sets, relations, functions & binary operations z (ii) An clement of set A is associated to a unique clement in sct B. ‘© A fimction ‘froma set 4 to a set B associates each element of set 4 toa unique clement of set B. © Ifan clement a€ A is associated to an clement 6 € B, then bis called 'the,fimage of aor image of « under f’or the valu ofthe function fata Also, ais called the preimage of b under the function We write it as : b= f(a) Domain, Co-Domain and Range of a function © Letfs4->B. Then, the set dis known as the domain of fand the set Bis known as the co-domain of f. The set of all images of elements of Ais known as the range of f or image set of A under f and is denoted by f(4). Thus, f(A) = (f(x) : x € A} = Range of f. Clearly, f(A) © B. Equal functions © Two fimctions fand g are said to be equal iff @ The domain of f= domain of g (i) The co-domain of f= the co-domain of g, and i) f(0) = gtx) for every x belonging to their common domain. © — Iftwo functions f and g are equal, then we write f= g. ‘Types of Functions (W) One-one function (injection) A function f: 4 — B is said to be a one-one function or an injection if different clements of A have different images in B. Thus, f: A> B is one-one aed f(a) + f(b) for alla, bE A fla) f(b) 2 a= b forall a. be A Algorithm to check the injectivity of a function Step I: Take two arbitrary elements x, y (say) in the domain of f. Step HL: Put fix) = 0) ‘Step II : Solve f(x) = f(y). If f(x) = f() gives x = y only, then f: A — Bis a one- ‘one function (or an injection) otherwise not. © Graphically, if any straight line parallel to x-axis intersects the curve y = f(x) exactly one point, then the fimetion (x) is one-one or an injection. Otherwise itis not © Iff: RR is an injective map, then the graph of y = /(x) is cither a strictly dy a increasing curve ora strictly decreasing curve. Consequently, © > 0 or ® <0 a ly decreasing sequently, > 0 or for all x. ‘© Number of one-one functions from A to B: Pit n=m 0, if nem where m = (Domain) n(Co-domain)8 wbg- rapid mathematics (il) Onto-function (surjection) A fimetion f: 4 > Bis said to be an oato fmetion or a surjection if every element Of B is the image of some element of 4 ie., if (4) = B or range of fis the co- domain of f: ‘Thus, f: A> B is a surjection iff for each b € B, 3 a € A that f(a) = b. Algorithm for Checking the Surjectivity of a Function Let f: A B be the given function Step I : Choose an arbitrary element y in B. Step IL: Putf(x)=y. Step III: Solve the equation f(x) = y for x and obtain x in terms of y. Let x= g(). Step IV: If for all values of y € B, for which x, given by x= g(y) are in 4, then ‘fis onto. * Ithere are some y'€ B for which x, given by x= g() is not in 4. Then, fis not onto. Number of onto functions :1f.4 and B are two sets having m and n elements respectively such that 1 <7 Bis a bijection if itis one-one as well as onto, In other words, a function f: 4 > D is a bijection if a _Fis one-one onto function (Tis one-one ie F68) “£00) = x“ forall 9 & Gi) Mis onto ie. for all y © B, there exists x © A such that f(x) = y. ‘Number of bijections : If 4 and B are finite sets and f: A B is a bijection, then 4 and B have the same number of elements. If A has 7 elements, then the number of bijections from 4 to B is the total number of arrangements of m items taken all at atime ie. nt (iv) Many-one function A function f: 4 — B is said to be a many-one function if two or more elements of set A have the same image in B. » 8 cs fiA—> Bisa many-one function ifthere exist x, GX Sa ye A such that x #y but fls) =f). = ) () Into function BT NY A function f: 42 isan into function ifthere exists /**™#-05 a nto fonction an element in 3 having no pre-image in A. In other words f: A — B is an into function if it is not an onto function,sets, relations, functions & binary operations 9 (WD Tdentity function Let A be a non-empty set. A fiction f- 4 —> 4 is said to be an identity fiction on set 4 if fassociates every clement of set 4 to the clement itself. Thus f: 4 4 is an identity function iff f(x) =x, for all xe 4. (vii) Constant function ‘A finetion f: 4 — B is said to be a constant function if every element of 4 has the same image under fimction of B Le. f(x) = for all x € 4, where ¢ = B. ‘Composition of functions © Let A, B and C be three non-void sets and let f: A > B, g: B > C be two functions. For each x € A there exists a unique element g(/(x)) € C. © ‘The composition of functions is not commutative i.e. fog # gof. ‘The composition of functions is associative Le. iff gh are three flmctions such that (fog)oh and fo(goli) exist, then (fog)oh = fo(eoh).. ‘* The composition of two bijections isa bijection i.e. if fand g are two bijections, then gof is also a bijection © Letf sd B. The fol, identity function is the funetion itself. Inverse of an clement © Let d and B be two sets and let fA > B be a mapping, Ifa € 4 is associated tobe Bunder the function f, then bis called the fimage of a and we write it asb = f(a). Inverse of a function © Iff: 4 Bis a bijection, we can define a new fmetion from B to.4 which associates each element y € B to its pre-image f1Q)) € A. ‘© Algorithm to find the inverse of a bijection Let f: A> B be a bijection, To find the inverse of f we proceed as follows Step I: Put f(z) =y , where y © Band xe A10 wbg- rapid mathematics Step IL: Solve f(x) = y to obtain. x in terms of y. ‘Step III : In the relation obtained in step I replace x by f1(y) to obtain the inverse off ‘© Properties of Inverse of a Function (The inverse of a bijection is unique. (i) The inverse of « bijection is also a bijection, (il) Lff: 4 B is a bijection and g : B— 4 is the inverse of f. then fog = J, and .g0f= Iy, where I, and [, are the identity functions on the sets 4 and B respectively. If in the above property, we have B= 4, Then we find that for every bijection Jf: 4A there exists a bijection g -4 >A such that fog ~ gof= 1, (iv) Let f: A+B and g : B 4 be two functions such that gof= I, and fog = ‘Then f and g are bijections and g = f- Binary Operation ‘* Let Sbe a non-void set. A function from $ » Sto Sis called a binary operation on Sie.f: SS» isa binary operation on set S. ‘* Generally binary operations are represented by the symbols *.@ . ete. instead of letters f g ete ‘© Addition on the set V of all natural numbers isa binary operation © Subiraction isa binary operation on each of the sets Z, 0, R and C. But, it isa binary operation on N. ‘* Division is not a binary operation on any of the sets N. Z, 2. R and C. However, it is not a binary operation on the sets ofall non-zero rational (real or complex) numbers. ‘Types of Binary Operations (@) Commutative binary operation A binary operation * on a set S is said to be commutative if, atb=b*aforallabe S ‘© Addition and multiplication are commatative binary operations on Z but subtraction is not a commutative binary operation, since 2-3 + 3-2 ‘© Union and intersection are commutative binary operations on the power set P(S) ‘of all subsets of set S. Bu difference ofsets is not a commutative binary operation on PG). (ii) Associative binary operation © A binary operation * on a set 5 is said to be associative if (a*b)* c=a* (b% c) for alla, bce S. (ii) Distributive binary operation © Let and o be two binary operations on a set S. Then * is said to be (Leh distributive over o if a*(b oc) =(a* b) 0 (a* c) for alla, bce S Gi) Right distributive over o if @oc*a=(b* alo(c* a) for alla, bce S.sets, relations, functions & binary operations 1 (iy) Identity element ‘© Let * be a binary operation on a set S. An element ¢ € Sis said to be an identity clement for the binary operation * if a*e=a=e*aforallac 5, ‘© For addition on Z, 0 is the identity element, since 0+a=a=a+0 forallae R. ‘© For multiplication on 2. 1 is the identity element, since 1 [ey| oF [| < [zs has got its meaning since [| and [5] are real numbers, of Modulus a> nor P+ ln? + 2 Re(a, 7) P+ ks 2 Re(s 5) P= 2(ksl? + iP) (+ BYP + ls @&) lat ‘Multiplicative Inverse ‘© Themultiplicative inverse ofa non-zero complex number =is same as its reciprocal A), where a, BE R. and is given by Square Roots of a Complex Number ¢ Leta+ibbea complex mumber such that Jai5=x+0 , where x and y are real numbers. Then, ‘To find the square root of a ~ ib, replace i by ~i in the above result. ‘© Accomplex number = = x +‘ can be represented by a point (x,y) on the plane ‘hich is known as the Argand plane. A purely real number is represented by a point on x-axis A purely imaginary complex number is represented by a point on y-axis, seaxis is known as the real axis and y-axis, as the imaginary axis. ‘P(%,3) is point in the plane, then the point P(x.) represents a complex number rextiy. ‘* There exists a one-one correspondence between the points of the plane and the members (elements) of the set C of all complex numbers. ‘© The plane in which we represent a complex number geometrically is known as the complex plane or Argand plane or the Gaussian plane. © The Length of the line sezment OXis called the modulus of: and is denoted bycomplex numbers 18 © The angle 6 which OX wakes with positive direction of x-axis in anti-clockwise sense is called the argument or amplitude of = and is denoted by ara(2) ot amp(s). © The unique value of @ such that 1 <@ <7 is called the principal value of the amplitude or principal argument, © Ifx and y both are positive, then the argument of x + iy is the acute angle given tan © Tfx 0, then the argument of = + iy is m0, where o.is the acute angle given by tan Po) gy © Ifx<0 andy <0 then the argument of >= x + iy is om, where otis the acute angle given by tan o. PY © Ifx>0 andy <0, then the argument of: ~x+ iy iso, where otis the acute angle given by tan o.6 wbg- rapid mathematics rey Steps for Finding Argument of z =x + iy Step I: Find the value of Fl lying between 0 and =, Let it be a Step 1 2 Determine in which quadrant the point P(x, y) belongs. IfP(x.y) belongs to the first quadrant, then ara(2) IE P(x, y) belongs to the second quadrant, then arg(:) = x — a. If P(x. y) belongs to the third quadrant, then arg(=) = o— m. If PG, y) belongs to the fourth quadrant, then ars Vectorial Representation of a Complex Number P69) by ‘+ The complex number 2 — x + iy in teprevented by the vector OP and in such a ‘case |2|is the length OP and arg(z) is the angle which the directed line OP makes with the positive direction of x-axis, Geometrical representation 2 Letz=x+ iybe a complex number represented by a point P(x, ) in the Argand plane. Imapinry axis fren Real ais Length of op = a7 #)7,0= ta"( 2) Polar Representation ‘M(cosO + / sin@), where and is the polar form of z. If the general value of the argument is 6, then the polar form of : is r{cos(2nn + @) + i sin (2nm + 8)], where r= |z), @ = arg(z) and n is an integer. Polar form of : =x + y for different sigus of x and y Let |e of. ‘rand or be the acute angle given by tan"! ( 2), Let @ be te argumentcomplex numbers 7 @® Polar form of :=x+ iy when x > 0 and y> 0: In this case @ = 0. So, the polar form of y is r(cos a+ j sin a). (i) Polar form of : = x+ iy when x <0 andy > 0 : In this case @ = ~ 0 and y <0: In this case 8 = -o, So, the polar form of = is r[cos (-c) + isin(-c)] of r(cos ot ~ isin c*). Eulerian Form of A Complex Number © = cos8 + isin® and e*® = cos® — isin8. These two are called Euler's notations. ‘+ Geometrical Representation of Addition: Be entnthd) If two points P and Q represent complex o59 numbers = and =, respectively in the Arzand plane, then the sum 2, +z, is represented by the extremity R of the diagonal OR of parallelogram OPRQ having OP and OOas i ‘two adjacent sides. aaa ‘+ Geometrical Representation of Subtract Let =a, + iby and=,= a,+ iby be two complex ‘numbers represented by points F(a, D;) andOCa, 3,) im the Argand plane. Q reprecento the complex number (-z,). Complete the paralleogram OPRQ’ by taking OP and OO’ as two adjacent sides. ‘The sum of =, and) is represented by the extremity R of the diagonal OR of parallelogram OPRO’. R represents the complex number Modulus and Argument of Multiplication of Complex Numbers © For any two complex numbers =), zs, we have veal = fl [sal GD) arg(er=2) = arg(=y) + are). +, are complex numbers, then (71) | | Z3|------Eal arg(s,) + arate) + .. Ca, 000" argte,).18 wbg- rapid mathematics Rhas the polar co-ordinates (7,7, 8, ~8;) andit represents the complex numbers Modulus and Argument of Division of two Complex Numbers and =,(¢ 0) are two complex numbers, then ) = mrcape) Rhas the polar co-ordinates (4 6,0, | and it represents the complex number and arg(z) =~arg(=). The general value of arg(z) is 2m —arg(=). Ifa point P represents a complex number =, then its conjugate= is represented bby the image of P in the real axis. rey) ‘Some Important Results on Modulus and Argument Ifz, 2; and =, are complex numbers, then (ii) ey +P + bey — (cP + a?)complex numbers 19 (si) + (x) + led €9 aratey Ey taP= P+ bP © Les] <1, then Ey— P< (sil ~ kb? + (aratep — ara)? sit) Ey + =P 2 (esl + ED? ~ Garatep ~ ara). (sili) [ey + (xiv) ky + Esl. Ge) Ey #212 [el ~ Enh xi) 2 sl ~ fl. ‘+ Distance Between Two Points ‘Let Pand Q be two points in the Argand plane having affixes z, and z, respectively. ze) 2%) 2 _ ‘Then, PQ = |z,~ = = affix of Q ~ affix of Py ‘* Division of a Line Segment in the ratio m : If two points P and Q have affixes =, and =) respectively in the Argand plane, then the affix of a point R dividing PQ internally in the ratio m: mis a # TERis the mid-point of PO, then affix of Ris © IER divides PQ externally in the ratio m : n, then affix of Ris a are affixes of the vertices of a triangle, then the affix of its centroid Equation of the Perpendicular Bisector ‘© The equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining points having affixes = and 2) i 2G A+ -2