Chapter 6

The Visual Arts and Photography

Until the development of photography in the

1840s, human visual representations consisted of
artworks such as sculptures, drawings, paintings,
and etchings. These visual representations

Paleolithic figurine known as the Venus de

Lespugue, dated around 23,000 BC. Original
and restoration (shown above) in Musee de
lHomme, Paris.
date back to the Upper Paleolithic era.
The oldest known Paleolithic sculpture is
referred to as the Venus of Hohle Fels, carved
from a mammoth tusk 35,000-40,000 years ago.
The sculpture depicts an exaggerated female body
lacking a head. The 2.4 inch figurine was worn as

a necklace, probably as an amulet for fertility. It

was discovered in a German cave in 2008.
Many other Venus figurines have been found
that date between 30,000-10,000 BC. All have
exaggerated female parts and diminutive
appendages such as arms and feet. Other carvings
from the Paleolithic era show animals, particularly
those hunted as game, suggesting that the carvings
functioned as amulets or good luck charms.
Early paintings also date back to the Paleolithic
era. The oldest known cave art was discovered in
Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Cave in France in 1994.
Radiocarbon dating suggests that the paintings are
around 32,000 years old. The Chauvet cave
paintings show hundreds of animals, including
many predatory species, such as lions and bears,
that are not often seen in other prehistoric cave
paintings. In addition to painting the images,

A Chauvet paleolithic-era cave painting

showing a bison was featured on a Romanian
postage stamp in 2001. Some graphic
designers specialize in postage stamp
designs.
the prehistoric artists etched or scratched outlines
into the cave walls of some of the figures, making
them stand out against the background. This is
undoubtedly the first example of artistic etching.

Artworks continued to be produced

throughout the rest of human history. In ancient
Egypt, as far back as 3,500 BC, in the era called
the Gerzean period, artists produced stylized
drawings on pottery and sculptures. Before that,
pottery was primarily functional, although it
occasionally carried decorative designs. These
stylized drawings appeared during the era when
Egyptian culture was transforming from a
nomadic society dependent on hunting and
gathering to a stationary, agricultural society.
The drawings of this era resemble, and appear to
have evolved into, the pictographs of
hieroglyphics.
The earliest Egyptian writing was
pictographic, using iconic symbols to represent
concepts. These iconic symbols were
incorporated into Egyptian hieroglyphics. Thus,
early written language has its origins in visual
representation.

Pompeii mural with artistic perspective.

Although drawing, painting and sculpture
were parts of human culture for an extremely
long time, the first art historian appears to be
Xenokrates of Sicyon, a Greek sculptor who,
around 280 BC, wrote several volumes on
sculpture and apparently also on painting and
drawing. Xenokrates examined the history of
sculptures and evaluated sculptures using such

criteria as symmetry and rhythm, criteria that are

still used today to evaluate visual works.
None of Xenokrates of Sicyons written
works survive, but his name does appear on
three early third-century BC sculptures, which
he presumably created. Our knowledge of
Xenokrates of Sicyon comes from the work of
Roman officer and writer Pliny the Elder, whose
encyclopediac work, Natural Science (77-79
AD), relied heavily on Xenokratess work in its
discussion of sculpture. Consisting of 37 books,
Natural Science is the longest, most complete
written work to have survived from the Roman
era. Not only did Pliny the Elder write the first
encyclopedia, but it is also the only surviving
work that discusses Roman artists. It is from this
work that many Renaissance artists learned
about the artists of ancient Rome.
Pliney the Elder died during the eruption of
Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, which buried the city
of Pompeii in 10 - 20 feet of ash. The city
remained buried until Charles II, the King of
Naples and Sicily, ordered the city excavated in
1748. Charles II hoped to find treasures buried
beneath the ash. Although no treasures of the
type Charles II expected were found, the
excavation found well-preserved wall paintings
or murals, which decorated the walls of ancient
Pompeii buildings. Murals are the only paintings
of old Rome that have survived. The murals
show that the Romans had developed a system
of artistic perspective, which allows painters
to produce works of naturalism.
This early understanding of perspective
disappeared with the fall of the Roman Empire.
Romes decline occurred during the 400s.
Around this time, the Visigoths conquered much
of the old Empire. The last Roman Emperor,
Romulus Augustus, abdicated in 476. By then,
even Romes pagan religion had been replaced
by Christianity, which was declared Romes
official religion by Flavius Theodosius in 380.

painted family portraits, public gatherings, guild

members, rural scenes, common people,
seascapes, and still lifes. These were displayed
on the walls of many bourgeois families.

Simone Martinis The Carrying of the Cross

(c. 1330) lacks artistic perspective.
Between the fall of the western Roman
Empire and the start of the Renaissance are the
Middle Ages, during which time there was a
merging of religious and secular institutions:
Church leaders anointed Kings and other
members of the nobility, and the nobility
appointed Church leaders. Church leaders
granted lands to members of the nobility who, in
exchange, provided rents and protection to
Church leaders. This relationship produced an
elite, who became the patrons of art. This
patronage determined what was painted. By and
large, religious scenes and portraits of Church
leaders dominated the content of medieval art.
Although paintings became increasingly
secular during and following the Renaissance,
most portraits until the development of
photography were of the rich and powerful, who
remained the patrons of the arts. An exception to
this was in the Dutch Republic, which developed
a large urban class that prospered through
trading and skilled crafts, such as painting. The
republic lasted from 1581 to 1795. In the Dutch
Republic, painters such as Rembrandt van Rijn
(1606-1669) and Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675)

Until the anti-royal revolutions in Europe,

most paintings were of royalty and church
leaders or religious and mythological
scenes. An exception was in the Dutch
Republic, where common people were the
subjects of the majority of paintings.
Johannes Vermeer, The Milk Maid (also
known as The Cook), 1657/1658.
With the exception of the Dutch Republic,
photography, not painting, for the first time
provided a method for recording images that
were of, and affordable by, common people.
During the Renaissance, the mathematical
basis of perspective was rediscovered. Filippo
Brunelleschi (1377 April 15, 1446) was the
first Italian artist to employ linear optical
perspective, which assumes that viewers look at
paintings as though they are looking out a
window, with the painting frame serving as the
window.
Each part of a painted scene is constructed as
a straight line from viewers eyes to the equivalent part of the actual scene it reproduces, so the

viewer cannot perceive, in terms of scale, any

difference between the painted scene and what is
viewed from the window. Any painting
employing linear perspective with parallel lines
will have them converge at one or more
vanishing points, located on the horizon line.

Eighteenth century illustration of camera

obscura, cropped from Denis Diderot and
Jean le Rond d Lambert, Encyclopedie,
1751.

The theory and practice of perspective in art

allows painters to produce exceedingly realistic
paintings. Another discovery that contributed to
the creation of realism was the camera obscura.
A camera obscura consists of a dark room or box
with a small hole leading to the outside,
allowing outside light to enter. The entering
light reproduces the outside image on the back
wall. The reproduction occurs because of a
simple principle of physics: Light travels in
straight lines. When light rays pass through a
small hole, rather than scattering, they cross and
reform as an upside down image on a flat
surface behind the hole. The farther the back
surface from the hole, the larger the image.
These are the same principles underlying
photography, except that the incoming light rays
strike a light sensitive surface that records the
outside image.
Leonardo Da Vinci described the camera
obscura in his notebooks around 1491. Some art
historians believe that Renaissance and postRenaissance painters used the camera obscura to
trace projected images onto canvases and walls,
which were then painted with details. This gives
the paintings a realism that is quite
extraordinary.

Portrait of Woodworkers, photograph of William Talbot,

1843. Photo appears to show action, but is posed. To capture the action, the models had to
remain still for about one minute.

Photography
The photographic camera was developed
simultaneously by different inventers. Joseph
Niepce and panoramic painter Louis Daguerre
developed one of the first methods of
photography. Niepce was primarily an inventor
who developed light sensitive plates to capture
images produced by the camera obscura.
Daguerres first efforts captured the images, but
they rapidly faded when exposed to additional
light. As a panoramic painter and theatrical
scene designer, Daguerre had often used the
camera obscura to produce detailed paintings
and was hoping to find a method to produce
images more quickly than with the camera
obscura, so he teamed up with Niepce. Their
efforts led to a process that produced fixed
images, but required hours of exposure time,
making it impractical for photographing
anything except stationary objects. The NiepceDaguerre photographic process was not fully
developed when Niepce suddenly died in 1833.
Daguerre nevertheless continued with the
experiments, accidently discovering that
mercury vapors speed up the process of fixing
images. This reduced exposure time from
several hours to several minutes. Daguerre
continued to experiment until 1837, when he
discovered how to permanently fix the images.
His invention is called the Daguerreotype
process. Daguerreotypes are very clear, one-ofa-kind images produced on a highly polished,
silver-plated copper sheet, sensitized with iodine
vapors, and developed with mercury fumes. The
captured images are fixed with a sodium
solution.
The drawbacks of Daguerreotype photos are
that they produce a single image (i.e., without a
negative) that is reversed. Photography using the
Daguerreotype process also required several
minutes of exposure time. The long exposure
time meant that still objects, buildings and
portraits could be captured, but not things that

could not remain still. Nevertheless, the process

allowed the capturing of images of common
people for the first times at a very low cost when
compared to painting.
At the same time that Daguerre was
developing a method of photography in France,
William Henry Fox Talbot was doing the same
in England. Talbots invention, known as the
calotype process, used a light sensitive silver
iodide-soaked paper, rather than a metallic plate,
as Daguerres process did. The paper sheet
became a negative that allowed other copies of
the photo to be produced, which was an
improvement over the Daguerreotype.
To make photographs, Talbot selected highquality, watermark-free paper. The paper was
placed in a solution of silver nitrate, removed,
and partially dried. The paper was then treated
with potassium iodide, producing silver iodide.
Silver iodide decomposes with exposure to light,
leaving silver and iodine. A solution of gallonitrate then oxidizes the silver. Silver oxide is
black, and this forms the basis for the negative
image left on the paper. The negative could then
be used to make positive prints on light-sensitive
paper.
Talbots process reduced exposure time to
just one minute, thereby permitting a wider
range of things to be photographed than did
Daguerres process. However, the paper
negative was flimsy, easily damaged, and
produced lower quality images than those made
from a process developed by Frederick Scott
Archer in 1851. Archers process is called the
collodion or wet plate process.
The process developed by Archer was a vast
improvement over the Daguerre and Talbot
photographic processes. Archers process
required an exposure time of just a few seconds
rather than minutes, and produced very clear
negatives on a glass plate that could be used to
produce unlimited numbers of likewise clear
prints. Even by todays standards, collodion

Sidebar: Visualizing Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus, one of the most famous figures of Renaissance Europe, was a commoner,
not a member of the royalty. His father was a wool weaver and owner of a cheese stand, where
Columbus worked as a youth. He was one of five children in his family. By 15th century standards,
Columbuss family was middle class, but certainly not wealthy, and therefore could not afford to have
a family portrait painted.
Columbus worked in a cartography shop in Lisbon as an adult, where he apparently learned
about the Atlantic trade winds and theories about the distance between Europe and Asia via the
Atlantic Ocean. Based on this knowledge, some of which was false, Columbus repeatedly sought
sponsorship beginning in 1485 from European royalty for an expedition across the Atlantic. Because
Columbus argued that the distance between Europe and Asia was far
shorter than other (and as it turns out, more accurate) estimates of the
day, Columbuss requests for funding were turned down. However, in
1492, King Ferdinand II of Aragon decided to partially fund Columbuss
expedition and promised to make him
Viceroy and Governor of any new lands he
discovered.
After Columbus discovered the New
World and brought back to Spain natives as
proof of his discovery, King Ferdinand
appointed him Viceroy and Governor of the
Indies. Columbus later returned to the New
World, where he assumed these posts.
Columbus governed ineptly and with a
heavy hand. Based on accusations that Columbus mismanaged the
Indies and tortured and mistreated natives and settlers alike, he and his
brothers, who moved to Hispanola with him, were imprisoned and
returned to Spain for trial. They were eventually released and their
wealth restored, but they were stripped of their appointments as New
World governors by the King.
After being freed, Columbus made one more voyage to the New
World, which he continued to believe was part of Asia. During his last
voyage, Columbus was stranded in Jamaica for nearly a year before
being rescued. He was brought back to Spain in June 1504. Two
years later, Columbus died a fairly wealthy man at age 55.
Despite his fame, no painting was ever made of Columbus during
his lifetime, so no one knows how Columbus actually looked. In
contrast, there are contemporary paintings of King Ferdinand II and
Queen Isabella I who, like other members of the royalty and Church,
were patrons of the arts.
All paintings of Columbus are posthumoussome made many
years after he died. The posthumous paintings show Columbus in a
variety of ways, but no one knows how he looked.

process photos are extremely clear.

The Archer process mixed collodion with

Wet plate photograph of Abraham Lincoln,

showing the quality of the Archers process.
U.S. Government Archives photo.

potassium iodide on a glass plate, immersing

this in a silver nitrate solution. The photo had to
be taken and developed while the plate was wet,
which meant that a darkroom needed to be
readily available. Because Archers photographic process required the investment in a
darkroom and skills to compose and develop the
image, it was primarily used by professionals
rather than nonprofessionals. Nevertheless, it
remained the dominant process for photography

until 1881, when roll film was introduced. Roll

film was the first form of photography that could
be used by the general public.
Because Archers photographic process could
produce extremely clear pictures in a relatively
short time, it revolutionized portraiture. Portrait
painters abandoned their brushes and became
photographers. As a result of this, early
photographic portraits replicated the conventions
of portrait painting, such as having subjects
stand at a 30-45 degree angle to the canvas,
while looking straight ahead.
Photographers learned that darkrooms could
be built into horse-drawn coaches, making them
portable. This allowed photographers to leave
urban areas, travelling the country to photograph
the rich and the poor, native-born Americans
and immigrants, and blacks, as well as whites,
Hispanics and Native-Americans. For this
reason, the Archer process revolutionized visual
representation, allowing common peoples
images to be captured for the first timefor a
relatively small sum of money. Its quick
exposure time allowed historic events, such as
the U.S. Civil War, to be photographed,
changing the way that we think about, and
visualize, historical events. Thus, we view the
Civil and Revolutionary wars very differently.

During and after the U.S. Civil War, photographers travelled with dark
rooms in wagons, allowing them to photograph in rural areas.
U.S. Government Archive photo of Sam A. Cooleys mobile photographic unit.

Photography and Painting

Because photography captured images as
wellor betterthan painting, many painters
who did not embrace photography abandoned
realism after Archers process was widely
adopted. The abandonment of realism allowed
painters to explore composition, color and form
rather than focusing on content, which was
easily captured by the camera lens. This explains
why the content of modern art is not apparent
to many viewersit is because it explores visual
elements rather than specific content. The
abandonment of realism produced different
schools of art and different periods of artistic
experimentation, which are known by such
names as impressionism, expressionism, and
minimalism.
Impressionism. Impressionism was an art
movement originating in France during the last
half of the nineteenth century that profoundly
affected the way we look at painting. The term
impressionism was pejoratively applied by
nineteenth art critics to works painted by
members of this movement, who rebelled
against traditional French academic painting.

The term impressionism suggested that these

artists works were somehow incomplete
paintings, giving an impression of the person,
object or scene being painted, rather than
producing a realistic portrayal. In contrast with
the impressionists, French academic painters
continued the tradition of realism, as shown in
the painting by well-known French academic
artist Alexandre Cabanel, Ophelia. Cabanel, like
other French academic artists, painted in studios
with people, still lifes (i.e., inanimate objects),
and mythological and historical scenes as
preferred subjects. By contrast, the
impressionists preferred to paint out of doors,
and focused on everyday people in their
paintings.
Unlike French academic artists, the
impressionists painted with short visible brush
strokes, applying small strokes or dabs of
different colors next to each other, rather than
mixing them. The impressionists relied on the
viewers eyes to mix the colors and fill in the
scene rather than doing this for them. The way
that viewers complete pictures and connect

Alexandre Cabanel, Ophelia (1883). The painting presents a high

level of photographic realism for a fictional event, which typified French academic painting.

the dots in impressionist paintings is explained

by the Gestalt laws of perception discussed in
Chapter 1.
The similarity in style among impressionists
is the result of their having worked, socialized
and studied together. American migr Mary
Cassatt was a friend of Berthe Morisot and
Edgar Degas, who invited Cassatt to exhibit with
other impressionists in their 1878 show. Cassatt
was reportedly an admirer of Degass works,
and he of hers. Monet, Renoir and Alfred Sisley
studied under Swiss artist Charles Gleyre and
often gathered together with Eduard Manet at
the Caf Guerbois on Avenue de Clichyin in
Paris. The caf was the gathering place of
writers, artists and bohemians, who rejected the
dominant artistic culture. The gathering at the
Caf Guerbois soon included such artists as Paul
Czanne and Camille Pissarro. Pissaro painted
with, and introduced, Paul Gauguin to the other
impressionists. In later years, Pissarro helped
develop pointillism, a subschool of
impressionism that used small points of paint to
produce images, rather than brush strokes.
Gauguin, in turn, eventually met and befriended
Vincent van Gogh, a colleague of Henri de
Toulouse-Lautrec. The latter artists are often
referred to post-impressionists.
Because the impressionist paintings differed
in form and content from 19th century academic
paintings, they were rejected from the French
Academies annual art show, the Salon de Paris.
After viewing the rejected paintings, Emperor
Napoleon III organized an exhibit of these works
in 1863 called the Salon of the Refused,
stating that the public had a right to see and
judge these works. The exhibit drew more
visitors than the regular Salon and attracted
attention and some prestige to these rebelling
artists. A decade later, the impressionists began
organizing their own exhibits and staged eight
independent exhibits between 1874 and 1886.
Their increasing popularity and influence

resulted in the decline of realism and academic

painting.
One reason why impressionists such as Mary
Cassatt, Claude Monet, Berthe Morisot, Camille
Pissarro, and Pierre-Auguste Renoir painted
common people in outdoor settings is that it
allowed them to examine the effects of light,
shadows and movement on how objects and
people are perceived. Many paintings depicted
water, allowing the artists to examine how water
reflections affected colors and shapes of objects
and people. In effect, they emphasized form
rather than content.

Alexandre Cabanel, Self Portrait (1852).

French academic paintings were often
portraits of prominent individuals, whose stature
was emphasized through the use of chiaroscuro
lighting. A famous self-portrait by Alexandre
Cabanel was painted with chiaroscuro lighting.
The term chiaroscuro is derived from Italian
and means light-dark. Chiaroscuro paintings
lighten the individual and darken the
background, making the lit portion of the
painting the focal point. The background is dark

and cannot be clearly seen, and fades from the

individual with tonal contrasts.

Auguste Renoir, On the Terrace (1881).

Chiaroscuro lighting is still used to create
dramatic effects in photography, film and video.
Chiaroscuro lighting creates sharp contrasts
between the lit individual and the background,
usually hiding the background elements, so the

Haystack, Snow, Overcast Sky (1891).

viewer is not aware of what is there. It is often

used with thriller and horror films, where
viewers cannot see the terrors that lurk in the
background, thus heightening suspense.
Chiaroscuro lighting was used for scenes and
posters of the popular Twilight films.
In contrast, the impressionists used
proximity, size, color, movement and contrast to
produce focal points, as shown in Pierre Auguste
Renoirs On the Terrace (1881). The painting of
two sisters shows how differences in color and
texture produce a focal point. With the exception
of the older sisters features, most elements in
the painting lack detail. The contrast in clarity
between the older sisters face and other
elements attracts our attention to her, focusing
on her calmness and simplicity. Her face is also
the single largest element in the painting, and is
very light compared to the pastoral background.
Her red hat also stands out, focusing our
attention on her. After initially focusing on the
older sister, we examine other elements in the
painting, such as the younger sister, who also
stands out from the background.

Grainstack, Sun in the Mist (1891).

A few years after impressionist painter Claude Monet moved to Giverny, he started painting
grainstacks that filled the farm fields near his home. Monet painted several canvases in 18881889, but paid increasing attention to the grainstacks in 1890, when he began a series of 25
canvases focusing on them. Monet was attracted to the grainstacks because he noticed that
they appeared different in different parts of the day, seasons and weather. The morning light
produced different colors and contrasts than afternoon or evening light, and Monet decided to
capture the nuances he perceived on canvases. By using the same subject matter, Monet could
focus on direct and reflected light, and changes in hues produced by differing amounts of light.

Expressionism. The expressionist movement

originated before World War I (1914-1918), and
was largely centered in Germany, although the
major influences on the movement, such as
Edvard Munch and Vincent van Gogh, were not
German. Unlike impressionism, the
expressionist movement explored psychological
and emotional states and represented these states
on canvases. The paintings express emotions,
anxieties and moods rather than observable
events or objects.
The term expressionism is attributed to art
historian Antonin Matjek, who wrote that the
"Expressionist wishes, above all, to express
himself... (the Expressionist rejects) immediate
perception and builds on more complex psychic
structures... (Gordon, 1987, p. 175). Exploring
complex psychological structures, as noted in
chapter 1, was also the interest of Sigmund
Freud, whose psychoanalytic theories influenced
the expressionist art movement. Freud theorized
that we are motivated by unconscious forces
about which we might not even be aware.
Expressionism is often described as
beginning in 1904, when a group of artists
banded together in Dresden, taking the name,
Die Brucke (or the Bridge). The name was
chosen because the artists were interested in
developing an art movement that would bridge
past and present forms of artistic expression.
The founding group included Ernst Kirchner and
Fritz Bleyl, who were students together at the
Konigliche Technical University, where they
developed an unconventional approach to art
and prevailing social norms. They were joined a
few years later by other artists, including Max
Pechstein. The unconventionality of Die Brucke
manifests itself in many ways, including having
artists paint in the nude or having models pose
for very brief periods of time, forcing the artists
to paint very quickly.
In terms of content, early expressionism
reacted to, and often showed, the dismal and

alienating aspects of industrial life. Because the

movement represented an emotional and
philosophical reaction to what surrounded them,
the artists attempted to visualize their reactions
on canvas. Expressionists were therefore willing
to paint unpleasant and even violent content,
which sharply contrasted with the content of
impressionist paintings. The reaction included a
rejection of bourgeois culture, such as that
represented by the French impressionists, and
the adoption of a primitive style, such as seen
in the folk art of Africa. Their views are
summarized in the groups statement: "We who

Max Pechstein, Das Fischerboot, aka Das

Ruderboot (1913). Published in Hermann Bahr,
Expressionismus (Munich, Delphin-Verlag, 1920).

possess the future shall create for ourselves a

physical and spiritual freedom opposed to the
values of the comfortable, established older
generation."

Sidebar: Expressionism in Film

The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920)

He Walked by Night (1948).

Kansas City Confidential (1952).

In addition to its influence on painting and graphic design, expressionism had a major influence
on motion pictures. Universum Film AG, better known as UFA, was the chief film company in
Germany during the post-World War I years, and produced a number of directors and commercially
successful expressionist films that influenced film making in Great Britain and the United States. The
first influential UFA film was The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920), which used distorted sets and eerie
painted shadows to tell the story of a somnambulist killer controlled by an evil Dr. Caligari. The film,

told as a flashback, is actually a delusion of a mental patient whose psychiatrist is named Dr.
Caligari. The films distorted sets and psychoanalytic themes are deeply rooted in expressionism.
Because of its international success, UFA produced other, similar films under directors such as
Friedrich Murnau and Fritz Lang. Murnau directed Nosferatu (1922), an adaptation of Bram Stokers
Dracula, and Lang directed the Dr. Mabuse trilogy, about an evil psychologist who uses others to
commit his crimes. Both directors eventually left UFA to make films in Hollywood.
In the mid-1920s, Alfred Hitchcock apprenticed at UFA, where he met, and was influenced by,
Murnau and Lang. Hitchcock would always credit the two Germans for teaching him the skills of film
making. Hitchcocks first successful commercial film, The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1927),
exhibits the expressionist lighting and shadows found in German films (Cook, 2009).
When the U.S.-based Universal Studios decided to make feature length horror films in the early
1930s, these films drew heavily upon the features of 1920s German expressionist horror films.
There were several reasons for this. Carl Laemmle, the head and founder of Universal, was a native
German and was aware of the artistic and film developments in his former country. Laemmle also
hired German migrs to work for him. The cinematographer of Dracula (1930), the first successful
horror talkie made at Universal, was Karl Freund, a German emigr. Before coming to the United
States, Freund shot films for Murnau (The Last Laugh), Lang (Metropolis) and Wegener (The Golem).
Freund was also director of The Mummy (1932), starring Boris Karloff.
The 1920s German films also set the standards for horror iconography, such as mad scientists
laboratories. The laboratory of mad scientist Rotwang in Metropolis (1925) was the pattern for the
laboratories in Universal Studios early Frankenstein films and these films, in turn, influenced the set
designs of subsequent horror films.
After Adolph Hitler ascended to power, many German and East European directors, who were
either leftists or Jewish, emigrated to the United States. These directors included Otto Preminger,
Robert Siodmak, Billy Wilder and Rudolph Mat. These directors made medodramas and crime films
in the United States during the 1940s and early 1950s that relied on expressionist techniques. The
films, which include Double Indemnity (1944), The Killers (1946) D.O.A. (1950) and Where the
Sidewalk Ends (1950), are often referred to as film noir because of their darkness, shadows and
pessimism. They often picture a nightmare world reminiscent of The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari.
Another circle of expressionist painters,
called the Blue Rider, was formed in 1911 in
Munich. The circle included Wassily Kandinsky,
Paul Klee and Franz Marc, who believed that
colors communicated emotion, just as music did.
The painters saw a close connection between
music, an art form that that did not reproduce
reality, and painting, which could exist
independently of the content that it portrayed.
To Kandinsky, color in painting existed
autonomously from the content. He viewed blue
as a series of emotions, depending on the hue,
and used that in a painting, the Blue Rider, after
which the circle was named. The painting,

dominated by greens and blues, shows an

indistinct horse rider galloping across a plain.
Kandinsky equated music and painting in his
writings, arguing that colors can be grouped into
families that were similar or dissimilar, that
there are emotional or spiritual qualities in color
shades, and that contrasting colors can be
balanced with one another, producing
vibrational harmonies in the same way that
chords on guitars and pianos are produced.
Kandinskys theories led him to experiment with
abstract painting, and he is often considered the
first abstract painter.
Franz Marc, the publisher of the groups

journal, the Blue Rider magazine, also believed

in the emotional power of colors, a subject
examined later in this book. Marc viewed blue
as a symbol for masculinity; yellow as a color of
softness, femininity and happiness; and red as a
color of violence. Marcs belief in red as the
color of violence was supported by his death at
the age of 36: He was struck in the head by a
shell fragment during World War I and killed.
The Blue Rider came to an end with the death
of Franz Marc. Not only was Marc dead, but
Kandinsky and other Russian-born expressionist
artists were forced to leave Germany when the
war started, effectively ending the artists
collaboration. However, expressionism
continued as an art form and was incorporated
into other visual arts after the war, particularly
German cinema. The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari
(1920), The Golem (1920), Nosferatu (1922),
The Last Laugh (1924) and other German films
were influenced by, and incorporated,
expressionist conceptions in their set designs,
costumes, lighting and cinematography.
Minimalism. Minimalism is a visual arts
movement that began in the 1960s, which sought
to depict the bare essentials or underlying
elements of things. It was a reaction to an
earlier, post-World War II American art
movement called abstract expressionism, in
which artists sought to express themselves
spontaneously or subconsciously with paint and
other materials rather than attempting to depict
an object or scene.
For this reason, minimalist artworks often
appear as a grouping of lines, grids, and
geometric shapes with subtle colors, rather than
being a painting of something. As an example
of minimalism, Agnes Martin painted only in
black, white, and brown during her early years,
usually using lines as the underlying form in her
works. After moving to New Mexico in 1967,
Martin added opaque pastel washes to her
artwork. Her work differs from other
minimalists in that the lines of her works are

clearly created by hand and show

inconsistencies and flaws. Other minimalists,
like Frank Stella, whose paintings are of
geometric shapes, viewed their creations as
objects in and of themselves, rather than
portraying objects.
Minimalist sculptures present smooth,
ordinary, often repetitive shapes composed of
materials associated with industrial engineering.
The parts are arranged to create ambiguous
objects rather than to reflect the materials
original uses.

Permission of The Jewish Museum, NY/ Art Resources, NY

The world was introduced to minimalism

through a widely-reviewed exhibit called
Primary Structures, held during 1966 at the
Jewish Museum in New York. Reviews of
Primary Structures appeared in large
circulation publications such as Time and
Newsweek, creating exposure and publicity for
the art movement that it had not previously
received. The exhibit primarily consisted of
sculptures and collages, but included paintings
by Frank Stella. The cover of the exhibit catalog
is itself a perfect example of minimalism: It
consists of a single line between two geometric
shapesa rectangle and a half-circle. The
catalog cover was designed by Elaine Lustig

Cohen, a graphic designer who worked in the

book industry, where she created minimalist
covers for books by such writers as Daniel J.
Boorstin, Dwight MacDonald, and Tennessee
Williams.
Minimalism was also a movement in
architecture, operating under the phrase, Less is
more. Minimalist architects sought to have
each element in their designs serve multiple
purposes, thus reducing the number of elements
visible in the building. As an example, a
building can be designed with the heater running
invisibly through the floor, rather than showing
heating elements such as radiators and vents.
Creating a floor that is heated with pipes
imbedded in it minimizes the elements visible in
the room.
Minimalism has had a major impact on
graphic design, particularly the design of logos.
The Nike swoosh, Pepsis red-white-and-blue
circle, and Chevrolets bow-tie represent
examples of design minimalism.
Photography Advances
After the invention of photography, many
portrait painters turned to photography to make a
living because photographs quickly and cheaply
reproduced human images that previously had
taken many dayseven weeksto produce with
brushes and paint. With a camera and a dark
room, a photographer could record the images of
numerous people, charging each a relatively
small sum and still making a living. In contrast,
painted portraits were expensive, which is why
most painted portraits have been of the rich and
powerful.
Because of the popularity and low cost of
photographs, photographic studios opened and
prospered in cities, where individuals and
families could go and have their pictures taken.
Itinerant photographers roamed the countryside
with cameras and horse-drawn, portable
darkrooms, taking photographs of rural families.
Thus, the camera captured the images of

common people, who were not captured in

paintings during the pre-camera era.
These early portrait photographers were the
first commercial photographers. Even today, the
majority of professional photographers make
their livings making portraits. Professionallyshot portraits are commonly taken of families
during holiday seasons or of students who are
graduating. Such photographs adorn the walls of
many family homes and are sent to other
relatives to mark important occasions. Of
course, there are many other forms of
commercial photography, which are used to
capture special events, such as weddings and
corporate gatherings, or to capture images that
are to be used in advertisements, brochures, web
pages, and other media.
Commercial photography is just one of
several classes of photography. Other classes of
photography are documentary photography,
snapshots, photojournalism and art photography.
Each developed at different periods and have
different functions and aesthetic codes.
Documentary photography developed during
the U.S. Civil War in an attempt to capture and
document that historic conflict. Documentary
photography was probably invented in the
United States by portrait photographer Matthew
Brady, who hired a team of photographers to
capture images of the war. There were many
other photographers who recorded Civil War
images. Overall, these photographers took nearly
one million Civil War photos; several hundred
thousand of these still survive.
Another well-known example of
documentary photography consists of the U.S.
Farm Security Administrations and the Office
of War Informations attempts to visually
document the lives of Americans between 1935
and 1944. This U.S. government-sponsored
documentary project was initially headed by
former Columbia University professor and
photographer Roy E. Stryker, who hired such
photographers as John Collier, Jr., Walker

Side Bar: The Farm Security Administration Photographic Project

By the U.S. Library of Congress
Although photographers in Roy Stryker's unit were sent out on assignments throughout the United
States and Puerto Rico, the unit's main office was in Washington, D.C. The office distributed
photographic equipment and film, drew up budgets, allocated travel funds, hired staff, developed,
printed, and numbered most negatives, reviewed developed film, edited photographers' captions
written in the field, and maintained files of negatives, prints, and captions. The main office also
distributed images to newspapers, magazines, and book publishers, and supplied photographs to
exhibitions.
Staff photographers were
given specific subjects and/or
geographic areas to cover.
These field assignments often
lasted several months. Before
beginning their assignments,
photographers read relevant
reports, local newspapers, and
books in order to become
familiar with their subject. A
basic shooting script or outline
was often prepared.
Photographers were
encouraged to record anything
that might shed additional light
on the topic that they were
photographing, and they
received training in making
Drought Refuges Leaving Glendale, Montana (Arthur Rothstein). personal contacts and
interviewing people.
Most of the time the photographers mailed their exposed negatives to the photographic unit's lab
in Washington for developing, numbering and printing. In the initial years of the project, Stryker was
almost exclusively responsible for reviewing contact prints made from the negatives and selecting
images that he considered suitable for printing. Over time, however, photographers played a greater
role in picture selection. Rejected images were classified as "killed." In earlier phases of the project,
a hole was sometimes punched through the killed negatives; later, this practice was abandoned.
The rejected images were usually near-duplicates and alternate views of a printed negative.
After Stryker reviewed and selected images, the negatives and contact prints (or "first prints")
were returned to the photographers for captioning. The resulting captions were edited at the
photographic unit's headquarters. The selected images were then printed and mounted, the captions
were applied to the photo mounts, and the photographs were filed in the photographic unit's file.

Evans, Dorothea Lange, Russell Lee, Gordon

Parks, Arthur Rothstein, John Vachon, and
Marion Post Wolcott to visually document the
lives of farmers, Southern sharecroppers and
migratory farm workers, particularly those
displaced by the Dust Bowl. Beginning in 1942,
when the United States entered World War II,
the Office of War Information utilized some of
the same photographers to document Americans
preparedness and resolve. Many of the
photographs taken by these U.S. governmentemployed photographers are among the best
known photographs even taken.
One of the U.S. government-employed
photographers, John Collier, Jr., worked in
anthropology beginning in the 1950s,
developing a new approach known as visual
anthropology. Until Collier entered the
discipline, most anthropology studies consisted
of recording what informants in other cultures
said, or what the anthropologist had observed,
and then publishing written reports about their
findings. Collier changed this by emphasizing
the need to capture visual aspects of other
cultures. After Collier, many anthropologists and
sociologists started photographing the cultures
and subcultures they were studying, rather than
just producing verbal reports about them. Today,
documentary photography is used principally by
anthropologists, sociologists and other social
scientists.
Collier also developed another form of
documentary photography called photoelicitation. This is where sociologists and
anthropologists photograph aspects of the
cultures they are studyingor have informants
take the photographsand then use these
photographs to guide their interviews with
informants. Collier first used photo-elicitation in
a study of English and French residents of the
Maritimes of Canada. Collier and anthropologist
Alexander H. Leighton interviewed some
informants using photographs and others
without using photographs (i.e., just verbally).

They found that the photographic interview got

considerably more concrete information than
the verbal interviews. Collier and Leighton
concluded that photographs trigger responses
that might lie submerged in verbal interviewing
(Collier, 1957, pp. 849, 854).
Most commercial photography is posed and
carefully composed, whereas documentary
photography is not posed. Documentary
photography attempts to capture authentic
images that represent the activities of people in
their cultures or animals in the environment that
the scientist or photographer is studying.
In contrast, most commercial photographers
attempt to show the most positive aspects of
events, even if the images are inaccurate. When
families have portraits taken, the family
members are posed and everyone in the photo is
expected to smile, even if unhappy. When
commercial photographers shoot photos to be
used in advertisements, they employ models,
who are carefully posed and professionally
groomed.
A different class of photograph is the
snapshot, which is usually taken by a
nonprofessional using a digital camera, cell
phone or disposable film camera. Snapshots first
appeared following the invention of roll film by
George Eastman in 1888. Roll film did not
require a wet plate so the photograph did not
need to be developed immediately.
The Eastman Kodak Co. sold cameras
preloaded with roll film, which were sent back
to the Kodak Co. for processing after the film
frames had been exposed. Later, Kodak sold
rolls of film that were placed in very low cost
cameras called Brownies that the company
said anyone could use. The Brownies cost $1
and were primarily sold to adolescents and
teenagers. The rolls of film exposed by the
Brownie needed to be developed by Kodak or
another company using chemicals, which the
photographer didnt need to own or even
understand.

1890s Brownie Camera advertisement.

Snapshots are the most common type of
photograph and are commonly seen on
Instagram, Facebook, personal web pages, and
family photo albums. Many languish on hard
drives. Like commercial photography, snapshots
are usually posed and capture artificially
positive aspects of an event. A quick glance of
photos on Facebook shows people posing for the
camera, hugging each other, and invariably
smiling. Snapshot photographers tend to capture
images of informal and spontaneous events such
as family gatherings and parties, or travels,
showing that the person actually visited some
far-off location. In contrast, commercial
photographers document formal events such as
weddings or corporate gatherings.
Typically, snapshots have exhibited poor
composition and focus compared to other classes
of photography, but this has changed since the
development of digital cameras. Digital cameras
allow amateur photographers to examine
photographs they have taken and to re-shoot the

photos with better composition and focus,

producing higher quality photos than were
generally shot with cameras using roll film.
As a result of digital photography and
internet sites such as Flickr, amateur
photographers have reduced the demand for
commercial photography and photojournalism,
another class of photography, making it difficult
for commercial photographers and freelancers to
garner high paying photographic assignments
from media. In the past, magazines and other
mass media hired professional photographers to
shoot images for them. Today, magazine editors
easily locate and license stock photographs that
are posted on the internetthe majority of them
taken by amateur photographers. Media pay the
amateur photographers far less for using these
stock photos than they would pay to hire
professional photographers. For this reason,
media have gravitated toward using stock photos
(Clifford 2010).
Some internet sites, such as Getty Images
(gettytimages.com), are largely online catalogs
of stock images that editors can access to find
photographs. As an example, Getty Images has
on its website over 3000 images concerning
boxing that can be licensed by media. Some of
these are royalty-free photographs, meaning that

Snapshots are primarily used to

verify or record events and travels. They are
primarily posed or staged, as this snapshot
is, which shows the Mona Lisa in the background. The composition and cropping of
snapshots is typically poor.

the media pay a one-time fee for noncommercial

use of the photograph.
Photojournalism is another class of
photography. The purpose of photojournalism is
to capture realistic images of noteworthy events.
Photojournalism differs from most commercial
photography in that it attempts to capture
unposed, spontaneous actions that accompany a
written news story. Even if a news photo is run
by itself, the photo will invariably be
accompanied with a cutline, a verbal caption
beneath photographs appearing in newspapers.
Cutlines explain to readers the significance and
context of the photographs.
Photojournalism differs from commercial
photography in many ways, such as the codes
under which the two classes of photography
operate. As an example of the difference in their
codes, photojournalists are prohibited from
airbrushing or significantly altering images to
make them more newsworthy or to improve
composition.
An example of a photojournalist who violated
this code was Brian Walski, who was a
photographer for the Tribune News Corp., which
owned the Los Angeles Times, Chicago Tribune
and Hartford Courant, among other newspapers.
Walski, a veteran photojournalist, was on
assignment in Basra, Iraq, covering the war,
when he snapped photos of British soldiers
urging civilians to stay down. Walski decided to
use his computer to combine elements in two
photos to improve the composition. He
submitted the airbrushed photo to the Los
Angeles staff, which made his photos available
to other Tribune News-owned media. The
Hartford Courant ran the photo, after which a
Courant employee noticed what appeared to be
duplication in the photo. After looking closely at
the photo, Thom McGuire, the Courants
assistant managing editor for photography and
graphics, who selected the photograph for use on
the newspapers front page, concluded that it
had been digitally altered. McGuire contacted

the Los Angeles Times, which contacted Walski.

Walski admitted to digitally altering the photo,
and was then fired (Kurtz, 2002). Today, he is a
successful commercial photographer living near
Denver, Colorado.
In contrast with photojournalists, commercial
photographers often alter photographsand are
expected to do so. Unsightly facial blemishes,
wild hairs, excessive weight and other
problems are often digitally reduced or
removed from portraits and advertising images
by commercial photographers. These
photographers are not fired for the digital
alterations; on the contrary, they are expected to
make the photos and the people depicted in them
as attractive as possible.
Photojournalism did not develop for nearly a
half century after photography was invented.
The reason for the long delay between the
invention of photography and the development
of photojournalism is that the presses used to
print newspapers and magazines in the
nineteenth century could only reproduce black
and white images; photographs are gray scale
images, with a multiplicity of gray shades
ranging between black and white.
While Matthew Brady and others were
documenting the Civil War with photography,
newspapers employed artists, who drew battle
scenes that were then engraved by hand on
wooden blocks. Henry Bacon and Winslow
Homer, two prominent nineteenth century
American artists, served as field illustrators
during the Civil War. They would draw scenes
of Civil War battles and send them to the media
for which they worked, where their illustrations
were carved into wood blocks by skilled
workmen. These woodblocks were electrotyped
(or electroplated) into metal plates that produced
black and white images, allowing them to be
printed in magazines and newspapers. After the
Civil War, newspapers began employing artists
to draw prominent local individuals, whose
images could be reproduced in the newspapers

Electrotyped woodblock appearing in January 7, 1854 issue of Gleasons Pictorial Drawing Room
Companion showing police uniforms in New York City.
with electrotypes. Emery and Emery (1978)
report that by 1891 there were approximately
1,000 artists who supplied illustrations to 5,000
newspapers and magazines.
During the Civil War, newspapers also
reproduced maps, showing where armies had
moved and where battles were fought. Like the
illustrations, the maps were laboriously
engraved by hand. Maps and similar visuals are
usually referred to as infographics.
Around the same era, editorial cartoons
became popular, appearing on the pages of many
newspapers. Thomas Nast, an editorial
cartoonist for the New York Times and Harpers
Weekly, was also a Civil War illustrator. As an
editorial cartoonist, Nast created such enduring
images as Uncle Sam, the plump and jolly Santa
Claus, and the Republican Party elephant and
the Democrat Party donkey, which eventually
became the mascots of these parties.
Engraved or woodblock images of maps,
people and scenes of current events were printed
in newspapers and magazines during the last half
of the nineteenth century, but photographic
images could not be printed until a solution to

the gray scale problem was found. The

solution was developed by Frederic Ives and
Stephen H. Horgan in the late 1880s, who
invented half-toning. Half-toning consists of
placing a half-tone screen over a photo, reducing
a gray scale photo to a series of black dots that
are nearer or farther apart. Black dots that are far
apart appear as light gray to the viewer, whereas
black dots that are close together as dark gray or
black. Viewers perceive these dots as a solid
color or as connected, as predicted by Gestalt
theory. Once half-toning was developed,
newspapers and magazines could reproduce
photographs, transforming what newspapers
looked like and leading to the creation of
photojournalism.
The last type of photography, which is
distinguishable from photojournalism,
commercial photography, documentary
photography and snapshots, is photographic art
or, as it is also known, fine art photography.
Photographic art is closely related to painting in
its purpose: It produces images that inspire the
viewer to feel and think, whether it be about the
content or the form.

The photograph of the Kia has been half-toned and appears as a gray scale photo, when it is not.
A blow-up of the rear tire shows that it is actually a series of black blots and white spaces that
create a visual illusion of being gray.
Fine art photography slowly developed in the
late 1800s and early 1900s and had a hard time
establishing itself because most people viewed
cameras as a technology that merely recorded
objective reality, rather than being a medium
capable of constructing an image for an artist.
As will be discussed in the following chapter,
the publicand even paintersaccepted the
view that the camera rather than the photographer captured the image.
One of the pioneers of fine art photography is
Alfred Stieglitz, who is as well known today for
being painter Georgia OKeefes lover and
husband as he is for being a founder and
advocate of the photographic art movement.
When studying in Europe during the 1880s, the
American-born Stieglitz developed an interest in
photography. He began taking photos that he
exhibited and published in British and German
publications, as well as writing articles on the
aesthetics and technical aspects of photography
for these publications.
When Stieglitz retuned to New York City, he
operated a photographic business and became a
contributor, and then an editor, of The American
Amateur Photographer. During this time, he
exhibited his photographs and became a leading
member of New Yorks photographic clubs,
which he advocated merging. The two
organizations merged in 1896, and Stieglitz
became vice-president of the Camera Club of

New York, and editor of its new journal,

Camera Notes. The first issue of Camera
Notes appeared in July 1897 and within a year
became one of the leading journals of the newlyemerging art form. Stieglitz used the journal to
promote pictorialism, an early photographic art
movement that argued photographers images
could be so personalized that they no longer
captured reality; instead, the image
represented the photographers subjective
interpretation of what had been photographed.
To demonstrate that photos were not mere
recordings of a mechanical device, pictorialists
altered the focus of their photographs, made
prints from gravure rather than negatives, and
altered the silver content of negatives to produce
different effects, which replicated the
appearance of paintings.
Some pictorialists drew or hand painted
colors on black-and-white prints, further
blurring the distinction between painting and
photography. Others, like Alvin Langdon
Coburn, viewed themselves as gravure printers
rather than photographers. In 1899, the Camera
Club sponsored a solo exhibition of 87 photos
taken by Stieglitz. The next year, Stieglitz met
Edward Steichen, a photographer from
Milwaukee who had painted and apprenticed as
a lithographer. Steichens understanding of
aesthetic principles and how they could be
applied to photography impressed Stieglitz.

Museum of Modern Art in New York City.

Stieglitzs new journal, for which Steichen
designed the cover, was called Camera Work.
Camera Work was published between 1903 and
1917. It was the first photographic journal that
was visual in focus, not just discussing aesthetic
aspects of photography and art, but reproducing
actual fine art photographs and photos of art
works. The final issue featured photographs by
Paul Strand, who is credited as the first
photographer to shoot abstractions.

An example of pictorialism: Edward

Steichen, Self Portrait (1903). To help define
photography as an art, the pictorialists
replicated the style of impressionist
paintings by altering negatives.
When Stieglitz launched a new photography
journal in 1903, he asked Steichen to design the
cover. Steichens photographs eventually
appeared in Stieglitzs journal more often than
any other photographers.
Steichen not only contributed to the
development of fine art photography, but he also
contributed to the development of modern
fashion photography, where apparel is depicted
as artwork, emphasizing quality and appearance,
rather than simply illustrating the product.
Fashion photography is a subclass of
commercial photography. After being
recognized for his fashion photography,
Steichen was hired as photographer for Vanity
Fair and Vogue from 1923-1938, during which
time he also worked as a photographer for major
New York advertising agencies. He was
reportedly the highest paid photographer during
the inter-war years. During World War II,
Steichen worked as a naval photographer and
documentary film maker. He won the Academy
Award in 1945 for the documentary, The
Fighting Lady. After the war, Steichen became
director of the photography department at the

Alfred Stieglitz, The Steerage (1907) shows

third class passengers on a steamship.
By 1917, when Camera Work ceased
publication, Stieglitz had re-evaluated his ideas
on the relationship between painting and
photography, and had turned away from
pictorialism. World War I and its death toll and
misery made pictorialism seem like a quaint
relic of a bygone era. In addition to supporting
modernist, abstract photography, Stieglitz
embraced a more documentary approach to
photography. Stieglitzs change to a
documentary approach in his own work is
visible in his acclaimed photograph, The
Steerage, which he took in 1907, but did not
publish until 1911 and did not exhibit until
1913. The photograph showed lower class
passengers packed together on two levels of a

steamship. The photograph not only documented

the conditions of poor sea travelers, but
managed to visually create feelings of hierarchy
and separation, with decks and gangplanks
creating separate, hierarchical groups. Stieglitzs
evolution paralleled that of other photographers,
who increasingly focused on photographys
documentary capabilities while exploring such
issues as light, tonal contrasts, form and
composition.

Fortune. In 1941, the National Park Service

commissioned Adams to create a photo mural
for the Department of the Interior Building in
Washington, DC. The theme was to be nature as
exemplified and protected in the U.S. National
Parks. The project was halted because of World
War II and never resumed (National Parks
Service, 2010). Nevertheless, Adams produced
226 photographs of the Southwest for the
project, all of which captured the relatively
unpopulated California, Arizona and New
Mexico sunbelt. Adams would spend much of
his life as an environmental activist, trying to
protect this region.

References
Clifford, Stephanie (2010, March 31). In an era
of cheap photography, the professional eye is
faltering. New York Times, p. B1.
Collier, Jr., John (1957). Photography in
Anthropology: A report of two experiments.
American Anthropologist, 59, 843-859.
Cook, W. (2009, February 26). Hitchcocks debt
to Berlin. The Guardian, p. 4.
An abstract photograph by Paul Strand,
Porch Shadows (1916).
Among this group was Ansel Adams, who
became acquainted with Georgia OKeefe, Paul
Strand and other associates of Stieglitzs in
Taos, New Mexico around 1930. Unlike
Stieglitz, who photographed the urban
environment, Adams photographed the
wilderness of the U.S. Southwest. In 1936,
Stieglitz organized a critically and financially
successful show of Adamss work in New York.
Despite his success as a fine arts
photographer, Adams needed to work as a
commercial artist to support himself and his
family, working for corporations such as Pacific
Gas and Electric and magazines such as

Emery, Edwin and Emery, Michael (1978). The

Press in America, 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Gordon, Donald E. (1987). Expressionism: Art
and Ideas. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Kurtz, Howard (2002, April 3). Altered picture
costs L.A. Times photographer his job.
Washington Post, p. C10.
National Park Service. Ansel Adams
Photographs. Washington, DC: National
Archives (available at
http://www.archives.gov/research/ansel-adams/)

Ansel Adams, Canyon de Chelly (1941), panoramic view from mountains, U.S. National Park
Service Photograph, 79-AAC-2, U.S. Archives.