Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
All wells are not created equal. Subsea wells, which spring from
the ocean floor yet never see the light of day, have a life-style all
their own. Constructing these wells and keeping them flowing and
productive require heroic efforts that are now paying off.
Alan Christie
Ashley Kishino
Rosharon, Texas, USA
John Cromb
Texaco Worldwide Exploration
and Production
Houston, Texas
Rodney Hensley
BP Amoco Corporation
Houston, Texas
Ewan Kent
Brian McBeath
Hamish Stewart
Alain Vidal
Aberdeen, Scotland
Leo Koot
Shell
Sarawak, Malaysia
Oilfield Review
Winter 1999/2000
Offshore drilling
Deepwater
Subsea
In a second direction, well-completion equipment has entered the water. Wellheads on the
seafloor, in what is called a subsea completion,
connect to flowlines that transport oil and gas to
the surface (above left). With multiple points of
access, more of the reservoir can be reached
than through extended-reach wells, so the reservoir volume can be exploited more thoroughly. In
addition, field development costs can be greatly
reduced through use of a common central facility.
Oilfield Review
Winter 1999/2000
700
600
500
Operational
Planned
400
300
200
100
50
150
250
350
450
600
800
1000
2000
3000
Water depth, m
> Number of subsea wells, both operational and planned by 2003, by water depth.
Why Subsea?
Describing the full process behind choosing one
deepwater development strategy over another is
also beyond the scope of this article, but a brief
overview will help set the background. As in the
planning of any asset development, the decisionmaking process attempts to maximize asset
value and minimize costs without compromising
safety and reliability. The cost analysis focuses
on capital expenditures and operating expenses,
and also includes risk, or the potential costs of
unforeseen events.
The conditions driving these costs are numerous and interrelated, and include all the reservoir-related factors usually considered in
land-based development decisions, plus those
arising from the complexities of the offshore
environment. An abbreviated list includes existing infrastructure, water depth, weather and currents, seabed conditions, cost of construction
and decommissioning of permanent structures,
time to first production, equipment reliability,
well accessibility for future monitoring or intervention, and flow assurancethe ability to keep
fluids flowing in the lines.
Certain of these conditions pose awesome
challenges for any offshore development, and
present strong arguments for subsea completion
instead of or combined with other options such
as semisubmersibles, tension-leg platforms, drytree units, and floating production, storage and
offloading systems (FPSOs). Distance from infrastructure is a key determinant in opting for a subsea completion. Wells drilled close enough to
existing production platforms can be completed
subsea and tied back to the platform. The tieback
distance is constrained by flow continuity,
seafloor stability and currents. With some fixedplatform capital expenditures measured in
billions of dollars, maximizing reservoir access
through additional subsea wells can increase
production while keeping capital and operating
costs down.
Wells whose produced fluids will be handled
by an FPSO vessel are also natural candidates
for subsea completions, and not only because of
reduced time to production. Often these are
wells in locations where water depth and
weather make more permanent structures
impractical or uneconomical. Other options in
these environments are either the dry-tree unit,
sometimes called a spar, which is a buoyant vertical cylinder, or the tension-leg platforma
floating structure held in place by vertical, tensioned tendons connected to the seafloor by
pile-secured templates. Both the dry-tree unit
and the tension-leg platform support platform
facilities and are anchored to the seafloor. The
latter techniques have been applied without
subsea completions at depths reaching about
4500 ft [1372 m], but deeper than that the solution has called for a subsea completion in conjunction with the floating systems.
Oilfield Review
Winter 1999/2000
Subsea
completion
and test tree
Blowout
preventer
> A subsea completion and test tree and subsea blowout preventer (BOP) configuration. The completion
and test tree fits inside the BOP to control a live well.
Oilfield Review
Lubricator valve
Control system
Bleedoff valve
Retainer valve
Latch connector
Flapper valve
Ball valve
>
Riser
Spanner joint
Hydril
Retainer valve
Bleedoff valve
Shear sub
Shear rams
Latch assembly
Blind rams
Valve assembly
Pipe rams
Slick joint
Pipe rams
Adjustable
fluted hanger
BOP stack
SenTREE3 tool
Winter 1999/2000
SenTREE7 tool
The first production trees were mainly dualbore type trees, with a production bore and separate annulus bore passing vertically through the
tree and with valves oriented vertically. There
were also a number of concentric-bore tree
designs in which the annulus could not be
accessed.9 Both the dual-bore with separate bores
>
> A tool as big as the team. The SenTREE engineering team at the Schlumberger Reservoir
Completions center in Rosharon, Texas, USA accentuates the large scale of the SenTREE7 tool.
10
Oilfield Review
> Engineers assembling a SenTREE7 tool for testing at the Schlumberger Reservoir
Completions center.
Tool Reliability
The primary consideration in selecting a
subsea completion and test tree is reliability.
Schlumberger ensures reliability of completion
and test trees through meticulous, systematic
testing. Every component of every tool undergoes
tests with multiple levels of scrutiny.
The first formal test is the factory acceptance
test (FAT), in which individual modules are tested
in-house. The test is conducted in the presence
Winter 1999/2000
stake. The cost of deploying a substandard subsea tool at current rig day ratesa day or more
to run the tool to depth, a few hours to discover it
is malfunctioning, and another day or two to bring
it back to surfacecan reach the million-dollar
mark, not counting any repairs. Reliability of other
types of equipment can be proved in laboratory
pressure vessels, but testing a subsea completion
tree in a pressure vessel is not an easy task. For
11
5000-psi
external pressure
SenTREE7
test tree
Latch system to
lock in tubinghanger running tool
and tubing hanger
12
the American Petroleum Institute (API). For example, any number of API standards specify that a
module must perform at a given temperature,
pressure and flow rate, with various fluids, for a
given length of time. These tests are conducted
by the Southwest Research Institute in San
Antonio, Texas, according to industry benchmarks
that other subsea equipment must also meet.
Another test that requires third-party involvement is the system integration test (SIT) at which
all components from all vendors are assembled
in a simulation of a real subsea operation. The
client is usually present to witness the integrated
Oilfield Review
> Emergency disconnect of SenTREE3 system during a well test for Chevron.
The hydraulic control system unlatched the subsea test tree when weather
conditions became hazardous, and successfully reconnected to retrieve
the test tree and drillstem test tool once the weather moderated.
Winter 1999/2000
13
> Subsea completion sequence. 1. Complete drilling and install the suspension packer. 2. Retrieve the drilling riser and BOP stack, move rig off.
3. Retrieve drilling guidebase with ROV assistance. 4. Run the production flow base and latch on 30-in. wellhead housing.
13 3/8-in.
casing
Suspension
packer
10 3/4 by 9 5/8-in.
casing
5. Run subsea horizontal tree. 6. Land the tree, lock connector, test seals and function valves with ROV. Establish guidewires and release tree-running tool.
7. Run BOP stack onto horizontal tree, lock connector, run BOP test tool and test, function-test tree. 8. Retrieve suspension packer, remove wearbushing from
tree, make up SenTREE7 system, rack back.
14
Completion
The operations described so far pertain to subsea
exploration and appraisal wells with temporary
completions: after testing, the packer, test string
and tubing are pulled and the BOP is left in
control of the hole for either abandonment or
sidetrack operations. Installing a permanent
completion, or string of production tubing, is performed in the development phase when production wells are drilled and completed or when an
existing well is recompleted. The basic process
of completing a subsea well with a horizontal
production tree can be described as a series of
five steps, with a number of subtasks within the
five broad categories:
Oilfield Review
10
11
12
7-in.
production
liner
7 5/8-in.
premium-thread
chrome tubing
7-in. polish bore
receptacle (PBR)
with seal units
9 5/8 by 7-in.
permanent
production
packer
Perforating
gun
9. Run completion string, make up tubing-hanger running tool (THRT) and SenTREE7 system on tubing hanger, run landing string with umbilical, make up
surface control head to landing string. 10. Land hanger in production tree and test seals. Rig up wireline and retrieve straddle sleeve. Run seat protectors.
Circulate tubing to potable water for drawdown. Set wireline plug, test string and set packer. 11. Rig up production test package. Rig up electric wireline
and lubricator. 12. Run guns, correlate and perforate well.
13
14
15
16
13. Carry out production test, acid stimulation and multirate test. 14. Unlatch THRT and retrieve landing string and SenTREE7 tool. Rig down production test
package and flowhead. 15. Run internal tree cap. 16. ROV closes tree valves. Retrieve THRT and landing string.
(continued on page 16)
Winter 1999/2000
15
17
18
19
20
> Subsea completion sequence (continued). 17. Retrieve BOP stack, retrieve guidewires. 18. Install debris cap, deploy telescopic legs. 19. Suspend well.
20. Tie in to pipeline for production.
By mid-1999 Texaco had set a record for deepwater subsea completions in their Gulf of Mexico
Gemini field (below). The enhanced direct
hydraulic SenTREE7 subsea completion tree
assisted in the completion process of three subsea
wells in 3400 ft [1037 m] of water, at the time a
worldwide industry record for this type of subsea
completion system. The enhanced direct hydraulic
SenTREE7 system helped run the 5-in. completion
string along with a Cameron tubing hanger on
7-in., 32-lbm/ft [14.5-kg/m] landing string. The
completions were performed from the Diamond
Offshore Ocean Star, an anchored vessel, and the
enhanced hydraulic control system provided the
> Gemini field subsea development. Three Texaco subsea wells in the Gulf of Mexico were completed
using the SenTREE7 system from an anchored vessel.
16
Oilfield Review
Completions of this nature have been performed on wells in Africa, the Gulf of Mexico and
the UK, and more are being planned for the year
2000. After the exceptional experience in the
Gemini field, Texaco has selected Schlumberger
for completions services in 15 subsea wells in its
North Sea Captain field. And more multiwell contract arrangements have been made with major
oil companies operating in the Gulf of Mexico.
In particular, BP Amoco has signed a threeyear multiwell contract with Schlumberger for
subsea completions services in its Gulf of Mexico
fields. Two of these reach water depths of 7000 ft
[2134 m]. These wells will be completed from
Enterprise, a dynamically positioned drillship,
and so will require the multiplexed deepwater
control system that provides a 15-second controlled disconnect. The entire multiplex system
has already completed a rigorous qualification
test and met stringent BP Amoco requirements,
including the 15-second disconnect time. BP
Amoco purchased a surface well-test package
that was installed on the Enterprise for use as a
well test and early production facility.11
11. For more on early production systems: Baustad T,
Courtin G, Davies T, Kenison R, Turnbull J, Gray B,
Jalali Y, Remondet J-C, Hjelmsmark L, Oldfield T,
Romano C, Saier R and Rannestad G: Cutting Risk,
Boosting Cash Flow and Developing Marginal Fields,
Oilfield Review 8, no. 4 (Winter 1996): 18-31.
12. McGinnis E: Coiled Tubing Performance Underlies
Advances in Intervention Vessels, Offshore 58, no. 2
(February 1998): 46-47, 72.
Winter 1999/2000
Intervention
Most wells require some kind of intervention during their life span. Interventionsinstalling or
servicing subsurface surface-control valves,
changing gas-lift valves, production logging,
pulling failed tubing, removing scale or paraffins,
perforating new sections, squeezing cement into
perforations to shut off water flowall can
extend the productive life of a well. Some companies claim that more than half their production
comes from subsea wells, and they will not tolerate reduced production that can be ameliorated
through intervention.12
Intervention can be and has been accomplished with a drilling rig and marine riser, but
returning to a subsea well using this approach is
an expensive proposition. This has led the industry to seek more cost-effective methods for
subsea intervention.
Subsea well intervention services of
Schlumberger, together with Coflexip Stena
Offshore (CSO), have devised a cost-effective
alternative for light well interventionintervention that can be run through tubing. Coflexip
Stena Offshore built the specially designed
dynamically positioned monohull vessels,
CSO Seawell and CSO Wellservicer. The
17
tested first on a suspended wellhead and successfully performed a series of operations: routine disconnect and reconnect; swivel check;
coiled tubing run in hole; logging and circulating;
emergency disconnect with 1100 psi [7587 KPa]
in riser; and rigging down. On the live Gannet
well, a coiled tubing-conveyed production logging test was conducted over four days with no
nonproductive time (below).
CSO Seawell
Rigid riser
Subsea
intervention
lubricator
Subsea tree
Coiled tubing
production logging
more cost effectively from a dynamically positioned dive-support vessela vessel not specially
equipped for drilling. The two key factors in favor
of the new approach with a dive-support vessel
were reduced cost of implementation of the
streamlined task and lower risk due to the shortened program with minimal hardware recovery.
The abandonment plan maximized efficiency
by executing the operation in two partsfirst all
wells would be plugged, then all subsea production trees and wellheads would be recovered.
This optimized equipment rental costs and made
it possible for the crew to improve the process by
repeating and learning one type of operation.
The job was performed by the Coflexip Stena
Offshore Ltd. CSO Seawell using the subsea
intervention lubricator. During the plugging
phase of the plan, the SIL maintained control of
and provided access to each well to carry killweight fluid to the open perforations, perforate
the tubing, circulate cement, pressure test the
plugs, circulate test dye, perforate casing and cut
the tubing with explosives. In the second phase,
the subsea production tree and tubing hanger
were recovered, casing strings were cut explosively at least 12 ft [4 m] below the seabed and
the wellhead and casing stumps retrieved. The
optimized operation took 47 days instead of the
81 planned.
To date, 142 subsea production and suspended wells encompassing 8 complete production-field abandonments have been carried out in
the UK continental shelf using the CSO Seawell
and the SIL.
For deepwater subsea wells, abandonment is
more involved. Late in 1999, EEX Corporation
began decommissioning its Cooper field in the
Garden Banks area of the Gulf of Mexicothe
first such project performed at a water depth
greater than 2100 ft [640 m] from a dynamically
positioned vessel.15 Schlumberger and several
other contractors worked with Cal Dive Inc.
through the complex operation that included
removal of a one-of-a-kind freestanding production riser, 12-point mooring system, floating production unit and all the subsea equipment.
Schlumberger provided subsea project management expertise along with coiled tubing, pumping, slickline, testing and wireline services.
The first step in decommissioning the field
was to kill the seven subsea wells. Once this was
accomplished, the riser, flowlines, production
trees and export pipelines were all cleaned and
> Light intervention services on subsea wells from a dynamically positioned monohull vessel using
the subsea intervention lubricator. Cost-effective subsea intervention, in the form of coiled tubingconveyed production logging, was performed in the Gannet field, North Sea.
18
Oilfield Review
Winter 1999/2000
Elsewhere, other initiatives have been undertaken. PROCAP2000 in Brazil supports the
advancement of technologies that enable production from waters to 2000 m [6562 ft] depth. Since
its inception in 1986, many of the groups targets
have been reached, but several subsea projects
concentrating on subsea multiphase flow metering, separation and pumping are continuing.
The Norwegian Deepwater Programme was
formed in 1995 by the deepwater license participants on the Norwegian shelf, including Esso, BP
Amoco, Norsk Hydro, Shell, Saga and Statoil. The
goal was to find cost-effective solutions to deepwater challenges and included acquiring weather
and current data, constructing a regional model
of the seabed and shallow sediments, determining design and operational requirements, and
addressing problems related to flowlines, umbilicals and multiphase flow.17
These joint efforts have been established not
with just subsea technology in mind, but to
uncover solutions for exploration and production
in deep water in general. However, many operators are choosing subsea as their long-term
deepwater development concept. By some estimates, 20% of the global capital investments in
offshore field developments are in subsea facilities and completions.18 This percentage is likely
to rise, especially as subsea equipment continues to prove reliable, flow-assurance problems
are solved and operators gain confidence in subsea practice.
LS
19
Joseph Eck
Houston, Texas, USA
Ufuoma Ewherido
Jafar Mohammed
Rotimi Ogunlowo
Mobil Producing Nigeria Unlimited
Lagos, Nigeria
John Ford
Amerada Hess Corporation
Houston, Texas
Leigh Fry
Shell Offshore, Inc.
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
Stphane Hiron
Leo Osugo
Sam Simonian
Clamart, France
Tony Oyewole
Lagos, Nigeria
Tony Veneruso
Rosharon, Texas
20
Oilfield Review
Winter 1999/2000
21
22
1/4-in. encased
cable
Metal-to-metal sealed
cable head
Hermetically sealed
welded housing
11010
Dependability
< Schlumberger milestones in permanent monitoring. Incremental improvements in dependabilitythat is, reliable
delivery of high-quality measurementsof permanent gauges are shown qualitatively by the time line below.
Digital pressure,
temperature and self-test
P/T
or
Gland radial
connection
Autoclave axial
connection
Oilfield Review
Data-retrieval and
communications software
Integrated
applications
> A complete permanent monitoring system for measuring pressure, temperature, flow rate and fluid density downhole. Surface sensors measure
flow rate and pressure. A data-retrieval and communications system facilitates data transfer to the office of the end user.
Winter 1999/2000
23
Wellsite
Office
Automatic
dataretrieval
server
Engineering
offices
Data browser
WellWatcher
acquisition unit
V RES
RETPOKILEH
Central storage
Sensors
ASCII files
Central storage
configuration
Archiving
database
Data access library
> Data flow. Measurements are transmitted from the downhole device through the cable to surface. The surface data-acquisition unit can send data by
satellite to engineering offices, where data are stored in a library for easy access.
24
Oilfield Review
Product engineering
Project engineering
> Permanent monitoring system development. From the initial mission profile to failure analysis, collaboration between engineers, field personnel and
operators contributes to continual improvements in permanent monitoring systems.
>
150C
160C
170C
Pressure, psi
10,020
10,015
10,010
10,025
Test cell repairs
-3 psi/year drift
PQG
pressure reading
0 psi/year drift
10,005
1 year
2 years
10,000
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Winter 1999/2000
25
> Torturing tools. By exposing an automobile chassis to repeated mechanical shocks (top), Sir Henry
Royce observed which parts were prone to failure and built better ones for Roll-Royce, beginning
around the turn of the last century. Today, highly specialized testing machines and accelerated test
techniques developed by Schlumberger verify the endurance of downhole equipment against
mechanical shocks (bottom).
26
Oilfield Review
> Permanent downhole gauge database. Careful tracking of each system enables analysis of
gauge performance. Comparison of environmental conditions helps teams prepare to install
gauges in new locations by learning from past experience in similar areas.
100
>
Permanent gauge operating life. Since recordkeeping began in 1987, Schlumberger has installed
more than 700 permanent gauges worldwide.
Analysis of 572 new-generation digital technology
installations made since March 1994, shown by
the purple line, indicates that over 88% of these
PressureWatch Quartz and Sapphire systems
were still operating after 4 years. The lavender
trend line begins at 97% and decreases by 3%
per year, a higher failure rate than that of the
actual data. The photograph shows the production
facilities of the Baldpate field, operated by
Amerada Hess.
90
Survival probability, %
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Winter 1999/2000
27
>
Accumulated failures, %
Predictable wear-out
(design and environment related)
Random overload
(design related)
Flaws
(manufacturing and installation related)
28
Operational time
Reservoir drainage
Application
Description
Pressure monitoring
Pressure maintenance
Application
Description
Production engineering
> Typical applications of permanent downhole gauge data. Data from downhole
gauges can be used to improve both reservoir drainage and well delivery.
Oilfield Review
Winter 1999/2000
LOUISIANA
TEXAS
Garden Banks
100 miles
160 km
Enchilada
Baldpate
North
Baldpate
> Enchilada field. The Enchilada area includes several blocks in the Garden Banks area offshore
Louisiana, USA. The blocks are 3 miles [4.8 km] long and 3 miles wide.
Gauges in Action
The permanent monitoring applications that follow come from widely separated regions with
different operational challenges and operator
priorities. In each case, the operator might measure the value of permanent monitoring systems
in a variety of ways, such as additional barrels of
oil recovered through more efficient reservoir
drainage or delivery from individual wells, or in
cost savings through decreased well interventions. Appraisal of a deep, sour, high-pressure,
high-temperature (HPHT) discovery in the Middle
East presented numerous operational and interpretation challenges. Unlike the prolific shallow
oil fields nearby, the discovery well produced
anomalously high API gravity oil for the region
from a fractured carbonate reservoir with limited
microporosity. A thick salt layer above the reservoir complicated interpretation and operations.
Nevertheless, the accumulation presented fascinating opportunities to evaluate fracture fairways
below structural spillpoints and hydrocarbon selfsourcing in a kerogen-rich reservoir rock.
Data from the initial discovery well were inadequate to calibrate reservoir simulations or to
plan development. A deep appraisal well, drilled
over the course of a year with mud weights
exceeding 20 pounds per gallon [2.4 g/cm3], provided core, mud log and wireline log data. An
extended well test generated enough data for
engineers to decide how to proceed.
The extremely high formation pressures and
use of kill-weight mud in wellbores meant that
wireline-conveyed pressure measurements were
not possible. Instead, the operator selected a
FloWatcher system to measure pressure, temperature and flow rate continuously. This installation
29
Pressure
Pbhp
Psurface
Time
Pbhp
30
Pressure
>
Psurface
Time
Oilfield Review
LOUISIANA
TEXAS
Enchilada
Garden Banks
100 miles
160 km
Baldpate
North
Baldpate
> Baldpate field location. Baldpate field is located offshore Louisiana in Block 260 of the Garden
Banks area.
Winter 1999/2000
31
Qua Iboe
terminal
Niger Delta
Oso
Mfem
Unam
Ubit
Usari
Enang
Edop
Ekpe
Etim
Iyak
Asabo
Asasa
AFRICA
Oil fields with downhole gauges
0
15 miles
24 km
> Offshore Nigeria. Since 1992, Mobil Producing Nigeria Unlimited has installed permanent downhole
gauges in the 12 offshore fields shown in red-rimmed green. Approximately 95% of the gauges are still
operating today.
32
Oilfield Review
Winter 1999/2000
2150
2100
tmin = 4/00
tmax = 7/00
2050
2000
Pressure, psia
1950
1900
1850
1800
1750
1700
1650
12/98
2/99
4/99
6/99
8/99
10/99
12/99
2/00
4/00
6/00
8/00
> Pressure response in Edop field. In the central fault block, gas injection is increasing
reservoir pressure, as shown in this plot of pressure measured in four different wells
versus time in the Intra Qua Iboe 3 reservoir. Predicted pressures, shown in dashes, were
calculated on the basis of well placement, drainage radius, production rates and expected
gas injection rates. tmin, or April 2000, represents the earliest predicted date when the
reservoir pressure will attain the target pressure (Pmax), while tmax represents the latest
projected date to reach the desired pressure and occurs in July 2000.
33
The Internet is facilitating new on-line activities such as shopping, banking and
entertainment. Now work with E&P data can also be performed through the
Internet. Soon, operators will need only a standard personal computer or
workstation, Internet connection and a Web browser to access, review, validate
and interact with each step of data acquisition, processing and interpretation.
Trevor Brown
Unocal Indonesia
Balikpapan, East Kalimantan, Indonesia
Thomas Burke
Alex Kletzky
Austin, Texas, USA
Ivar Haarstad
Statoil
Trondheim, Norway
John Hensley
Phillips Petroleum
Bartlesville, Oklahoma, USA
Stuart Murchie
Houston, Texas
Cary Purdy
POSC
Houston, Texas
Anchala Ramasamy
BP Amoco Exploration
Aberdeen, Scotland
34
Oilfield Review
Finder
Enterprise
System
S e l e ct
I n t e g r a te
Log
Production
Sei
s mic
y
log
Geo
Data Acquisition
The E&P industry probably has the most
widespread range of data-acquisition technologies and domains of any commercial activity.
Data come from measurements that range from
thousands of kilometers or miles at the large
scale to a few angstroms at the small scale
from sedimentary basins to the wavelength of
light absorbed by hydrocarbon molecules.
E&P data come from all stages of operations,
spanning exploratory seismic surveys, through
drilling and logging, to subsurface production
monitoring. The measurements provide information on the formation and reservoir, as well as the
ongoing operations, and often are used to make
critical decisions. Frequently such decisions need
to be made as soon as data are acquired, either
at the acquisition site, or more often at a central
office or base location where all the required
experts are available. Reliable data communication technology allows such collaboration to
occur with ease, thus facilitating more knowledgeable and better decisions. If the decision
window is small or immediate, then the operator
may need to transmit data in real time from the
acquisition site and interact remotely with the
acquisition process simultaneously.
For any given project, the service providers,
decision-makers and partners are unlikely to be
located in the same place. Through multipoint,
two-way communication, todays technology
facilitates virtual collaboration in such circum-
Winter 1999/2000
ells
Validate
L o ad
For operators who do not wish to perform postacquisition data processing, analysis and interpretation in-house, service companies can provide
these services in their data processing centers.
Data processing centersAt these centers,
expert personnel with advanced software packages extract the essential information from the
raw data files and interpret the results, presenting them in a meaningful format for decisionmakers. Efficient data delivery is essential to their
work. These data processing centers may be
located in the offices of the operator or a service
provider. Personnel at typical processing centers
include log analysts and interpretation experts
qualified in the geosciences. The range of software applications available to them is extensive,
encompassing borehole seismic data processing,
geological analysis, borehole imaging, petrophysics, well testing, production engineering,
signal-processing and interpretation functionality.
Data management centersIn the past, the
integration of data from the different domains
(seismic, drilling, production, reservoir engineering), either recently acquired or pulled from an
archive, has been a difficult and inefficient manual task. The Finder Enterprise system, developed
by Schlumberger to provide all the elements of
an integrated data management and archive system, embraces every domain of the E&P industry
(above). This system provides best-practice procedures and one-stop shopping for all types of
35
Geoscientist
>
Information
shopping bag
Select required
data
Well-based,
third-party
applications
Select data
repository
Visualize and
analyze data
Launch
drill-down
modules
AssetDB SeisDB
LogDB
Databases
required data. The ability to combine and correlate reliable data among multiple wells and
domains further enhances the value of all the
data.1 Furthermore, an efficient data-management,
archiving and retrieval system can help interpreters exploit knowledge from data previously
acquired and benefit from the experience gained
during acquisition.
The Finder Enterprise data-management architecture has been designed around the principal
data-management and data-access functions:
loading, validation, editing and integration. These
functions enable users to find, access and transfer
any oilfield data. The architecture comprises a
data catalog covering individual master databases
and systems designed to register and synchronize
1. Beham R, Brown A, Mottershead C, Whitgift J, Cross J,
Desroches L, Espeland J, Greenberg M, Haines P,
Landgren K, Layrisse I, Lugo J, Moren O, Ochoa E,
ONeill D and Sledz J: Changing the Shape of E&P
Data Management, Oilfield Review 9, no. 2
(Summer 1997): 21-33.
As part of the Finder data-management system, the GeoWeb 3D viewing software enables a
data user to view, verify, select and retrieve E&P
data from a single point of entry (left). Using a
Web browser, data users can view and literally
dig down into their LogDB original-format log
archive, their SeisDB seismic trace archival
database and their AssetDB physical data management system by launching applications within
the Finder data-management system.
Data Delivery Technology
During the last thirty years, there has been a continual development of communication solutions
used to transmit oilfield data from the acquisition
site to end users. These solutions have ranged
from commercially available systems, such as the
basic programs using file transfer protocol (FTP),
to custom solutions built by operators and service providers (see Glossary, next page). Each
method has evolved from previous ones, driven
by additional industry requirements and sustained by developments in communications technology. Today, the common feature of all these
technologies is that they are based on the TCP/IP
protocol (see TCP/IP Data Protocol, page 44).
In general, todays data transmission solutions can be grouped into three general modes in
chronological order of their development:
point-to-pointonly one sender and one receiver
regardless of the connection being utilized
multipoint data delivery using a private network
Internet-based multipoint data delivery.
(continued on page 38)
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Oilfield Review
Glossary
Winter 1999/2000
directories and files, change to other directories and transfer text and binary files from one
computer system to another.
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)
A standard document-formatting language
used for creating Web pages and other
hypertext documents.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)The
command and control protocol used to manage
communications between a Web browser and
a Web server.
HTTPS (Secure HTTP)An extension to
the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
from Enterprise Integration Technology
that allows Web browsers and servers to sign,
authenticate, and encrypt a HTTP packet
at the application layer.
InmarsatInternational Mobile Satellite
Organization, an international cooperative
that provides worldwide communications to
marine, land and airborne operations through
a network of geosynchronous satellites and
land-based stations. Currently, more than 160
countries use the Inmarsat satellite system.
InternetThe worlds largest computer network, consisting of millions of computers supporting tens of millions of users in hundreds
of countries. The Internet is growing at such
a phenomenal rate that any size estimate is
quickly out of date.
intranetA private corporate network that uses
Internet software and TCP/IP networking protocol standards. SINet and SOIL are examples
of intranets.
IP (Internet Protocol) The set of specifications
that regulate information packet forwarding
by tracking addresses, routing outgoing messages, and recognizing incoming messages
in TCP/IP networks and the Internet.
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
The current system for digital transmission,
allowing rates of 64 kilobits per second (Kbps)
per line.
packetA unit of datacontaining address
information, data and error-checking informationsent over a network or communications
link. Also referred to as a datagram, frame
or block.
PKI (Public Key Infrastructure)An encryption
scheme that uses two keys. In a data transaction, a public key, given to the sender, encrypts
the data before transmission. Upon receipt, the
receiver uses a corresponding private key to
decrypt the transmission. Because the private
37
Schlumberger
Connectivity Center
Operator 1
Help
desk
Operator 4
Firewall
Operator 2
Firewall
Operator 5
Extranet applications
Operator 3
Operator 6
> Schlumberger Connectivity Center (SCC). The hardware and software for the (SCC) were created to
connect operators and their partners to Schlumberger network-based information and data delivery
systems. The SCC provides authorized secure access to a variety of Schlumberger services through a
single, centrally managed connection. To ensure the security of all the resources within the Schlumberger Information Network (SINet), all extranet applications are located in a secure enclave. These
secure enclaves are logically outside SINet, and therefore assigned IP addresses outside the SINet
address range. The secure enclaves can be connected back to the SCC either through a dedicated
communication connection, such as a leased line, or through an encrypted connection through SINet.
Web and FTP-based data delivery and the Data Management Center are examples of services
accessible through the SCC.
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Anadrill
Security is a concern requiring custom solutions. Recently developed security firewalls and
digital authentication technologies allow operators to collaborate with one another and with
service providers through private networks
(below). The Schlumberger Connectivity Center
(SCC) resolves many of the important network
routing and security issues that arise when connecting to external networks, both private and
public. Web- and FTP-based data delivery and the
Schlumberger Data Management Center are
accessible through the SCC.
Schlumberger
Operator desktop
Oilfield Review
and scrolled on-screen using the PDSView software (right). Graphics can be annotated, converted to commonly used graphics interchange
format (GIF) and computer graphics metafile
(CGM) formats or printed on a commercial plotter
as they arrive.
The InterACT Remote Witness system also
provides powerful two-way communications utilities with the wellsite crew using the data channel. Such utilities include chat applications that
permit rig personnel to exchange audio messages
through computers equipped with a sound card,
speakers and microphones. In addition, this system provides videoconferencing facilities that are
used to connect service vessels, offshore rigs and
remote land locations to the clients desktop or
laptop computer. The InterACT Remote Witness
service is one of the most widely used point-topoint data delivery systems in the industry.
BP Amoco initiated a program of remote witnessing during well logging acquisition on their
wells in the Andrews field in the North Sea using
the InterACT Remote Witness communications
system.2 The InterACT system provided direct and
immediate interaction between the offshore
wellsite data-acquisition team and the consultants in the Aberdeen and London offices during
log acquisition for improved decision-making.
In describing the systems value, a petrophysicist from BP Amoco Exploration, who works
on high-value wells in the North Sea, reports
that the use of the InterACT system on the BP
Amoco Andrew platform fulfilled a number of
requirementsnot the least, from a safety perspectivethrough removing the need for offshore witnessing. In addition, it provided relief
in a restricted personnel environment. BP Amoco
found it beneficial during production logging for
the reservoir engineer and petrophysicist to be
able to discuss and influence the real-time logging programsuch as reactions to unforeseen
changes in environment and the ability to make
decisions from onshore if required. By the same
token, during pipe-conveyed logging, the location of formation tester sampling points could be
confirmed and the usual pressure responses
checked with modeled results, preventing any
costly reruns.
Winter 1999/2000
> PDSView graphics software. This freeware application allows users to display and annotate
well log graphics on a PC. Its popularity in the E&P industry is a tribute to the great value of
the digital graphics. Windows elements, such as the toolbar (top), allow for a wide range
of graphic annotations that include text inserts, callout boxes, re-editing and saving of the
edited files.
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40
Data Formats
The format of digital data can be broadly classified into two categories: American Standard
Code for Information Exchange (ASCII) and
Binary. ASCII formats are generally simple, but
can be read by a wide range of software. Binary
formats generally have richer descriptions of
the data, and are more appropriate for
advanced processing and long-term storage.
Graphical formatsA visual representation
of digital data, graphical data are used to efficiently display large volumes of data in forms
that can be readily understood for simple interpretation or quality-control purposes. However,
graphical data cannot be reused easily.
Graphical data may be in hard copy (paper or
film) or digital file format, but are essentially a
snapshot of the data. Graphical data are generated by applying a format description, presentation description or style sheet to the digital
data; the resulting data may be in one of many
commercial or proprietary graphics formats.
Examples of graphical data file formats are
graphics interchange format (GIF), Joint Photographic Expert Group (JPEG), tagged image
file format (TIFF) and Picture Description
Standard (PDS). The two general types of
graphical data formats are raster and vector.
Raster files are composed of colored pixels that
combine to produce a representation of the
data. Raster files cannot include objects such
as lines or curves. However, raster files are generally easy to view with a wide range of Internet
browsers, word processors or other commercially available software. Vector files contain
objects such as lines and curves with an associated descriptive language. Although more efficient than raster files, vector files usually
require viewer software specifically written for
each vector format. Both raster and vector files
may be rendered into hard-copy prints or film.
Oilfield Review
It supports a way to classify data and consequently provides ease of data access. The DLIS
standard also effectively conveys the data producers semantics for tool, equipment, process,
channel and parameters through official
descriptions stored in the specific data record.
The features and advantages of DLIS and
LIS can be compared:
LIS allows only four-character names. DLIS
allows longer ones.
Every DLIS object has an origination identifier
telling who created the data and when, where
and how they were created.
DLIS static data give much more information
about the data acquisition environment and
calibrations than LIS data. The DLIS static
data are self-describing and can be extended
with new object types.
DLIS can record data with complex structure, such as packed waveforms and images.
LIS cannot.
DLIS can record data frames with different
sampling rates in one file. LIS can only record
frame rates that are multiples of the base
frame rate.
In comparing DLIS with Log ASCII Standard
(LAS), some features and advantages of DLIS
and LAS are evident:
LAS has only static data about the well and its
associated parameters. Unlike DLIS, it contains no information about tools, equipment,
calibrations or other attributes.
LAS stores numbers as ASCII values and
requires about three times more storage
space than DLIS.
LAS files can be opened with a spreadsheet
or text editor. DLIS files require special
software libraries.
WITS (Wellsite Information Transfer
Specification) WITS was designed as a joint
industry effort sponsored by the International
Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC) and
is the generally accepted protocol for sharing
data among various contractors on a rig.
Standard records provide data on rig conditions,
directional surveys, cementing, basic formation
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Operator desktop
> Data delivery and GeoSteering services. Access to all the real-time measurements from
logging tools (top), numeric displays (bottom right ), and toolface displays (bottom left )
help the geologist evaluate the drilling program and position of the wellbore. The logging
display shows real-time LWD data plotted against depth including gamma ray (green) in
track 1, phase-shift resistivity (red) and attenuation resistivity (green) in track 2, and formation density (red) and porosity (green) shown in track 3. Drilling mechanics data include
rate of penetration (red) shown in track 1, and MWD turbine speed for washout detection
(green) in track 4. The numeric display can show the actual numerical value (boxes) or a
simple bar graph (upper right) of any time-based measurement, such as pump pressure,
downhole weight-on-bit, bit inclination and azimuth, rate of penetration, downhole annular pressure and equivalent circulating density. Alarms can be set on any measurement
(red boxes). The directional driller uses the toolface display to see how well steering
is proceeding. The Gravity Tool Face (GTF) display shows the orientation of the motor
bend housing based on the MWD accelerometer readings. The GTF readings around 0
inclination mean the motor and bit are being steered upwards.
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Oilfield Review
Data acquisition
INFORM screen
IDEAL
MWD/LWD
sensors
GeoSteering
screen
GeoFrame workstation
> GeoSteering maps with forward models. Forward modeling produces synthetic LWD logs along the planned
well trajectory that are compared with actual real-time LWD logs (upper right) to help guide the drilling process.
Pilot well or adjacent well data are used to build up one or more geologic columns to represent the expected
geology of the well. The 3D structural model obtained from the operator is also combined with the petrophysical
column and proposed well trajectory. Tool responses are predicted based on the expected layered formation
sequence, wellbore inclinations, bed thickness and sensor measurement resolution. The insert (white box) shows
the azimuthal density image, processed on a GeoFrame workstation, used to determine formation dip.
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Application protocol
TCP protocol
IP protocol
Medium protocol
Actual link
Internet Protocol (IP) is responsible for routing the individual pieces of information to
their correct destination. IP is not involved
with the contents of the information or how a
given piece of information relates to any other
one before or after it.
Medium protocol is the standard for the
physical connection, which involves different
types of links such as Ethernet, Small
Computer System Interface (SCSI) and
modems among others.
TCP and IP are built on connectionless
technology concepts so that direct connections
between the sender and receiver are not
required. TCP breaks down the information into
small pieces called datagrams or packets. Each
of these datagrams is numbered sequentially
and is passed on to IP to be sent individually to
the other end through the network. While those
datagrams are in transit, the network doesnt
know if there is any relationship between them.
For example, it is perfectly possible that datagram 7 will actually arrive before datagram 6. In
order to make sure a datagram has arrived at its
destination, the recipient has to send back an
acknowledgement. For example, sending a
datagram with an acknowledgement of 1800
indicates that the specific computer has
received all the data up to datagram number
1800. If the sender doesnt receive an acknowledgement within a reasonable amount of time,
then TCP sends the missing datagrams again.
1. The details of the full International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) reference model can be found in
most data communications textbooks, such as Halsall F:
Data Communications, Computer Networks and
Open Systems, 4th ed. Harlow, Essex, England:
Addison-Wesley, 1998.
2. The term catenet, introduced in early publications
on packet network interconnections, refers to the
interconnected collection of packet networks.
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Oilfield Review
Winter 1999/2000
LAN A
LAN B
PC #1
PC #1
Gateway
Gateway
PC #2
PC #2
PC #3
PC #3
PC #4
PC #4
PC #5
Gateway
LAN C
Gateway
To other
networks
PC #1
PC #2
PC #3
PC #4
PC #5
PC #6
> Wide area network (WAN) constructed from three local area networks (LAN).
Gateways or firewalls provide security between each component of the network.
Network ID
Host ID
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Anadrill
Schlumberger
Operator desktop
Data acquisition
site
SNIC-FTP server
Fax machine
Express delivery
Product delivery
center
> TransACT framework. This data delivery framework provides a common data delivery system to all segments of the E&P industry, serving all forms of
data produced, facilitating data integration and collaboration as appropriate on a global basisthus making a positive impact on the workflow from the
wellsite to production optimization. Data delivery starts at the data acquisition site (upper left), where the data are sent through the TransACT data delivery
hub to the operator desktop (upper right) or other destinations such as data services centers (middle left) and data management centers (lower middle).
The operator receives data through the Schlumberger Information Network (SINet) using one or more options including the Schlumberger Network Inter
Connect (SNIC) service, facsimile, product delivery centers and secure portals to the Internet such as the Web data server.
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Oilfield Review
> Acquisition-site data communications. The map shows Inmarsat service coverage (top) for all
regions to approximately 70 latitude in both the northern and southern hemispheres. MAXIS Multitask
Acquisition and Imaging Systems logging trucks (bottom) maintain data communications to the
Schlumberger Information Network (SINet) using connections through a variety of communication
links, including Ethernet, Inmarsat, VSAT, ISDN and cellular modems.
Winter 1999/2000
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Anadrill
Schlumberger
Data acquisition
site
> The TransACT-to-LogDB data flow. Data management is an integral part of the log data delivery
framework. The TransACT data delivery system periodically copies log data files (DLIS and PDS) from
the central data communications hub (lower left ) to the data management archive system using the
TRX transfer protocol together with a descriptive text file. The log database receiver process then
uses the descriptive text file to import log data files to be scanned, loaded and archived. During the
auto import, scan, load and archive process, the database system continually updates a Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML) report (upper right), which the operator consults from the central data
communications hub.
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Oilfield Review
12,000
10,000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Jan
Mar
May
July
Sept
Nov
Sept
Nov
Mar
May
July
> Statistics on North American TransACT activity. Graphs show the monthly
number of data-delivery orders (top), and total volume of data transferred
(bottom) by the TransACT data delivery hub located in Sedalia, Colorado.
This hub handles all of the US market, both land and offshore.
Convert incoming data from DLIS into LAS format, filtering out all nonessential
channels as indicated by the operator.
Deliver the LAS file to the operator's geologist in Houston through SNIC
(automatic e-mail notification of file availability).
Deliver graphic copies of the log to three partners through the DropBox utility
(automatic e-mail notification to partners). They can securely retrieve the logs
through the internet using their Web browsers and the corresponding user-names
and passwords.
Fax a copy of the log to the operator's drilling office to quickly evaluate casing
and cementing needs.
Send color prints of the logs, a CD containing the original DLIS file, the LAS-filtered
file and other digital graphicssuch as quality control and crossplotsgenerated
in the Houston PDC to the operator's office.
Notify the Schlumberger Field Services Manager by e-mail after the above
deliveries have been successfully completed.
Automatically archive all data in the LogDB database.
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49
The user does not need a special application on his or her desktop computer
to view and download data. Virtually everyone has a Web browser.
The data are made available to any authorized user. This is an improvement
over the point-to-point data delivery mechanism, in which data arrive only
at a single users system. Web delivery permits multipoint and simultaneous
delivery anywhere in the network.
Firewall problems are avoided. Most operators have ports in their firewalls open
to HTTP and HTTPS (encrypted) Web traffic. Data are not pushed to the user;
instead the user pulls the data back through any firewalls that may be present.
Security of access is maintained. Web servers have standard authentication
and access control mechanisms. These mechanisms usually involve
user-names and passwords or digital certificates.
The user has full control of data delivery and timeliness is assured. If the
data arrive at the Web server in real time, the user can access the data
immediately. If the user missed the real-time arrival, the data are still there
and can be viewed at a later time.
The Web server can provide a single point of contact from multiple oilfield
services, such as drilling, logging, fracturing and production, easily accessible
through a single interface.
ABC
DEF
Baker Hughes
Inteq
XYZ
Schlumberger
INSITE
RigLink
InterACT
Web Witness
DART Link
Landmark
Wellbore positioning
Wellbore
MWD logs
MWD QA/QC
Open Works
> Drilling Automation in Real-Time (DART) system. Statoil developed direct links
between their data management and interpretation systems and drilling monitoring
systems. The DART system is now being used to connect rigsite data acquisition
systems directly to Statoils internal project database.
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Oilfield Review
Winter 1999/2000
51
Azobe
survey
site
Gabon
A FRI CA
Sequence 9
Sequence 7
Sequence 5
Sequence 3 Sequence 1
Sequence 11
Sequence11
Sequence 3 Sequence 1
> Seismic coverage plot. The map shows the ships position (white curves) and amount of
survey coverage. The light area in the map (upper right) shows that early in the third
sequence an area of incomplete coverage occurred. Strong currents that day most likely
deflected the survey vessel or streamers.
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Oilfield Review
Wellsite
Firewall
Acquisition
Front end
Acquisition
and control
software
Cable
Gauges
Central storage
Data
management
Data analysis
Data analysis
Data delivery
> Multiple-user permanent monitoring data-delivery system. The architecture of the WellWatcher daily system enables multiple users
with a Web-browser application to display and analyze data from permanent downhole sensors. The data-acquisition system at the
wellsite sends the data in a real-time continuous mode and in a near real-time mode on a scheduled basis or at user request. The two
modes are not exclusive. The data delivery system supports all the WellWatcher acquisition systems such as the WellWatcher, the
PumpWatcher and multiphase FloWatcher systems.
Winter 1999/2000
53
other wells across the reservoir. The electric submersible pump operator can quickly evaluate any
potentially adverse operational condition and
advise on the maintenance of optimal parameters for the well system asset, thus assuring
continuing cash flow for all parties.
Operators often seek custom data-delivery
solutions for specific needs. The Norwegian oil
companies, including Amoco Norge, BP Norge,
Norske Shell, Norsk Hydro, Phillips Petroleum
Company Norway, Saga Petroleum and Statoil
together with the Norwegian Petroleum
Directorate agreed in 1998 to set up a private
extranet called the Secure Oil Information Link
(SOIL) (next page). The objective was to facilitate
data exchange more easily throughout the life of
a field as these operators work closely together
with service companies. Making individual connections between all involved parties is not considered a good solution for efficient data delivery.
Before SOIL was established, data would be sent
to operators either on tape or by transferring data
to the operators server using dedicated lines.
Transferring large files, such as seismic
data, through the Internet can be problematic
due to bandwidth limitations and link stability.
> Electric submersible pump witness display. The electric submersible pump witness displaymenu (top) identifies the field, well and all available data channels and the time of display
range for the selected field and well. The display selected in this example shows the electric
submersible pump intake pressure (blue) and temperature (red) taken every 10 sec over a
one-hour interval. A zoom feature enables the operator to expand any area in the chart to
look at details of the parameter-monitoring history.
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Oilfield Review
Norsk Hydro
Statoil, Norway
SOIL
Secure Oil Information Link
Statoil, USA
Kvaerner
Oil and Gas
Services
Phillips Petroleum
> Norwegian Secure Oil Information Link (SOIL) network. The Norwegian SOIL network is a
branch network linking together oil companies and service providers within the Norwegian
oil industry. This high-speed extranet provides an infrastructure for secure communications
and data services. Examples are secure e-mail, directory services, secure Web services
and e-commerce.
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