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mnewton([listaf unciones], [listavariables], [listavaloresiniciales]);


3xcos(x+ y)1/2 = 0, exp(x+y) = xcos(y)+2
x = 0, y = 0,

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sen(x) 2 cos(2x) + x2 = 2 2

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y = 8ekt cos t

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x1 x2 + 2x3
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x2 x3 = 4.
b; #
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x1 x2 + 2x3 = 8
x2 x3 = 4
2x2 x3 = 6

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10
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f;

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10
3 ,

(1)

a11

x1 x2 + 2x3
= 8
2x1 2x2 + 3x3 = 20
x1 + x 2 + x 3
= 2

x2 23 = 4,
x1 = 6

E;

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7 # E

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h = 0.1

# 7 # E 7O

odepm

.1

M etodo
P unto medio
P redictor Corrector 2
Runge Kutta 4
P unto medio
P redictor Corrector 2
Runge Kutta 4

#

7#98

7#98

.01

# 7 # E

rk4.

h = 0.01




y 0 = 3y 4exp(t)

h
w(3)
error
0.1
5.388926856180671 5.5
0.1
1.023911982760934 1
0.1 0.0070776390244746 0.06
0.01 0.016897763210128 0.07
0.01
0.033578345952815
0.02
0.01
0.04978070126978
105

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F (wk+1 ) = wk+1 wk h2 (f (tk+1 , wk+1 ) + f (tk , wk )) = 0

= 1 h2 fy (tk+1 wk+1 ))

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y = t exp(5t.)
h = 0.25

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7

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y = f (t, y)
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Wi

wi + h f (ti , wi )
Wi+1 = Wi + h F (ti , Wi )

7

y, y 0

L

wi+1 =

Y, F, Y0

y 0 = y + 2z + exp(t), z 0 = 3y + 2z,

y = 1/30(9exp(t) + 5exp(t) + 16exp(4t)), z =

y(0) = 1, z(0) = 0,
1/10(3exp(t) 5exp(t) + 8exp(4t)).


 0 
 
y + 2z + exp(t)
y
y
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Y
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Y =
;
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3y + 2z
z0
z

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wy, wz

y, z

L

wyi+1 = wyi + h(wyi + 2zi + exp(ti ));

wzi+1 = wzi + h(3wyi + 2wzi );

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wi+1 = wi + h f (ti + h2 , wi + h2 f (ti , wi ));

t0

t=0



rk
y 0 = f 1(t, y, z), z 0 = f 2(t, y, z)
y(t0 ) =
t=b
h
rk([f 1(t, y, z), f 2(t, y, z)], [y, z], [y0 , z0 ], [t, t0 , b, h]);
[ti , yi , zi ]
y 0 = y z + t, z 0 = y + z t
y(0) =
t=1
h = 0.1
rk([yz+t, y+zt], [y, z], [1, 2], [t, 0, 1, .1]);

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y 00 ty = 0;
airy ai(x), airy bi(x)

y0 = z

y 0 = z, z 0 = t y.

t2 y 00 + ty 0 + (t2 n2 )y = 0;
bessel j(n, t), bessel y(n, t)

n2
1 0
t y + ( t2 1)y;
z = y0
2
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J n , Yn
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v, v 0

y 000 + y = at2 + bt + c,
u = y 0 , v = y 00

=
+ bt + c y.
y0 = y, y1 = y 0 , y2 = y 00 ,
0
0
0
2
y0 = y1 , y1 = y2 , y2 = at + bt + c y0 .

airy ai
dynamics.

y(0) = 0.35502805388782, y 0 (0) = 0.25881940379281;



:;

rk

7#98

rk

y 0 = u, u0 =

eulersis, pmsis

at2

y 000 + 3y = t2 + 1,
[0, 1].

rk

;

y(0) = 1, y 0 (0) = 2, y 00 (0) = 3

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y = sen(t);
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y(0) = 0, y() = 0,



y 00 +

y0
x

y 00 = y
y(0) = 0, y(/2) = 1
 ;
= y
y(0) = 0, y() = 1,
y = c1 sen(t)

y = c1 sen(t) + c2 cos(t)

+ y = 0, y(1) = 1, y(2) = 1;

 

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y 00 + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = 0,

cf 0 ,

cf

y 00 + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = r(t),


(f + g)0 = f 0 + g 0

N;

y 1 , y2
y = c 1 y1 + c 2 y2
y 00 + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = r(t)
y = c 1 y1 + c 2 y2 + y p .
y 00 + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = 0,

n rtn k p5w

y(a) = , y(b) =

y 00 + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = 0, y(a) = 1, y 0 (a) = 0;


y 00 + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = 0, y(b) = 1, y 0 (b) = 0;

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y1 + y2

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y(a) = , y(b) = .

y 00 t y = 0, y(0) = 1, y 0 (0) = 0

w2

y 00 t y = 0

y(0) = 2, y(1) = 3,
w1

00
y t y = 0, y(1) = 1, y 0 (1) = 0

;
rk
;
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2w1 + 3w2

w 1 , w2

y(0) = 2, y(1) = 3.

y 00 + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = r(t),

`'j4gNl O?

a1 y(a) + a2 y 0 (a) + a3 y(b) + a4 y 0 (b) = A;


b1 y(a) + b2 y 0 (a) + b3 y(b) + b4 y 0 (b) = B

tr E rtn k p5w

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y 00 + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = 0, y(a) = 1, y 0 (a) = 0;

y 00 + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = 0, y(b) = 1, y 0 (b) = 0;

y = c 1 y1 + c 2 y2 + y 3

y 00 y = 0, y(0) = 1, y 0 (0) = 0

y 00 y = 0, y(1) = 1, y 0 (1) = 0

y2 (t);

y 00 + p(t)y 0 + q(t)y = q(t), y(a) = 0, y 0 (a) = 0;

y1 (t);

y3 (t);

5;

c1 , c2 ,

y 00 y = t2 , y(0) = 1, y 0 (1) = 4

y 00 y = x2 , y(0) = 0, y 0 (0) = 0

y1 = cosh(t);

y2 = cosh(1 t);

y3 = 2cosh(t) t2 2;

y = c1 y1 + c2 y2 + y3 = c1 cosh(t) + c2 cosh(1 t) + 2 cosh(t) t2 2


2;
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;
w1 = w(t1 ), w2 = w(t2 ), w3 = w(t3 );
w(0) = 2, w(1) = 3

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w1 = 2.471240192402656, w2 = 2.803437561599129, w3 = 2.98394002759641.

7

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w1 2.47231, w2 2.80438, w3 2.98427

y(0) = 6, y(1) = 1.6


N;
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7

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w3 . P4 = (x4 , y4 ) = ( 43 , 13 ); w(P4 ) = w4 . P5 = (x5 , y5 ) = ( 53 , 13 ); w(P5 ) = w5 . P6 = (x6 , y6 ) =
( 13 , 23 ); w(P6 ) = w6 . P7 = (x7 , y7 ) = ( 32 , 23 ); w(P7 ) = w7 . P8 = (x8 , y8 ) = (1, 32 ); w(P8 ) = w8 .
P9 = (x9 , y9 ) = ( 43 , 32 ); w(P9 ) = w9 . P10 = (x10 , y10 ) = ( 53 , 23 ); w(P10 ) = w10 .

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u( 31 , 32 )2u( 31 , 13 )+u( 31 ,0)


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 b;

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X

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y = c exp(3x)

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;
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y 0 = 3y

y = (x + c)3
;
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y = (x + c)3

;

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;

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y0 = a y b y2 ,

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N8

$ 7 #L

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7

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;

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9

T (1) = 55



7

(x 3)2 , (x 5/2)2 , (x 2)2 , ....., (x + 3)2

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.;

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y 0 = ky

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plotdf ([k y], [parameters, k = 1], [sliders, k = 1 : 2]).

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y 0 = z, z 0 = 3y

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;
y(0) = 0, y(0.1) = f (0.1) 0.0844872, y(0.2) = f (0.2)
0.135792, y(0.3) = f (0.3) 0.150424, y(0.4) = f (0.4) 0.124526

 7
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y 0 = 4y 5exp(t)
y = f (t) =
exp(t)
h = .1
y(0) = 1, y(0.1) = f (0.1) 0.904837, y(0.2) = f (0.2) 0.818731, y(0.3) =
 7
f (0.3) 0.740818, y(0.4) = f (0.4) 0.67032,

y 0 = y + 4t
exp(t) + c exp(4t)
exp(4t)

;

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y =

c = 0,

y 0 = y 2 10 exp(100(t2)2 )
:

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104

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= 1.5t

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t

y =
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x0 = a(x y); y 0 = xz + bx y; z 0 = xy cz

a = 3, b = 26.5, c = 1;


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x(0) = 0, y(0) = 1, z(0) = 0
rk
t = 30
x(0) = 0, y(0) = 1.1, z(0) = 0.

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a, b, c

t = 30

a, b, c

x(t), y(t)

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my )

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rk
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y 00 + y 0 y = t
h
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00
0
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x0 = y;

x(0) = 12, y(0) = 0.003

h=1
h = 0.5

y 00 t y = t
h
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00
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 7
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