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The National Teaching & Learning

FORUM
Volume 8

CONTENTS
Keeping The Discussion
Leaders Voice In Balance,
Stephen Brookfield and Stephen
Preskill, p. 1. The author of The
Skillful Teacher and his longtime
friend, colleague and coauthor
preview the wisdom of their new
book Discussion As A Way Of
Teaching.
VIEWPOINT: On The TimeHonored Practice Of Student
Bashing, John H. Gottcent,
University of Southern Indiana,
p. 5. Are they really worse than
we were or worse than we are?
LEARNING DIARY: Lets Do It
My Way, Ted Rachofsky, Austin
Community College, p. 7. Ours
isnt always the most elegant
way to skin a cat.
TECHPED: Confessions Of
An Early Adopter, Tom Creed,
St. Johns University, p. 7. Psychology prof and technology
champion takes a comic but
probing look at the pathology of
the pioneer.
ERIC TRACKS: Focusing
Theory On Learning In College
Classrooms, Frances K. Stage,
Indiana University, p. 10. Highlights in the new literature on
learning theory.
Twenty Impertinent Questions About Pertinent Matters,
Paul Berghoff, et al., p. 12. A
group of colleagues nettle their
consciences and invite you to
join them.
EDITORS NOTE: Balance,
p. 3.

1999

Number 3

KEEPING THE DISCUSSION


LEADERS VOICE IN BALANCE
Stephen Brookfield and
Stephen Preskill
he theme of attending to
students voices has been a
frequent one in recent issues of
the FORUM. In this article we
focus on the teachers voice as
this is expressed in discussion. If
students are going to feel that
discussion invites them to develop and express their
ideas in an
unpressured way,
then the discussion leader must
find a way to
teach that is
neither too dominant nor too reserved.
Of course, achieving a
perfect equilibrium
where everyone in the group
feels that the teacher is speaking
for just the right amount of time
is unrealistic. However, we do
think it is possible to be closer to,
or further away from, this ideal
position. Our voices can definitely be more or less out of
balance.

THREE SCENARIOS
OF BALANCE AND
IMBALANCE
What follows are three short
discussion scenarios which focus
on how the discussion leaders
role affects what happens. They
show a teacher who exerts too
much control over the discussion,

a teacher who is too aloof, and a


teacher who comes close to striking
roughly the right balance.

Scenario On
eToo Much
OneToo
Teacher Control
Teacher: The assignment for the
day was to read the conclusion of
Mike Roses remarkable autobiography of teaching, Lives on the
Boundary (1989). Rose not only
concludes his story with
some very concrete
examples of how to cross
cultural and class boundaries, he shows us as well
the implications of these
examples for shaping
educational policy. One of
the strengths of the book is
Roses ability to move back and
forth between the worlds of classroom practice and of national
policy making. What do you think
of the way Rose handles this?
Student 1: I guess I didnt notice
what youre talking about, but I was
really impressed with what he says
on page 222 about being hopeful
and assuming that good teaching
can make a big difference for
students.
Teacher: Yeah, thats important,
but almost the whole chapter that
includes the quote you cite shows
Rose going back and forth between
practice and policy. Let me show
you what I mean. (Reads about a
page of material.) Isnt that impressive? One of the things that makes

this book great is that the implications for reform emerge from the
particulars of everyday teaching.
Anybody want to comment on
that?
Student 2: I think Rose is a great
teacher, but does he really think
that every student can learn?
Where did he get that faith in
everybody?
Student 3: I have the same
question and Im also disturbed by
the fact that this is a story, that it
necessarily has a plot. Doesnt the
need to have a plot affect the
incidents Rose relates and how
they get resolved? How much does
this really help us understand the
messy world of day in, day out
teaching?
Teacher: I think you all are
missing the point. This is a great
story about one persons successes
and failures in teaching. It has a
plot, sure, but that plot can still be
translated into proposals for
reform. I mean what do you think
Roses reform proposals would
look like?
Student 4: I dont know about
school reform, but could we talk
about the episode when Rose
helps that student to make sense
of the standardized test she took?
With just a little help shes able to
figure most of it out. How often
do you think that happens with
our students who regularly do
poorly on achievement tests?
Teacher: Lets take a look at that
a little later. I still want to know
what you think Rose can teach us
about school reform? (A very long
silence ensues.)

The teacher in this excerpt is


much too dominant and controlling. He insists on sticking to his
own agenda despite his students
resistance. Moreover, he ignores
the excellent questions his students raise, each of which could
have led to a productive exchange.
The teacher clearly likes the book
and wants his students to like it
too. He is also intent on exploring
the big issues of policy and
reform. His students are much

more interested in discussing and


questioning its specifics. The
potential for enlightening discussion is enormous here; students
are taking a lot of initiative and
there is a great deal of participation. Unfortunately the teacher is
just too self-absorbed to see it.

Scenario TwoThe
Teacher as Too Distant
Teacher: What do you think of
the last section of Roses Lives on
the Boundary?
Student 1: I liked it, especially
what he says on page 222 about
remaining hopeful and using good
teaching practices to help even the
most poorly prepared students.
Student 2: Im not sure why hes
so hopeful. Where does that faith
come from? Ive been in lots of
situations where even the best and
most dedicated teachers couldnt
help their most difficult students.
Student 3: I have too. Also, even
though I liked the way Rose tells
his story, Im not sure theres
much to learn from it. Stories are
not like day-to-day teaching.
Theres no plot or climax in real
life teaching. Just plugging away
and trying to make the best of it.
Student 4: But arent some of the
incidents revealing? What about
the example of the student who at
first does poorly on the achievement test and then does much
better with a little coaching from
Rose?
Student 5: I think Rose knows
about underachieving students
because he was there once himself.
Student 6: But he also became a
scholarship student. I dont think
he does know what its like to
struggle with poor preparation,
limited skills, and especially
against racial discrimination.
Student 7: Does he still teach
writing to students at UCLA or is
he doing something else now?
Teacher: He still teaches writing
but he also has an appointment in
the School of Education.

This scenario seems, superficially, an improvement. Seven

THE NATIONAL TEACHING


& LEARNING FORUM
Executive Editor:
James Rhem, Ph.D.
213 Potter St.
Madison, WI 53715-2050
Editorial Advisory Board
Jonathan Fife, Director Emeritus
ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education
Judy Greene, Director
Center for Teaching Effectiveness
University of Delaware
Pat Hutchings, Senior Scholar
The Carnegie Foundation
for the Advancement of Teaching
Susan Kahn, Director
Undergraduate Teaching Improvement
Council
University of Wisconsin System
Wilbert McKeachie
Professor of Psychology, Emeritus
University of Michigan
Edward Neal, Director
Center for Teaching and Learning
University of North Carolina Chapel Hill
Laura Rendn
Professor of Education
Arizona State University
Phyllis Steckler, President
The Oryx Press
Marilla Svinicki
Director, Center for Teaching Effectiveness
University of Texas at Austin
Editorial correspondence:
James Rhem
213 Potter St.
Madison, WI 53715-2050
Subscription information:
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Phone: 1-800-279-6799 or 602-265-2651
The National Teaching & Learning Forum
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http://www.ntlf.com
March

2 THE NATIONAL TEACHING & LEARNING FORUM

Vol. 8, No. 3 1999

Editors Note:
In all things moderation, the Delphic Oracle is supposed to have said.
As a youth, I regarded such advice merely as restraint. Older now, it
seems more like a means of not getting lost. Balance doesnt mean
stasis, as I once thought; it means staying awake to the newness of the
moment and finding a way to live it out in ways that make sense with
whats already known. Balance is the theme that underlies most of the
contributions to this edition of the Forum.
In their new book, Discussion As A Way of Teaching, Stephen
Brookfield and Stephen Preskill have chapters on keeping both the
students and the teachers voice in balance, but as the book is subtitled
Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms, balance underlies
the whole discussion there as well. Here they offer an excerpt on the
teachers voice. Specific advice and techniques are discussed in a
further excerpt subscribers will find posted on our Web site
(www.ntlf.com).
Balance sometimes depends on perspective, something John
Gottcent offers in his essay on student bashing. We were all once
young and, like as not, seen as the latest evidence of civilizations
decline, Gottcent says. Moreover, while we were judging and being
judged, we were (and are) largely practicing the same faults. (Some day
well get it right.) And complementing Gottcents essay, Ted Rachofsky
offers another of his quiet epiphanies on what students have to teach us
by reminding us of our common humanity and often similar histories.
On the lighter side, the Forums Technology Editor Tom Creed
surveys the dark side, the painful side, of being an Early Adopter. As a
psychologist, Creed understands his addiction, but cant escape its grip.
Whod want him to? Its energetic pioneers like Tom who are
revolutionizing teaching by embracing technology with Delphic
wisdomat least in their classes if not on their home computers.
ERIC TRACKS returns with a column by Frances Sage reviewing the
highlights of research into learning theory and how it is (and might be)
applied in the classroom. Again, additional material expanding on whats
covered here is posted for subscribers at www.ntlf.com.
Finally, Paul Berghoff and a group of faculty friends created a kind of
examination of conscience about their teaching. They offer their twenty
overlapping questions and invite you to create your own as you ponder
answers to theirs.
Remember that the scholarship of teaching embraces a wide range
of thoughtful writing. Your experience, your reflections on more effective
teaching have a place in the conversation. Faculty of all kinds have
begun to feel the importance of thinking more concretely about their
teaching and writing about it. Insights from one discipline often have
cross-disciplinary implications. I encourage subscribers to consider
drafting a manuscript for the Forum.
Submissions should not exceed 1500 words (six ordinary typed
pages), except in extremely unusual circumstances, and should be
shorter whenever possible. Submissions in electronic form are highly
encouraged. Indeed, submissions through E-mail are welcome.
Remember, too, that now with the synergy we have between the
printed newsletter and its Web site, we have room for more elaborate
presentations, a repository for detailed supplementary material to
expand the compact presentations printed here.
Share what youve learned in teaching. Send your manuscripts to the
Forum.
James Rhem

Vol. 8, No. 3 1999

rather than four students have


spoken, so the level of participation is higher. However, though
there is enormous potential for
discussion in the issues students
raise, there is almost no continuity,
no attempt to build on individual
comments. Instead, the teacher
responds to only one question
the one that is the least interesting
and least likely to go anywhere. If
the teacher had intervened just
once or twice each of the issues
raised by students could have been
considered and developed much
more fully.
For instance, the teacher could
have asked the first two students,
who appear to disagree, to talk to
each other about the citation from
page 222. Questions she could
have posed are: Does page 222
give any clues to the source of
Roses hope and faith? and
Where else would we look in the
text to support either students
view? The whole issue of plot and
story also seems rich. The teacher
could ask In what ways do stories
help us to understand everyday
experiences and practices? and
How are stories a flawed source?
The point here is not for the
teacher to give her own views, but
for her to ask a question or raise
an issue that gets students talking
to one another. One final comment: Although this discussion is
badly flawed, it is still significantly
better than the first one in which
the teacher dictated the issues to
be covered.

Scenario ThreeA More


Balanced Discussion
Teacher: The assignment for
today was to read the conclusion
of Mike Roses autobiography of
teaching, Lives on the Boundary
(1989). Rose not only concludes
his story with some concrete
examples of how to cross cultural
and class boundaries, he shows us
as well some of the implications of
these examples for shaping
educational policy. Could you
comment on some of these
examples and their value for
promoting educational reform?

THE NATIONAL TEACHING & LEARNING FORUM 3

Student 1: The quote on page


222 was especially important. We
must assume that students have
potential and ability and then act
accordingly. That should be the
basis for all educational change.
Student 2: Maybe, but what
makes him so hopeful? Where
does that faith come from? Ive
seen lots of situations where even
the best and most dedicated
teachers couldnt help their most
difficult students.
Student 3: I have too. Although I
like the way Rose tells his story,
Im not sure theres much to be
learned from it. Stories are not
like day-to-day teaching.
Theres no plot or climax in
real life teaching. Just
plugging away and trying
to make the best of it.
Student 4: But arent
some of the examples
revealing? What about the
student who at first does
poorly on the achievement
test and then greatly
improves with a little
coaching from Rose?
Student 5: I think
Rose knows about underachieving students because he was
there himself.
Student 6: But he also became a
scholarship student at UCLA. He
may have lost touch with those
roots. I dont think he knows what
its like to struggle with poor
preparation, limited skills, and
especially against racial discrimination.
Teacher: I wonder if we could
pause here for a moment and try
to bring these interesting and
diverse observations together. A
number of you characterize Rose
as sensitive to the needs of the
poorly prepared students. Others
question whether the way he tells
his story or his position of privilege puts him in a position to
understand the most marginalized
students. Is there reason to think
that both claims are at least partly
true?
Student 7: Is he still teaching
writing to students at UCLA or is
he doing something else now?

Teacher: Hes still teaching


writing but now he has an appointment in the School of Ed. But I
want to get back to the other
point. Can Rose teach us some
valuable things about educational
reform, or is his stance too
idealistic, too removed from the
realities of real classrooms?
Student 5: I still think his background as a student who was
mistakenly put in the vocational
track gives him an invaluable
perspective on injustice and on
the failure to realize the promise
of educational opportunity.
Student 6: You know I forgot
about that incident. It
probably still has an important impact on his thinking
and practice.
Student 3: I just dont trust
the story format. He makes it
all come out so neatly in the
end.
Student 1: Does he? I think hes
quite realistic about how much
can be accomplished with students
who have been neglected and
oppressed. All those years of bad
education are a great burden, but
progress can be made, especially
when we retain hope.
Student 3: But the need to
emplot frees him of the obligation
to recount all the failures, all the
partial successes.
Student 2: And why be so hopeful? Whats the reason for keeping
the faith?
Teacher: I think there may be at
least two reasons for doing so,
both of which are in Rose.
Student 5: May I?
Teacher: Please, go ahead.
Student 5: Rose is hopeful
because there is no other choice.
Despair is not a good basis for
change.
Student 2: What about revolution?
Student 5: Perhaps, but while we
wait for the revolution Rose shows
that if youre patient and try hard
to cross boundaries, if you keep
looking for ability where others
have only seen deficiency, great
strides can be made.

4 THE NATIONAL TEACHING & LEARNING FORUM

Teacher: Rose is like Dewey in a


way. He cant imagine being
anything but faithful but it is not a
blind faith. It emerges from
experience.
Student 2: Well, could we talk
about some of those experiences
specifically? What are the concrete
bases for his educational faith?
Teacher: Lets do that.

Perhaps the thing that most


clearly distinguishes this scenario
from the others is that here the
discussion builds. At first students
arent really conversing, but with a
little prompting from the leader
they begin talking and responding
to each other. There is clear
disagreement which is tolerated
and even encouraged, but (with
assistance from the teacher) there
is also some basis for agreement.
The teacher makes six brief
comments in this dialogue, but
except for two of them (the first
and second to last) they are all
intended to foster increased
interaction and continuity. The
excerpt ends with the promise of
much more discussion based on
close attention to the text. This
probably wouldnt have happened
without the teachers contributions.
Of course, this scenario may
come across as a bit too idealistic;
good discussions dont materialize
as effortlessly as this one appears
to. But it is surprising what a
difference a few well placed
questions and comments can
make. This scenario shows that
teachers dont have to intervene
constantly or absent themselves
entirely to make discussion work.
This article is drawn from chapter 10 of
Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools
and Techniques for Democratic
Classrooms, by Stephen Brookfield and
Stephen Preskill. The book was published
in March by Jossey-Bass Publishers of San
Francisco (1-800-956-7739).
( For specific suggestions from Stephen
Brookfield and Stephen Preskill on how to
keep teachers and students voices in
balance, see the NTLF Web site at
www.ntlf.com )

Vol. 8, No. 3 1999

Stephen Brookfield is Distinguished


Professor at the University of St.
Thomas in St. Paul, Minnesota
E-Mail: sdbrookfield@stthomas.edu

Stephen Preskill is Associate


Professor of Education and Director
of the Division of Educational
Leadership and Organizational
Learning at the University of New
Mexico in Albuquerque, New Mexico
E-mail: preskill@unm.edu

VIEWPOINT

ON THE
TIME-HONORED
PRACTICE OF
STUDENT
BASHING
John H. Gottcent
University of Southern Indiana

e all know the stories. They


come in late, and leave early.
They dont do their homework.
They dont even bring required
assignments with them. They miss
deadlines. And the excuses! I
locked my keys in my car. I had a
dentist appointment. I forgot we
were meeting today.
I know, I knowyou have
horror stories even worse. You
probably do. But theres one key
difference: your stories are likely
about students. Mine are about
faculty.
Every one of the sins Ive just
rattled off has been committed,
time and again, by us faculty
members. Ive committed them
myself. And theyve taught me
something we dont always like to
admit: there are few charges we can
level against students which are not
also true about faculty.
But this essay is not about
faculty bashing; its about student
bashing. The impulse to
poor-mouth todays students is
strong and understandable. We
faculty work hard and take our

Vol. 8, No. 3 1999

teaching seriously. We devote years


to our own educations, and hours
and hours to class preparation and
grading. When students resist
learning, as they often do, we get
frustrated and angry.
And so we seek out a colleague
in the hall, or a cabal in the coffee
lounge, and start in with a Youre
not going to believe this . . .
story. Or we tongue-lash the
students themselves. Ive walked
out of two classes in desperation
this year alone. Little wonder that
student bashing has found its way
out of the academy and into the
popular media.
In the face of all this, however, I
want to argue that weve gone too
far, that we need to work harder at
resisting the temptation to
poor-mouth our students. My
arguments are these: Student
bashing is hypocritical. Its old.
And worst of all, its self-defeating.

Even Jesus lashed out


in frustration at the
incompetence and
stupidity of his
disciples.
Perhaps its time to take a new
approach.

Hypocritical
The first point is one Ive
already made, but it bears repeating: student bashing is hypocritical. There really are few charges
we can level against students which
cannot be made, with justification,
against faculty.
I already hear the cries of Not
me! I prepare everyday, never miss
class, and grade all my assignments
thoroughly and quickly. That is
certainly true of many individual
faculty membersjust as the
corresponding points are true of
many individual studentsbut
collectively, were guilty as hell.
Look around at your next faculty
meeting. Note how many arrive

late and leave early. Or skip


altogether. Note how many are
unprepared, and have to borrow
your handout because they forgot their own. Listen to the
debate and try to figure out whos
winging it. It wont be hard.
And before we take comfort in
Well, that may be true of so-andso, but not of me, it might be
wise to take a closer look in the
mirror. Recognizing our own
shortcomings can be difficult. Last
semester I reviewed the teaching
portfolio of a colleague whose
syllabus told students that she was
there to help, but would not
tolerate sloppy effort. Assignments
were to be turned in complete and
on time, reading was to be finished on schedule, revisions were
to be promptly done. Failure to
meet these requirements would
affect ones grade.
Noble sentiments. But the fact
is, I had to ask this same faculty
member three times for her
portfolio, which finally arrived
weeks after its due date. When it
did arrive, it was missing a required report, and it included
some work held over from a
previous year. I believe this
colleague honestly did not recognize the discrepancy between her
own behavior and what she
demanded of her students.

And Old Hat


So student bashing is hypocritical. Its also old. Kathy K. Franklin,
an assistant professor of higher
education at the University of
Arkansas at Little Rock, has long
studied the history of undergraduate life. She reports that faculty
have been complaining about
students for centuries. Even Jesus
lashed out in frustration at the
incompetence and stupidity of his
disciples. (See Luke 9:37-45 for
just one example.) Andlets
bring this scary skeleton out of the
closetour own teachers complained about us.
In a long-forgotten book, Course
X: A Left Field Guide to Freshman
English, published in 1970, the
authors report a conversation
overheard at the annual meeting

THE NATIONAL TEACHING & LEARNING FORUM 5

of the Modern Language Association. At the end of a tiring day, a


job interviewer is assessing the
then-current crop of intervieweesfor many of us, our
generation:
Terrible crop of applicants for
the junior positions this year
people from social strata coming
into The Profession that, not a
dozen years ago, you wouldnt
even see in your classes as
students.... Merton was telling me
of a man they interviewed last
night, had a book on Milton, quite
good, Im told, and they are
looking for a Milton man, but his
table manners! Atrocious....
And of course the kind of man
who would fit in, you know, good
family background, reputable
college and all that, is terribly
sought after. But of course you
cant do anything about it. The
whole countrys changing for the
worse, thats been obvious since
1932, and it would be too much to
hope that the universities will
escape the barbarian hordes
(pp. 43-44).
Sound like fiction? On the same
page, the authors add, in italics,
The stories you have just heard are
true. Weve only changed the names.
Its not hard to imagine how
typical these sentiments must have
been. Envision the academic
indignation at the rising tide of
mediocrity brought in by the G.I.
Bill. We students were the results
of opening the floodgates, of
higher education for all. Later we
were the products of the standardless 1960s, lacking discipline,
commitment, basic knowledge.
Why, we used calculators to do
simple arithmetic! We didnt even
have a smattering of Latin or
Greekonce the common languages of the academic elite!
It hasnt been that long since
commencement addresses at
Harvard and Yale were given in
Latin. How many of us, todays
faculty, would understand a single
word of such an address today?
Perhaps it would be useful to
remember this the next time were
tempted to complain that our

students cant identify Flannery


OConnor (notwithstanding the
fact that most of our colleagues
would respond to that name with a
Whos he?). Student bashing
may be one ancient tradition to
which its time to say good-bye.

Envision the academic


indignation at the
rising tide of
mediocrity brought in
by the G.I. Bill.
And Self-defeating
But perhaps most critical of all
is that student bashing is
self-defeating. Most bashing Ive
encountered (andI admit
sometimes participated in) takes
on the aura of a feeding frenzy.
One colleague shares a horror
story. Another tries to top it. Then
others shove their way in, with
ever increasing intensity and
sarcasm, each trying to outdo the
others. At the end, buoyed by
laughter and sneers, we go our
separate ways, bloated with knowing smiles and self-righteous
indignation.
And then what? As with real
feeding frenzies, the moment
passes, and were no better off.
The students behave the same. We
react the same. And the cycle
repeats itself until we indulge
ourselves at the next bashing
party.
Perhaps its time for a new
approach. I tell my students that
the only person they can ever
change is themselves. No matter
how bitterly they complain about a
book, or a writer, or an assignment, or a teacher, they can never
change any of those things; they
can only change the way they
approach them. What if we take
that lesson to heart and look for
the improvement of students and
their work in some new attitudes
of our own toward teaching?

6 THE NATIONAL TEACHING & LEARNING FORUM

We could start by cleaning up


our own actattending classes
and faculty meetings faithfully,
doing our homework, avoiding
the excuses. We could try
some do what I do
instead of do what I say.
We could actively recall
that we were students
once, and that we were
not as studious, industrious, and disciplined as
the filtered lens of
nostalgia would have us
believe. And we could
recognize the futility
of constant student
bashing, the failure of
all those feeding
frenzies to ever
change things for the
better.
But most of all, we
could remember our
job, which is to work
with people who do
not know very much,
who are not yet
disciplined, who
preferlike all
human beings
the path of least
resistance. If our
students were
really as smart,
prepared, and diligent as our
fantasies would have them, they
wouldnt need much teaching. Its
the very fact that theyre not there
yet that gives us work to do.
Does accepting this reality mean
caving in, lowering standards? No.
It means accepting our large
burden, our important challenge
as teachers, that of being both
understanding and demanding,
gentle and firm. It means liking
our students. If we cant, sad to
say, we may be in the wrong
business.
Contact:
John H. Gottcent
Professor of English
University of Southern Indiana
8600 University Boulevard
Evansville, IN 47712
Telephone: (812) 464-8600
Fax: (812) 464-1960
E-mail: gottcent.ucs@smtp.usi.edu

Vol. 8, No. 3 1999

LEARNING
DIARY

LETS DO IT
MY WAY
Ted Rachofsky
Austin Community College

very once in a while I get


complacent and start thinking
Ive got this teaching job down. It
takes too long to get knocked off
the pedestal, and on the way
down, I always learn something.
Here is my latest lesson.
The topic in college algebra
class was equations containing
fractions. I wrote my method of
solving equations with fractions on
the board, did a sample problem,
and as the class broke into
problem-solving groups, moved
through the room, answering
questions as they arose. Jeanette
raised her hand, and I went over
to her group. Now this is the way
I do it. Is it OK?
I perused the problem. You
really did a lot of extra work this
way. If you do it my way you save
steps and get the answer faster. I
quickly left and went to the next
group.
After class Jeanette visited my
office. Did I offend you in some
way? she asked.
I was shocked. What gave you
that impression?
Well, you just looked at my
paper and left in such a hurry that
me and everyone in my group
thought my question angered
you.
I thought for a few seconds
remembering my words and
thoughts. Youre right. I wanted
you to solve the problem my way.
She answered, I have to do
things in a way that makes logical
sense to me.
The procedure she used came
back to me and the elegance of
her method humbled me. After
thinking a few seconds I re-

Vol. 8, No. 3 1999

sponded, You know thats the way


I was taught too. Over the years
Ive streamlined my methods so
much that I forgot how beautiful
your method is. Thanks for
reminding me. Jeanette taught
me the real meaning of teaching
MY WAY.
MY WAY should be to encourage people to solve their problems
THEIR WAY.
Contact:
Ted Rachofsky
Austin Community College
2103 Fair Oaks
Austin, TX 78745
E-mail: tedrach@austin.cc.tx.us

TECHPED

Confessions of
an Early
Adopter
Tom Creed
Saint Johns University

ccording to my inside sources,


the soon to be released
revision of the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM V) will have several new
categories of Psychological Disorders. Among these are
Monicalalia, the inability to talk
about anything other than presidential sex scandals, and the
disease which has victimized me
Early Adopter Syndrome (EAS). If
you are an early adopter of
technology, you know this condition. Its in your blood. And your
rating on the Early Adopter Personality Type Indicator is every bit as
important as your Myers-Briggs
type. (See this issues Virtual
Companion at www.ntlf.com.)

Development of the
Syndrome
At a recent meeting of my local
chapter of Early Adopters Anonymous (EAA), I introduced myself

as usual (My names Tom, and


Im an Early Adopter. Hi, Tom,
everyone answered.) and then I
started describing my most recent
episode of EAS. As I was talking, I
was thinking, How did I become
a technoholic? I know that new
technologies are always crude and
full of bugs. I know that software
companies view us early adopters
as their private bug detectors. I
knew that my most recent binge
would eventually result in frustration and wasted effort. But I just
couldnt help myself (Symptom #1
of EASlack of impulse control in
the presence of new technologies).
I was making the fundamental EAS
errorI could imagine the
possibilities of the new technology,
but discounted how difficult it
might be to make it work (Symptom #2being in denial about the
psychic costs). I also looked
forward to the challenge (Symptom #3inability to focus on
important variables. Overcoming a
challenge becomes more important than getting tasks accomplished).
Even if you are genetically
predisposed to EAS (the gene for
EAS, not surprisingly, is, Ive been
told, located on the Y chromosome), two environmental factors
are necessary for it to manifest
itself. In my case, my significant
other supplies both. First, she
frequently tells me that Im on the
cutting edge, making her an EAS
enabler. Second, we commiserate
with each other about how hard
we work, making us also
codependent.

The Madness Begins


My most recent bout of EAS
started with my foray into continuous speech recognition, which
converts voice to text. When I first
came across speech recognition
software, I was intrigued. Once I
had ordered it, I couldnt wait for
it to show up. (Symptom #4like
love addiction, anticipation of the
next encounter comes to dominate your life, believing it will be
the one that finally satisfies.) I
could envision taping all of those

THE NATIONAL TEACHING & LEARNING FORUM 7

brilliant class lectures, having the


technology turn them into text,
and putting them up on my course
web site. Better yet, I could collect
and publish them. (Symptom #5
when youre in the throes of an
episode, your inner child is in
control, so everything you do is
brilliant.) I thought about all of
the Techped columns I could just
say into a microphone, and how I
would never again have the typical
Bart/Homer Simpsonesque
exchange of e-mails I have with
James Rhem as my deadline comes
due. (Is it done yet? Just a little
longer. Is it done yet? Just a little
longer. Is it done yet? Just a little
longer.)

Out of Control
Before this newest Nirvana
could be realized, I had to install
the software, naturally not at
school, since my machine there is
too slow. But for home, I had just
bought a new superfast computer
(Symptom #6your obsession
comes to be a financial burden).
Normally, a program requiring a
fast processor should be a warning
sign, but Im in denial, remember?
The basic installation was straightforward, but then I had to spend a
half hour training the software
to recognize my voice. Well, Ive
trained more rats in the lab than I
care to admit, so training something makes sense to me. I had a
choice between reading three
passages as my training text. I
chose Dave Barry on computers,
since I like his writing. About ten
minutes into it, I got a bad case of
the giggles. That the program got
the wrong idea became abundantly clear when I started speaking my first article. One of the
cool things about this technology
is that the words show up on the
screen whenever you add punctuation (Symptom #7you are more
enthralled with the workings of
the technology than with what it
actually accomplishes). The first
couple of sentences were a laughable collection of English words
that probably had a phonetic
resemblance to what I had said,

but the third sentence was something about Constantinople. I


am certain I hadnt said anything
about Constantinople (besides,
isnt it Istanbul now?). Looking at
the sentence, I had no idea what I
had actually said, and obviously
my computer had no idea either.

EASers have a kind of


pioneer mentality.
They like being
among the first to get
there, even when they
arent really sure
where there is.
In the next couple of sentences it
added Cuyahoga and Dubai,
two places I rarely talk about. The
biases of the program were
becoming evidentit had the
wanderlust. I wished I were
someplace else, too. I knew at this
point that this was going to be a
lot more difficult than I had at
first thought. If youre wondering
why I didnt just quit at this point,
you definitely do not understand
EAS. But, still in denial, I spent
more time trying to train it to
understand how I talk. To understand EAS, you need to understand that EASers have a kind of
pioneer mentality. They like being
among the first to get there, even
when they arent really sure where
there is.

A Cry for Help


EASers are not totally helpless
victims. Being a recovering EASer,
I knew what to do at this point. In
addition to recalling the Twelve
Steps of EAA (e.g., I recognize
that a Power greater than myself
Microsofthas control over my
life.), I retreated back to a
technology that I trust and have
mastered. So I clicked on my
Word Processor to work on my
Techped column. It wouldnt run.

8 THE NATIONAL TEACHING & LEARNING FORUM

My Slick New Toy had corrupted


it. (Another sure sign of a technology in its infancynot only does it
not work right, it messes up
everything else, too.) Time for a
call to the product support folks.
Of course, all this happened at
8:05 PM EST, and tech support
closes at 8:00 PM. So I sent an
e-mail to the company instead. No
reply. I tried getting home from
work earlier the next night, called
at 7:00 PM EST, and was told my
wait would be less than two
minutes. Yippee! After twenty
minutes on hold listening to really
annoying Muzak (long distance at
my expenseno 800 number), I
hung up. Another e-mail. No
answer. You get the picture.

Coming Down
Its days later. I feel more in
control again. Im writing this
article with my old word processor
rather than either my Slick New
Toy or my new word processor
that my Slick New Toy ate. Im
done bingeing on my Slick New
Toy for the moment, and feel the
inner peace that comes from
letting go. I may never be totally
free of my thirst for voice recognition, but Im living with it one day
at a time.

Resolution
Perhaps EAS doesnt really exist,
but we all do have a tendency to
continue to engage in activities
long past the point that makes any
sense. Widely applicable principles
from both behavioral and cognitive psychology can help us
understand why this is so.
THE ENVIRONMENT MADE
ME DO IT. As part of the process
of mastering a new technology,
you have little victories along the
way. These little victories, while
unimportant in and of themselves,
provide us with a sense of satisfaction. These little victories are
called generalized conditioned
reinforcement, and generalized
conditioned reinforcement turns
out to be a very potent controller
of our lives. Its why people spend
hours working crossword puzzles.
Furthermore, you never know

Vol. 8, No. 3 1999

quite when youll have one of


these mini-epiphanies, but you do
learn that the harder you work,
the more youll get. And therein
lies the problem. We psychologists
refer to this as a Variable Ratio
schedule of reinforcement, and
when you add that the reinforcement is a generalized conditioned
reinforcer, you have a very potent
situation indeed. This is the same
set of variables that leads
my
mom and my 95 year
old grandma to
drive like demons
across the desert to
Nevada to play slot
machines. Its the
same set of variables
that makes evangelical
missionaries and
people who sell
Amway so persistent.
It produces a high
rate of activity that
will persist, even in
the absence of
success, for long
periods of time
addictive behavior, if you will.
IM OK, BUT
IM NOT SO
SURE ABOUT
YOU. While behavioral explanations tell
us quite a bit about why we do the
things we do, cognitive psychology
points the way to understanding
how persistent behavior can take
on a life of its own. At some point,
the purpose for the behavior
changes. You are no longer doing
it for productive reasons, but
because you must master itit
becomes a test of wills. This
happens when discussions turn
into arguments. At some point, an
attempt to resolve a difference of
opinion turns into a contest to be
won.
Paradoxically, persistent behavior becomes problematic when it
produces little reward, causing you
to experience cognitive dissonance, a sort of mental discomfort, until you change your description of why you did what you
did. Youre a bright person, but

Vol. 8, No. 3 1999

you are continuing to engage in


an unproductive act. Smart guys
dont fritter away their time.
Youve spent lots of time getting
this Slick New Toy to work right,
since it will save you lots of time. It
hasnt, so you must have frittered
away your time, making you a
complete idiot. Add to this the fact
that early adopters are very often
unrewarded by their peers, since
its
outside of the traditional faculty roles
and rewards, and
you have disso-

slides no matter what, or do you


say, Well, I just wasted three
months of my life, but if its not
good for learning, Ill abandon it.
Its very difficult to take our loss
and judge what makes sense from
this point forward.
Theres also an ego issue here
for those of us whove really
invested in something, especially
when it took real effort to learn to
do it, yet have been unrewarded
or unrecognized for it, we look
down on those who havent
paid their dues. For
example, those of
us who learned
HTML coding are
the True Web
Masters. People who
use FrontPage without
knowing HTML just
havent paid their dues.
Its the ugly side of being a
pioneer. Its an us/them
thing. Ethologists call it
xenophobia. We tend to feel
closer to those who are like us,
and distrust, even feel hostile
towards, those who are different.
As Jeffrey Rubin points out,
people who are ambitious,
believe that their hard work
will eventually pay off, and
Illustrations: Michael David Brown who dont want to feel
foolish are most likely to
nance, big time.
fall into psychological traps. But as
The self-justification that arises
Rubin also points out, sometimes,
from persistent but unrewarded
despite our best efforts, we need
behavior sometimes leads people
to just admit that things didnt
into a psychological trap, or the
work out, take our loss, and figure
slippery slope problem (econoout a better way of getting our
mists refer to it as an economic
work done. Sometimes the old
sink). We all have a tendency to
ways work fine.
commit the fallacy of viewing time
spent engaged in an activity as an
Contact:
investment. Its an important part
Tom Creed is Professor of Psychology at
of why we think our teaching
Saint Johns University, Collegeville, MN
methods are bestweve sunk so
56321. He writes frequently for and is
much into them, we need to justify
technology editor of The National Teaching
and Learning Forum. Tom can be reached
them. For example, youve spent
via e-mail at tcreed@csbsju.edu, and on
the summer putting all of your
the web at http://www.users.csbsju.edu/
lectures on PowerPoint. Then you
~tcreed/
read an article in The National
Visit Toms Virtual Companion to this
Teaching and Learning Forum
TECHPED column on the Forums Web
saying that this is a bad idea. What
site at www.ntlf.com and see how you
to do? Do you say, Ive spent three
score on the Early Adopter Personality
Type Indicator posted there.
months doing this, those students
are going to see these beautiful

THE NATIONAL TEACHING & LEARNING FORUM 9

ERIC TRACKS

Focusing Theory on Learning in


College Classrooms
Attributions and Self-Efficacy

Enhancing Achievement
Motivation and Performance in
College Students: An Attributional
Retraining Perspective. Perry,
Raymond P., Hechter, Frank J.,
Menec, Verena H., and Weinberg,
Leah E. Research in Higher Education, 34:687-723, 1993, ERIC
Document Number: EJ476095
Perry and his colleagues reviewed recent studies conducted
within the higher education
context that focused on changing
students attributions. These
studies typically sought to modify
negative causal ascriptions that can
be related to impaired academic
performance. Research suggests
that attributional retraining may
have both short- and long-term
consequences, increasing performance one week after the intervention and up to several months
later (p. 715). ...[B]oth
attributional retraining and study
strategies may be equally important for increasing academic
achievement (p. 720).
The Social Context for Learning

Current Educational Reform


and the Significance of Problembased Learning. Margetson, Don.
Studies in Higher Education, 19:519, 1994, ERIC Document Number: EJ481764.
Margetson proposes problembased learning as a possible basis
for implementation of meaningful
higher education reform. He
begins by discussing issues related
to government-imposed higher
education reform. Next, he moves
to an explanation of a problembased approach to learning using
medical education as an example.
He contrasts this with traditional,
or subject-based learning and then
describes epistemological differ(contd far column, p. 11)

Frances K. Stage, Professor, Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, Indiana


University, Bloomington.
The ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education has recently published Creating
Learning Centered Classrooms: What Does Learning Theory Have to Say?. In it
Frances Stage and her colleagues, Jillian Kinzie, Patricia Muller, and Ada
Simmons describe theories and models relevant to academic learning. As in the
past, the Forum has invited an ERIC author who has just made an intense study
of some aspect of research in teaching and learning to review the highlights for
our readers.

decade of higher education literature with an intensive focus on


teaching styles and methods, but which largely ignores learning, has
led higher education leaders to conclude that a focus merely on instruction is one-sided. Currently, efforts are being made to create a more
balanced discourse that emphasizes the subtle nuances and complexities of
learning within any discussion of teaching. In fact, Barr and Tagg (1995)
suggest shifting from an instructional paradigm that focuses on increasing
and improving instruction, to a learning paradigm that emphasizes enhanced student learning. Within that learning paradigm, we would no
longer presume that every student learns the same way, nor that widelyaccepted teaching practices necessarily result in optimal levels of student
learning.
Research tells us much about learning in the college context. The
frameworks discussed in Creating Learning Centered Classrooms: What Does
Learning Theory Have to Say? expand conceptual thinking and extend
theoretical issues to a discussion of a learning centered college campus.
Focused on the all-important question, How do college students learn
academic material? these theories provide insights and guidance for
making an impact on student learning at any level.
Our volume begins by covering two important personal aspects of
motivationattribution and self-efficacy. The two are interrelated. Attribution theory focuses on the ways that college students explain success or
failure to themselves. The resultant sense of self-efficacy provides insight
into students beliefs about their capabilities. Together, these influence
college students efforts to learn. Next, the theories of social constructivism
and conscientization describe the processes through which classroom group
learning structures and dynamics can shape successful learning. Group
constructions of knowledge provided within a classroom setting can
provide an ideal learning environment for some otherwise unsuccessful
learners. Additionally, approaches to learning that create development of
social conscience and feature awareness of social transformation can
stimulate learning particularly for students from traditionally disadvantaged groups. Finally, we review two theories that challenge traditional
assumptions about learning in the academic contextmultiple intelligences
and learning styles. Case studies provide examples throughout and we
review the development of these frameworks and the extant research on
them. The final two chapters analyze the research, include suggestions for
future research, and describe modifications to the traditional academic
classroom that would capitalize on these theories.

Attributions and Self-Efficacy


Research shows that college students attributionshow they explain
their success or failureand self-efficacytheir beliefs about their own
abilitiesinfluence students motivation and goals for academic work.

10 THE NATIONAL TEACHING & LEARNING FORUM

Vol. 8, No. 3 1999

Research tells us, for example, that counselors working with students can
help them develop realistic attributions regarding success and failure that
lead to positive study behaviors. Additionally, researchers have demonstrated that constructs related to self-efficacy are positively related to
achievement. In more than a few instances, classes for low achieving
students that focused on developing self-efficacy along with academic
learning, experienced dramatic successes.

The Social Context for Learning


Aspects of the context within which students learn, such as classroom
group learning structures and dynamics, can shape successful learning.
Approaches to learning that promote social constructivism, learning within
a social context, and that feature active group constructions of knowledge
provide an ideal environment for some learners.
Additionally, approaches to learning that promote development of
students social conscience, such as Freires theory of Conscientization, can
stimulate learning particularly for students from traditionally disadvantaged groups.
Social constructivist approaches to learning have been applied through
classroom practices such as collaborative learning, peer learning groups,
and problem-based learning approaches. Most often students who participate in these classes perceive a more meaningful learning experience and
in some cases actually learn more than students in conventional learning
situations. Research on the application of Freires Conscientization is more
limited, with scholars only beginning to apply the theory with nontraditional students and English-as-a-Second Language courses.

Challenging Assumptions about Learning


The theories of multiple intelligences (Gardner 1983) and learning
styles (Kolb 1981) help us challenge timeworn assumptions about learners
and learning that can exclude students and that limit our ways of thinking
about the role of the college student in the classroom. For both the
learning styles and multiple intelligence theories, researchers have validated the existence of the various ways of learning and the existence of
various types of intelligence. Additionally, extensive examples of ways to
apply the theories in the classroom are available.

Summary
Theories and models of learning emphasize different aspects of the
learning process, but each takes a learning centered approach to education by regarding college classrooms from the students vantage point, a
perspective that has only recently gained the legitimacy it deserves (Barr
and Tagg 1995). The research demonstrates the ways learning is impacted
by students interpretations of their academic experienceshow they
process information, make sense of it, and situate it in the wider context of
their lives. What students believe about their personal competence for
academic tasks and how they interpret their academic successes and
failures affect their subsequent engagement in similar tasks and their
actual learning.
Faculty can use the theory-based practical examples presented here to
structure their classrooms, their behaviors, and their commentary to
enhance students attitudes toward learning and build both students
learning skills and their confidence in using them. Various curricular
approaches can encourage and develop students abilities to reflect critically upon real-life problems and issues from multiple perspectives. Finally,
by examining areas where extant theory leaves unanswered questions
about the learning process, we can contribute to the move toward learning
centered campuses and classrooms.

Vol. 8, No. 3 1999

ences in the two approaches.


Finally, he proposes problembased learning as a possible
answer to demands for higher
education reform, as a way of
addressing current skepticism
about higher education and
satisfying the demand within
higher education for rigorous and
theoretical approaches.
The qualities of problem-based
learning, such as openness, selfdirected learning, group work,
cooperative peer learning, reflective, constructive, critical evaluation, and assessment...suggest a
significant potential which is still
to be fully investigated and developed in practice (p. 17).
Challenging Assumptions
about Learning

The Relationship Between


Student Learning Style and
Performance on Various Test
Question Formats. Holley, Joyce
H., and Jenkins, Elizabeth K.
Journal of Education for Business,
68:301-308, 1993, ERIC Document
Number: EJ463540.
Holley and Jenkins explored the
relationships between undergraduate college students learning
styles as described and measured
by Kolb and achievement on
various testing styles. They administered sections of an accounting
exam using four formats: multiplechoice theory, multiple choice
quantitative, open-ended theory,
and open-ended quantitative.
Using multiple regression analysis
and controlling for gender, grade
point average, and age, the
authors found that a learning style
variable significantly contributed
to performance on three of the
four formats. The exception was
multiple choice quantitative. This
suggests that within disciplines and
professions, even when materials
and subject matter are consistent,
learning styles may...affect performance (p. 307).
Find additional annotated citations
and ordering information under
supplemental materials at
www.ntlf.com.

THE NATIONAL TEACHING & LEARNING FORUM 11

TWENTY
IMPERTINENT
QUESTIONS
ABOUT
PERTINENT
MATTERS

elf-examination is an essential,
and often neglected, part of
teacher growth. Constructing and
responding to a series of impertinent questions about ones own
teaching can restimulate ones
own unique and powerful teaching philosophy. We generated the
following list to encourage selfexamination among ourselves.
Weve learned a lot by creating
these questions and challenge
readers to generate their own
lists relevant to their particular
teaching practices and philosophies.
1. Am I open to students
questioning my choices in teaching?
2. Do I believe in my students
i.e., believe they can learn what I
have to teach them?
3. Do I believe I can learn from
my students and how do I show it?
4. Do I allow myself to try a
wide variety of methods, thereby
risking (and acknowledging)
failure but promoting versatility in
students?

5. Do I provide rationales for


course content and assignments?
6. Do I make it easy for my
students to learn from one another?
7. Do I act like I have to cover a
specific amount of material?
8. Do I provide opportunities
for students to probe, question,
and explore?
9. Do I encourage my students
to question
and

13. Do I share ideas with


colleagues and support their
efforts?
14. Are my teaching practices
consistent with my teaching
philosophy?
15. Do I find time to meet my
students needs while ensuring my
personal needs are not sacrificed?
16. Do I change course content/structure/activities based on
student needs?
17. Do I provide meaningful/
relevant examples of course
concepts?
18. Do I continuously update
course material and bring current
articles and research to class?
19. Do I know when to inspire,
instruct, empower, or redirect my
students?
20. Do I enjoy teaching?

debate
information/
ideas presented by the text or
myself?
10. Do I hold high ethical
standards for my own behavior, my
students, and the organizations I
work with?
11. Do I offer alternative
assignments or class structures and
activities to best meet my students
needs or to increase their involvement in the learning process?
12. Am I able to sense my
students struggles so that I can
support them yet leave them free
to find their own solutions?

The impertinent questioners are:


Irene Aiken, Ph.D., Assistant
Professor of Education and Director
of the Teaching Fellow Program, The
University of North Carolina at
Pembroke
Robert Lewis, Ph.D., Professor of
Education, St. Thomas University,
Fredericton, N.B., Canada
Paul Berghoff, Ph.D., Professor of
Education, The University of North
Carolina at Pembroke
Linda Metzke, Ph.D., Professor of
Education, Lyndon State University,
Lyndonville, Vermont.

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