
we have
1.
/or aZZ values of n except n s=
In the case
1, the expression under the sign of inte-
%=
gration in (1) becomes
Therefore
which
is
= lnw.
recognized as
(2)
INTEGRATION
196
In applying these formulas the problem is to choose for u

some function of x which will bring the given integral, if posformulas. The form of the integrand
sible, under one of the
the function of x which should be chosen for u.
suggests
Ex.
Find the value
1.
Applying
65,
(2),
JY aa; +
2
of
and then
Ix
+-+
dx
J
05,
(1),
we have
fft
J \
= afx z (lx +
- ax9 - bx*,
,
--&
lx
Find the value
2.
and
c In
JV
a..
of
= ~ ax* + J lxz +
-^} dx
a,*/
J*(z
c In i
f (a;2 + 2) xdx
may be
--+ C
x
2)ar<fo.
If the factors of the integrand are multiplied together,
which
&
Therefore C lax*
Ex.
(
~-
second,
11
(1)
respectively
+ cf
and the fourth of these integrals may be evaluak'tl

and the thud by foirnula (2), wheie u = x, the icsults beiny
The fiist, the

by formula
bj'xflx
s
f(x +
evaluated by the same
a;)
we have
dx,
method
as that used in
Ex
1,
the
z4 + xz + C.
result being
Or we may
let x
+2=
whence 2xdx = du, so that xdx =
% du. Hence
22
Comparing the two values of the integral found by the two methods of
we see that they differ only by the constant unity, which may
integration,
made a
be
3.
Let
GKC
Hence
part of the constant of integration.
Find the value of C(oxz
Ex.
2 bz) a (ox
&) dx.
= u Then (2 ax + 2 fydx = du, so

+
2
8
= C %u*du
(oa; + 2 fcc) (aa: + l)dx
J"
2 bx
=s
/
/
2J
7
M B du
that (ox
=1
u4
.
24
+C
,
&)
dx
J rfw.
INTEGRAL OF
Ex. 4. Find the value of C
J
As
in Ex.
3,
let
<
ax 2
+ 2bx =
axz
M"
197
+ dx
+ 2*]fa;
Then
u.
(2 ax
2 b) dx
=* du,
so
that
Ilence

e *
Let
&
u.
Hence
Then
+C
+
2 to)
tfu.
+ 6)cdiB
J(e
2 In w
2 In (az2
(e
eax adx
=
s=
J^
jf
If the integrand is a trigonometric expression it is often pos-
out the integration by either formula (1) or (2).

terms
the integrand can be expressed
of one of the elementary trigonometric functions, the whole
sible to carry
This
may happen when
of that function.
expression being multiplied by the diffeiential
For instance, the expression to be integrated may consist of a
function of smo; multiplied by cosEefe, or a function of cos a;
multiplied
Ex.
6.
by
smaâ;),
Find the value
of
etc.
s
[ Vsm x coa xdx.
Since d(smx)
oosxrfx, we will separate out the factor cosrcrfar and
of sin a:.
express the rest of the integrand in terms
Thus
Now place
-Vsinxcos s xdx
sin x
= M,
= Vsirue (1
and we have
sms ;c) (cosxdx).
INTEGRATION
198
Ex.
Find the value of
7.
2xdz.
Jsec
2 xdx, we
82
2 sec
Since d(tan 2 a:)
separate out the factor sec
a of tan 2 a:
expiess the rest of the integrand in terra
2
sec 2
Thus
x dx
rdc and
= sec* 2 x (sec 3 2
= (1 + tan8 2 a:) 2 (sec 3 2 a:r/
= (1 + 2 tan2 2 +*tan*2 a;) (se
ar
Now place tan 2z=su,
and we have
6
fsec 2 xdx
= Jtan2a:
+ C.
EXERCISES
Find the values of the following integrals
M 4-
*6
-/:
-j=\dx.
C(
J
1 \^
j=]dx.
[x-vx
r?**C
"J^T
C(x*
+ l)*xdx.
Vo + 4x
4
13
J
in
f
!.
I
cos 8 2
as
sin 2 OJ$B.
16.
3
sin 3
a;
cos 3 xdx.
16.
/ sin
(x
17.
cos^3 x sin 3 *c?a;.
sec 3icâ5.
J
G
ote.
19.
(aj
.,dx.
4
sinaj)
+ 2) cos (a
"*/'
-|-
rctn2 (2a;-|-l)cso
1-cosa;
.
rfa;.
14.
18.
2 a; -f sin 2 a;'
ax
1 + cos aa
Jfif
*^
/.e* x + &
c -1 + COS 29.
_
t7a;.
dx.
&r.
sin
tffa
i.
tan ax
12.
x~vx/
sec3 ace
!1
(2aj
2) Ja;.
ALG-EBKAIC INTEGRANDS
From
67. Other algebraic integrands.
differentiation of
sm~ 1 M, tan" 1 ^, and
199
the formulas for the
sec-'w,
we
corresponding formulas of integration
versal, the
du
derive,
re-
by
== sin" 1 ?/,
du
and
These formulas are much more serviceable, however,
/
by - (a
replaced
> 0).
Making
this substitution
if
is
and evident
fit
reductions,
we have
as oar required formulas
du
a
<J
==
sin"
,u
1 -
.^
= -tan-_, ->
1
+a
1
*u
^-sec" --
du
wV /du
and
wa
Referring to
1,
47,
we
ON
(2)
s y
(1)
NX
/y
a
<J
sQ~
(3)
a-
a*
see that sin" 1
- must be taken
in the
Uf
first
or the fourth quadrant;
have sin"
u
-
first
like
=^
necessary to
1
manner, in (3), sec" - must be taken in
or the third quadrant or else its sign
whence dx
is
in the second or the third quadrant, the minus sign
must be prefixed. In
the
however,
if,
it
du,
and
__
/fix
Vj)
4 a: 2
fa
r
-y/9
Letting 2 x
_.
358
\&u
V9 ~ M3
must be changed.
= u, we have du = 2 dx
INTEGRATION
200
Ex.2 Find the value
dx
*
of
= V3
du
rfj;
whence
j,
we
Jf
-4
V;}
jt
<ir =
let
V:JW~
M,
UH-J
*/,
and
and
-= f/,
Va
_ __
/^j
V3 -4 ^ vV~-~4
x2
Ex. 3. Find the value of

Since
V4
a;
js
= Vd
rfr
/.
17
(r
2)
C
J
<lu
we may lot w =s a
_~^*
"^
C
2 whttiusH
-i
-~
C'
S1J1,

J 2
<lx
.r
u,
We may first write the integrand in the form

1
and
let
=x+
aJ+x+
Then du
J 2
2'*
= dj.,
3 x
=
<>J
(.r
= ~f
2J
^)
+"Y
X
s
ton-'JL
-~r~
au
4tt
v"5f
f
Vai
+r
^/.r
ALGEBBAIC INTEGRANDS
5z-2
201
/
Separating the integrand into two fractions
5z
2o; a
and using
65,
(2),
+3'
2a; 2
4-3
we have
2
__
5xdx
2dx
J
If
and
,
and
we
let
we
if
rz
let
a;
3,
then du
5a;c?a;
V2 x,
then
= 4 artfo
/vM
rfu
5,
= V2 dx
it
2dx = AT / du - = /= -1
V2
V2
tan- 1 ^
J2a;2 +3
Ju*+$
V3
i4
= Vo.tan- ,a;Vo
1
and tan~ 1 ( 1) have

There is here a certain ambiguity, since tan- 1
each an infinite number of values. If, however, we remember that the graph
of tan~ 1 a; is composed of an infinite number of distinct parts, or Iranches
1
(Fig 56, 46), the ambiguity is removed by taking the values of tan- Vs
and tan- 1 ( 1) from the same branch of the graph For if we consider
/
- 1^
tan- x o and select any value of tan~ 1 a, then if & = a,
|
Ja
a X + 1
tan~ l 6 must be taken equal to tan- 1 ^, since the value of the integral is
then zero. As & varies from equality with a to its final value, tan- x & will
a
-1
vaiy from tan a to the nearest value of tau- &.
The simplest way to choose the proper values of tan- 1 ?* and tan~ 1 is
to take
/'Va
./-i
The same ambiguity

by
(1),
7T
dx
a2
+1
_
~ v __ /
3
-^
and
7T
_ 7 TT
1
i/~ 12*
TT\
occurs in the determination of a definite integi al
but the simplest way to obviate
between
Then we have
and
them both between
The
it is
to take both values of sin- 1
proof is left to the student.
202
EXERCISES
r
l'
dx
J Vl6 -
'
9 a?
dx
/dx
/dx -9
13
'
a:V4a;2
C
J 3-e -
(?SK
ra.r
x
16 '
3 a/
dx
B
C
/,
12.
dx
J V5 x -
4 a;
+ 2*
+ 11
1^
J
7
'
/
Jr VGas-a*
10 '
19
'
r
J_
T
J V6*-4a*
68. Closely
resembling
m the form
formulas (1) and (2) of the last section

of the
integrand are the following formulas ;
/du>
^r^^
-.
+o.
(1)
(u+ û --^
(2)
and
These formulas can be
easily verified by differentiation and
should be made
the
this verification
'
by
student
ALGEBRAIC INTEGRANDS
203
/f/1"
Letting
V2 =
a;
u,
we have du = "v2dx
whence dx
du,
and
,;= du
= _JL
rfu
= -i- In [M + Vu*-8] + C
Va
= 4= ln C' ^2 + Va xa -
3]
rfe
/(/
Vy
~
aB
As
in Ex. 4,
07,
we may write tho integrand
Va Vx a
and
lot
=x+
-f-
whence
rfw
Va
a?
V(j;
^)
form
rfx,
_JL T
VJJ ^ V(,^
/__.4!L
V3 a:a + 1 x
in the
^-
V8^ Vu a
"
a
*j)
-J
n w
vl
"vl
~ -Lin (3 +
Vi)
where
C = -Va
In 8
A".
/ oz
a;"
+*
i
Writing the integrand in the form

1
we
let
* x Hh
^j ,..^ "S
whence
rf
ss
rfa?.
IK
JLO
+ VO
a;
12 *)
+K>
INTEGRATION
204
r
dx
J 2s* +
a:
-15
_
~
1
2
<lf
f*
(*
+ V
2(-V)
+C
llnljli
a+ 3
11
It
11
where
C=
-j^
In 2
W"
i)
+
I
'
>1
i)
K.
EXERCISES
1
j.i
*"
r
J V^T2
-
c dx
J V9rf-l'
11
J.J..
*
'
5.'
r
J V3 2 -4
C dx
J Vaâ"
f
J V3jc +2a3 + 3
C
'
'
*+-
r
J
<fa
C
J 4if-2* f*
fV5-""4'
r*
dx
dx
'
J VOSTT'
dx
oa^- 1
^ 2a
I
rf
IB '
J***-M
r
'
/*
rfa!
13
r~
i
J 3^ + 6
^
r
Jo*-3(B +
12
*"
3'
-i'
'-a- 8'
69. Integrals of trigonometric functions.
205
Of the following
for-
mulas for the integration of the trigonometric functions, each

of the first six is the direct converse of the corresponding formula of differentiation ( 44), and the last four can readily be
verified by differentiation, which is left to the student.
/ sin
cos
udu
cos M,
udu =
sin w,
(2)
= tan u,
(8)
(4)
v J
seu"ud
(,
ctn w,
/Qscfudu
sec
u tan u du =
esc
u ctn udu =
Ex.
If
1.
we
then
whence
and
Find the value

let
sec it,
(5)
esc u,
(6)
tan udu = hi sec u,
(7)
ctn udu
= In sin
udu =
esc
udu = In (esc it
of Tsui
(8}
it,
sec
|
(1)
In (sec
-h
tan it),
ctn u)
7a.v7a;.
11=7,1:,
du7dr;
dx
\ du,
Cs\n7x dx
T sin
=3
(|
sin
cos
f/u)
udu
+ C*
+ C,
J-cos7a?
(9^
INTEGRATION
206
Ex.
If
2.
we
Find the value

let
and Tsec (2 x
=2
a;
-f 1,
f sec (2 x +
of
then du
1) tan (2
+ 1) dx
2 dx,
+ 1) tan (2 x + 1) cfo =
f sec M tan du
= ^secu + C
= sec (2 + 1) +
a;
(7.
Often a trigonometric transformation of the integrand facilitates the carrying out of the integration, as shown in the
following examples:
Ex.
3.
Find the value
f coa z axdx
of
cos s ax
Ccos*ax dx
Since
(1
cos 2 ax),
f ( J + J cos 2
Tdk
J
aar)
dx
^ Tcos 2 aacfo
/
= o x + T~ sin 2 aa: + C
A
T
CZ
the second integral being evaluated by formula

(2) with M
Ex.
4.
Find the value of f Vl
Since
cos x
cos
arcfo.
= 2 cos2 -
1,
ii
Vl + cosa;=v 2cos|,
/
ib
and
f Vl +
cos xdx

Since
Jtan
first
</j;
Aan2 3 xdx,
tan2 3a;
2
bhe
~ C V^ cos -
arcfa:
integral being evaluated
- 1,
sec a 3
a:
J*(sec
- 1) da:
Csec*3xdx
J-tan3a;
by formula
Cdx
a;,
(3)
with v*=
= 2 ax.
207
EXERCISES
22.
v'10.
,,
.yll.
*
/*cos2o;
I
rr
23.
dx.
J smaj
r sin*
7rdaj.
2
J
.
12.
2 a:) daa;.
Jose (3
r*i
24.
Jis
70. Integrals of exponential functions.

/
and
ir
J~i
are derived immediately

differentiation.
It
av du*=-.
In a
The formulas
XI \
a*
(2)
from the corresponding formulas of
INTEGRATION
208
Ex.
If
Find the value of C$ x djc
1.
we
let 3
= u, we
have
Ce8x dx
JLrrfa;.
/*/B
xz
If
we
place
V5 =
5""
and
i
let
= u, we have
. _/*.
EXERCISES
!Fmd the values of the following integrals
1.
ie^^dx.
6.
f(a
//g2x
6.
eâjtfo;.
rf.
_a
8.
4.
e^f+txfa
+e"dx.
Qt
+ -)<&.
_ a-2as
9.
10* dx.
2 00
10.
11.
C\**-*dx.
12
V~
*"'rfaj.
f ^+0"*
Jo
71. Substitutions.
In
all
the
integrations
that have been
made m the previous sections -we have substituted a new variable M for some function of x,
thereby making the given integral
identical with one of the formulas.
which the choice
of the
new
variable
There are other cases in

u is not so evident, but
in which, nevertheless, it is
possible to reduce the given integral
to one of the known
integrals by an appropriate choice and wh>
stitution of a new variable.
shall suggest in this section a few
of the more common substitutions which
it is desirable to
try,
We
I.
Integrand involving powers of a

U. The substitution of
of 2 for a -f- bx is
usually desirable.
some power
SUBSTITUTIONS
^^
Ex. 1. Find the Value of f

J
209
.
,
(1+2*)*
Here we let 1 + 2 x = s?
17
Eeplacing a by
then x
x* dx
Therefore
(1+2 a?)*
value (1
its
=
II.
- 1)
^(
= - f(z< 8J
and dx
+ z)
we have
2 #)* and simplifying,
(1 +
^+c
" 12 * + 2
2 B) * (
Integrand involving powers of a
% z*dz.
tls
'
The
?;#".
substitution
some power of
for a + frr is desirable if the expression
~
under the integral sign contains xn l d& as a factor, since
71
of
= bnxn ~
cfo.
J.
We may write the integral in the

=
and place aa + o2
Replacing s by
a.
its
Then xdx
3.
value in terms of
and place 1
and the integral becomes
x,
we have
Find the value
We may
form
= sdz,
x
Ex.
2
rfa;.
/x/j.2a;
of
fjs (l
Vaa +
a2
+a
2 spfidx.
write the integral in the form
a;
Thou
xhlx
fr
Replacing z by
J(*<
its
value,
Cx 6 (1
- * ) ds =
ifisdz,
and tho now integral in
2
n^ s (3 *
5) + C.
we have
2 a)icfa
^ (1 + 2 3 )8 (3 a
8
- 1) + C.
z ia
INTEGRATION
210
ar
If a
Integrand involving Va
constructed with one leg equal to x and
2
III.
triangle
right
with the hypotenuse equal to a (Fig. 83),

is suggested.
the substitution x = a sin
Ex.
Find the value of
4.
Let a; = a sin <.

a cos <.
fVa8
a:
Then dx = a cos <f>
C^/a?x*dx =
Therefore
da;.
_,
gg
and, from the triangle,
d<f>
is
a;
a f cos 2
But
and
for,
from the
Finally,
triangle, sin d>
=-
and cos
<&
by substitution, we have
a/
V^+a
3
IV. Integrand involving
If a
constructed with the two legs equal to x
and a respectively (Fig. 84), the substitution x = a tan <f> is suggested.
Ex.
5.
Let i
= a sec
Find the value of f

i/
= a tan
<
right
triangle
dx
/*
Then dx = a
ô\ $
sec 8 <tf<
V#a +
<f>.
Therefore f
But, from the triangle, sin
is
<f>
*
Va;8
a
flr
so that,
by substitution,
aa
SUBSTITUTIONS
211
V. Integrand involving V#
a
If a
constructed with the hypotenuse equal to
x and with one leg equal to a (Fig. 85),
a
right
= a sec
the substitution x
Ex.
6.
Find the value
=
Va;2 - a2 =
Let
as
a sec <.
a tan
r
of
is
<#>
a Vo:
<
from the triangle, tan <j> =
J>
V*2 -
rf.c
.J.
72.
by
If
a
letting z
a;
a2
^^
<
ge
d<
J"(tan
</>
+ tan4 <) sec2
j
,
by substitution, we have
so that,
= TV (2 aa +
a;
We might have written this integral in the form

solved
= aG
Exit,
tan
-*f
is
"
a?dx
= a sec
Then dx
fa8 Vj;2 - a2 dx
Therefore
suggested.
2
triangle
V(a;
fa;
Va;
fl
a2) 8
+C
cPfxdx) and
the value of the indefinite integral
is
found by substitu-
X6f(x)dx
may
be
performed in two ways, differing in the manner in which the

limits are substituted. These two ways are shown in the solutions
of the following
example:
Ex. Find f Va"--.ida;.

Jo
By Ex. 4,
71,
Va
"
Therefore
x*dx
= i/a Va - x* +
INTEGRATION
212
Or we may proceed
and when x
= a,
<
Let x
as follows
,
so that
varies
<
a sin
from
When
<
to
= 0,
as x vanes fiom
to a.
"
Accordingly,
4
the
evidently the better method, as it obviates
its value in tenna of
necessity of replacing z in the indefinite integral by
x before the limits of integration can be substituted.
The second method
is
EXERCISES
X *
1.
6.
~~
11
'/(*-*
7.
**<
J (3-
/,&
\J
*
9.
Jf (V 5
10.
aV2a;
$dx.
15
73. Integration "by parts. Another method of importance in

the reduction of a given integral to a known type is that of
integration by parts, the formula for which
formula for the differential of a product,
d (uv) = udv
From
this
formula
we
is
+ v du.
derive
uv
which
udv +
vdUy
usually written in the form

I
is
udv
= uv
vdu.
derived from the
INTEGEATION BY PAETS
In the use of
formula the aim
this
depend upon
original integration
213
evidently to make the

the evaluation of a
simpler
is
integral.
Ex.
If
Find the value
1.
we
let
=u
of Cxe*dx,
and cPdx
= dv, we
have du
= dx and u = e*.
we have
Substituting in our formula,
= are1
j x&dx
e x dx
It is evident that in selecting the expression for dv it is desirable, if
choose an expression that
possible, to
Ex.
2.
Find the value
Here we
of
is easily integrated.
Csm
rx
may let sin- 1 x = u and dx = do, -whence du =
Substituting in our formula,
"^
we have
sin-i-xdx
= x sin-1
(1),
by
= x.
J{ Vl-o;2
2
a;
+ C,
66
Sometimes an integral may be evaluated by successive

gration
xdx
a:
= x sin- 1 ^ +
the last integral being evaluated by
and
1 ~~ x*
inte-
parts.
Ex. 3. Find the value of Cx*e*dx.
Here we
let
xz
= u and eFdx = do.
The integral
so that finally
Ja;V=
Ex.
4.
^xdx and
Then du
=e
31
.
Therefore
xeF dx
dx
may be evaluated by integration by parts (see Ex. 1),
= x*<*> - 2 (ar - 1) e* + C = eP
Find the value

"
sin bx
=u
of
je"
and' c** rfz
2
(a;
- 2 x + 2) +
(7.
sin&zda:.
= dv, we liave
= - *<"* sin &K
fc
av
8*
cos Ba; ?.
INTEGRATION
214
=u
/I
In the integral Ce01 cos bxdx we let cos bx

e"* cos
- e"* cos fa
bxdx
Substituting this value above,
/e"*
sin
bxdx
Jfe
a?/
* sin bxdx
c2
member
=w
and
<?a;
sin bx
(a
v
az
031
a?
fi**
cos bx,
+b*
a?dx.
fo,
whence
rf
Va; B
a;
= (a^ +
a2)
a2, the second integral of

(1)
/a;
which equals
JVa;
74. If the
a?dx
=s
2
a
$ [a Var + a
oa
= a,
written as
a2
s
/*
aa In (x
parts, the value
of
we hare
value of the indefinite

integral
by integration by
r*
and w
may be
Evaluating this last integral and substituting in (1),
whence
* sin bx
dx\
)
b cos bx)'
we have
Since
havi
of the equation all the terms
= - e"* sin bx ---e
Ex. 5. Find the value of fVa;2
and
e** sin Sards.
aJfc
3
Placing Va;
/
aw
a\a
r __
,
I e"* sin bxdx
J
t.
whence
dv,
/*
we have
Now bringing to the left-hand

containing the integral, we have
\
e ax dx
= - e 01 sin &e -- - eP* cos &r + a
(1
and
the
f(z)dv may be found by substituting the

va
I
the usual manner, in the indefinite

integral.
f/O) ** is found
definite
limits
a,
integral
and I
in
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
215
IT
Ex. Find the value of C*x*sinxdx.

Jo
To
find the value of the indefinite integral, let
Then
a;
In
a;
sm xdx =
cos a, dx, lot
Then
\x
a;
a?
cos x
x sin x
x sin a;
and
sin a; da;
= dv.
sin x dx
= do.
u and cos xdx
cos x dx
a;
x coaxdx.
cos x.
Finally, \ve have

I
x*ainxdx
ar
cosa,
2 a? sin a:
2 cos a;
C.
IT
""
Hence
C*j?
P
sinarda;
The
a;
is
2 x sin x
2 cos a;
-2.
better method, however,
l$.f(x)dx
cos x
Ha
is
as follows:
denoted by udv, the definite integral
denoted by
udv, where
f(x)dx
Jo.
stb
may be
understood that a and
it is
t/a
are the values of the independent variable.

/&
I
vdu.
udv=z\uv~\ n
va
Jo,
To
prove
**
note that
this,
/^6
follows at once from the equation
ib
/
yo
Applying this method
/
/o
to the
r'5'a;
r
a
sina?afa;=
/
vo
problem just solved, we have

IT
/&
/*!
/>fc
i/a
Then
s*b
ir
-13
2
a;
cosa;
/* *
2 C^xciOBxdx
Jo
W
2 C*&inxdx
["|J
2a;sina:
STT-f 2 cos a:
Jo
L
I
INTEGRATION
216
EXERCISES
Find the values of tho following
.
CynP'tlr.
COOB- I X<?JK.
stP<i*
(?x-
1
tair~ 3a:</J3
4.
I .rscc" 1 !}^//^.
6.
7.
I/' 9 "Von
8.
(In
,r
Hindoos ;'(/.r.
uos 3
75.
intftfra
5.
.r
'^
/.i'.
<Ar.
Integration of rational fractions,
9.
./
10,
,i"'lu.i'f/>.
il.
Mr
18,
VPOH
*-V.r.
"J,
JJuv/.i".
rtttwixtt fwrfiHit
whose numerator and denominator ur
fraction
can often be integrated by expressing

fractions
whoso denominators are
of the original fraction.
Wo
it
!/,!.
polynomials.
UH tho twin of
it
i.s
Il
of th
faot-oi'H
illustrate only tin* inw in

is lews thun tho th'gm* of tin*
.shall
which the degree of the numerator

denoiuinator and in which the ftu'torH of tho tlmitmunutur m*
all of the first degree and all different,
Ex. Find tho value of
The
f-~^ f^}'\"
factors of tho denominator arc x
(x
whojo J,
/?,
and
+ 8)(j- 4) ""a +
</''
tt,
2,
a<l x
a-B^ +
2,
Wo ftHwtmo
^7aro constants to bo (lotonniucd.
Clearing (1) of fmclions by uiuUiplyuig by
(ja
+ n)(x9
4),
or
l, /J,
and
(7 firo
to bo datidrmmnd so thai Iho
righWrnml
memhr
of (3) .shall bo identical with th k'ft-hand nuwnbcr, lhn <'<*iHj5iHtu( wf

powers of a: on the two sides of tho equation muni Iw tujual.
Therefore, equating the ooeffieimitH of liku powors of / in
theequatzons
whence we find
^t
-1A +
= ~ 2, Ji 2,
<t
7i
Y
r,
~
=
1,
G ~ li,
(Jl),
RATIONAL FRACTIONS
a?
+ 11 x +14 _
=-
217
we have
Substituting these values in (1),
2 In (x
3)
2 In (a;
- 2) +
In
(a,
2)
+C
EXERCISES
Find the values of the following
i
*'
r a;+i
integrals
A
4
'^
7
J ?-"o7+8
'
2)
(*-
Bas+l
'
2
T__ -5a! + 5
iC
-.l)(a
T
6>
rfa; -
~2)(a! -3)
The formulas
76. Table of integrals.
of integration
this chapter are sufficient for the solution of
most
used in
of the prob-
lems which occur in practice. To these formulas we have added

a few others. In some cases they represent an integral which
has already been evaluated, and in other cases they are the
an integration by
parts. In all cases they can be

differentiating both sides of the equation.
These collected formulas form a brief table of integrals which
will aid in the solution of the problems in this book. It will be
result of
verified
by
some
noticed that
of the formulas express the
given integral only
in terms of a simpler integral.

I.
cdu=sc
1.
|
2.
8.
(du + Av
udv sauv
FUNDAMENTAL
du.
+ dw
I
vdu.
=
I
du +
dv
|
dw
INTEGRATION
213
ALGEBRAIC
II.
4.
5.
un du =
n +l
J
C du = ln
mu.
(n
1)
p^
I
r du
'
J
_'
r du _ 1
u a
~o
5
o ^
za
u-\-a
J u a
,
8.
u du =
vfls
J
9.
'
~\a?
2V
2
JWa
-w
dM = -i.Oa _t
10.
juâ*-u*du=>-
/du
Va -
+2
sm~-
12.
2
fl
13.
I
__
s*
/
t>.
n
_
14.
u^/uz
15.
I
az du
= % (w
16.
19.
/*
TABLE
du
_.
20.
219
,M
=-seo- 1 1
/,
V2 au
u*du
""*
22.
/.V2 aw - w
t
=-
= sm-
ft
24.
smudu=x
/*
TRIGONOMETRIC
cosw.
,
== sm , waw
.
24 sm
/I
I
smn udu =
2 w.
-r
w,
sin""^ cos w H
/*
I
w J
(n
^ 3= 0)
J
sin"" wcZM.
udu SB sin w.
cos
26.
w2 + a2 sin" 1
au
III.
23.
a) V2
(w
/w
/I
|
cos
wdw == -
coa*udu BBS -
udu
tan
29.
+ T4
sill
w.
7i
cosn 1 w sin w H
_i
/
I
n J
cos"
~a
w^.
(w
In sec w.
w?w s=
tan
C tanw
81.
rf
ctnw rfw sss In
34.
i/
85,
sec wrfti a= In (sec

=s
Jseo'wtfw
WC^M
Jcso
cso
86,
I
wc?'M!
(n
/\\
l^* 0)
sin w.
" ***
88.
udu.
w^ - n-1
/r*i"n
ctnn
""
n-1
/tan'*"''^
tan
t*
/**
ctn
+ tan w).
M,
In (cso
w-
ctaa w.
ctn
).
11
-3
wc?w.
(n
-1+
0)
0)
INTM! RATION
220
37.
38.
sec
u tau u du
oso
/"
/
ctn w tft*
HUC
<IBO
/Hin
Hill
* ||
v
41
WCt)S
U |'ll"*1/
I"*/ VU*' O/ //')/ "
niix
c* ^v'Ci (v vvCv "*-"*^
I
I
Hill"'
si ,
?f.
mfl ?M'0,s"
C50S"
r,sh'"M riLS*
.
j.,
U4_
><</
I
i
Wtll
*
i
// 4*1 i ~
F**'
1
I !*
Ji
it
J/
*/Jjf
*i**
M111
j
U dlt,*x
WCOH" H M
Tsii
<
H- 1
{/
m+1
IV. EXPONENTIAL
43.
44.
4.
r<'"?MM".
Ca*du**-~aH
In a
J
45.
46.
A*
GENERAL EXERCISES
Find the vaJuos of tho following mtgralH
8
I.
J
.
"'/0/,
/
/
m+w
42.
'-'-.-,}
?/,(Zjts=S"
I
I
w.
aj
(3
4-
^3
f2aj
flfaj.
4,
f(j f
>
GENERAL EXERCISES
7.
f(2-
//
/C
9.
221
i+ *
w- r
*
f
J (3x + xrf
r^-.
-1
27.
as
n-(8.-l)orf(8.-l)*,
"
IS.
13.
30
GSG^4; C l/C
dx
*
"\/ 1\
ti 'V*
a/
i/
11.
fsec8 V(-2Han 8 (:-2)daJ.

'
15.
ctn
J
1C.
1) sec
(a;
(a;
1) dx.
31.
"
11
dx
J V34-2aj-o;
32 .
dx
.
dx
f oso 2ajctu 2a;^sB.
33.
J
17.
tan'Saj-yseoSa-rZa-.
J
/H
(itn
34
35.
rt
-.-.IIU.J.
19
20.
/-..
CMC* fiaJ"V(!t,u 5 "/?.
**"
*?
*""
$$,
/*siu*4aj
4
v tan
/CHC
M.J-
3g
/
I
J
o*y
_
.
.<!()
'
I
"
^
*. v
5
&
T-
-U-Jlu-.iniLJ.UI
2 IB V(!HO '2xdx.
'>*
t*/
4.
/*
38t
Sir
39
>!'
'/9> +1
INTEGRATION
222
58.
53.
54.
--'*,&,
/^fal
+
V3a:2
55,
70t
"71
/J
'
V2a; /<a;
a
/^
72
3aj'
a;
/OnK
voa+4a;-l
a
<T^ _I_
'
/Lo _l_7
/w
"V n
/Lrw'i
'
* _L
yvv4.'r
T*a:-f-<
/
"J
dx
56.
_
d<
seo(a!- |)<fa.
^8^43;^
<W5>
?T~
cos 2
^y
SI t
.
w/ ^
4.
*
/--sin 2 a/
I
I
\ Sinas
_^
***"'
cos
j_ "
'
COSJB
GENERAL EXEECISES
75.
Cam*~dx
91.
89.
106.
Cx5*+*dx.
223
INTEGEATION
224
ofo:
107.
115 -
ptan(asQ
\
Bx
na
Bx
108.
116.
JV
t/Q
109.
118.
110.
111
112
114.
|
i/S
a;
8
a;
4-
123..
Jo
acHarr^cfaj.
CHAPTER X
APPLICATIONS
77. Review problems. The methods in Chapter III for determining areas, volumes, and pressures are entirely general,
and with our new for-
mulas of integration we can

apply these methods
now
to a
still
wider range of
cases.
Ex.
1.
x*
ellipse -^
Find the area
of the
+ ~ = 1.
i/"
It is evident
from the sym-
of the curve (Fig. 86)
metry
that one fourth of the required

aiea is bounded by the axis of
y,
the axis of
x,
and the
pIG<
gg
curve.
Constructing the rectangle
MNQ,P
as the element of area dA,
we have
dA**ydx = --VtP-aPdx.
a
Hence
Ex.2. Find the area bounded by the
5ST
axis of x, the parabola y9 =a kx, and the

straight line y + Sff-frssO (Fig. 87),
The
straight line and the parabola intersect at the point

\
/,
the straight line intersects

If
we
OX at B
( -
Draw
construct the elements of area as in Ex,
1,
c
(
\4
and
s
)
-i/
>
CD perpendicular to 0Z.
they will be of different
APPLICATIONS
226
form according as they aie to the

on the left of CD we shall have
dAydx
CD we
and on the right of
the line
left or to the right of
CD]
fc
k*x*dx,
have
shall
dA = ydx =
(k
It will, accordingly, be necessary to

and take their sum.
and
a:)
dx
compute sepaiately the areas ODi
DBC
Area
Area DBC
3
(X:
J*
1
- 2 x) dx =
\kx
a;
&
k*.
Hence the required area is S k It is to be noted that the area

since it is that of a right triangle,
DBC
could have been found by the formulas

of plane geometry for the altitude
;
D C = | and the base DB = l~^-~,

2
4
4
2
and hence the area
16
Or we may construct the element

shown in Fig 88
Then, if x1 and z2 are the abscissas
respectively of Pa and Pt
of area as
Ex. 3, Let the
ellipse of
Ex
3k
48
1 be represented by the equations
= a cos
<f>,
= l sin <.
Using the same element of area, and expressing y and dx in terms

....
we have
,
,,
= (b
dA
sin </>) (
a sin
.
As x vanes from
hence
to a,
</
=4
varies
from
to
t/O
=- 4
of
EEVIEW PROBLEMS
It is evident
is
from foimula
changed by interchanging
227
23, that the sign of

(1),
the limits. Hence
a definite integral
A=
irab
Ex. 4. Find the volume of the ring solid generated by revolving a

ciicle of radius a about an axis in its plane b units fiorn its center (b > a)
Take the
OY
axis of
evolution
and the line

through the center as OX. Then
as
(Fig. 89)
the equation of the ciicle
(r-&)' 2 +
=a
M"--
A straight line
meets the
is
OX
parallel to
circle in two points
P v where = x b Va y*, and

P2 where x = xz = b + Va2 ij\
A section of the requned solid
made by a plane through P P2
perpendicular to OY is bounded
a,
by two concentric circles with

= x v and Pz = xz
radii
l
MP
element of volume,
PIG. 89
respectively.
Hence,
if
dV
denotes the
dy=
The summation extends from the point L, wheie y = a, to the point If,
where y = a. On account of symmetry, however, we may take twice the
to y = a. Hence
integral from y =
V- 2
C
Jo
Ex. 5. Find the pressure on a

parabolic segment, with base 2 b and
altitude
base
and
is
its
a,
submerged
so
that its
in the surface of the liquid
PIG. 90
axis is vertical
Let RQ.C (Fig. 90) be the parabolic segment, and let CB be drawn
an the surface of
through the vertex C of the segment perpendicular to RQ,
parallel
the liquid. According to the data, RQ = 2 ft, CB-a. Draw
as a base construct an element of area, dA. Let
to Tti, and on
LN
LN
CM=x.
APPLICATIONS
228
dA
Then
*=(LN)ilje.
, *
r>
But, from
30,
whence
dA =
and therefore
2/;
<to.
The depth
if 10 is
hence,
of Zi^V below the surface of the liquid is CH

the weight of a unit volume of tho liquid,
1 $* (a
tip sz
,r
x) wdxt
a*
..
P-
and
1
r a 2biii j?i,
{
Jo
- .r)x
of.c
EXERCISES
= sin *.
/ *
_ \
= wA v'"Hh " %
Find the area of an arch of tho curve y
1.
>
Find the area bounded by tho catenary y

= /*.
axis of a?, and the lines
2.
fcliw
Find
....
the area included between tho curve
3.
?/
7
*
*
..
its
-1
.,
3?/
Find the area between the axis of
6.
a;
cycloid
= a(j!>
sin ^),
= a(l
Find the volume of tho
the plane surface bounded by

8.
OX
Any section
is
ellipse
an
a
2/
sss2(ce
1)
and
and ono arch of
tht
by revolving about
s
the curve* a$ -j3,
OY
SB
COH 0).
solid generated
OY and
tilio
made by a piano pM'pwulinulnr to

with tho ends of its busa r8tint? on Ihw
of a certain solid
isosceles triangle
1 4- '4 = 1 an d its
from the center
Uit*
6.
Iine2a;
7.
and
rt^
asymptote.
4. Find the area of one of the closed figurus boundtul by
8
sc
curves if
16 a? and ?/2
altitude equal to tho distance of tho plane
of the ellipse.
Find the
total
volume o tho
Bulid,
Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about tho

line 2 y + a
the area bounded by 0110 arch of tho curve
y m sin as
9,
and the
axis of x.
REVIEW PROBLEMS
229
Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about the

line y + a =
the area bounded by the circle a8 + t/2 = a2
11. Find the volume of the solid formed
by revolving about the
3
2
line x
a the area bounded by that line and the curve
ay = x
10.
A right circular cone with vertical angle 60
12.
the center of a sphere of radius a

of the sphere included in the cone.
A trough 2
13.
ends
If
it is full
has
vertex at
Find the volume of the portion
deep and 2 ft. broad at the top has semielliptical

of water, find the pressure on one end.
ft.
A parabolic segment with base 18 and altitude
14.
so that its base
horizontal, its axis vertical,

surface of the liquid Find the total pressure.
is
A pond of
A culvert,
15.
sides.
its
15
ft.
depth
whose
is
and
its
is
submerged
vertex
the
crossed by a roadway with vertical

form of a parabolic
cross section is in the
segment with horizontal base on a level with the bottom of the

pond, runs under the road. Assuming that the base of the parabolic
segment is 4 ft. and its altitude is 3 ft., find the total pressure on
the bulkhead which temporarily closes the culvert.
1. Find
the pressure on a board whose boundary consists of a
straight line and one arch of a sine curve, submerged so that the
board is vertical and the straight line is in the surface of the water.
78. Infinite limits or integrand. There are cases

which it
to be necessary to use infinity for one or both, of the
may seem
limits of a definite integral, or in which the integrand becomes

shall restrict the discussion of these cases to the
infinite.
We
solution of the following illustrative examples
Ex.
x,
1.
and the ordinate x

It
is
= 1.
the axis of
x (Fig. 91),
seen that the curve has the axis of x as an asymptote ; and hence,
not completely
asymptote do not
strictly speaking, the required area is
bounded, since the curve and
its
OM=l
Accordingly, in Fig. 91, let

(& > 1) and draw the ordinates
intersect.
0JV
ft
= -^
MP
and
and
'
If the value of b is increased, the
and the greater
boundary line NQ, moves to the right;
becomes, the nearer the area approaches unity.
APPLICATIONS
230
We
may, accordingly, define, the area boundt'd by the eune, Ihe u\i* of r,
and the oidinate .r = 1 as tlw hunt of the area Mj\Ql*\w tm'tcnst's indeti
nitely, and denoto it by the symbol
It
ft
-'f
Ex.
&
Lim f
Find the, area bounded by the

and u'
and the oidinatoH JK
axis of X)
Sinco the line
fmthtiimoH
ilic
area
<t
is
in
1.
.-
'(''
eurvt'
(KU?.
//
^
--
v ""
"
tiiJ),
tlw
'"
an jwyinptntc' of Ihc eum*, //~~- * when

ntneUy speukiuj-, hounded. We IIH \, lun
i
not,
bounded on thci ri^hl by the tirdinuto

is a Htuall quantity, with the lesult
where
find the area

a;
Ji,
ft
-A
'
(I
If
7T
l
M), Hin~
Hence wo may regard J as

and express it by tlw
vahu of th> area
tlui
required,
"*~~* M
""jj"
**(/"
if
*
Ftu.
ii
UiJ
'
Ex.
3.
Find the valuo
Proceeding as in Ex,
of
1,
"f,
w( plaoo
*
f(JG
-a
î
-7-
V/
Lim
h
/*
w J*
,
**<' i
Vj
But
an expression which increases
no finite value,
Indeflnifcely
Voo
hrnô th* givt*n
integral has
We
accoidmgly conclude that in ranli aawt w rntiut dftermiuo n

and that the problem has no solution if wt* cannot
find a
79.
Area in polar coordinates, Let
OH the
and
limit,
initial line of
(Fig, 98) he thn po! mid

a system of
polar noSniinatai (r, &}< nf>
two fixed radius vectors

respectively, and P& any curve
0%
Requirod the area JJOE
for
for
which 0*0 and Bmi

which the aquation Ift
AREA IN POLAR COORDINATES

To
construct the differential of area, dA,
231
we
divide the angle

into parts, dd. Let OP and OQ be
any two consecutive
radius vectors ; then the angle POQ
d0. With
as a center
and OP as a radius, we draw the arc of a circle,
intersecting OQ
The
at R.
It
is
area of the sector
obvious that the
re-
quired area is the limit of the

sum of the sectors as their
number
is
indefinitely increased. Therefore we have
and
This result
is
unchanged
FIG. 93
coincides with 0, but

in that case OPl must be
tangent to the curve.
if
So
also
P may
z
coincide with 0.
Ex.
1.
Find the area of one loop
of the curve r
As
= a sin 3
the loop is contained between the two tangents

required area is given by the equation
0=0
(Fig 65,
51)
and 6 =
the
= f
Jo
12
Ex.
r
2.
Find the area bounded by the
= 2 a cos 0,
and the loop
44
~ the curve
0= ~ and 0=~t
= a cos 2 6 which is bisected by
lines
of the curve r
the initial line.
Since the loop of the curve r

(Fig. 94), for
which
=-
= a cos 2 Q
is
tangent to the line
~, and the line ON, for which 6
OL
it is evi-
dent that the required area can be found by obtaining the area OLMNO,
2 a cos 6, and subtractbounded by the lines OL and ON and the curve r
ing from it the area of the loop. The area may also be found as follows
Let OPjPg be any radius vector cutting the loop r = a cos 2 Q at P t and
rv Draw the radius
the curve r = 2 a cos 6 at Pa Let OPl = rt and 0P2
:
APPLICATIONS
232
vector OQ^jj,
radii
and
OP
and
OP S
as-
a center, constiuct arcs of circles niti'iaoetouft O(^l^ at A\

IH ^ rfilQ and tho
respectively. Then the area ot the sector J\01fi
and
J2 2
making an angle dd with OP^P^ With
as
area of the sector
PZ OR
may now take the
area
is ^
r| dd.
We
^y
P 1 />3 JB a /'
and have
Then ^ =
/ __
7T
,_
the required area is symmetrical

with respect to the line OM, wo may place
01, since
(>2-*i)0.
FIG, 04
= 2 a cos0, we have rf = 4 a 8 coss 0, and

have r a = a2 cos2 2 0; so that finally
From the curve

r = a cos 2 0, we
from the curve
a a cos 2 2 ^) <W
e-?-'22
2
EXERCISES
1.
Find the
2.
total area of the lemniscato
a
?'
=2
cos 2
0,
3.
Find the area of one loop of the curve r

Find the total area of the cardioid r =
4.
Find the
5.
Find the area of the loop of the curve r*

a" cos 2
non 3
is bisected by the initial line.
Find the area bounded by the curves r = a cos 8 and r ==
Find the total area bounded by the curve r = 3 + 2 COB 4 0.
which
6.
=s
a sin n
0,
a(l-f- COB 0).
total area
bounded by the curve
a 6 + 3 <uw
0.
.,
7.
8.
lines
Find the area bounded by the curve ?cos a

^=sl and the
and
= 757T
9.
Find the area bounded by the curves r
r s= 4 cos
10.
^ 6 + 4 cos
and
Findtheareaboundedbythecurvesr=acos0andra =:a8 cos2^
MEAN VALUE
Mean value
80.
and
let
=/()
OM=a
and
a function.
ON=b. Take
distance
divide
to
MN
'
-,
M_
n
M^
z,
M_
n
so as
to
z,
erect the ordinates
y>
the points
into
n equal parts, each equal

dx, and at the points M, M^
2/0'
233
Let f(x) be any function of x

be represented by the curve AB (Fig. 95), where
of
'
&.-!
Tlien the
average, or mean, value of these

n ordinates is
M
This fraction
is
equal to
,
ndx
If
is
limit the
dx-\
indefinitely increased, this expression approaches as
value
"
"
This is evidently the mean value of an infinite number of
values of the function / (x) taken at equal distances between
6.
It is called the mean vafote of the
a and x
the values x
function for that interval.
with the
Graphically this value is the altitude of a rectangle
which equals
base
which has the same area as
MN
MNBA
/
/a
We
from the above discussion that the average of the

function y depends upon the variable x of which the equal
intervals dx were taken, and we say that the function was
see
also be averaged
averaged with respect to x. If the function can
with respect to some other variable which is divided into equal
parts the result
may
be different.
examples which follow.
This
is
illustrated in
the
APPLICATIONS
234
Ex.
tune ti
1.
if
Find the mean

the velocity
is
velocity of a
body
falling
from
rest
duimg
the
averaged with respect to the tune.
to ^ divided into equal intervals dt

Here we imagine the time from
and the velocities at the beginning of each interval averaged. Proceeding
as in the text,
we
find, since v
gt,
that the
mean
appears that in this case the
velocity equals
Since the velocity
mean
when
is gt^
it
velocity is half the final velocity.
Ex. 2
Find the mean velocity
distance s1
if
the velocity
is
of a
body
falling
from
rest
through a
averaged with respect to the distance.
to s 1 divided into equal intervals

Here we imagine the distance from
ds and the velocities at the beginning of each interval aveiaged Proceeding as in the text, we find, since v = V2 y$, that the mean velocity is
is v^2 gs v when s = s v we see that in this case the

two thirds the final velocity.
Since the velocity
mean
velocity is
EXERCISES
Find the mean value of the lengths of the perpendiculars
from a diameter of a semicircle to the circumference, assuming the
perpendiculars to be drawn at equal distances on the diameter.
1.
2. Find the mean length of the perpendiculars drawn from the

circumference of a semicircle to its diameter, assuming the perpendiculars to be drawn at equal distances on the circumference
3.
Find the mean value of the ordmates of the curve y
between x
and x
ordmates are drawn are

4.
The range
an elevation a
TT
to
of
assuming that the points at which the
at equal distances
projectile fired
v^
sin 2 a.
is
on the axis of
with an
x.
initial velocity V
Q
and
Find the mean range as a varies from
ff
7p averaging with
respect to a.
Find the mean area of the plane sections of a right circular

cone of altitude h and radius a made by planes perpendicular to the
6.
'
= sm x
7T
-5-
axis at equal distances apart.
LENGTH OF PLANE CURVE
235
In a sphere of radius a a series of right circular cones is

inscribed, the bases of which are perpendicular to a given diameter
at equidistant points. Find the mean volume of the cones
6.
7. The angular velocity of a certain revolving wheel varies with

the time until at the end of 5 mm. it becomes constant and equal to
200 revolutions per minute If the wheel starts from rest, what is its
velocity with respect to the time during the interval
in which the angular velocity is variable ?
mean angular
8. The formula connecting the pressure p in pounds per square

inch and the volume v in cubic inches of a certain gas is pv
20.
Find the average pressure as the gas expands from 2^- cu in. to 5 cu. in.
9. Show that if y is a linear function of aj, the mean value of y
with respect to x is equal to one half the sum of the first and the
last value of y in the interval over which the average is taken.
81. Length,
of
To
a plane curve.
find
the length of any
AB (Fig. 96), assume n 1 points, J?, J?,

-_ r between A and B and connect each pair of consecutive points by
curve
a straight line.
The length
of
AB
then defined as the limit of the

lengths of the
-, X^.iB as
]%PV
of the
%%,
is
sum
n chords AQ,
n is increased
without limit and the length of each

chord approaches zero as a limit. By
means of this definition we have already

39 and 52) that
shown (
"
FIG. 96
d8**^dy?+df
in Cartesian coordinates,
<2
(1)
and
= V,fra 4-rW
(2)
(3)
in polar coordinates.
Hence we have
and
To
evaluate either (3)
or,
variables involved in terms

third*
The
^dx*+ dy*
C-Vdr*
s =>
+ r*d6\
(4)
(4) we must express one of the

the cither, or both in terms of a
of.
limits of integration
may
then be determined.
APPLICATIONS
236
Ex.
point
I.
Find the length of the parabola y2
we
of the parabola
From the equation

(3)
= kx
from the vertex to the
(a, 6).
find 2
ydy
= kdx Hence
formula
becomes either
Either integral leads to the result
Ex. 2. Find the length of one arch of the cycloid
We have
dx
whence, from
(1),
sm<),
a(<jf>
cos <)
a (1
ds
= a V2
2 cos
/* 27r
Therefore
2a
cos <).
a sin
<j>
= 2a sin 2
<j>d<j>
<i
sin
= a (1
dy
dtp,
d$
rf<ji>.
= 8 a.
d<&
/o
EXERCISES
v
1.
Find the length
intersection with
2.
to
ai
of the curve
OX to
Find the length
= h.
the point
of the catenary
af
Find the
total length of the curve
Find the
total length of the
5.
Find the length of the curve

x = a cos -}- a<l> sin <,
y
curve x
<f>
6.
to
j!
=4
and
7T
= -^
its
<
--^
point of
8
^>,
a<
")
from x
= a sin
<.
cos <,
e~*cos
t,
y= e-*sin#, between
= a cos
total length of the curve r
j from the point on
= a (1-|- cos 5).
re
a
that the length of the logarithmic spiral
between
two points is proportional to the difference of the radius vectors.
9.
any
+e
= a cos
= a sin
Find the
from
7. Find the length of the curve r

to the pole
the curve for which 6
8.
TT.
Find the length of the curve x
the points for which
-~\e
3.
<
I)
3").
4.
from
3y*(x
(4,
Show
of the- points,
WORK
82.
Work.
By
237
work done
definition the
in
moving a body
against a constant force is equal to the force multiplied by the

distance through which the body is moved. If the foot is taken
as the unit of distance and the
force, the unit of
work done
the
of 50
ft. is
Suppose
A (x = a)
to
is
in lifting a weight of
1250
now
pound
measure of work
is
25
B (x =
a function of
vals be
b")
MN, where
body
is
moved along 0JT(Fig. 97) from
a;,
OM
x.
is not constant but

Let the line AB be
j/W
J>
Then
is /(a?), and if the force were conf(x) throughout the interval MN, the work
would be/ (x) dx. This
moving the body through
stantly equal to
in
Thus
through a distance
against a force which
the force at the point
done
Ib.
ft-lb.
that a
expressed by /().
divided into intervals each equal
A
i
to dx, and let one of these inter-
is
taken as the unit of
called & foot-pound.
MN
expression therefore represents approximately the work actually

done, and the approximation becomes more and more nearly
is taken smaller and smaller. The work done in
exact as
is the limit of the sum of the terms f(x) dx
moving from A to
MN
computed
for all the intervals
between
and B. Hence we have
/>
and
Jit
Ex. The force which

tional to the
its
known
the stretching of
to
natural (unstretched) length.

If
we
a spring is proporsti etched. Foi a cerbe 10 Ib. when the spring has been
work done in stretching the spring 1 in. from
resists
amount the spring has been already
tain spring this force is

stretched & in. Find the
F is
have,
the force reqmied

from the statement
to stretch the spring
~ 10 when x = %, we have k
Reasoning as in the text, we have
and since
through a distance
of the problem,
w~C\
Jo
= 20.
Therefore
F = 20 x.
x,
APPLICATIONS
238
EXERCISES
1.
A positive charge m of
electricity is fixed at 0,
on a unit charge at a distance x from
is -3
33
The
repulsion
Find tho work done
m bringing a unit charge from infinity to a distance a from

2.
Assuming that the force required
0.
a wiro from the
to strotdi
*t*
length a to the length a + x
is
proportional to
-'j
and that a
foixio
if*
a length .0,'i in.

in, to 40 in.
greater, find the work done in stretching that wiro from
O
3. A block slides along a straight line from
against a resistance
of 1 Ib stretches a certain wire 36
ka?
equal to
.
(K
j" Cb
where
7c
in
in lungth to
and a are constants and
or,
is
the distance
any time. Find the work done in moving the

block from a distance a to a distance a
from 0.
of the block from
at
Find the foot-pounds of work done in lifting to a

height of
20 ft above the top of a tank all the water contained in a full
cylindrical tank of radius 2 ft. and altitude 10 ft.
4.
A bag
containing originally 80 Ib. of sand is liftod through a

ft. If the sand leaks out, at such a rato that
while
the bag is being lifted, the number of pounds) of sand lost is
wjual to a
constant times the square of the number of foot
through which the bag
has been lifted, and a total of 20 Ib. of sand i& lost
the
5.
vertical distance of 8
during
find the
6.
where x
lifting,
number of foot-pounds of work done in

lifting tho bag,
body moves in a straight line according to the formula c
is
ef,
the distance traversed in a time
t.
If tho resistance of the
square of tho velocity, find tho work done
the
resistance
of
the air as the body moves from != to ft* a.
against
air is proportional to the
7.
Assuming that above the surface
of the earth the form* of the
earth's attraction varies
inversely as tho square of the diBtanca from

the earth's center, find the work done in
moving a weight of w pounds
from the surface of the earth to a distance a miles above
the surfaca.
wire carrying an electric current of

magnitude C is bent
into a circle of radius a. The force
exerted by the current upon a
unit magnetic pole at a distance a from
the center of the circle in a
straight line perpendicular to the plane of the circle is known to
8.
be
27rCas
(a?+
'
done in brin g in 8 a ttnit

magnetic pole from
infinity to the center of the circle

along
the line just mentioned,
GENERAL EXEKClSES
A piston is
239
a cylinder of cross section S The

force acting on the piston is pS, where p is the pressure of the gas
in the cylinder, and is 7.7 Ib. per square inch when the volume v is
2 5 cu in. Find the work done as the volume changes from 2 cu. in. to
6 cu. in., according as the law connecting p and v is (1) pv
k or
9.
free to slide in
(2)X* = *
GENERAL EXERCISES
1.
Find the area of the sector of the
ellipse 4oj
+9y =36
2
by the axis of x and the line 2 y = x.

Find the area of each of the two parts into which the area of
cut out of the first quadrant

2.
a; +
if = 36 is divided by the curve y = a;
Find the area bounded by the hyperbola xy
8 = 0.
straight line x + y
2
4. Find the area bounded by the parabola a;
8 a8
the circle
= 12
and the
=4 ay
and the
3.
Find the area of the loop of the curve ay2 = (x

2 a) z
a) (x
Find the area of the two parts into which the loop of the
is divided by the line x
curve y* = cc 2 (4
y = 0.
a;)
5.
6.
7.
+a6 =a
2 2
ary*
2
2/
and
its
asymptotes.
8.
2
2/ (aj
+ & ) = <&& and its

2
asymptotes.
Find the area bounded by the curve a? = a cos 6, y = b sin

Find the area inclosed by the curve x = a cos 8 0, y = a sin 8 0.
11. Two parabolas have a common vertex and a common axis, but
lie in perpendicular planes. An ellipse moves with its plane perpendicular to the axis and with the ends of its axes on the parabolas.
Find the volume generated when the ellipse has moved a distance
h from the common vertex of the parabolas.
8
9.
10.
12.
a;
Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about the line
= 4 the figure bounded by the parabola y*= 4 x and the line x = 1.

is intersected by two
13. A right circular cylinder of radius
a,
which is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder

and the second of which makes an angle with the first. Find the
volume of the portion of the cylinder included between these two
planes, the first of
planes if their line of intersection

the cylinder by the first plane.
is
tangent to the circle cut from
APPLICATIONS
240
.,
an
w.
u^
U.UU.UJLU
and
a? as a base,
y*
altitude equal to the

its plane perpendicular to the plane of the curve. Find
a.
a to x
as the triangle moves from x
isosceles triangle is constructed
ordinate
fn
+
w*.^c* Uw ~~
with
its
the volume generated

15. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about
8 a8
and the
the line OF the figure bounded by the curve y
2
line y
o,.
Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about the

z
2 the plane area bounded by that line, the parabola y = 3x,
3.
and the lines y =
17. Find the volume formed by revolving about the line x = 2
3
and the axis of y.
the plane figure bounded by the curve y = 4 (2
a;)
16.
line
x=
18. The sections of a solid made by planes perpendicular to OF

4 a; to
aie circles with one diameter extending from the curve
2
4 x. Find the volume of the solid between the
4
the curve y
points of intersection of the curves.

19. The area bounded by the circle x*
+$
2 ax
is
revolved
about OX, forming a solid sphere Find the volume of the two parts
into which the sphere is divided by the surface formed by revolving
the curve y2
3.8
about OA'
x
Find the volume of the two solids formed by revolving about
Y the areas bounded by the curves ar -f #2 = 5 and g/2 = 4 ai.
2a
20.
Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about OX

and x == a, and the curve
the area bounded by OX, the lines x =
21.
= x + aea
straight lines OA, OB, and OC determine two planes

which intersect at right angles in OA. The angle A OB is 45 and the
angle AOC is 60. The section of a certain solid made by any plane
perpendicular to OA is a quadrant of an ellipse, the center of the
in OB, and
ellipse being in OA, an end of an axis of the ellipse being
OC. Find the volume
an end of the other axis of the ellipse being
and a plane perpendicular to OA at
of this solid between the point
a distance of two units from 0.
22.
The three
23. The section of a solid made by any plane perpendicular to OX

a rectangle of dimensions a? and sm x, x being the distance of the
plane from O. Find the volume of this solid included between the
is
planes for which
and x =
IT.
GENERAL EXEECISES
An
oil
tank
weighs 50
the tank.
Ib.
per cubic foot
241
in the form of a horizontal cylinder the ends

of which are circles 4 ft. in diameter. The tank is full of oil, which
24.
is
Calculate the pressure on one end of
25. The gasoline tank of an automobile is in the form of a honzontal cylinder the ends of which are plane ellipses 20 in high and
10 in broad. Assuming
as the weight of a cubic inch of
gasoline,
find the pressure
on one end
of the
tank when the gasoline
is
15 in
deep.
26.
horizontal gutter
is
U-shaped, a semicircle of radius 3 in
surmounted by a rectangle 6 in wide by 4 in. deep If the gutter is

full of water and a board is placed across the end, how much pressure
is exerted on the board ?
The end
of a horizontal gutter is in the form of a semicircle

radius, the diameter of the semicircle being at the top and
horizontal. The gutter receives water from a roof 50 ft above the
27.
of 3
in.
top of the gutter. If the pipe leading from the roof to the gutter is
what is the pressure on a board closing the end of the gutter ?
full,
28.
A circular water main has a diameter of 5 ft.
One end
is
closed
by a bulkhead, and the other is connected with a reservoir in which

the surface of the water is 20 ft above the center of the bulkhead
Find the
29.
30.
total pressure
?*
a tan
31.
on the bulkhead.
Find the area of a loop of the curve a = a? sin n6.

Find the area swept over by a radius vector of the curve
as $ changes from
IT
to
4
Find the area inclosed by
J the curve r
.
curve r
4
H
..
and the
cos $
+ cos 6
,
Find the area bounded by the circles r=a cos 6 and r= a, sin 6.
2
2
33. Find the area cut off from one loop of the curve r = 2 a sin 2 6
a
by the circle r
32.
Find the area of the segment of the cardioid r = a (1+ cos 0)

by a straight line perpendicular to the initial line at a distance | a from the origin 0.
34.
cut off
35.
.
the
Find the area cut

,
circle r s=
off
from a loop of the curve r
= a sm 3 6 by
APPLICATIONS
242
Find the area cut
36.
the straight line r cos
from the lemniscate
r2
cos
by
'
75
= a (1 + sin 0).
38.
39.
= 2a
_/*>
Find each of the three areas bounded by the curves r
37.
and r
lines
off
Find the mean height of the curve y

= 2a and aj = 2 a.
A particle describes
=a
8
.
between the
a simple harmonic motion defined by the

\
~9~)
(792i?/
during a complete vibration is half the maximum kinetic energy

the average is taken with respect to the time.
40.
the
In the motion defined in
Ex 39 what
iL
will be the ratio of
mean
mum
kinetic energy during a complete vibration to the maxikinetic energy, if the average is taken with respect to the
space traversed?
08
41.
quantity of steam expands according to the Iawj0v =; 2000,
being the pressure in pounds absolute per square foot Find the
average pressure as the volume v increases from 1 cu. ft. to 5 cu. ft.
Find the length of the curve y

a
the point for which x = ~
42.
to
Find the length of the curve y =

which x =sl and x = 2 respectively.
43.
for
= a In
44.
45.
46.
Li'
a2
.
^2
-
x ~~
from the origin
between the points
= a cos <, y = b sin*<.

a
Find the total length of the curve r = a sin ^
Find the length of the spiral r = aO from the pole to the end
Find the
total length of
the curve x
of the first revolution.

JA
47. If
a center of force attracts with a magnitude equal to
r>
SC#
where x is the distance of the body from the center, how much work
will be done in moving the body in a straight line away from the
center, from a distance a to a distance 8 a from the center ?
A body is moved along a straight line toward a center of

which repels with a magnitude equal to 7ccc when the body
at a distance x from the center. How much work will be done
moving the body from a distance 2 a to a distance a from the
48.
force
is
in
ter?
GENERAL EXERCISES
49.
A central
243
force attracts a body at a distance x from the center
7c
by an amount
-j
Find the work done in moving the body
directly
away from the center from a distance a to the distance 2 a.

50. How much work is done against hydrostatic pressure in raising a plate 2 ft. square from a depth of 20 ft. to the surface of the
water,
if it is
kept at
all
times parallel to the surface of the water ?
spherical bag of radius 5 in. contains gas at a pressure

equal to 15 Ib. per square inch. Assuming that the pressure is inversely proportional to the volume occupied by the gas, find the
51.
work required
to compress the
bag into a sphere of radius 4
in.
CHAPTER XI
83.
The symbol
Double integrals.
nv
f(x, y) dxdy,
(1)
_ 4
in
which a and
b are constants
stants or functions of
x,
and
y^
indicates that
be carried out in succession. The
and y^ are either contwo integrations are to
first integral to
be evaluated
is
where x and dx are to be held constant. The result is a funcx only, multiplied by dx; let us say, for convenience,
tion of
;)
dx.
The second
integral to be evaluated
is,
then,
F(x) dx,
which
is
of the familiar type.
Similarly, the
symbol
6
/*xs
f(x, y) dydx,
where a and
(2)
b are constants and

and #g are either constants
or functions of #, indicates first the
integration
in
which y and dy are handled as

constants, and afterwards
y between the limits a and b.
integration with respect to
244
DOUBLE INTEGRALS
ft
Ex.
1.
The
first
The
second integration
Evaluate
245
s /.a
n2
xythdy.
integral is
j
scydxily
is
"'
Ex.
2.
The
ni*st
integration
integration
is
f^"
Jo
first
integration
f**jpdyt?jc.
i/o
is
v
1/0
The second
y*)<lr.dii
'
is
Ex.3. Evaluate
integration
u y*<lytlx =
2a
4a
y=
''
n
2
?/
j/
^/y
L
is
Jo
Jo Ji-x
The second
The
O2 +
f f
Evaluate
/-.//.
'
<l
Jo
rir
= ! a4
LaOoJo
one variable has been shown lo be the

limit of a sum, from which we infer that formula
(1) involves
first the determination of the limit of a sum with
respect to ;/,
followed by the determination of the limit of a sum with
definite integral in
respect
to x. The application of the double
integral comes from it
interpretation as the limit of a double summation,
How, such
forms
be illustrated in the
arise in practice will
following sections,
EXERCISES
Find the values of the following
integrals
a"%/^dydx,
n\
xydoady.
3.
r*
/
Ji
J,,
4.
'
246
a(l
dydx
5.
+ coi S)
?
sin Odddr.
r*d$dr.
/-as
c/O
8.
^/o
rf r
Jo
/o
r cos 6dOdr
r8
84. Area as a double integral. Let it be required to find an

area (such as is shown in Fig. 98) hounded by two curves, with
in points for
the equations y^~f^(x) and y2
2 () intersecting
=/
which x a and z=b respectively. Let the plane be divided into

rectangles by straight lines parallel to OX and
respectively.
Then the area of one such rectangle is
OT
where dx
the distance between two consecutive lines parallel

where dy is the distance between, tw,o consecutive
lines parallel to OX. The sum of the rectangles which are either
to
OY
is
and.
AKEA AS DOUBLE INTEGRAL
247
wholly or partially within the required area will be an approximation to the required area, but only an approximation, because
We
the rectangles will extend partially outside the area.

assume
as evident, however, that the sum thus found becomes more
nearly equal to the required area as the
number
of rectangles
becomes larger and dx and dy smaller. Hence we say that the

required area is the limit of the sum of the terms dxdy.
The summation must be so carried out as to include every
rectangle once and only once. To do this systematically we
begin with any rectangle in the interior, such as PQJRS, and add
those rectangles which lie in the vertical column with it.
is, we take the limit of the sum of dxdy, with x and dx
constant and y varying from
(X). This is
y^f^(x) to 2/2
first
That
=/
fl
indicated
by the symbol
x = [/2 (x) -/,()] dx.
/"
(2)
vt/.
This
is
the area of the strip
and x varies from
We
of all such strips as

a to 5.
are
now
to take
dx approaches zero
have then
^ <=
/"<>,-
Jo.
If
TUVW. We
sum
the limit of the
we put
^ ^ =Jf V,
(x)
-/ <V>] dx.
x
(3)
together what we have done, we see that we have
dxdy.
(4)
_.
This discussion enables us to express the area as a double

integral. It does not, however, give us any more convenient way
to
compute the area than that found in Chapter
simply what we
vertical strip (see Ex.
(2)
If
is
it
may write down

3,
28).
should be more convenient
horizontal strip,
we may
III, for the result
at once for the area of a
first
to find the area of a
write
n*
dy dx.
(5)
BEPEATED INTEGRATION
248
Consider a similar problem in polar coordinates. Let an

area, as in Fig. 99, be bounded by two curves r^/XÔ
and r
corresponding to the
(0), and let the values of
2
=/
and
be l and a respectively. The plane may be
points B
and
divided into four-sided figures by circles with centers at
straight lines radiating
0. Let the angle
from
between two consecutive radii be d6 and
the distance between
two consecutive circles

be dr. We want first
the area of one of the
quadrilaterals such as
PQRS. Here OP = r,
= dr, and the angle
POS=d0. By
geom-
etry the area of the

2
d0 and
sector POS=^r
A
the area of the sector

therefore
Now as dr
FIG. 99
PQRS = J (r + dr)*d6 and d0 approach zero
J r*d0
= rdrd0 + % (dr)*d0.
as a limit the ratio of
the second
term
in this expression to the first term also

approaches zero,
since this ratio involves the factor dr. It may be shown that the
second term does not
and we
affect the limit of the
sum
of the expression,
are therefore justified in writing as the differential of area
dA = rd0dr.
(6)
The
required area is the limit of the sum of these differentials. To find it we first take the limit of the sura of the
quadrilaterals, such as
That
PQRS, which
lie in
we
the same sector
and
integrate rd0dr, holding
have
lowing r to vary from r^ to r.
is,
UO V.
dd constant and
al-
We
(7)
^r.
which
is
the area of the strip
TUVW.
CENTER OF GRAVITY
249
Finally we take the limit of the sum of the areas of all such
strips in the required area and have
(8)
If
we put
together what we have done, we may write

/*s /"a
I
r dOdr.
=
It is clear that this
been obtained in
79,
t/0 t
J>i
formula leads to nothing which has not

but it is convenient sometimes to have
the expression (9).

85. Center of gravity. It
is
shown
in mechanics that the cen-
m^ w 2
are^, y x ), (xz
ter of gravity of n particles of masses

plane at points whose coordinates
respectively
is
-,
mn
lying
/ 2 ),
(#, y^)
given by the formulas
=
ss
\-m n
the point through which the resultant of the weights
of the particles always passes, no matter how the particles are
This
is
placed with respect to the direction of the earth's attraction,

now wish to extend formulas (1) so that they may be
applied to physical bodies in which the number of particles may
We
be said to be
For that purpose we divide the body
infinite.
n elementary
portions such that the mass of each

considered as concentrated at a point (or, y). Then, if
total mass of the body, the mass of each element is dm.
into
may be
m is the
We have
then to replace the m's of formula (1) by dm and to take the

sums involved in (1) as the number n is indefinitely
limit of the
increased and the elements of
mass become indefinitely small.

There result the general formulas
xdm
X=
dm
ydm
9 ,J
dm
(2)
250
To apply
these formulas
we
consider
first
a slender wire so
and so placed that it may be represented by a plane curve.

More strictly speaking, the curve may be taken as the mathe-
fine
matical line which runs through the center of the physical wire.
Let the curve be divided into elements of length ds. Then,
is its
if c is the area of the cross section of the wire and
mass of an element of the wire

venience we place DC = p and write
density, the
where p
is
is
Dads.
If this is substituted in (2), the constant
a constant.
be taken out of the integrals and canceled,

result may be written in the form
may
sx
where
on the
For con-
ixds,
sy
=
I
the equations
left of
is
and the
(3)
yds,
the total length of the
curve. These formulas give the center of gravity of a plane curve.

Ex.
1.
Find the center
of a circle of radius
Here we know that the

\ rrax
of gravity of
one fourth of the circumference
a.
total length is
vay
Cxds,
we
so that,
from
(3),
we have
Cyds.
To integrate, it is convenient to introduce the central angle <j> (Fig 100),

whence x = a cos <j>,y = a sin <f>, ds = ad<j>.
7T
Then |irox= l*a*cos<f>dd>,

Jo
2a
whence
FIG. 100
Consider next a thin
plate, which may be represented by a

speaking, the area is that of a section
plane area. Strictly

through the middle of the plate. If t is the thickness of the
plate and _D its density, the mass of an element of the plate
with the area AA is DtdA. For convenience we
place Dt
p
and write
dm
pdA,
CENTER OF GEAVITY
where p
is
a constant.
are canceled,
is
(2) and the
p's
we have
i
where
251
If this is substituted in
AyI ydA,
xdA,
the total area.
(4)
These formulas give the
center of
gravity of a plane area,
y*
Ex. 2. Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the parabola
kx, the axis of x, and the ordmate through the point (a, b) of the
parabola (Fig 101)
We place dA=
dxdy in
A = C Cx dx dy,
(4)
and have
Ay = Cfy dx dy.
js
To evaluate, we choose the element dxdy

inside the area in a general position, and first
sum with respect to y along a vertical strip.
We
shall denote
by yl the value
of
y on the
parabola, to distinguish it from the general

values of y inside the area The first integration gives us, therefore, respectively
C
so that
On
we have
Vi
xdxdy
Ax
= xy1 dx
and
JCxy^dx,
C ydxdy
\y* dx,
Ay = /C^y* dx-
examination of these results we see that each contains the factor
is the area ( 22) of an elementary vertical strip), multiplied

by a? and ^ yv which are the coordinates of the middle point of
the ordmate yr These results are the same as if we had taken dA = y t dx in
the general foimula (4), and had taken the point (x, y) at which the mass
of dA is concentrated as (z,
y x), which is in the limit the middle point of
y^dx (which
respectively
dA. In fact this is often done in computing centers of gravity of plane

areas, and the first integration is thus avoided.
Kow, from the equation of the parabola y% = kx, and to complete the
integration, we have to substitute this value for yt and integrate with
to x = a We have
respect to x from x =
/**
AS =
*
from the
Ay
of the curve,
k=
and,
fl
i kxdx
by
23,
yfco"
<-
A~
<
252
Substituting these values and
educing,
we have
finally
y=&b
a,
we have carried out the successive

mtegratioii.s
show clearly just what has been done. If now we
In solving this problem

separately, in oider to
collect all this into
a double integral, we have

a
Ax=f
Jo
Ex.
To
3.
/ly=f"f
''xdxdy.
f
Jo
Find the center
Jo Jo
of gravity of
'ytlxda.
a sextant of a circle of radum a
solve this problem it is convenient to

place the
and to use
._
sextant so that the
axis of v bisects it (Fig. 102)

polar coordinates.
From
the symmetry of the figure the

on OX, so that we
centei of gravity lies

may write at once y
= 0. To
find a take
an element of area ? dddr in polar cooidinates and place x = r cos

We have
then, from (4),
a
r^
/" Jo
/
r2 cos 6 dddr,
rr
~6
A=
where
ciicle
lira?,
one sixth the area of a
In the
first integration 6 and dO

and the summation takes
with
along a line radiating from
are constant,
place
r varying from
to a
entire area is covered
The angle then varies from

The solution is as follows
- - to ~
and thus the
liraPx
=J
a 3 cos Odd
whence
Consider
now
2a
a solid of revolution formed

by revolving the
plane area (Fig. 103) ABCD about

that the equation of the curve CD
Y as
an
axis.
It
is
assumed
given. It is evident from

symmetry that the center of gravity of the solid lies on OY, so
that we have to find
only y.
Let
dFbe any element
the density and
is
of
volume.
assumed constant.
is
Then dm = pdV, where p is

we have
(5)
CENTER OF GRAVITY
253
Let the solid be divided into thin slices perpendicular to

as was done in
26, and let the summation first take place over
one of these
tion
is
slices.
constant,
the summation
oL
In this summa-
and the result

therefore
is
times the volume of the
It
slice.
is
We
therefore u(^r'^^y)have now

to extend the summation over all
the
This gives the result
slices.
Vy
rb
/
ir^ydy,
(G)
where
OA = a and
It is to
&.
be noticed that
what we
is
07?
obtain
this result
TIG. 103
we
if
interpret
dm in (2) as the mass of the slice and consider
at the middle point of one base of the slice.
Ex. 4. Find the centei

and radius (Fig. 104)
This
is
it
concentrated
of gravity of a light cucular cone of altitude 6
a solid of revolution formed by revolv-
ing a light triangle about OF. However, the

equation of a straight line noed not be used, as
We
similar triangles are simpler.
X
have -
CL
=-
whence x
-y.
The volume V
is
known
>
to be
8
J 7r 6.
Therefore, from (G),
we have
aj
= f*mP
fdy =
J
whence
FIG. 104
EXERCISES
1.
Show
that the center of gravity of a semicircunifereuce of

oa
from the center of the circle on
radius a lies at a distance of
7T
the radius which bisects the semicircumference.

2,
an.
Show that the center of gravity
of a circular arc
which subtends
angle <x at the center of a circle of radius a lies at a distance
from the center of the
circle
on the radius which, bisects the
sin
arc,
EEPEATED INTEGRATION
254
3.
wire hangs so as to form the catenary y
a
~
(/*
-1-
").
Find the center of gravity of the piece of the curve between Iho
and x = a.
points for which x =
4. Find the center of gravity of the arc of the cycloid
the first two sharp
x = a(<[>
sm$), y = a(l coB<f>), between
points.
5.
and
6.
7.
8.
Find the center of gravity of a parabolic segment of
base,
2b
altitude a.
Find the center of gravity of a quadrant of the area of a

Find the center of gravity of a triangle.
circle.
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the ourvo

and x
IT.
of x between x
= sin x and the axis
Find the center of gravity of the plane area bounded by tho

two parabolas y* = 20 x and a?
20 y.
9.
Find the center of gravity of a figure which is composed of

a rectangle of base 2 a and altitude I surmounted by a semicircle
of radius a
10.
11. Find the center of

gravity of the area bounded by the
arch of the cycloid (Ex. 4) and the axis of aj.
12.
Show
Ihvst
that the center of gravity of a sector of a circle lies at
~ sin-a from
4a
a distance
the vertex of the sector on a line

bisecting
the angle of the sector, where a

13.
14.
is the angle and a the radius.

Find the center of gravity of the area bounded
by the cardioid

by the curve
= 2 cos & + 3.
15.
Find the center of gravity of a solid

hemisphere.

gravity of a solid formed by revolving
about its altitude a parabolic
segment of base 26 and altitude a.
17.
about
of y,
Find the center of

gravity of the solid formed by revolving
plane figure bounded by the parabola
y*** fee, the axis
OF the
and the
line
y = k.

gravity of the solid
faces of a right circular cone
and a
bounded by the sur-
&
with the
hemisphere of radius
base of the cone
coinciding with the base of the hemisphere and the
vertex of the cone in the surface of
the
hemisphere
CENTER OF GRAVITY
255
86. Center of gravity of a composite area. In finding the center of gravity of a body which is composed of several parts the
following theorem
useful:
is
If a body of mass
M^ Mf
n,
is
composed of several parts of masses
and
if the centers of gravity of these parts are

(za , / ),
.,(#w , #), then the center of grav-
respectively (xf
^),
?
ity of the composite body is yiven by the
formulas
+J
C ;
We
for
proof
the same.
85 we have,
By
The
% coordinate.
shall prove the theorem for the
is
for the original body,
MX -
fxdm,
'
(2)
where the integration is to be taken over all the partial masses

But we have also
n into which the body is divided.
v Jfa
where the subscripts indicate that the integration in each case

to one of the several bodies. But formula (2) can
be written
is restricted
MX = rx^m^ ICx^dm^-}/
and,
by
substitution from (3), the theorem
is
^dmn
proved,
Find the center of gravity of an area bounded by two

which is completely inside the other.
x.
of
Let the two
circles
one
be placed aa in Fig. 105, where the center of the

larger circle of radius a is at the origin, and the center of the smaller
circle of radius o is on the axis of $ at a distance o from the origin*
circles
REPEATED 1NTE( RAT U )K
256
The area which can be considered
as composed of two
]>jut.n
that of
the two paits being, fust, the smaller eirde and, wroucl, UNirregular ring whose centei of gravity
the larger
circle,
we wish
to find
Now
the center of
gravity of a circle is known to be at

its center, Theiefore, in the formula
of the theoiem, we know (T, J/), which
is
on the left of the equation, to bo

and (~c v yj to be (c, 0), and wish
(0, 0),
to find (72 ,
T/z ).
Since we are dealing with aieas,

we take the masses to be equal to the
= iraz
ai eas, and have, accordingly,
M
M
= irb z
(the mass of the larger ciiclc),
(the mass of tho smallei cncle), and
= if (
My,
ft
mass of tho
(the
Substituting in the formula,
ring).
we havo
=
whence, by solving for
,r
on
TT
(<r
A-
) ra
It is unnecessary to find yi} since,

lies
jor>
IT/A-
by Hyiniuctiy, Mi
coutiM of
OX
EXERCISES
Show
that if there are only two component masses

mul.
fl/^
JHf^
in formulas (1) of the theorem, the center of
gravity of tho oomjxmto
1.
mass lies on the line connecting the centers of gravity of tho component masses at such a point as to divide that hue into sogmtmlH
inversely proportional to the masses.
Prove that
it a mass
2.
if
a mass
M^
-with center of
gravity (.r^ //j)
tho c-oiiUu of
(i?9 , ya),
M with center of gravity
out of
of the remaining mass
Mi-Mt
3.
Two
circles
haw
<m(,
gravity
is
of radii
J/ t
and rs aro
- Mt
tangtnit oxtonuJly.
Find
their center of gravity

gravity of a hemispherical
by two concentnc hemispheres of radii r^ and r^
5.
Place r9
hol3
boundod
= ^ + A^ m Ex. 4, let A?' approach xero, and thus
the center of gravity of a hemispherical surface.
iind
CENTER OF GRAVITY
25Y
Find the center of gravity of a hollow right circular cone

bounded by two parallel conical surfaces of altitudes 7^ and A 2
respectively and with their bases in the same plane.
6.
7.
Place
\= /^-H A/i in Ex
6, let
A/t
approach
zero,
and thus
find the center of gravity of a conical surface

8. Find the center of gravity of a carpenter's square each aim
which is 15 in on its outer edge and 2 in wide
9. From a square of edge 8 in a quadrant of a circle is cut out,

the center of the quadrant being at a corner of the squaie and the
radius of the quadrant being 4 in. Find the center of gravity of the
figure remaining
10.
Two
iron balls of radius
4m
no uted by an iron rod of length 1

cylinder o
and 6
in
respectively are con-
Assuming that the rod
in.
is
radius 1 in., find the center of gravity of the system.
cubical pedestal of side 4 ft. is surmounted by a sphere of

Find the center of giavity of the system, assuming
that the sphere rests on the middle point of the top of the pedestal.
11.
radius 2 ft
87. Theorems.
The
folio wing
theorems involving the center
ho used to adgravity may often

vantage in finding pressures, volumes
of revolution, or areas of
c>I solids
oi'
surfaces of revolution.
I.
The total pressure on a plane survertical
faae immersed in liquid in a
to the area of the surposition is equal
at
face multiplied ly tlw pressure
its
center of gravity.
Let the area he placed a in Fig 106,

where the axis of K is in the surface
of the liquid and where the axis of y
Then, by
ETO< 106
is
measured downward.
25,
/*
which may be written
p=
IIH
yO pa-
fl!
'*'
i)^>
a double integral in the
CCwydydx => w nydxdy,
form
(2)
258
In
fact, this
may be written down directly, since the pressure on

its area,
a small rectangle dxdy is

85,
Moreover, from
dxdy, times its depth,
T/,
Ay --CCydxdy.
By
times w.
we have
comparison of (2) and (3)
(3)
we have
P = wyA.
at the center of gravity, and the theorem

proved for areas of the above general shape. If the area is
not of this shape, it may be divided into such areas, and the
theorem may be proved with the aid
86.
of the theorem of
But wyis the pressure
is
Ex.1.
circular
bulkhead which closes
y="b
the outlet of a reservoir has a radius 8 ft ,

and its center is 12 ft below the surface of
the water. Find the total pressure on it
Here
A = 9 it and the
of gravity
is
12.
depth of the center

Therefore
P = 108 irw = -V-Trtons = 10.6 tons.

II. The volume generated by revolving
a plane area about an axis in its plane
not intersecting the area is equal to the area of the figure multiplied
by the circumference of the circle described by its center of gravity.
To
V is
prove this take an area as in Fig. 107. Then, by

the volume generated by the revolution about OY,
26,
if
(4)
which can be written
as a double integral in the
F=27rf C\dydx.
t/
By
85,
J&=
Ja
and,
by
i/,
C C\dydx;
u/jTj
comparison of (4) and (5),
V~
which was
to be proved.
we have
form
(5)
THEOREMS OF PAPPUS
259
Ex. 2. Find the volume of the nag surface formed by revolving about
an axis in its plane a circle of radius a whose center is at a distance c from
the axis, where c > a.
know that A -sra and that the center of gravity of the circle is
at the center of the circle and therefore describes a circumference of length
We
Therefoie
ire.
F=
2ir 2
2c.
ffl
The area generated by revolving a plane curve about an
III.
axis in its plane not intersecting the curve is equal to the length
of the curve multiplied by the circumference of the circle described
by
center of gravity.
its
To prove
this
we need
a formula for the area of a surface of
revolution which has not been given.
is
this area,
then
It
may be shown
that
if
S^Zirlxds.
(6)
not be given here. However, the

A
student may make the formula seem plausible by noticing that
an element ds of the curve will generate on the surface a belt
of width ds and length 2 irx. The product of length by breadth
rigorous proof of this will
may be taken
as the area of the belt.
Moreover, by
85,
we have
sx
xds;
and comparing the two equations (6) and
(7)
(7),
we have
which was to be proved.

Find the area of the ring surface described in Ex. 2.
that s - 2 TTO and that the center of gravity of a circumferof length 2 ire
ence is at its center and therefore describes a circumference
Therefore
5 = 4 âc.
Ex.
3.
We know
Theorems II and III
are
known
as the theorems of Pappus.
EXERCISES
1.
the surface
Find by the theorems of Pappus the volume and
of a sphere.
volume
2, Find by the theorems of Pappus the
surface of a right circular cone.
and the
laterax
.REPEATED INTEGRATION
260
3.
Find by the theorems of Pappus the volume generated by
revolving a parabolic segment about its altitude.

4. Find by the theorems of Pappus Iho
volume generated
by revolving a parabolic segment about its base.
5. Find by the theorems of Pappus the volume geru>ratod by
revolving a parabolic segment about the tangent at its vortex
6. Find the volume and the surface generated by revolving a
square of side a about an axis in its piano perpendicular to one. of
its
diagonals and at a distance
b\b>
V
;=
from
it,s
center.
V2/
Find the volume and the area generated by revolving' a right

triangle with legs a and b about an axis in its plane ]>urullel to the
leg of length a on the opposite side from the hypotenuse and at a
7.
distance c from, the vertex of the right angle.

8.
circular
water main has a diameter of 4
ft.
One end
IH
closed by a bulkhead, and the other is connected with a reservoir

in which the surface of the water is 18 ft. above the center of the
bulkhead
9.
Find the pressure on the bulkhead.

ellipse of semiaxos
Find the pressure on an
submerged,
if
a. and I
completely
the center of the ellipse is o units below the surface of
the liquid.
10. Find the pressure on a
semiellipse of semiaxes a and I (a
/>)
submerged with the major axis in the surface of the liquid and the
minor axis vertical.
>
11. Find the

pressure on a parabolic segment submerged with the
base horizontal, the axis
vertical, the vertex above the base, and the
vertex c units below the surface of the
liquid.
12. What is the effect on the
pressure of
in a reservoir if the level of the water in
^
a submerged vertical area
the reservoir is raised
88.
Moment
of inertia.
by c feet ?
The moment
of inertia of a
particle
about an axis is the
product of its mass and the square of its
distance from the axis. The
moment of inertia of a number
of particles about the
same
axis is the sum of the moments of

separate particles abont that axis. From these
definitions we
may derive the moment of inertia of a thin plate.
Let the surface of the
plate be divided into elements o
area cU Then the mass of
inertia of the
each element
product of the thickness of the
plate and
is
pdA, where p
ita
density.
Lot
is
the
bo
MOMENT OF INEETIA
261
the distance of any point in the element from the axis about
which we wish the moment of inertia. Then the moment of
inertia of clement is approximately
I?p dA.
We say " approximately " because not all points of the element
are exactly a distance R from the axis, as R is the distance ot
some one point in the element. However, the smaller the element the more nearly can it be regarded as concentrated at one
point and the limit of the sum of all the elements, as their
size approaches zero and their number increases without limit,
is
the
moment
moment
of inertia of the plate.
of inertia of the plate,
If in (1)
we
let
/o
if
I represents
= l,
Hence,
(1)
the resulting equation
is
1= C&dA,
where
is
called the
moment of
dA
the
we have
(2)
When
inertia of the plane area.

by dxdy or rdrdd, the double
in (1) or (2) is replaced

sign of integration must be used.
Ex.
Find the moment
1.
about the
of inertia of
a rectangle of dimensions a and
side of length &
into
Let the rectangle be placed as in Fig. 108. Let it be divided up
in an element
elements dA ~ dfdg. Then a- is the distance of some point
have
from OY. Hence, in (2), we
y
JR SB x and dA = fatly. Therefore
y=b
We
a
to
first
sum
vertical strip,
&.
We
This
the
written
y ranges from
have
is
strip
the rectangles in
the
MN,
down
moment
of ineitia of
and might -have been

at once, since
x from
strip are at a distance
all
j. IG<
IQ%
the left-hand boundary of the

points on
and since the area of the strip is Idx
OY
KEPEATED INTEGRATION
262
The second
integration gives
now
Jo
If,
moment
instead of asking for the
of inertia of the area,
we had asked
for that of a plate of metal of thickness t and density D, the above result
of the
that case the total mass
would be multiplied by p = Dt. But
we have
plate is aab, so that
Ex.
Find the moment
2.
of
Ma?
the quadrant of an ellipse
inertia of
r2
7/
>L
}.
If
1 (a
we
>
6)
about
its
major axis
we
we wish
take any element of area as dxtly,
lower edge from the axis about which

= y and
to be y (Fig 109). Hence
find the distance of its
the
moment
ot ineitia
I
It will
now be
convenient to
with respect to x
sum
first
since each point of a

at the same distance from
t
horizontal strip is
"We therefore write
OX
FIG. 109
J-ffffy**.
it
Now, indicating by a^ the abscissa of a point on the ellipse to distinguish

from the general x which is that of a point inside the ellipse, we have
for the first integration
For the second integration
To
integrate, place
= I sin
<j>
Then
TT
= afc8
f* s
/o
If,
result
instead of the area,
we
must be multiplied by
16
consider a thin plate of mass
p,
where
M=
irabp
M,
the above
whence
The polar moment of inertia of a plane area is defined as the

moment of inertia of the area about an axis perpendicular to
its
plane.
This
may
also be called conveniently the
moment
MOMENT OF INERTIA
with respect to the point
of inertia
263
which the axis cuts the

an element from the axis
in
plane of the area, for the distance of

is
simply its distance from that point.
Thus we may speak,

for example, of the
polar moment of inertia with respect to
an axis through the origin
perpendicular to the plane of au
area, or, more concisely, of the polar moment with respect to
the origin.
If the area
is divided into elements

dxdy, and one point in
the element has the coordinates
(#, #), the distance of that
point from the origin
is Vi?+]A
That is, in (2), if we place
a
2
2
we shall have the formula for the
,
dxvly and J2 =o;
polar moment of inertia with respect to the origin. Denoting
+y
(lA
this
by J
we
have
(3)
This integral
may be
split
up
into
two
integrals, giving
(4)
where the change in the order
of the differentials in the
integrals indicates the order in

most conveniently carried out.
which the integration may be
The
first integral in
is
(4)
the
moment
of inertia about
two
OY
and may be denoted by / the second integral is the moment

of inertia about OX and may be denoted by IK
Therefore
formula (4) may be written as
;
so that the problem of finding the moment of inertia may be

reduced to the solving of two problems of the type of the
first
part of this section.
Ex, 3. Find the polar moment of inertia of an
ellipse
with respect to
the origin,
In Ex. 2
definition.
for a quadrant of the ellipse. For the entire

times as great, since moments of inertia are added by
we found IK
ellipse it is four
Hence
REPEATED INTEGEATION
264
By
a similar calculation
Iy
Theiefoie
^0=4 ffa*
If the area is leplaced
by a
plate of
\.
mass
M(a* +
&*)
Af, this result gives

I")
If polar coordinates aie used, the element of area is
and the distance

in
Hence,
(2),
rd6d
an element from the origin

rdBdr and R = r. Therefore
of a point in
dA =
r-
In practice
respect to
r,
of inertia of a sector with vertex at 0.
Ex.4. Find the polar moment

point on its circtimference
Let the
r
circle
= 2 a cos 0,
(6
usually convenient to integrate first wit

holding 8 constant. This is, in fact, to find tr
it is
moment
polar
is
of inertia of a cncle with

lespect to
be placed as in Fig 110

is the radius
If
equation is then (Ex 1, 5]

take any element rdQdr an
Its
where a
we
find I for all elements
which lie in the

same sector with it, we have to add the
elements i*dQdr, with r ranging from to
t
v where rt is the value of ? on the cncle
and therefore > l = 2 a cos
We have
,
f Vrffltft
/o
*
1
We have finally to
with
(IB
4 a4
.rm these quantities,
anging from
to
+ - We have
**
=J*la*cQ&6d6= I
~I
If
Ex.
is
5.
TIG. 110
mass
the
of a ciicular plate, this

result, multiplied
Find the polar moment of
centei.
Heie
it will
be convenient
ring (Fig 111).
We
have
We
inertia of a cucle
by
p,
with respect to
to find the polar moment of inertia of

integrate first with respect to 6, keeping r constan
first
MOMENT OF INERTIA
265
the approximate area of the ring Swrdr multiplied by the

square of the distance of its inner cucumference from the center We
then have, by the second integration,
^
which
is
f
Jo
If
is
the mass of a circular plate, this
result, multiplied
by
p,
gives
/ /
The moment
f\
S \U
\\
oE inertia of a solid
of revolution about the axis of revo-
lution
the
is
sum
moments
of the
of
inertia of the circular sections about
If the
that is, of the polar

;
of inertia of the circular sections about their centers.
axis of revolution
section perpendicular to
mass is therefore pirx*dy
of inertia
about
the solid
is
is
OY, the radius of any circular

x and its thickness is dy. Its
and therefore, by Ex. 5, its moment
is
OF
;
is
\ pirtfdy.
6.
Find the moment
Take the cone
But,
if
The
total
moment
of inertia of
therefore
X\pTr
Ex.
]FIG<
the same axis
moments
is
as in Ex. 4,
x*dy.
of inertia of a circular cone about its axis.

85.
Then we have
the mass of the cone,
Therefore
we have
M=
fa Ma*.
EXERCISES
Find the moment of inertia of a rectangle of base & and
tude a about a line through its center and parallel to its base.
1.
2. Find the moment of inertia of a triangle of base b and

a about a line through its vertex and parallel to its base.
3.
Find the moment of
tude a about
4.
and
inertia of a triangle of base &
alti-
altitude
and
alti-
its base.
Find the moment of
inertia of
also about its major axis,
an
ellipse
about
its
minor axip
266
Find the moment of
5.
taking the lower base as

6.
ment
b,
inertia of a trapezoid about its lower base,

the upper base as a, and the altitude as 7*.
Find the moment of

and altitude
of base b
7. Find the polar
altitude
a about
its
a parabolic
seg-
of inertia of a rectangle of base I
and
inertia about its base of

a.
moment
center.
8. Find the polar moment of inertia about its center of a circular

r and the inner radius rr
ring, the outer radius being z
9.
a and
Find the polar moment of inertia of a right triangle of sides

b
about the vertex of the right angle.
10. Find the polar
moment
of inertia about the origin of the area
bounded by the hyperbola xy=6 and the straight line aj+y 7=0.
11. Find the polar moment of inertia about the origin o the area
z
2
as
bounded by the curves y=x and y = 2
.
12. Find the polar moment of inertia about the origin of the area
2
2a? cos 2 0.
of one loop of the lemniscate r
Find the moment of inertia of a right circular cylinder of

height Ji, radius r, and mass M, about its axis.
13.
14.
Find the moment of
cular cylinder of mass
and
its
M,
inertia about its axis of
its
inner radius being rv
a hollow right
its
cir-
outer radius ra
height h.
Find the moment of inertia of a solid sphere about a diameter.

A ring is cut from a spherical shell whose inner and outer radii
are respectively 5 ft. and 6 ft , by two parallel planes on the same
side of the center and distant 1 ft and 3 ft respectively from the
center Find the moment of inertia of this ring about its axis
15.
16.
The radius of the upper base and the radius of the lower base
frustum of a right circular cone are respectively r^ and r# and
mass is M. Find its moment of inertia about its axis.
17.
of the
its
89.
Moments
moment
theorem
of inertia
about parallel axes. The finding of a

by use of the following
of inertia is often
simplified
;
The moment of inertia of a body about an

moment of inertia about a parallel axis through
oasis is
its
equal
to its
center of gravity
plus the product of the mass of the body ly the square of the
distance between the axes.
MOMENT OF INEKTIA
267
We
shall prove this theorem only for a plane area, in the

two cases in winch the axes lie in the plane of the figure or
are perpendicular to that plane.
shall also consider the
We
mass of the area as equal to the

area, as in
Case
Wlien the axes
I.
v
*
KT
88.
lie
in
tJie
plane of the Jiyure.
Let the area be placed as in

where the center of grav-
Fig. 112,
(^ #0
ity
taken as the origin
lf}
0) and where the axis of

taken parallel to the axis
(0,
we wish
about which
moment
y is
LK,
to find the
Let x be the distance of an element dxdy

distance from LK. Then, if Ig is the
moment of inertia about OF, and J the moment of inertia about
of inertia.
from OF, and
its
LK, we have
x*dxdy,
1=11
JJ
Moreover,
so that,
if
is
It
Ji-
Now, by
x*dxdy
84,
OF and LK, we
+2a
ndxdyÂi
by
have
in the second equation of (1),
**.
rf*
(1)
the distance between
by substituting from (2)
we have
^^
I xldxdy.
JJ
xdxdy + a*
85,
np
I
dxdy.
(3)
\( xdxdy = Ax =
0,
since
and, by (1), the first integral on the right

by hypothesis x =
hand of (8) is Ig Therefore (8) can be written
;
7,-7,+ oU,
which proves the theorem for
Case II.
When
the
(4)
this case.
axes are perpendicular
to
the
plane of
the figure.
We
have to do now with polar moments of inertia. Let the

area be placed as in Fig. 118, where the center of gravity is
268
taken as the origin, and

the polar
moment
and Ip
inertia about 0,
Draw through
PY
is
of inertia.
any point about which we wish

Let Ig be the polar moment of
the polar
moment
about P.
of inertia
PX' and
axes
axes of coor-
parallel to the
OX and
OY. Let Ix and

I be the moments of inertia
about OX and OY respectively,
and let 1^ and J / be the moments
of inertia about PX' and PY'.
dinates
tl
tf
Then, by (5),
88,
JJ.-Moreover,
Case I,
Therefore,
if
(a,
6) are the coordinates of P,
1^ =
we
have,
/,=/ + VA.
1^ a*A,
by
(6)
from (5), we have

/,==/,+
<V+&V>
(7)
which proves the theorem for this case also.

The student may easily prove that the theorem
is
true also
moment
of inertia of any solid of revolution about an

axis parallel to the axis of revolution of the solid.
for the
Ex. Find the polar moment of inertia of a
circle
with respect to a point
on the circumfeience.
The center of gravity of a circle is at its center, and the distance of any
point on its circumference from its center is a. By Ex 5,
88, the polar
moment
of a circle
about
theorem,
I,
This result agrees with
was found
its
center
is |ira*.
= i* + o (F)
Ex
4,
88,
Therefore, by the above
*.
where the required moment of inertia
directly
EXERCISES
1.
Find the moment of inertia of a
circle
about a tangent.
Find the polar moment of inertia about an outer corner of

a picture frame bounded by two rectangles, the outer one being of
dimensions 8 ft. by 12 ft, and the inner one of dimensions 5 ft. by 9 ft.
2.
SPACE COORDINATES
269
Find the moment of inertia about one of its outer edges of a

are 15 in. and the inner
carpenter's square of which the outer edges
3.
edges 13 in
4. Find the polar moment of inertia about the outer corner of
the carpenter's square in Ex. 3.
5. From a square of side 20 a circular hole of radius 5 is cut,
the center of the circle being at the center of the square. Find the
moment of inertia of the resulting figure about a side of the square.
6. Find the polar moment of inertia about a corner of the square
of the figure in Ex. 5.
7.
Find the moment of inertia of a hollow cylindrical column

and inner radius 1\ about an element of the inner
of outer radius ra
cylinder.
8. Find the moment of inertia of the hollow column of Ex. 7

about an element of the outer cylinder.
9. Find the moment of inertia of a circular ring of inner radius
and outer radius a about a tangent to the outer circle.
?-
10.
A circle of radius a has cut from it a circle of radius
75
tangent
to the larger circle

figure about the line
Find the moment of inertia of the remaining

through the centers of the two circles
Find the moment of inertia of the figure in Ex 10 about a

through the center of the larger circle perpendicular to the line
of centers of the two circles and in the plane of the circles.
11.
line
In the preceding pages we have betwo methods of fixing the position of a

Cartesian coordinates (x, y), and
point in a plane namely, by
has been thus
by polar coordinates (r, 0). If, now, any plane
with a coordinate system, and, starting from a point
90. Space coordinates.
come
familiar with
;
supplied
in that plane,
we measure another
distance, called
0,
at right
reach any point in space. The quanangles to the plane, we can

will be considered positive if measured in one direction,
tity
and negative if measured in the other. We have, accordingly,

two systems of space coordinates.
1. Cartesian coordinates. We take any plane, as -3T0F, in which
are already drawn a pair of coordinate axes, OX and OF, at
each other,
right angles with
Perpendicular to this plane at
BEPEATED INTEOKATION
2TO
the origin
point of
the plane
we draw a third axis OZ (Fig. 114). If

space, we draw PM parallel to OZ, meeting
XO Y at
and from
Jf,
M draw a line par-
any
OX at L. Then for
P (#, y, z), OL x, LM y,
MP = It is to be noticed that
allel to
is
OF, meeting
the point
and
z.
the three axes determine three planes,

XOY, YOZ, and ZOX, called the coordinate planes, and that we may just as
readily draw the line from
perpendicular to either the plane YOZ or
and
then complete the construction as above.
ZOX
These
x
possibilities are
shown
= OL = NM= SE = TP,
2.
in Fig. 115, where it is seen that

with similar sets of values for y and s.
XOY
Let
Cylindrical coordinates.
be any plane in which a fixed point

is the
origin of a system of polar coordinates,
and
OX is
system (Fig. 116).
the initial line of that
Let
OZ
perpendicular to the plane
is
from
If
until it
be an axis
XOY
at 0.
any point in space, we draw

a straight line parallel to OZ
meets the plane
at M.
XOY
the polar coordinates of

in
the plane
are r
OM, 6 XOM, and
Then,
if
XOY
tance
MP
It is
we denote
the cylindrical coordinates of

evident that the axes
and
by
s,
OX
OZ
P are
Z
the dis(r, 0, g).
determine a fixed plane, and that

the angle 6 is the plane
angle of the
dihedral angle between that fixed
plane
and the plane through OZ and the
point P.
If
SP
is
drawn
in the latter
plane perpendicular to OZ, it is evident

that
SP = r and OS =
= z,
OM=
The coordinate
MP
116
measures
the distance of the point P from the axis
OZ, and the coordinate
2 measures the distance of P from the
plane
r,
therefore,
SUEFACES
OX
If the line
OX of
the axis
271
of the cylindrical coordinates
the Cartesian coordinates,
same in both systems,
it is
evident,
from
and the
is
the same as
axis
OZ
is
the
51, that
= z.
a; = r cos 0,
y == r sin 0,
(1)
These are formulas by winch we may pass from one system
to the other.
It is convenient to notice especially that
(2)
single equation between the coordishall give

nates of a point in space represents a surface.
examples of the equations of certain surfaces which are impor-
91. Certain surfaces.
We
tant in applications. In this connection it should be noticed

that when we speak of the equation of a sphere we mean the
equation of a spherical surface, and when we speak of the

of a sphere wo mean the volume of the solid bounded
by a spherical surface. The word sphere, then, indicates a sur-
volume
face or a solid, according to the context. Similarly, the word

cone is used to denote either a conical surface indefinite in
extent or a solid bounded by a conical surface and a plane

It is in the former sense that we speak of the equation
of a cone, and in the latter sense
base.
that
we
a cone.
word
speak of the volume of

In the same way the
cylinder
may
denote either
a cylindrical surface or a solid

bounded by a cylindrical surface
and two piano bases. This double

use of these words makes no confusion in practice, as the context
always indicates the proper mean-
ing in any particular case.

1.
Sphere will center
at origin.
Con-
sider any sphere (Fig. 117) with its center
FIG. 117
at the origin of coordinates and its radius
equal to
a.
P be
any point on the surface of the sphere. Pass a plane

and P.
and OZ, draw PS perpendicular to OZ, and connect
Let
through P
Then, using cylindrical co6rdinates, in the right triangle OPS, OS=z, SP^r,
and OP as a, Therefore
8s= a9
(1)
.
272
This equation
is satisfied
by the cyhnducal coordinates of any. point on
the surface of the sphere and by those of no other point

the equation of the sphere in cylindrical
Jt is therefore
coordinates.
By means
*"**
of (2),
90, equation (1)
*+? + *,*
which
(>)
the equation of the sphere in
is
Cartesian coordinates.
Sphere tangent at origin to a cooi
Consider a sphere tangent
1
2.
dinate plane.
XOY
at
(Fig 118). Let
be any point on the surface of the
Let
A
the
be
sphere
point in which the
to the plane
axis
OZ
again meets the sphere Pass a

P and OZ connect A. and
plane through
and
P,
to
OZ
nates,
and diawPS perpendicular
Then, using cylindrical coordi-
OS =
where a
is
z,
Now OA P is
PS is the
and
SP =
i,
and
OA = 2 a,
FIG. 118
the radius of the sphere
a right triangle, since it is inscribed in a semicircle,

perpendicular from the vertex of the right angle to the
hypotenuse. Therefore, by elementary plane geometry,
~SP*=OS' SA = OS(OA
Substituting the proper values,
- 08)
we have
(3)
which
is
the equation, of the sphere in cylindrical
coordinates.
BJ
90 > equation (3) becomes
(2 )
#a + ya +22
f
which
is
2 a?
= 0,
(4)
the equation of the sphere in Cartesian
coordinates.
3 Right circular cone. Consider
any right circular
cone with its vertex at the origin and its axis
along
FIG. 119
OZ (Fig 119). Let a be the angle which each element
of the cone makes with OZ. Take
any point on the surface of the cone,
pass a plane through P and OZ, and draw PS perpendicular to OZ. Then
SP = r and OS = z.
But
SP =
tan
SOP - tan a
C/o
Therefore
= gtano
as the equation of the cone in

cylindrical coordinates,
we have
(5\
\V J
SURFACES
By
90, equation
2,
(.">)
273
becomes
0,
(6)
as the equation of the cone in Cartesian coordinates,

As explained above, we have heie used the word cone in the sense of a
If the
conical surface
its
base
a,
cone
-
then tan a
is
a solid with
its
altitude h
and the radius
of
In this case equation
li
(5) or (6) is that of the curved surface of the
cone only.
4.
Surface of revolution. Consider any surOZ the axis of revolution
face of revolution with
(Fig 120). Take P any point on tho smface

and pass a plane through P and OZ In the
piano POZ draw OR peipendicular to OZ and,
fiom P, a straight line perpendicular to OZ
meeting OZ in S If we regard OR and OZ as
a pair of i octangular axes foi the plane POZ,
tho equation of the cuive CD in which the
plane
POZ
cuts the surface
=/(r)
FIG 120
is
(7)
the equation of a curve in

12
But CD is the same curve in all sections of the surface through OZ
Therefore equation (7) is true for all points P and is tho equation of the surexactly as y
~f(x)
is
face in cylindrical coordinates.
Whan
the plane
POZ
plane OZ r is equal to x, and equation (7) becomes,

for that section,
z=.ffy.\
/-g\
coincides with the
>
Hence we have the following theorem
The equation of a surface of revolution formed by

may
revolving about
any curve in the plane
be found in cylindrical coordinates by writing rfor x
XOZ
OZ
in the equation of the curve.
Tho equation
dinates
of the surface in Cartesian coor-
may thtn be found by placing
= Vr* + y*.
For example, the equation of the surface formed

2
=4o: about OZ as
by revolving the parabola
an axis is za as 4 ? in cylindrical co&rdinates, or
fl
s*sBlO(.e
8
)
121
in Cartesian coordinates.
a right circular cylinder with its axis along

OZ (Fig. 121). From any point P of the surface of the cylinder draw 7 J S
the radius of the
8P
OZ.
Then
is always equal to
to
perpendicular
5.
Cylinder.
Consider
first
cylinder.
Therefore, for
all
points on the surface,
reo,
(9)
274
which
the equation of the cylinder in cylindrical cobrdinates.

to Cartesian coordinates equation (9) becomes
is
Reduced
x*+y*=a?,
(10)
the equation of the cylinder in Cartesian coordinates.

More generally, any equation in x and y only, or in r and 6 only, represents a cylinder. In fact, either of these equations, if interpreted in tho
XOY, represents a curve, but if a line is drawn from any point in

this curve perpendicular to the plane XOY, and
is any point on tins lino,
the coordinates of
also satisfy the equation, since z is not involved in
plane
the equation. As examples, the equation y a =4:x xepresputs a

parabolic
a sin 3 & represents a cylinder whoso base is
cylinder, and the equation r
a rose of three leaves (Fig. 65, p.
144).
Ellipsoid
If
we place z =
Consider the surface defined by the equation
(11)
c2
plane
we get the
0,
These points
equation
satisfy
points on the surface
the
(12)
and therefore form an
in tho
XO I'
- + *= = !
which Ho
_.^
ellipse.
Similarly, the points in the
ZOX
plane
lie
on the
S 73
and those in the
on the ellipse
6s
The
=1
ellipse
(13)
>
YOZ plane
(14)
c2
construction
lie
of
these
FIG. 122
ellipses gives a general idea of
the shape of the surface
(Fig 122). To make this more precise, let UH
=
*
in
place
j
(11), where zx is a fixed value.
We
which can be written
have
c2
==1,
(16)
SURFACES
As long
"
and
a v'l
<
as z
b
275
c3 , equation (16) represents
A/1
By
an
ellipse
with semiaxes
taking a sufficient number of these sections
ellipsoid with as much exactness as desired.

in (16), the axes of the ellipse reduce to zero, and we
we may construct the
If z
c8
have a
a
a
point If Sj > r the axes are imaginaiy, and there is no section.
1 Elliptic paraboloid. Consider the surface
,
(17)
where we shall assume,

If
we
place z
= 0,
we get
XOY
is positive.
-2 + f8 =
which is
that c
foi defimteness,
ft A
(18)
>
/ift
satisfied in real quantities only
by x
and y
= 0.
Therefore the
plane simply touches the surface at
the origin
If
we
place z
= c, we
get the ellipse

1
(19)
'
which
the
in the plane c units distant from
XOY plane
If
and
lies
we
if
place y
we
place
a?
0,
we
get the parabola
= 0, we
get the parabola
FIG. 123
The
surface.
and (21) determine the general outline

we place z = s x and find the ellipse
sections (10), (20),
For more
detail
of
so that all sections parallel to the
XOY plane
and above
it
are ellipses
(Fig. 123).
8.
Elliptic cone.
Consider the surface
I -!!
Proceeding as in 7,
and that the
section, z
we
0.
find that the section z
= cis the ellipse
(23)
is
simply the origin
276
If
we
place x
0,
we
get the two straight lines
=-t*-
and if we place y = 0,
(25)
we get the two stiaight lines

a
-z
(20)
The
sections
we have found
prove that the surface really
is
To
suggest a cone with an elliptic baso.
a cone, we change equation
(SJiJ)
to cylin-
cotirdmates, obtaining
^ + E^\
2
Now if
equation
1
which
is
= ~-
ra
//
/i2
I/
nm
V
/(2
C
6 is held constant in (27), the coefficient of rz is constant,
may
J
be written
r
the equation of
two
and
<*
thi
kz,
(28)
straight hues in the plane through
OK
FIG 124
determined by &
two straight
9.
Plane
= const Hence
any plane trough
and the surface

Consider the surface
lines,
is
Ax +
The
section z
is
OZ
cuts the surface
ED + Cz -f D 0.
/29\
the straight hne ffff
(Plg 1 25 ) with the equation
Ax + Vy + DssQ,
the secfcon y =
is
and the section ,
a cone (Fig. 124).
LH with the equation

At + a+DszO,
(80)
the straight line
ia
the straight hne L/C with

the equation
By
Cz
T)
= 0.
(31)
VOLUME
The two
unless
C=
lines (31)
0.
and (32)
Assuming
intersect
277
OZ
in the point
for the present that
is
(O, 0,
not zero,
we change
equation (29) to cyhndncal cooidmates, obtaining

(.4
cos 6
+ B sin
d)r
+D=
Cz
0.
(33)
LN
const It
in the plane B
This is the equation of a stiaight line
the point L, which has the cyhndncal coordinates r = 0,
passes through
_ ~i
and
it
meets the line
KH,
since
when
0,
equation (33) is the
Hence the sui face is covei ed by straight lines which

and meet KH. The locus of such lines is clearly a plane
pass through L
C in (29) is not zero. If C = 0, equation (29) is
that
assumed
We have
same
as equation (30).
Q.
(34)
The point L does not exist, since the lines corresponding to HL and KL
to
are now parallel. But, by 5, equation (34) lepresents a plane parallel
OZ intersecting XOYm the line whose equation is (34) Theiefoie we
have the following theorem
Any
a
equation of the first degree represents plane.
Volume. Starting from any point (#, y, z) in space, we

linos of length dx, dy, and dz in directions parallel
to OX, OF, and OZ respectively, and on these lines as edges
construct a rectangular parallelepiped. The volume of this figure we call the element of volume dV and have
92.
may draw
(1)
For cylindrical coordinates we construct an element of volume

in polar
whose base is rd6dr( 84), the element of plane area
dz. This figure has for its
coordinates, and whose altitude is
and we have
volume dV the product of its base by its altitude,
d7=rd0drdz.
( 2)
and (2) are

given in (1)
The two elements
to differently shaped
not equal to each other, since they refer
To find
is to be used in its appropriate place.
figures. Each
into elements of one of
the volume of any solid we divide it
of
these types.
any
dV
that the a-coordinate

this in Cartesian coordinates, note
a plane parallel to the plane
determine
will
point
To do
of
volume
YOZ
278
and that similar planes correspond to the

may, accordingly, divide any ruquirotl
volume into elements of volume as follows:
Pass planes through the volume parallel to Y0% ami <ta*
units apart. The result is to divide the required volume into
and x units from
slices of
is
it,
We
y and &
values of
thickness dx, one of which
shown
in Fig. 126.
Secondly,
pass planes through the volume
parallel to JTOând dy units apart,
with the result that each slice
is
divided into columns of cross section dxdy. One such

shown in Fig. 126.
column
is
Finally, pass planes through the

required volume parallel to
and dz units apart, with the result
XQY
that each
column
is
divided into
rectangular parallelepipeds of dimensions das,

dy, and fe, One
of these is shown in
Fig. 126.
It is to be noted that the
order followed in the above
explanation is not fixed and that, in
fact, the choice of beginning with either a or y or 4 and the
subsequent order
the
depend upon
particular volume
considered.
A
made
In
similar construction
may
be
for cylindrical coordinates.

case the coordinate &
this
determines a plane
through OZ.
accordingly divide the volume
We
by means of planes through OZ

making the angle d0 with each
other.
The result
one of which
is
is
a set of slices
shown
in Fig.
127
Fro. 127
VOLUME
279
Finally, these columns are divided into elements of volume

at a distance dz apart. One such
by planes parallel to
XOY
shown in Fig. 127.

When the volume has been divided
is evident that some of the elements
element
it
is
boundary surfaces
of the solid.
in either of these ways,

will extend outside the
The sum
of all the elements
that are either completely or partially in the volume will be

approximately the volume of the solid, and this approximation
becomes better as the size of each element becomes smaller.

In fact, the volume is the limit of the sum of the elements.
The determination
tegrations,
of this limit involves in principle three in-
and we write
=
|
V=
or
it
dxdyds
(3)
CCCrd6drdz.
(4)
In carrying out the integrations we may, in some cases, find

convenient first to hold z and dz constant. We shall then
be taking the limit of the sum of the elements which

plane parallel to the
XOY
plane.
We
may
lie
in a
indicate this
by
writing (3) or (4) in the form
V=* Cdz CCdxdy
But, by
84, 1 1
or
V=
Cdz CCrdOdr.
dxdy = A and \\rd6dr~A, where
the area of the plane section at a distance

(5)
(5)
is
F=
from
XO Y.
is
Hence
r
/
Adss,
(6)
**
agreement with 26.

Hence, whenever it is possible to find A by elementary means
without integration, the use of (6) is preferable. This is illustrated in Ex. 1.
In some cases, however, this method of evaluation, is not
in
convenient, and
This
is
it is
necessary to carry out three integrations.
illustrated in Ex. 2.
280
Ex.
By
1.
6,
Fmd
the volume of the ellipsoid
91, the section
with semiaxes a %/!

za\
is waft
(1
\
=1.
a plane parallel to
and
Z>
%/!
V = irab
(6)
s \
J_ c \
ellipse
4
irdbc.
Ex. 2. Find the volume bounded above by the sphere

below by the paraboloid a;2 + yz = 4 z (Fig 128).
As
an
77, its area
and have
-]ds=:-
c 2/
XOY is
Therefore, by Ex. 1,
^
c
Hence we use formula
c 2/
made by
a:
-f
a
?/
s2
5 and
i evolution, this
example may be solved by
but in so doing we need two integrations
one
We shall solve the
the sphere and the other foi the paraboloid
these are stu faces of
method
the
foi
of Ex.
1,
example, however, by the other method in order to illustrate that method

We fii st reduce our equations to cyhn^
dncal coordinates, obtaining lespectively

r*
z*
r1
and
The
=5
=4z
surfaces intersect
when
(1)
(2)
r has the
same value in both equations; that
is,
when
+ 4 z = 5,
(3)
5 The latter
which gives z=loiz =
value is impossible but when z = 1, we
have r = 2 in both equations Theiefore
z*
the surfaces intersect in a circle o radius 2 in the plane z

2 in the
lies duecHly above the circle r
plane.
=1
This
circle
XOY
We now imagine
the element tdQdrdz inside the surface and, holding

r, 0, dd, dt constant, we take the sum of all the elements obtained by varying
z inside the volume These elements obviously extend from 2 = s l in the
lower boundary to z
from
(1), 22
V5
= z2
r 8.
rdddr
'
in the upper boundary. From (2), z1

first integration is therefore
and,
The
MOdr.
We must now allow 6 and r so to vary as to cover the entire circle ? == 2

above which the required volume stands.
If we hold Q constant, r varies from
to 2. The second integration is
therefore
VOLUME
must vary from
Finally, 9
to 2
IT,
281
and the third integration
is
/5V5
If
we put
we have
together what
/>2ir
F=f
Jo
/.a
/
Jo
done,
we have
ft
/
t/,
EXERCISES
Find the volume bounded by the paraboloid = y? + ^ and
the planes x = 0, y = 0, and g = 4.
9*2
&
C^
2. Prove that the volume bounded by the surface - = -5 4fa
1.
and the plane * = c is one half the product of the area of the base
by the altitude.
= and the cylinders
3. Find the volume bounded by the plane
2
B
and y* = a* az.
SB -f f =
4.
Find the volume cut from the sphere r2 4-
= a cos
=a
by the cylinder
6.
5. Find the volume bounded below by the paraboloid r* = a and

2
2 a# =
above by the sphere r2 46. Find the volume bounded by the plane XOY, the cylinder
_ 2 ax = 0, and the right circular cone having its vertex at 0,
a-a {>
2/a
its axis coincident with OZ, and its vertical angle equal to 90
Find the volume bounded by the surfaces

a COS 0,
7.
y sa
ra
= &, = 0, and
8. Find the volume bounded by a sphere of radius a and a right

the
circular cone, the axis of the cone coinciding with a diameter of
end of the diameter, and the vertical
sphere, the vertex being at an
angle of the cone being 90
Find the volume of the sphere of radius a and with its center
for its
at the origin of coordinates, included in the cylinder having
2
base one loop of the curve i* ;= a cos 2 6.
9.
10,
plane
11.
Find the volume of the paraboloid
a? 4-
f = 2 * cut off by the
#~x 4-1.
Find the volume of the solid bounded by the paraboloid
and the plane * = *.
1
EEPEATED INTEGRATION
282
The center of gravity of a
93. Center of gravity of a solid.
has three coordinates,
dm
is
may be
solid
z,
ydm
v=
'
solid
which are defined by the equations
'
where
xdm
*= J
x,
dm
'
dm
dm
the mass of one of the elements into which the

divided,
and
#, y,
and
a are the coordinates of
the
point at which the element dm may be regarded as concentrated.

The derivation of these formulas is the same as that in
85
and
is left
to the student.
When dm
is
become
integrals
expressed in terms oi space coordinates, the

triple integrals, and the limits 'of integration
are to be substituted so as to include the
We
place
dm = pdF, where
is
whole
the density.
solid.
If p is constant,
may be placed outside the integral signs and canceled from

numerators and denominators. Formulas (1) then become
it
7x=
Vz*= CzdV.
Vy=CydV,
CxdV,
(2)
Ex. Find the center of gravity of a body bounded by one nappe of a

right circular cone of vertical angle 2 a and a sphere of radius a, the center
of the sphere being at the vertex of the cone.
If the center of
the sphere
is
axis of the cone as the axis of
x = y = Q. To
taken as the origin of coordinates and the

evident from the symmetry of the
2, it is
solid that
find z we shall use cylindrical coordinates,
the equations of the sphere and the cone being respectively
r2
z2 =s
oa
and
tan a.
As
in Ex. 2,
92, the surfaces intersect in the circle r
the plane z = a cos a. Therefore
/>2r a a tin a />Va8
V=\JO
n
and
nZv
\zdV-\i/O
t/
I
/o
n a sin a /-\/a2
\
/0
Therefore, from (2),
r8
rdOdrdz
t/rotnar
r*
rzdOdrdz
t/rctnrt
5 s? f a (1
cos a).
8
S
o Tra (1
\
= Iwa
w
a sin
- cos a)
sina cr.
./
in
CENTER OF GRAVITY
283
EXERCISES
Find the center of gravity of a
1.
=y
'
-f 7;
1r
solid
bounded by the paraboloid
=c
and the plane

L
ring is cut from a spherical shell, the inner radius and the
outer radius of which are respectively 4 ft. and 5 ft., by two parallel
the same side of the center of the shell and distant 1 ft
planes on
2.
and 3
ft.
respectively from the center.
Find the center of gravity of
this ring.
3. Find the center of gravity of a solid in the form of the frustum
of a right circular cone the height of which is h, and the radius
of tho upper base and the radius of the lower base of which are
respectively r^ and
?'
Find the center of gravity of that portion of the solid of

Ex. 2, p. 73, which is above the plane determined by OA and
4.
OB
(Fig. 31).
Qn
Find the center of gravity

A
5.
a i*
of the ellipsoid
e
~ + 73 + -= =
a?
of a
in the
body
form of an octant
ej*
o*
1.
<?
Find the center of gravity of a solid, bounded below by the

r* and above by the right circular cone * + f = 2 a.
paraboloid az
6.
7. Find the center of gravity of a solid bounded below by the

#2 = 1.
cone * SB r and above by the sphere r*
8.
JB

a ** 3
i and r =
0, i* + *
94.
of a solid
bounded by the surfaces
Moment
of inertia of
into elements of
volume
inertia of the solid about
1=
c?F,
solid.
If
solid
then, as in
any axis
body
88, the
is
divided
moment
of
is
CtfpdV** p C&dT,
(1)
where JB is the distance of any point of the element from the

we have assumed
axis, and p is the density of the solid, which
to be constant and therefore have been able to take out of the
integral sign.
If
is
the total mass of the solid, p
determine^ from the formula
JtfwpK
may be
284
If the
moment
which we shall
of inertia about OZ,
JR
required, then hi cylindrical coordinates
so "that (1) becomes
call 1^ is
= r and dV= r$6drdz,
Iz = p CCCr*d0 drds.
If
we
(2)
use Cartesian coordinates to determine
and
dV= dxdydz,
/,,,
we have
so that
'xdydz.
Iy and Ix are the moments

Similarly,
and OX respectively, we have
if
(3j
of inertia
about
OY
f\ f\ SI
(4)
In evaluating (2)
with respect to z last.
it
is
We
Ia = p
But
I I
i^dddr
is,
by
sometimes convenient to integrate

indicate this by the formula
Cdz CCr9 dO dr.

88, the polar
(5)
moment
of inertia of a
plane section perpendicular to OZ about the point in which OZ

intersects the plane section. Consequently, if this polar moment
is known, the evaluation of
(5) reduces to a single integration.
This has already been illustrated in the case of solids of revolution.
similar result
ease with which a
is
obtained by considering (3).
moment
of inertia is
In fact, the
found depends upon a
proper choice of Cartesian or cylindrical coordinates and, after

that choice has been made, upon the order in which the
integra-
tions are carried out.
Equation (3)
may
be written
in the
form
>WCy*dxdydt,
(6)
and the order of integration in the two

integrals need not be
the same. Similar forms are derived from
(4).
The theorem of 89 holds for solids. This

by the same methods used in that section.
.
is
easily
proved
MOMENT OF INERTIA
285
Ex. Find the moment of inertia about OZ of a cylindrical

altitude h whose base is one loop of the curve r
a sin 3 6,
The
base of this cylinder
shown
is
formula (2),
in
Fig 65,
p.
144.
We
solid of
have, from
In8fl
wheie the limits
are obtained as follows:
First, holding r, 6, d6, dr constant, we allow z to vary from the lower

base s =
to the nppei base z = li, and integrate. The result phra dOdi is
the moment of inertia of a column such as is shown in Fig 127. We
next hold
and d& constant and allow r to vary from its value at the
origin to its value on the curve r = a sin 3 0, and integrate. The result
4
ain 4 3 Qd& is the moment of inertia of a slice as shown in Fig. 127.
\ /7i
to vary from its smallest
Finally, we sum all those slices while allowing
value
to its largest value
The volume
of the cylinder
1
a"
*-
V = Jo
I
Af=
Therefore
The
result is
may
be computed from the formula
/idBinSO
Jo
-faphePir
zz
nh
i rdBdrdz
Jo
and
Js
=JI/
EXERCISES
Find the moment of inertia of a rectangular parallelepiped
about an axis through its center parallel to one of its edges.
1.
Find the moment of

t= 2 and $ =
2.
the surface
inertia about
OZ
of a solid
bounded by
r.
3. Find the moment of inertia of a right circular cone of radius a

and height h about any diameter of its base as an axis.
4. Find the moment of inertia aboxit OZ of a solid bounded by
2
the paraboloid
=*
~+
and the plane
e.
5. Find the moment of inertia of a right circular cone of height li

and radius a about an axis perpendicular to the axis of the cone at
its vertex.
6. Find the moment of inertia of a right circular cylinder of
of its base.
height h and radius a, about a diameter
of the
7. Find the moment of inertia about OZ of the portion
and the cylinder
aa out out by the plane
sphere ?* 4- *"
r **
cos
6.
286
Find the moment of inertia about OX. of a solid 'bounded by
8.
r*
the paraboloid
Find the moment of
10.
t+t
+ t =i
^
'
inertia about its axis of a right elliptic
h the major and the minor axis of

a and 2 b.
cylinder of height
respectively 2
7,2
= 2.
and the plane
Find the moment of
9.
inertia
OZ
about
of
its
base being
the ellipsoid
'
GENERAL EXERCISES
n
Find the center of gravity of the arc of the curve x*
1.
which
is
above the axis of
-I-
y*
*,
x.
8
a?
Find the
bent into a curve of the form 9y2
center of gravity of the portion of the wire between the points for
5 respectively.
and x
which x
2.
wire
is
3.
ay*
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the curve

a? and any double ordmate.
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the axis

and the curve j/2 = 8
2 x>
4.
of x, the axis of y,
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the curves
5.
=x
and y
= -5
>
the axis of
and the
x,
line
=2

gravity of the area bounded by the axes
of x and y and the curve x
a cos 8 ^, y
a sin s
7.
jg2
~z
<
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the

&
a
=1
(a
> *)
tlie
<Hfle
as
+y =
2
a
,
and the axis of
ellipse
y.

by the parabola
8 y and the circle cca + f = 128
8.
v?
**
~ a (y - &) = 0, a2
9.
10.
^

by the curves
ay = 0, the axis of y, and the line = o,
Find the center of gravity of an area in the form of a semi-
a surmounted by an
circle
of radius
of
sides coinciding
its
equilateral triangle having one

with the diameter of the semicircle.
Find the center of

gravity of an area in the form of a rectangle of dimensions a and I surmounted
by an equilateral triangle
one side of which coincides with one side of
the rectangle which is
b units long.
11.
GENERAL EXERCISES
287
Find the center of gravity of the segment of a circle of

radius a cut off by a straight line b units from the center.
12.
13. From a rectangle b units long and a units broad a semicircle

of diameter a units long is cut, the diameter of the semicircle
coinciding with a side of the rectangle. Find the center of gravity
of the portion of the rectangle left.

gravity of a plate in the form of one half of
a circular ring the inner and the outer radii of which are respectively
'
and
>
In the result of Ex. 14, place rz = r^

AT- and find the limit as
vO, thus obtaining the center of gravity of a semicircumference.
15.
Ar
16.
10 in across the top and 12 in.

that of the top being each 2 in.
form of a T-square
and
of a plate in the
tall,
the width of the upright
17. From a plate in the form of a regular hexagon 5 in. on a side,

one of the six equilateral triangles into which it may be divided is
removed. Find the center of gravity of the portion left.
Find the center of gravity of a plate,
18.
form of the
in the
ellipse
o/
~ + 75 = 1
r
(a
> i),
in which there is a circular hole of radius
c,
the center of the hole being on the major axis of the ellipse at a
distance d from its center.
Find the center
19.
of gravity of the solid
formed by revolving
2
OY the
about
lines
?/
20.
!K
surface bounded by the hyperbola -j

a
and y
Find the center
j$
=1 and the
of gravity of the solid generated
by revolving
a;, and
= a the area bounded by that line, the axis of

= hx.
about the line %

the parabola ya
2
?/
&.
21. Find the center of gravity of the segment cut from a

sphere of
radius a by two parallel planes distant respectively
and hz (hz
7^)
from the center of the sphere.
22.
>
Find the moment of inertia of a plane triangle of altitude a and
base b about an axis passing through

the base.
its
center of gravity parallel to
23. Find the moment of inertia of a parallelogram of

and base b about its base as an axis,
altitude
288
Find the
24.
moment
of inertia of a plane circular ring, tho inner

and 5 in.,
and the outer radius of which are respectively 3
radius
about a diameter of the ring as an axis.
A square
plate 10 in. on a side has a square hole 5 in. on a

the center of the hole being at the center of tho jilafco
and its sides parallel to the sides of the plate. Find the moimmt of
inertia of the plate about a line through its center parallel to ouo
25.
side cut in
side as
26.
it,
an axis.
Find the moment of inertia of the plate of Ex. 25 nbout one of
the outer sides as
an
axis.
Find the moment of inertia of the plate of Ex. 20 about one

side of the hole as an axis.
27.
28.
of
its
Find the moment of inertia of the plate of

diagonals as
an
Ex
2tf
about ono
axis
29. A square plate 8 in. on a side has a circular hole 4 in. in

diameter cut in it, the center of the hole coinciding with tho cuntor
Find the moment of
of the square
passing through
30.
its
inertia of the plate about
lino
center parallel to one side as an axis.
Find the moment of inertia of the plate of Ex. 29 about a
diagonal of the square as an axis

31.
Find the moment of inertia of a semicircle about a tangent

diameter as an axis.
parallel to its
32.
Find the polar moment of inertia of the plate of Ex. 25 about
its center.
33. Find the polar moment of inertia of the entire area bounded
2
by the curve = a? sm 3 6 about the pole.
34. Find the polar moment of inertia of the area bounded
by tho
cardioid r = a ( 1 + cos
about the pole.
ff)
T-
35.
=a
Find the polar moment of inertia of that area of tho circle

which is not included in the curve r
a, sin 2 6 about tho
pole.
36. Find the moment of inertia about OF of

a solid bounded by
the surface generated by
revolving about OY the area bounded by the
curve </
x, the axis of y, and the line y
2.
A solid is in the form of a hemispherical shell the inner

and the outer radius of which are
and r Find
respectively
moment of inertia about any diameter of the base of
the shell as
37.
radius
its
an
axis.
GENERAL EXERCISES
38.
A solid
39.
289
in the form of a spherical cone cut

of radius a, the vertical angle of the cone being
moment of inertia about its axis.
is
from a sphere
90. Find its
solid is cut from a hemisphere of radius 5 in
by a right
circular cylinder of radius 3 in, the axis of the cylinder being

perpendicular to the base of the hemisphere at its center Find its
moment
40.
of inertia about the axis of the cylinder as an axis.
An anchor ring of mass M is bounded by the surface
generated
by revolving a circle of radius a about an axis in its plane distant

b(b > <i) from its center. Find the moment of inertia of this anchor
ring about
(a
>
its axis.
Find the moment of
41.
ft),
its
height being
h,
oj2
inertia of the elliptic cylinder
about the major axis of
its
a*
?/"
=1
+ 77
(r
base.
Find the center of gravity of the solid bounded by the cylinder

2 a cos 0, the cone ss = r, and the plane x =
42.
43.
Find the moment
of inertia about
44.
Find the volume
of the cylinder
of the curve r
= 2 a cos 2
0,
46.
Find
46.
Find the moment of
OZ
of the solid of Ex. 42.
having for its base one loop

between the cone = 2 r and the plane
the center of gravity of the solid of Ex. 44.

inertia about
OZ
Find the volume of the cylinder having for its base one loop
= and
of the curve r ss a cos 2 & and bounded by the planes
=s x + 2 a.
47.
ft
48.
Find the moment
of inertia about
OZ
of the solid of Ex. 47
Find the volume of the cylinder r = 2 a cos

the planes * =
and * =s 2 x + a.
49.
60.
Find the moment
of inertia about
OZ
included between
spherical shell of which, the inner radius and the

outer radius are respectively rl and ra , a circular hole of radius
61.
Through a
<
a (a
is bored, the axis of the hole coinciding with a diameter
fj)
of the shell. Find the moment of inertia of the ring thus formed
about the axis of the hole.
ANSWERS
[The answers to some problems are intentionally omitted.]
CHAPTER
Page 4
100ft per second

88 07 mi. per hour for entire trip.
21^.
4.
2.
l^jj.
5.
3.
40J\>.
6. 1,26.
1.
Page 5
10.
Page 7
06
12 ii
2.
16
1.
ft.
8.
128
4.
74
per second.
2.
24
ft.
ft
per second.
pci bccoud.
j.
14.
i- sci.
8.
85
4,
42
82
per second.
68
ft
6.
52
ft.
per second.
per second.
5.
5, 4,
8aia
when = 2
+ 2M + c
t
10, 6,
6at
when
=3
+ 26.
6)
ft.
per second.
0.
2,
87rra cu. in. per second.
3.
2?r
4,
4wra
5,
167irsq.
7.
8 (edge) 3
per second.
10. 2ir.
9. 18.
8, birr*.
CHAPTER
(
in.
6)
6. 8irr.
Page 18
ft.
5.
8.
6.
57.
TT
Page 14
128
5)
1,
Page 13
per hour.
3)
l^mi
08.4.
3)
Page 11
2J
9.
8.
1.
Page 8
7.
8.
2)
106
2)
II
7)
3.
8,
-,_
-2.
4fc B
S
7.
tf
+ B+1.
201
4.
:-
8,
8-~
5.
ANSWERS
292
Page 21
9)
1.
Increasing
if
2.
Increasing
if
3.
Increasing
if
4.
Increasing
if
5.
Increasing
if
6.
Increasing
if
7.
Increasing
if
>2
>
<
<
aj <
x <
<
x
x
x
a
8.
Always
9.
Increasing iftc<
10.
8.
5 or
or
a:
>S
>
if
>
When t >
in dnection in
when
<
Increasing
9.
Increasing
10.
Increasing
when t > 2
when t >
when < < f
<x <
J or
a;
>
1.
winch
a is measxirod.
$.
decreasing
TrA 8 .
decreasing
decreasing
2.
when t < 2.
when i < $
when < > |.
irh sq. ft.
per second.
11)
2 cm. per second.

in. per second.
4 TT (2
5.
0.20
6.
64 cu. ft per second.
12
36)
t is
Tl
TT
(t tal
hol ff ht >*'
thickness.
13)
1.46.
-2
4. 1.12
07.
0.46; 2.05.
5.
S 93.
G.
2.41.
2.52.
14)
1.
8a;-y_9 = 0.
2.
2x + Sy +
fj.
if
Always increasing.
Always decreasing
1.
6.
if
2.
decreasing
^<a<l; decreasing
decreasing if x < 1.
8.
3.
lor
20 9 sq
if
1.
Page 35
< K < 1.
< x < 8.
1 < x <
decreasing
11)
if
Always moves
7.
Page 31
|.
.
4.
5.
8.
>
When t < - 1 or t > I when !<<!.

5 when t > 5.
When
When t < 2 or t > 4 when 2 < i < 4.
6.
4.
if
decreasing if sc >
2 or x > 1 , decreasing
,
3.
1.
Page 27
if
decreasing
< 2.
x<
decreasing
10)
2.
Page 26
increasing.
Increasing
Page 24
if
decreasing
7.
21aj-2y-13 = 0.
+S=
,_
V3a;-y-2V3-2=
J/
*The symbol tan-
+y+l=
*12. tan-ij.
18, tan-*12.
+ 2y + 8 = 0.
8. 4x- Sy-1 = 0.
14.*.
-M.-4y-.6-0. W. i.-Sy-M-o.
10. 5a: - Qy - 4 = 0.
W, (-Itfr,
6,
1
jj-
0.
aj
represents the angle whose tangent is

\ (cl.
2ft)*
46).
ANSWEES
Page 39
15)
>|).
1.
(-
2,
(2, 4J).
3.
(0, 4), (2, 0).
10.
- 0).
(- 3, 10), (1, 2)
278 + 27^-86
11.
18a5
(3,29).
18.
tan-ijj
4, (1, 7), (3, 3).
(-
6.
6.
2, 0), (1,
- 3),
(-1,
Page 43
293
9.
=
-
- 28 = 0.
17)
1.
aSsq.in.
2.
Length
3. 5ft.
twice breadth.
is
5.
4. 50.
Page 44 (5 17)
one-half side of base.
6,
Depth
7,
2 portions 4
is
ft.
long
8,
Breadth
9,
Altitude
= ^-f-
jjt.
-o
10,
2000 cu. in.
1L Height
4 portions 1
..
,
;
depth
base - ?
4
4
2547 cu. in
(P
of rectangle
ft.
long
=
- perimeter)
= radius of semicircle
semicircle of radius,
5
12.
-7=
VS
Page 46
1,
in.
Page 47
8.
40ft.
3,
05ft.
4,
88$
Page 49
1.
18)
426ft.
ft.
5.
676ft.
7.
a
y = 2x8 + x
-4x+6.
19)
2.
7$.
Page 53
18)
3,
62J.
4. 36.
5.
6.
20)
0.0001
0.000009001
0.00000001
10.
0.000000090001.
11,
0.000001
8.
9.
000003 sq.
456 58 ou.
in.
in.
Page 54
1.
16
Sir
8,
5.
27.0054 ou. in.

28.2749 cu m.
6.
606 0912.
4.
72 sq. in.
7.
cu. in.
8.
0012.
5.99934
ANSWERS
294
Page 55 (General Exercises)
'
2a
'
(a
14.
- x) 2
(x
increasing
Increase
if
+ I) 2
_ j
'
>
<
^= or x >
~
V3
4/7
,
decreasing
if
decreasing
o,
V3
<
13.
t
'
decrease if x
>
<
y,
Increasing
if
>
if
- 2.
<
decreasing if
a; <
f or <j < x <
2 Vajs
f<o;<ora;>2,
if
16. Increasing if
'
'
15. Increasing if
17.
4x
"
2.
- .
2(t
decreasing
^= < x
if
< =
V3
V3
4 ft
-

20.
1< t < 5
Up when
21.
Increasing
18.
22.
23.
24.
19.
<*<
4.
< i < 6 J down when 6 < < 12.

when t > 4 decreasing when t < 4.
D increasing when
< 3, v deci easing when t > 3 speed increasing when
2<i<3ori>4, speed decreasing when !S<2or3<i<4
Increasing when !<<2ori>3, decreasing when *<lor2<i<3
,
0055
per minute
per second
per minute.
in.
25. 8 6 in.
26. 1 sq in
27.
28.
+ 2y + 6 =
7x+
x
0.

29.
80.
x- 2 =
x - 2y - 7 = 0.
35. (2, - 2).
2x-y + 3 = 0.
83.
(-,
32.
tan-l
34.
(lj, 0)
41.
36.
(-
1, 13), (5,
37.
((-
3, 13), (1,
38.
31.
- 95).
- 19).
42.
43.
tan-i T
- y - 11
44. (1,
4, 20).
8|).
10.
- 1), (-
J,

46.
6f
ft.
48.
cone
i** a
Altitude=
49. 2 pieces
is
53.
^
*u
sideof
base
54.85^.
2g
56. 20 1
3 in long, 3 pieces 1
=^_
in.
long
50 600ft.
51.
- x2 +
= x8
52.
| radius of sphere.
long
47. Altitude of
Bx
- IB
x*
7x
57. 72.
56ft
59. 0.0003.

60. 0.00629.
62. 288
TT
cu
64. 0.09
in.
63, 161. 16 cu. in,
cu in
65. 0.0003.
66. 854.1028j 353.8972,
67.
24.0024 sq.
69, 0.4698.
in.
Page 66
23)
1.
8J
3.
52 T S
2.
23,}
4.
166fr
Page 67
24)
160ft
1.
Page 68
4.
1.
When
3.
83ft.
5,
8000irft.-lb.
8$ T.
2.
2JT.
3.
3T.
25)
Approx. 2418 Ib.
7.
585}T.
9.
6.
10.
11. 2 1 ft.
Page 75
1.
57Jft.
25)
Page 71
6.
2. 140ft.
24)
Page 70
26)
21
234| T
2
T.
from upper side
8.
TT.
625V8
~~
84
A *.
cu
4.
l^w.
7.
5.
6577r.
8.
in.
9.
25f IT
10.
213 JTT.
2|
11.
38|

1.
5. 20.
2.
6Jft.
81ft.
3.
10
4.
8JJ mi-
8.
9.
"'
ft
'
~3~
12.
8.
JfT
Reduced to | original
pressure

13.
Twice
14,
Jft
as groat.
20.
17.
16. 68
34lcu.m.
T.
16. 16 to.
21.^-1
2
28. (aft - Jft")ir
35
19. 96 IT.
^TT

29.
728,049
27.
26.
26. 115J.
24. STT.
80.
ft.-lb.
28.
5301 ft Jb.
CHAPTER IV
Page 81
1.
28)
&a +
8
i/
- 8as -f
11
cs 0.
3.
(-3,
5); 5.
*.(- *.!);
0.
6,
8a~
204|
296
ANSWERS
Page 84 (
30)
M-2,o).
a-
MO, -if)
5.
8H ft.
(o.i).
MH,0).
Page 85
Page 87
+ 6a;-9 = 0.
6.
(3,0),
I-
18s2
x*-4x-12y + 16= 0.
o,
(2,0), (Vl3,
0),
3.
(0,
4.
(2V,0); (4,0),
V2),
(0,
3a;2y=0;
V5),
36)
+ 22a;_3
98).
'
'
~(a;
-9)
11.
-.
12.
21
13.
7 2a!
8.
32)
1.
9x2 + 25â - 36x - 189 =

49a; 2 + 24 y2 _ 12 0y _ 144
5.
Page 102
10.
V6),
3), (0,
Page 91
lOVlOft.
_i +
^
*2
^'
14'
ft
iom/5
31)
(0,
as/,
30)
(
9.
2-
6.
7.
.
8.
ANSWERS
15
-"
'
3i
tr
ii
11
-.
\' (x
i>)
~"a)
(JR
18.
- 6)
19.
(x
vV +
je
Vi/
Vy
a///
*"
--J
(38)
Sa O.
x~7y + 5 = 0.
2,
3.
-.
.
"i
Page 110
1.
a,
3.
5
*
ton" 1
A-
10, tan-18.
12.
11.
13.
tan-i|.
(40)
V44.9tK
x-r 8
x^d/-!)'4 V4tf+i.
= 0j SVll7-48t + l6ia
x*-0x +
2X2
4.
a Bin
,.
fo
\
4.
-3
(-2.-1).
PAgel06(88)
8.*".
'
i'
xa
8u 8
""ftw*
ai
" 1/&
8>
!_.'
g
,,'S*
e'
Page 105
2a8x
__x
U
,
'*
+ x)*
V(l
8)*
37)
* ""'
V(x2 +9) 8
20.
<tt/
+ l)Vxa -l
~]
v*--*
Page 104
jr8
22.
v'W-.tfi
'
x2 ) 8
a
V(a +
*"'
297
Ba
20
20
2a
sill
'
(8,1).
'4*
11.
8V i
,
Pftge 113
2. 12.6 ft,
Moond.
!5-fl, per secona (x-
4, Circle;
6.
yaa
"aj
per second.
distance of point
3,
û, perminute.
from *dl).
2,64 ft. per second.
(41)
?,
0.18 cm. por second.
^ti^t.per
^dtonoe
8 ccond,
of foot of
nute.
mumi*.
permi
0.21 in. per
where,
8.
6.6
ft.
per second.
of top of ladder,
is the distance
ladder, fromDase
of
pyramid.
and
IB
ANSWERS
298
20. 3
-; tan- 17.
28.
21.
tan-i
30.
27.
1 --, tan2
2'
81.
2i
tan'
"
~
On
7T
32.
-,lan
33.
x$
11
ifi
= 2 ato - <W8?
35.
'
OJ
'
-1-
(i
I)

41. 6 8
37.
20 ft per second
mi per houi
'
(100,20).
3s
43.
'
Vs2
Velocity in path
28 8 mi
a
42.
lOVEft per second,
39.
4
,
VCKC
length of lope from
man
06 ft per minute
ft per minute.
45.
sJu
52.
Breadth, 9
53.
Length
54.
Side of base, 10 ft

per minute
46.
08
47.
01 in. per minute.
ft.
per minute
|f
49.
04 in. per second.
50. Length is twice breadth
51 Other sides equal.
48.
sq in
depth,
9V3 in.
| bieadth
,
depth, 5 ft
55.
Depth
56.
Radius, 3
side of base.
in.
height,
in.
59.
57. 2
64 in
60. 8
mi from point on bank nearest to A.

bn
bm
,
58.
Vi'
,
mi. on land
m2
Vn2
Vn2 - mr
64.
63. l^f-hr.
61.
mi
4 1|} mi tiavel ou land
in water
v/lOO mi per hour.

65. Velocity
66.
Base
m still water =
= aVI
altitude
mi per hour
|
CHAPTER V
Page 126
1.
44)
15 cos 5 x
2. sec 2 -.
3.
4.
2sm2 2zcos2x.
5 sin 10 x.
6.
5 sin2 5 x cos8 5 aj.
7.
_
o60!,
tan
5 sec 2
2
8.
-8csc
to boat.
44.
40.
|250-3i
3
\ 04-
pei second, whore
ft
- 400
is
&X
.
2
3a;ctn3x.
ANSWERS
Page 127
299
44)
13. 2 cos
9. hin-
10.
4 x.
14.
9tan4 3aj.
15
16
2 sec 2 x (sec 2 2 x
sm8 2 a; cos2 2 a;
17.
18.
-?.
tan2 2 x)
?
}
11.
12. 2 sec
x (sou x
Page 129
.
3. 7T,
4.
tana-)
45)
S_.
5.
Mil---
At extieme points
moan
6.
5.
At moan
at
point of motion
extreme points of motion.
;
7.
TT.
8.
10, 2?r.
1.
1)3.
Page 137
3.
4(4-8)
48)
9.42
motion, at
18.
Page 136
of
point of motion.
- 3) (5 - s)
2V(fc
ft.
per second
% = =F 86.40 ft.
per second.
2.
48)
8 radians per unit of time.
Page 138
49)
'
Page 141
b cos
<t)
50)
17V17
6.
63
ANSWERS
300
Page 145
17.
21.
51)
Origin
18. Origin
19.
.
,
a^j|, |)
(V3, j).
^8^20 =
26.
23. r
27.
(2,
x-a=
x2 + V* - 2 ax
25.
22. r
Origin
28.
24. r
Page 148
52)
1.
tan-* 1
IT
3.
0.

9.
2(l
sec2 2x).
(3x
11. cos2
(2-
y)
sec2 (x
y)
18.
sec 2 (x
+ y)
sec 2 (x + y)
15.
16.
1
24.
21.
2(x
20.
x)Vx3
25.
xV49x -l
2
26.
V2 + x - x2
27.
5
(x
2x
_
(x + 1) Vx
+ l)Vx
a;.
19.
8csc2 4x(ctn4x + l)
a tan ox sec2 ox.
8 cos8 2 x sin 4 a; cos 6 x.
14
.x
tan4 2
3 x).
sec2 (x
1
ig
+ 2).
10. sec4
-l)Vx2 -2
V3-4x-4x
2~3x
Vo
= 3; 2
x2
Va2 sm2 ^ + 62 cos2 ^.
29.
fc
30.
2^_
31.
V41,
35.
47.
j
""*"
34.
Origin
48. Origin;
2aVi.
A.
(^,tan-i
2
).
49. Origin;

52.
COS(?
51.
53. (x8
54,
+ y 2) 2 +
tan-i.
aa;(x
+ y2 )
s= 0.
ANSWERS
65. 0)
tan-12
57.
56. 0,
:,ton-i8V5.
68
At an
1
angle tan-

63.12m.
65. a.
sVBft.
64.
nn
/i
70.
/i
b sin &
67. 0.1 ft
Vaa -6a sin2 0/
'
V2ft
15 sq ft
10.04 sq. ft. per second.
26 7 mi. per minute.
,
,..,
times angular velocity of
69.
72
'
61.
with ground.
68.
per second.
&2 8in0COS(? \
'4
/*;
IflVift
59
Kg*
62.
301
-.
= angle
,
AS. where
CL4.B.
<*
71,
~22
)
5^-^ = 1
78.
-321
V9 sin 2 * + 4 cosat
fa
where
= (2 k + 1)
OsecSiVtan 3< + 4sec2 3<.

sin 20.
73.
75.
aVl+cos2 o5,
74.
when
fastest
75.
x = far; most slowly when

= (2A! + l)-.
tan-^Vi
tan- 1 ^
tan- 1 3 Vs.
77. 0,
78.
a5
79.
tan-i^, tan-i4V2
tan-i3; tari-ij.
CHAPTER VI
Page 162
55)
(The student is not expected to obtain exactly these answers

merely to indicate approximately the solution.)
Page 163
3.
1.
y =0.62 x-
55)
4.
^=s0.80(2.7)^.
Page 165
2.
0.70.
5.
c=0.010(0,84).
a=0.0000000048Z3'o.
12. e- 2ac (3cos3a;
1
~*
"
n
j.
1
13, Ctll"" 1 !!/.
<
14.
4.
"'
2 a; a** -Una.
16,
Vi^"+~4*
_.,
16.
e"
5|
10.
- 4 sec 2*.
2(e
'
rf j. A
-.
20:4.8
-
j" =
10.
56)
(
1
3.
they are given
1 = 0.00172)
"'
8a!
e- 2a?)
W'
ig.
J;
'
eaa+e-is*
e-
2 see's.
asVx
+l
2sin8x).
ANSWERS
302
Page 167
57)
2.
Page 168
5.
= 45.22eoola:
?/
4.
57)
P = 10000 e
022 9*
6. c
= 0.01e-
n44B
7,
<.
mm,

*10.
0.018
*11.
24.
Load
102
-6
6 length.

31. 2"\/2e~ 2i
87.
2e~ 2 *
(l
33.
CHAPTER
(
Vic*.
38.
'
Page 176
35.
1) *
VII
59)
3.8
2.
2i
8
3.
a;
a;
e.
V2
~2l~3!
61
15
315
4"4"
41
2s
17x7
--^h
""
32-4
- ____
+2
-L.
____
^
JL
__
'
+"
9.
10,
2s
0.0872
4695,
* Statement in
regard to answeis to exeicises in
55
is
true of tins answer,
ANSWERS
Page 178
303
60)
52
___ +
.___
58
_____
ir\ 8
E+
si
to
2!
0.7193
8.
21
oy
31
0.8480
9,
10.
8.0042
'
u
11
- 2cc + 2
a j.
H.
i
T
13
j.^ x %~
- 2fc8 +
-2aj 8
8!
21
3.4.?!
4a*
5!^
'
2_ 8
^!_I^ ?!.
2*31
a '21
9659.
14.
15. 0.61CO.
...
+ ^!+...,
'
5 2
10. 1
*
2
'
18.
19>
0.69815; 10986.
22 314; 1.6094.
-

88, 2.0805.
M,
2.9625.
a;8
2e
'
a6
""
"*"
5(2
I)
a7
_
7(8
!)
ANSWERS
304
CHAPTER
Page 183
VIII
61)
8j/
5.
x2
xy
'
xy
*_.
2
s._L_,
2
x2
'
x2 +i/
+2/
>
VI
2.
e"
3,
y)
0012.
2.
4.0.018m
3,
2^
5.00105
6.0015m.
6320ft.
7.
8.0.0064.
64)
-2.
1.
sm (x
63)
Page 191
63)
Page 188
tf
,
v x2 + y a
000061
1.
x2^ 2
5-
Page 187
'
'
y
s.
y*
-5
62)
x2
1.
Vl
xay 2
Page 185
+ y)*
*
y
4.
(K
i
7
---,
x
6.
2.
-|
4.
5.
Vx2 +
o.
6.
y2
0;0

8.
- 14.33 cu
9l
1735
ft.
10. 0.5655 sq. in.;
11. 3.0 in
05756sq.m
12.
13.
035m,
2.206 sq. in. per second

15. 4.4 uq. in.
per second.

16.
_iyJ5.
17
/y-tan-ia
a
tan A
ia
is.
fit
&*.
V5
-cos a
'Sina,
CHAPTER IX
Page 198
66)
-p if*
-p uiiiij,.
7.
i(x*
8.
llnW-im.
9.
În(2x
+ sin2x)
W-
3(x-smx)
16
14
4)a.
'
2.
g\(3x+7)x4
10.
4.
nz __!
a:
L.
.1
2.758
1)].
12.
i.
14.
17.
ln(x
20.
+ Sx2 +
1).
ig,
~a
ln ( 1
~Jcos*2x.
^).
1.
ANSWERS
Page 202
805
67)
4x-3
,3x
-sin- 1
4
3
1.
.sin-
'
V7
V?
11.
Vs
-^-sm-i
6x-5
Vs
V21
12.
V5
sec -1 xV8.
4.
13.
-=-.
5.
V3
5sm-
15
*5
--2V4-x2
ft
16.?
17.
Page 204
V2
V2
VlO
~.
4
~-
19.
18. v.
2C
36
68)
11.
.
Jln(8a+Vo"-l).
12.
3.
-p
3a; + 5
^Lln-*"-
V5
2x
'
V33
5.
-r- In (3
2x-6
2x
20
2x
=rln
14.
1
7- 8 + V5
VlS
-t-
V33_
4x-l-Vl3
_
4x-l + Vl3
5'
15.
7.
16,
-
8.
8X+V15
2 VlC
--
9.
~
:
V2
2 Vi5
w,
4 to
Page 207
19.
-..
(
20.
ln;
iln
69)
1,
- ^ COB (S 05-2).
2,
~Jsin(4~2x).
3,
Jsec(8x
4,
4tan?.
8.
2 esc -
9.
^ln [sec (4 x
1).
11. In (esc
8x
13.
6.
7.
$ln
sin 6 as,
14,
+ 2) + tan (4 a + 2)].
ctn(8-2a).
10.
+ V5
18. -4=1]
cosx.
etnas)
2 cosx.
ANSWERS
306
5.
Vx2
tan- 1 V.e2
10.
11..
|.
Page 216
1.
(8
18.
9.
4Vx2 -4
14..
^(9\/8-10V5).
7.
8.
2.
3.
sin- 1 -2
x2
zcos-ix Vl
xtan- 1 3a-j^ln(l+ 9a2
9.
10.
J (81 In 8 -96).
la^Beo-^x
11.
i(-2).
6.
sin z (In sin
12.
l(7T-2).
Page 217
2
J (2 cos + sin a) e *.
2
J(x + 2xsincc + 2cosx).
4-2Ve
5.
4.
15.
74)
3*
1) e
,x
V4-X2
8.
12.-
4.
a;
1)
75)
X2
4.
In
5.
In'
-l
2
2)
2.

a;
--.
2
2 as
ANSWERS
307

T.
/,
(2
ij
(1
8.
+ CST S
+ 2s +
9.
a;*)*.
11.
n\, [B fdu
- 1) - 3 sm
(2 z
12.
COB*
un - /3
f>\
1
13.
,)
14.
,V, t 8 HucB
15.
16.
tau
(jt
c
(-
fi
(7 c\sc 2
Ju
1)
c'sc
(a-
tr)
In (a
1).
3 ctn4 4 a)
- 2)].
- 1)
(.r
xa
a:
5 suc
In tan
B\.
- 2) -
(2
10 ctn2 4 x
a;
za
1 1) ]
+ 4 cos2 - +
ctn 4 x (] 5
-\/8
10.
11 i(MoSa--7)v/8ee8j.
18.
Vcac2x
~?% (8 ctn
19.
20.
21.
T jt,j(lB3
'
fl
5 x + 8 ctn 3 5 a:) Vctn 6 x

34sina 4o; + Own 4 4 a) \/wn4a5.
(9 ctn 5
4 ctn 6 a ) \/ctn8 5
- sec- .1
23, sin- 3
V5
ppf**" J-
V6
V6
x.
OB
-!
35.
sin- 1
Vl6
2;r-5
36.
Vo
O 35
JL
'
sr
^sin-i-^-.
s
aVa
,.
25
5
30.
24.
Vc
31.
*
,2J!-1
38
00
33.
21 i B ec-i^ti.
2
J-sec-i^li.
'sVs
Vs
,23; + 8
= sin- 1
=
V2
V8
2V6
V5
39.
Vn
Vn
28.

41.
-ft
42
- Rl Tl **" 1
-7).
rrm-i
49.
2
1
43.
48. ln(oj-|-Vxa
-2
a
-i"T
1-2
-i-soc-i^-.
V6
aVo
. -
1
JL
**
"^T
51.
9-S
nv
SGC
"*"* *
62.
53, 2
45, 4
46.1
4r1
V21
lfi
54.
V8ica
+l --
55,
-i= In
VlO
+ 7).
+ In (a; 4- V
Inj^-h Va
V(ca
_
a
4).
-Ox).
ANSWERS
308
59.
1
57.
=ln(5x
VH
+ 2 + V25x2 +
20 x
ln(3x-4 + V9x2 - 24x +
58.
V6
6V?
5)
8x+V7
în^?- 2
4 Vo
14)
V5 +
-2
x V&
i ^
62.
2V21
63.
ln-.
x
.. 1,
64. -In
__
x-1
in
bo.
4V6
71.
(tan3x
72. In
73.
ta
2x-
l
5"
15
68.
.^
2V6
70.
67.
3x +
12
2x-5
74.
ctnSx).
+ tan ( aj
[sec(x-g)
cos2x.
ln(secx
)]
tanx).

-x
-sm 8 -cos-
.a;
16
75
91.
'
(In 5)8
2a;
sin
Gx-3)
106.
ANSWERS
809

107.
V5-2
112.
6?
118.
113.
7.
119 .
'
V5
108 '0
109>c2
~e
114.^11X2.
-
'
110.
Til
'
...
........
!
i
'
117.
UvS.
123.
11.
Jjfira
2 ?H^V2
'
1.
2a2
7m_
4n'
1.
^L.
;
Page 235
6.
ft
7ra8 .
Page 236
T^ T
16<
14.
259jw.
16.
aa V2
7,
8.
JTTW.
4.
~~.
6.
HTT.
^
'JJ,"
13>
79)
Page 234
A/8^
~8"
Page 232
77)
2w2 a8
- In 3.
122.
CHAI?TEB
10.
121. 2
14
ft*/ '
lu 5
Page 229
WO-
+ 4V2
116. STT
A"
^^/g
~^j-
10.
J.
9. 407T.
|7ra
4-(7T-2).
*
80)
is
radius of semicircle.
2.
2u 3
IT
7T0
is
xadius of semicircle.
80)
100 revolutions per minute.
7.
8.
5.64 Ib. per square inch,
81)
8),
I
4.
Ca.
5.
STr'a.
7.
ANSWERS
310
Page 238
l
82)
vka
'a
2,
'12
22f ft.-lb
7.
R+
Page 239
4.
mi.-lb
686 1 ft.-lb
6.
2kca2 k
B is radius of
is
the con-
stant ratio
196,350 ft.-lb
earth in miles
2 irC
8.
82)
9. 1.76ft.-lb., 1 56ft.-lb.

1
Ssm-i|
3.
16
-12 In 3
1^
6.
15 T\
5_
_.
247T
9V3
-
15
10
^TTCE
11. ^ Trfc2
Vi^jj
fe
12.
and kz are the values for k
-..
in the equation
2
j/
13.
15

14.
15.4FGn4-l)
dfrrf.
16
17.
19.
.,
15
'
15
_4
23.

24. 400irlb.
28.
123 T
31. 21
J.
.
26.
441b.
'
34.
-(8ir+9V3)
35.
J.D
'

861
88
'
37.
-4
T*
^(8+7T),
(57T-8),
41.950
(8-7T)
42.
-(In 9-1).
ANSWERS
48,
45.
311
-""
2
8a3

T.
49.
q
~.
a
50. 50,000 ft.-lb.
a*
51, 438,1 ft.-lb.
CHAPTER XI
Page 245 ( 83)
1.80 -In 8.
Page 246
In 3.
2.
'
6.
14.
~ (22 -
10,
T"
11,
TT).
Page 254
8.
cz
(i
~~r>
(f^ 4-
lira,
10.
On
6.
~ from
axis, distant
On axis, distant
On
axis, distant
On
5,
Middle point of
On
7,
On
8,
Intersection ot medians.
8.
/-, -\.
0fca
fr0
(radius)
from base.
a
- from base.
Sv
7.
\2
4 a 'N/S
'
from
8/
m L!!'
ir.
On
18.
Middle point of
axis, distant
from
base.
axis.
86)
4,
6,
30
center of circle.
line of centers, distant
axis of shell, distant
Page 257
On axis of qxxadrant,
vertex.
4 a*
16.
On
12.
r-\
16.
3,
~6~"
Va (IT V2 - 4).
axis,
Page 256
'
'
On
"~
'
1^\
c"
/08
4e(e
--l)7
v
'
5,
85)
(2
e+l
4.
4. IT
2Jf.
83)
^ a
rx2
~~
8 (r *"
*"*,?
from center of
circle of radius r,.
+ r|
*'
from common base of spherical surfaces.
^)
86)
a
1
-
axis,
distant
of distance
$
(4$, 4|),
axis,
axis.
(ri
from
base,
from vertex to base.
the outer edges of the square being; taken as
OJTand OF.
ANSWERS
312
9.
10.
11.
On axis, distant 4 8 from corner of square

On axis, distant 3.98 m from center of cylinder in direction of
On axis, distant 8.4 ft. from base of pedestal.
Page 260
87)
3.
base
4.
^
15
x
,
altitude
7rg
5-
larger ball.
altitude
altitude
and 26
= base
of segment.
and 26
= base of segment.
5
6.
27ra26, 8ira6.
7.
^(b + Sc),
Page 268
1
26c
62
(6
2c)
Va2 +
62 ]
89)
McP, a
Page 269
7r[2ca
= radius.
89)
9
10.
11.
4)
32a8
9
Sffffl4
326
8. Tra8
9.
(37T
20
16V2).
10.
u,
ANSWERS
Page 283
2t
On
313
93)
axis of ring, distant 2ft.
from
6-
center of shell.
3.
On ax 1S
7i
distant
+ 2 Vt + '.")
4W + V. + T/)
(
/
?.
On
Page 285
1.
2.
,
from
axis,'
Qa
-^
6
(0,0,
from upper base

4.
fî
'
u u
8/00
Ot
,
base.
2b2
\
-a )&]/
2
8[b
-(b
94)
2
^5 Jlf (a +
62 ), where Jf is mass, and a and & are the lengths of the sides
perpendicular to the axis.
Atf
M.
8,
jf M(3 a
4.
Jfcf
Page 286
(a
-1-
2 W)
5.
6 2 ).
6.
^ M(a + 4
^M a +
2 a2 (15 TT
/i)
'
(8
25 (3
47i).
TT
- 26)
- 4)
94)
14.9T
.
8.
..
Page 286
9.
i^..
3
10.
On
+ &8 ).
10.
General Exercises)
oV
\ 7
}flf(a
a;
=6
is
852
the ordhiale.
axis,
distant
from base of triangle and away from
semicircle.
11,
On
axis, distant
4a*+ 2ab -^ +
&*
from base.

18,
On axis of segment, distant

of circle,
T.IL1'"
8 7m8
(
^ from center
ANSWERS
314
~~
18.
On
axis, distant
14.
On
axis of plate, distant
15.
On
axis, distant
16.
On
axis of square, 8 in. f lorn bottom.
17.
On
axis, distant
from center of
semicircle.
8(86 -Tra)
gp1
*v
' .
J-
7*
f J- f^\
1J
2"""
from center
from center
of circles.
I/
of circle
7T
in.
18.
On
axis, distant
19.
On
axis of solid, distant
ab
20.
On
21.
On
from center of hexagon
c 2d
axis, distant
~C
from center of
96
from base
^ of distance to
4-T^n^fh
of sphere
T^lfa
top.
~
l
axis of segment, distant
22.
ellipse
from smaller base
16
21
Ji
~\
f] 8
~"
ll '-"
fmrn
**"*
'ii
23,

24. *j-2l.
25. JJL5
27.
u
*fM.
&&M
29
XPJli_4
26.
a*
31>
S7 ( 15
^-
32)J
34.
16
1S radius.
35.
32.
30
%JiM.
86
30,
'
33.
uyi_4Tr]
~.
37t

38-
42.
3Q-18-5V2;.
39.
J/i&M
(^,0,
43.
40.
48
ly/OLO
'
32
51.
44
in,
49
'
3465
'
3ira8
__
^13838
103
80.
ofmtnr
\jouuv3i
INDEX
(The numbeis refer to the pages)
Center of gravity, of plane curve,

250
Abscissa, 28
Acceleration,
9, 21,
186
of quarter circumference, 250

of right circular cone, 253
Algebraic functions, 70
Amplitude, 128
Angle, between curve and radius
of sextant of circle, 252

of solid of revolution, 252
vector, 140
between curves, 104

between straight lines, 35
Circle, 79, 148

of cuivature,
vectonal, 142
Circular measure, 119
Angular velocity and
Compound-interest law, 166

Cone, circular, 272
elliptic, 275
Constant of integration, 45, 194
Anti-sine, 180
Approximations, 53, 187

Arc, differential of, 106, 146
Archimedes, spual of, 145
Coordinates, 27
Area, as double integral, 246

of ellipse, 225
of plane curve, 47, 225
in polar coordinates, 280
by stimulation, 60
cylindrical, 270
polar, 142
space, 269
of suiface of revolution, 259
Asymptote, of any curve,
80,
02
See
Mean
Curvatuie, 189
Curves, 91
Cycloid, 137
Cylinder, 278
of hyperbola, 90
Average value
140
Cissoid, 98
acceleration, 185
value
Axis, of cooidmates, 28
of ellipse, 86
of hyperbola, 00
Cylindrical codrdinates, 270

Definite integral, 62, 194
Derivative, 15
higher, 40
of parabola, 82
partial, 181
second, 39
Cardioicl, 145
Cartesian equation, 100

Cartesian space coordinates, 260
Catenary, 157
Center of_ gravity, of any solid, 282
of circular arc, 258
of composite area, 255
'
of half
a parabolic segment, 25f
of plane area, 251,
sign of, 20, 40

Differential, 50
of arc, 106, -146
of area, 64
total,
185
Differential coefficient, 51
Differentiation, 15
of algebraic functions, 94
815
INDEX
316
exponential and
logarithmic functions, 163
of implicit functions, 102
Differentiation,
of
Graphs, 27
of exponential functions, 157
of inverse
tiigonometnc functions,
130
of inverse trigonometric functions,
of logarithmic functions, 157

in polar coordinates, 142
131
partial, 181
of polynomial, 18
of trigonometric functions, 124
Directrix of parabola, 81
Distance between two points, 79
Double integration, 244
of trigonometric functions, 121
Hyperbola, 87
Implicit functions, 102
Increment, 16
e,
Indefinite integral, 63, 194
the number, 155
Eccentricity, of ellipse, 87
of hyperbola, 90
Infinite integrand,
Infinite limits, 229
Element of integration, 64
Integral, 45, 194
Ellipse, 85
definite, 62, 194
double, 244
225
Ellipsoid, 274
volume of, 280
Elliptic cone, 275
area
of,
Elliptic paraboloid,
229
indefinite, 68, 194
Integrals, table oJ, 217
Integrand, 194
275
Equation of a curve, 29
Equations, empirical, 159
parametric, 109
roots of, 30
Equilateral hyperbola, 90, 92

Exponential functions, 154
Palling body, 6, 8
Focus, of ellipse, 85
Integration, 45, 194

collected formulas, 217
constant of, 45, 194
by
by
partial fractions, 216
parts, 212
of a polynomial, 45
repeated, 244
by substitution, 208
Inverse sine, 130
Inverse trigonometric functions, 130
of hyperbola, 87
of parabola, 81
Force, 128
Formulas of differentiation, 101, 124,
131, 163
Lemniscate, 144
Length of curve, 235

Limit, 1
of
of integration, 195, 199, 202,

205,
207, 217
Fractions, partial, 216
Functions, 15
algebraic, 79
exponential, 154
implicit 102
inverse trigonometric, 130
logarithmic, 154
trigonometric, 119
of (1 + h)\ 156
theorems on, 93
Limits of definite integral, 63
Line, straight, 81
Linear velocity, 135
Logarithm, 154
Napierian, 156
INDEX
Logarithm, natural, 156
Logarithmic spual, 168
Eadms
of curvature, 139
Eadius vector, 142

Bate of change, 11, 189
Maclaurm's series, 173

Maxima and minima, 41
Mean
317
Radian, 119
Revolution, solid of, 73

surface of, 259, 273
value, 233
Hoots of an equation, 30
Rose of three leaves, 144
Measure, circular, 119

Moment o inertia, 200
of circle, 204
polar, 202
ol quadrant of ellipse, 262
Second derivative, 89
of rectangle, 201
of solid, 283
Segment, parabolic, 83
Senes, 172
Maclaurm's, 173
Moments of inertia about parallel axes,

260
sign of, 40
power, 172
Taylor's, 177
Sign of derivative, 20, 40
Simple harmonic motion, 127
Motion, in a curve, 107

simple harmonic, 127
Slope, of curve, 86
Napierian logarithm, 166
of straight line, 31
Solid of revolution, 73
Ordinate, 28
Origin, 27, 142
Space coordinates, 269

Speed, average, 3
true, 6
Pappus, theorems
Parabola, 81, 146
Sphere, 271, 272
259
of,
Spiral, logarithmic, 158
of Archimedes, 145
Parabolic segment, 83
Paraboloid, 275
Straight line, 81
Substitution, integration by, 208
Parallel lines, 38
Parameter, 109
Parametric representation, 109
Partial differentiation, 181
Partial fractions, 216
Period, 128
linos,
moment
of inertia, 202
Pole, 142
Polynomial, derivative
integral of, 46
Power
series,
172
Pressure, 68
theorem on, 267

Projectile, 110
of revolution, 273
Taylor's series, 177

Total differential, 185
84
Polar coordinates, 142

Polar
Surfaces, 271
Table of integrals, 217

Tangent line, 88, 104
212
Parts, integration by,
Perpendicular
Plane, 276
Summation, 66
of,
119
Trigonometric functions,
Trochoid, 138
37
Turning-point,
18
Value, mean, 238

Vector, radius, 142
Vectonal angle, 142

Velocity, 21, 107
angular, 135
INDEX
318
Velocities, related, 111
Vertex, of ellipse, 86
hyperbola, 90
ot paiabola, 82
of parabolic segment, 84
Volume, of any
solid,
277
of solid with parallel bases, 71

Work, 237

Frederick S Woods Elementary Calculus

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Frederick S Woods Elementary Calculus

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ELEMENTARY CALCULUS

0V MATHEMATICS IN THK MASSACHUSETTS

GINN AND COMPANY

AND FREDERICK H BAILEY

GINN AND COMPANY PROPRIETORS BOSTON V.S.A.

adapted to the use of students in the

in technical school or college, and is based upon the experience

chusetts Institute of Technology immediately upon entrance.

entrance algebra, including graphs, and an elementary course

which the fundamental ideas of the calculus are introduced,

The definition of the derivative is obtained through the

concept. For the same reason, problems from mechanics are

contains a large number of

at the end of each chapter

able neither to appreciate nor to master.

Students who have completed this text and wish to continue

Velocity and acceleration (continued)

The second derivative

general summation problem

CHAPTER IV. ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

27 Distance between two points

differentials dx, dy, ds

41. Related velocities

Graphs of trigonometric functions

44. Differentiation of trigonometric functions

Simple harmonic motion

differentials dr, dO, ds, in polar coordinates

of inverse trigonometric functions

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

55. Certain empirical equations

The compound-interest law

a function of two variables

73-74 Integration by parts

78. Infinite limits, or integrand

Area in polar cobrdmates

Other algebraic integrands

70. Integrals of exponential functions

63. Total differential of

Center of gravity of a composite area

Center of gravity of a solid

based upon the idea of a

necessary to have a clear understanding of the word.

In finding the aiea of a

to begin by inscribing a regular polygon in the circle. The area

can find an inscribed polygon whose area

area of the circle

said to be the limit of the area of the

any small number

found, then the

said to be the limit of the

In each of these two examples there is a certain variable

certain constant, the area of the circle

and the number 2

respectively. In each case the difference between the constant

taking n sufficiently large, and this difference then continues

the essential property of a limit, which

small quantity which

two examples already given. For the polygon

the sum. of the terms of the series

Examples may be given, however,

becoming equal to its limit, as in the case of a swinging pendulum

The student should

the significance of the word

the difference between the position of the train and