Neocolonialism

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The Motherland and her dependant colonial offspring. (William-Adolphe Bouguereau, 1883)
Neocolonialism (also Neo-colonialism) is the geopolitical practice of using capitalism, business
globalization, and cultural imperialism to influence a country, in lieu of either direct military
control or indirect political control, i.e. imperialism and hegemony.
[1]
The term neo-colonialism
was coined by Ghanaian president Kwame Nkrumah, to describe the socio-economic and
political control that can be exercised economically, linguistically, and culturally, whereby
promotion of the culture of the neo-colonist country facilitates the cultural assimilation of the
colonised people and thus opens the national economy to the multinational corporations of the
neo-colonial country.

The European world empires and their colonies in the late 19th century, before the
Spanish-American War (1898), Boxer Rebellion (18991901), and the Second Boer War
(18991902).

The European world empires and their colonies in the mid 20th century, after the Second
World War (193945).
In post-colonial studies, the term neo-colonialism describes the domination-praxis (social,
economic, cultural) of countries from the developed world in the respective internal affairs of the
countries of the developing world; that, despite the decolonisation occurred in the aftermath of
the Second World War (193945), the (former) colonial powers continue to apply existing and
past international economic arrangements with their former colony countries, and so maintain
colonial control. A neo-colonialism critique can include de facto colonialism (imperialist or
hegemonic), and an economic critique of the disproportionate involvement of modern capitalist
business in the economy of a developing country, whereby multinational corporations continue
to exploit the natural resources of the former colony; that such economic control is inherently
neo-colonial, and thus is akin to the imperial and hegemonic varieties of colonialism practiced by
the empires of Great Britain, the United States, France, and other European countries, from the
16th to the 20th centuries.
[2]
The ideology and praxis of neo-colonialism are discussed in the
works of Jean-Paul Sartre (Colonialism and Neo-colonialism, 1964)
[3]
and Noam Chomsky (The
Washington Connection and Third World Fascism, 1979).
[4]

Contents
1 The term
o 1.1 Origins
o 1.2 The non-aligned world
o 1.3 Franafrique
o 1.4 Belgian Congo
2 Neo-colonial economic dominance
o 2.1 Dependency theory
o 2.2 The Cold War
o 2.3 Multinational corporations
o 2.4 The International Monetary Fund
o 2.5 SinoAfrican relations
o 2.6 South Korea's land acquisitions
3 Other approaches to neo-colonialism
o 3.1 Cultural theory
3.1.1 Post-colonialism theory
o 3.2 Critical theory
o 3.3 Conservation and neo-colonialism
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
o 6.1 Academic course materials
The term
Origins


A 1989 edition of a ten-kopeck U.S.S.R. postage stamp of Kwame Nkrumah, the Ghanaian
politician who coined the term Neo-colonialism.
The political-science term neo-colonialism became popular usage in reference to the continued
European control economic, cultural, etc. of African countries that had been decolonized
in the aftermath of the Second World War (193945). Kwame Nkrumah, president of Ghana
(196066), coined the term neo-colonialism in the book Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of
Imperialism (1965)
[5][6]
As a political scientist, Nkrumah theoretically developed and extended,
to the postWar 20th century, the socio-economic and political arguments presented by Lenin in
the pamphlet Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917), about 19th-century
imperialism as the logical extension of geopolitical power to meet the financial investment needs
of the political economy of capitalism.
[7]



The Argentine revolutionary Ch Guevara described neo-colonialism as the continued colonial
rule of decolonized countries by other means.
In Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism, Kwame Nkrumah said that:
In place of colonialism, as the main instrument of imperialism, we have today neo-colonialism . .
. [which] like colonialism, is an attempt to export the social conflicts of the capitalist countries. .
. .
The result of neo-colonialism is that foreign capital is used for the exploitation rather than for the
development of the less developed parts of the world. Investment, under neo-colonialism,
increases, rather than decreases, the gap between the rich and the poor countries of the world.
The struggle against neo-colonialism is not aimed at excluding the capital of the developed world
from operating in less developed countries. It is aimed at preventing the financial power of the
developed countries being used in such a way as to impoverish the less developed.
[8]

The non-aligned world
Neo-colonialism became the standard term, describing a type of foreign intervention, because
of its practical and historical application to the internal affairs (economic, social, political) of the
countries of the Pan-Africanist movement and because of its like usage in the Bandung
Conference (AsianAfrican Conference, 1955), from which derived the Non-Aligned Movement
(1961). The formal definition of neo-colonialism was established by the All-African Peoples
Conference (AAPC) and published in the Resolution on Neo-colonialism of the organisation. At
the Tunis conference (1960) and at the Cairo conference (1961), the AAPC specifically
identified as neo-colonial behaviour, the actions of the French Community of independent states,
which was organised by France.
[9]

Throughout the decades of the U.S.U.S.S.R. Cold War (194591), the countries of the Non-
Aligned Movement and the Organization of Solidarity with the People of Asia, Africa and Latin
America defined neo-colonialism as the primary, collective enemy of the economies and cultures
of their respective countries. Moreover, neo-colonialism was integrated to the national-liberation
ideologies of Marxist guerrilla armies. During the 1970s, in the Portuguese African colonies of
Mozambique and Angola, upon assuming government power, the Liberation Front of
Mozambique (FRELIMO, Frente de Libertao de Moambique) and the Peoples Movement for
the Liberation of Angola Labour Party (MPLA, Movimento Popular de Libertao de Angola
Partido do Trabalho), respectively, established policies to counter neo-colonial agreements
with the (former) colonist country.
Franafrique
The representative example of European neo-colonialism is Franafrique, the French Africa
constituted by the continued close relationships between Metropolitan France and its former
African country colonies. In 1955, the initial usage of the French Africa term, by President
Flix Houphout-Boigny, of Cte d'Ivoire, denoted positive social, cultural, and economic
FrancoAfrican relations. It was later applied by critics of neo-colonialism to describe an
imbalanced international relation. The term Franafrique is derived from the essay La
Franafrique, le plus long scandale de la Rpublique (French Africa: The Longest Scandal of
the Republic, 1998), by Franois-Xavier Verschave, which critically analysed French neo-
colonial policies towards the countries of Africa.
[10]
Moreover, Main basse sur le Cameroun,
autopsie dune dcolonisation (Cruel Hand on Cameroon: Autopsy of a Decolonization, 1972),
by Mongo Beti, is a critical history of contemporary Cameroon that reported the continued
dependence economic, social, cultural of decolonised African nations and countries upon
Metropolitan France, whose dependence was actively continued by the post-independence,
national political lites of the given countries.
The politician Jacques Foccart, the principal advisor for African matters to the French presidents
Charles de Gaulle (195869) and Georges Pompidou (19691974), was the principal proponent
of neo-colonial Franafrique.
[11]
The French Africa works of Verschave and Beti reported a
forty-year, post-independence relationship with the former colonial peoples of France, which
feature colonial garrisons in situ and monopolies by French multinational corporations, usually
for the exploitation of mineral resources. The African leaders with close ties to France
especially during the RussoAmerican Cold War (194591) acted more as agents of French
business and geopolitical interests, than as the national leaders of sovereign states,. Cited
examples are Omar Bongo (Gabon), Flix Houphout-Boigny (Cte d'Ivoire), Gnassingb
Eyadma (Togo), Denis Sassou-Nguesso (Republic of the Congo), Idriss Dby (Chad), and
Hamani Diori (Niger).
Francophonie
The French Community (195895) and the seventy-five-country Organisation Internationale de
la Francophonie (International Francophone Organisation) have been criticized as agents of
French neo-colonial African influence, especially by means of promoting the French language;
however, in 1966, the Algerian intellectual Kateb Yacine said:
La Francophonie is a neo-colonial political machine, which only perpetuates our alienation, but
the usage of the French language does not mean that one is an agent of a foreign power; and I
write in French to tell the French that I am not French.
Kateb Yacine biography, Arabesques
[12][13]

Belgian Congo
After a hastened decolonization process of the Belgian Congo, Belgium continued to control,
through the Socit Gnrale de Belgique, an estimate of 70% of the Congolese economy
following the decolonization process. The most contested part was in the province of Katanga
where the Union Minire du Haut Katanga, part of the Socit, had control over the mineral- and
resource-rich province. After a failed attempt to nationalize the mining industry in the 1960s, it
was reopened to foreign investment.
Neo-colonial economic dominance


Neo-colonialism: U.S. President Harry Truman and Mohammad Mosaddeq, the Iranian Prime
Minister in 1951. Two years later, the Persian nationalisation of the petroleum of Iran was halted
with Operation Ajax, a BritishAmerican coup d tat, which deposed P.M. Mossadeq on 19
August 1953, and reinstated the deposed, absolute monarchy of the Pahlavi family.


Petroleum-producing Africa: U.S. President Jimmy Carter and Lt. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo on
tour of Lagos, Nigeria, in April, 1978. Three years earlier, with a coup d tat, Gen. Obasanjo
assumed power, and later was politically courted by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R., as part of the
Cold War.
In 1961, regarding the economic mechanism of neo-colonial control, in the speech Cuba:
Historical Exception or Vanguard in the Anti-colonial Struggle?, the Cuban revolutionary Ch
Guevara said:
We, politely referred to as underdeveloped, in truth, are colonial, semi-colonial or dependent
countries. We are countries whose economies have been distorted by imperialism, which has
abnormally developed those branches of industry or agriculture needed to complement its
complex economy. Underdevelopment, or distorted development, brings a dangerous
specialization in raw materials, inherent in which is the threat of hunger for all our peoples. We,
the underdeveloped, are also those with the single crop, the single product, the single market.
A single product whose uncertain sale depends on a single market imposing and fixing
conditions. That is the great formula for imperialist economic domination.
Ch Guevara, 9 April 1961.
[14]

Dependency theory
Main article: Dependency theory
Dependency theory is the theoretic basis of economic neo-colonialism, which proposes that the
global economic system comprises wealthy countries at the center, and poor countries at the
periphery. Economic neo-colonialism extracts the human and the natural resources of a
peripheral (poor) country to flow to the economies of the wealthy countries at the center of the
global economic system; hence, the poverty of the peripheral countries is the result of how they
are integrated in the global economic system. Dependency theory derives from the Marxist
analysis of economic inequalities within the worlds system of economies, thus, the under-
development of the Global South is a direct result of the development in the Global North; the
theories of the semi-colony from the late 19th century.
[15]
The Marxist perspective of the Theory
of Colonial Dependency is contrasted with the capitalist economics of the free market, which
propose that such poverty is a development stage in the poor countrys progress towards full,
economic integration to the global economic system. Proponents of Dependency Theory, such as
Venezuelan historian Federico Brito Figueroa, who has investigated the socio-economic bases of
neo-colonial dependency, have influenced the thinking of the former President of Venezuela,
Hugo Chvez.
The Cold War
Main article: Cold War
During the mid-to-late 20th century, in the course of the Cold War (194591) ideological
conflict between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R., each country and its satellite states accused each
other of practising neo-colonialism in their imperial and hegemonic pursuits.
[16][17][18][19][20][21][22]

The geopolitical conditions that defined the RussoAmerican Cold War led to proxy war, fought
by client states in the decolonised countries; Cuba, the Warsaw Pact bloc, Egypt under the
leadership of Gamal Abdel Nasser (195670), et al. accused the U.S. of sponsoring anti-
democratic governments whose rgimes did not represent the interests of the majority of the
populace, and of deposing Third-World elected governments (African, Asian, Latin American)
who did not subscribe to the geopolitical interests of the U.S., as defined by the EastWest Cold
War.
In the 1960s, under the leadership of Chairman Mehdi Ben Barka, the Cuban Tricontinental
Conference (Organization of Solidarity with the People of Asia, Africa and Latin America)
recognised and supported the validity of revolutionary anti-colonialism as a means for colonised
peoples of the Third World to achieve their self-determination, which policy angered the U.S.
and France. Moreover, Chairman Barka headed the Commission on Neo-colonialism, which
dealt with the work to resolve the neo-colonial involvement of colonial powers in decolonised
counties; and said that the U.S., as the leading capitalist country of the world, was, in practise,
the principal neo-colonialist political actor.
Multinational corporations
Main article: Multinational corporation
Critics of neo-colonialism also argue that investment by multinational corporations enriches few
in underdeveloped countries, and causes humanitarian, environmental and ecological devastation
to the populations which inhabit the neocolonies whose "development" and economy is now
dependent on foreign markets and large scale trade agreements. This, it is argued, results in
unsustainable development and perpetual underdevelopment; a dependency which cultivates
those countries as reservoirs of cheap labor and raw materials, while restricting their access to
advanced production techniques to develop their own economies. In some countries,
privatization of national resources, while initially leading to immediate large scale influx of
investment capital, is often followed by dramatic increases in the rate of unemployment, poverty,
and a decline in per-capita income.
[23]
This is particularly true in the West African nations of
Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, and Mauritania where fishing has historically been central to the local
economy. Beginning in 1979, the European Union began brokering fishing rights contracts off
the coast of West Africa. This continues to this day. Commercial unsustainable over-fishing from
foreign corporations has played a significant role in the large-scale unemployment and migration
of people across the region.
[24]
This stands in direct opposition to United Nations Treaty on the
Seas which recognizes the importance of fishing to local communities and insists that
government fishing agreements with foreign companies should be targeted at surplus stocks
only.
[25]

The International Monetary Fund
Main article: Criticism of debt
To alleviate some of the effects of neo-colonialism, the American economist Jeffrey Sachs
recommended that the entire African debt (ca. 200 billion U.S. dollars) be dismissed, and
recommended that African nations not repay the World Bank and the International Monetary
Fund (IMF):
The time has come to end this charade. The debts are unaffordable. If they wont cancel the
debts, I would suggest obstruction; you do it, yourselves. Africa should say: Thank you very
much, but we need this money to meet the needs of children who are dying, right now, so, we
will put the debt-servicing payments into urgent social investment in health, education, drinking
water, the control of AIDS, and other needs.
Prof. Jeffrey Sachs, Director of The Earth Institute (Columba University), and Special
Economic Advisor to UN Secretary General Kofi Annan.
SinoAfrican relations


Exotic animals such as the giraffe, caught and sold by Somali merchants, were very popular
commodities in Ming Dynasty China.
Main article: Sino-African relations
Historically, China and Somalia had a strong trading tie.
[citation needed]
In recent years, the People's
Republic of China has built increasingly stronger ties with African nations.
[26][27]
China is
currently Africa's largest trading partner.
[28][29]
As of August 2007, there were an estimated
750,000 Chinese nationals working or living for extended periods in different African
countries.
[30][31]
China is picking up natural resources petroleum and minerals to fuel the
Chinese economy and to finance international business enterprises.
[32][33]
In 2006, two-way trade
had increased to $50 billion.
[34]

Not all dealings have involved direct monetary exchanges. In 2007, the governments of China
and Democratic Republic of the Congo entered into an agreement whereby Chinese state-owned
firms would provide various services (infrastructure projects) in exchange for an equivalent
amount of copper ore extracted from Congolese copper mines.
[35]

Human rights advocates and opponents of the Sudanese government portray China's role in
providing weapons and aircraft as a cynical attempt to obtain petroleum and natural gas just as
colonial powers once supplied African chieftains with the military means to maintain control as
they extracted natural resources.
[36][37][38]
According to China's critics, China has offered Sudan
support threatening to use its veto on the U.N. Security Council to protect Khartoum from
sanctions and has been able to water down every resolution on Darfur in order to protect its
interests in Sudan.
[39]

South Korea's land acquisitions

This article is outdated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly
available information. (October 2012)
To ensure a reliable, long-term supply of food stuffs, the South Korean government and powerful
Korean multinational corporations from have bought the exploitation rights to millions of
hectares of agricultural land in under-developed countries of the Third World. Thereby, South
Korea no longer imports food, because said lands are effectively part of Korea; such agricultural
imperialism might be considered a form of neo-colonialism.
[40]
South Korea's largely
mountainous land area of just over 100,000 square kilometres supports a populace of some 50
million people, yet the industrialised economy (ca. $1,000,000,000,000) was almost the equal of
the entire economy of Africa, in 2007.
[41]

South Korea's RG Energy Resources Asset Management CEO Park Yong-soo stressed that "the
nation does not produce a single drop of crude oil and other key industrial minerals. To power
economic growth and support people's livelihoods, we cannot emphasize too much that securing
natural resources in foreign countries is a must for our future survival."
[42]
The head of the Food
and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Jacques Diouf, has warned that the controversial rise in
land deals could create a form of "neo-colonialism", with poor states producing food for the rich
at the expense of their own hungry people.
In 2008, the South Korean multinational Daewoo Logistics secured 1.3 million hectares of
farmland in Madagascar, half the size of Belgium, to grow maize and crops for biofuels. Roughly
half of the country's arable land, as well as rainforests of rich and unique biodiversity, were to be
converted into palm and corn monocultures, producing food for export from a country where a
third of the population and 50 percent of children under 5 are malnourished, using workers
imported from South Africa instead of locals. Those living on the land were never consulted or
informed, despite being dependent on the land for food and income. The controversial deal
played a major part in prolonged anti-government protests on the island that resulted in over a
hundred deaths.
[40]
Shortly after the Madagascar deal, Tanzania announced that South Korea was
in talks to develop 100,000 hectares for food production and processing for 700 to 800 billion
won. Scheduled to be completed in 2010, it will be the largest single piece of agricultural
infrastructure South Korea has ever built overseas.
[40]

In 2009, Hyundai Heavy Industries acquired a majority stake in a company cultivating 10,000
hectares of farmland in the Russian Far East and a wealthy South Korean provincial government
secured 95,000 hectares of farmland in Oriental Mindoro, central Philippines, to grow corn. The
South Jeolla province became the first provincial government to benefit from a newly created
central government fund to develop farmland overseas, receiving a cheap loan of $1.9 million for
the Mindoro project. The feedstock is expected to produce 10,000 tonnes of feed in the first year
for South Korea.
[43]
South Korean multinationals and provincial governments have also
purchased land in Sulawesi, Indonesia, Cambodia and Bulgan, Mongolia. The South Korean
government itself announced its intention to invest 30 billion won in land in Paraguay and
Uruguay. Discussions with Laos, Myanmar and Senegal are also currently underway.
[40]

The South Korean government's strategy is quickly yielding results and despite predicting that
farmland is shrinking on the country, the government announced in August 2009 that South
Korea would enjoy a 10% increase in rice production in 2009, the first since 2005, and the
government has begun purchasing large quantities of rice to keep prices stable.
[40]

Other approaches to neo-colonialism
Although the concept of neo-colonialism was originally developed within a Marxist theoretical
framework and is generally employed by the political left, the term "neo-colonialism" is also
used within other theoretical frameworks.
Cultural theory
One variant of neo-colonialism theory critiques the existence of cultural colonialism, the desire
of wealthy nations to control other nations' values and perceptions through cultural means, such
as media, language, education and religion, ultimately for economic reasons.
Main article: Colonial Mentality
One element of this is a critique of "Colonial Mentality" which writers have traced well beyond
the legacy of 19th century colonial empires. These critics argue that people, once subject to
colonial or imperial rule, latch onto physical and cultural differences between the foreigners and
themselves, leading some to associate power and success with the foreigners' ways. This
eventually leads to the foreigners' ways being regarded as the better way and being held in a
higher esteem than previous indigenous ways. In much the same fashion, and with the same
reasoning of better-ness, the colonised may over time equate the colonisers' race or ethnicity
itself as being responsible for their superiority. Cultural rejections of colonialism, such as the
Negritude movement, or simply the embracing of seemingly authentic local culture are then seen
in a post colonial world as a necessary part of the struggle against domination. By the same
reasoning, importation or continuation of cultural mores or elements from former colonial
powers may be regarded as a form of neo-colonialism.
Post-colonialism theory
Main article: Postcolonialism
Post-colonialism theories in philosophy, film, political science, and post-colonial literature deal
with the cultural legacy of colonial rule; that is, the cultural identity of the colonised peoples, in
which neo-colonialism is the background for the contemporary dilemmas of developing a
national identity after colonial rule. Post-colonialism studies how writers articulate, present, and
celebrate their post-colonial national identity, which often first must be reclaimed from the
coloniser, whilst maintaining strong connections with the colonialist country; how knowledge of
the sub-ordinated (colonised) people was generated, and applied against the colonised people in
service to the cultural and economic interests of the colonial country; and how colonialist
literature justified colonialism by misrepresenting the colonised people as an inferior race whose
society, culture, and economy must be managed for them. Post-colonial studies comprehend
Subaltern Studies of history from below; post-colonial manifestations of people outside the
hegemony; the psychopathology of colonization (by Frantz Fanon); and the cinema of film
makers such as the Cuban Third Cinema, e.g. Toms Gutirrez Alea, and the Filipino Kidlat
Tahimik.
Critical theory
While critiques of postcolonialism/neo-colonialism are widely practiced in literary theory, also
international relations theory has defined "postcolonialism" as a field of study. While the lasting
effects of cultural colonialism are of central interest in cultural critiques of neo-colonialism, their
intellectual antecedents are economic theories of neo-colonialism: Marxist dependency theory
and mainstream criticism of capitalist neoliberalism. Critical international relations theory
frequently references neo-colonialism from Marxist positions as well as postpositivist positions,
including postmodernist, postcolonial and feminist approaches, which differ from both realism
and liberalism in their epistemological and ontological premises.
Conservation and neo-colonialism
There have been other critiques that the modern conservation movement, as taken up by
international organizations such as the World Wide Fund for Nature, has inadvertently set up a
neocolonialist relationship with underdeveloped nations.
[44]

See also
Imperialism
cultural imperialism
New imperialism
Hegemony
Cultural hegemony
Colonialism
Post-colonialism
Oil imperialism
Ecological imperialism
Gatekeeper state concept of neocolonial "successor states," introduced by the African
historian Frederick Cooper in Africa Since 1940: The Past of the Present.
Neoliberalism
Globalisation
Westernisation
Americanization
The World According to Monsanto
Sino-African relations
Franois-Xavier Verschave's book on Franafrique
Dependency theory
Modernization theory
Washington Consensus
Eco-imperialism
List of coups d'tat and coup attempts
References
1. Jump up ^ Sartre, Jean-Paul (2001-03-27). Colonialism and neo-colonialism. Routledge.
ISBN 978-0-415-19146-3.
2. Jump up ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolutions 1514 and 1541
3. Jump up ^ Sartre, Jean-Paul (2001-03-27). Colonialism and neo-colonialism. Routledge.
ISBN 978-0-415-19146-3.
4. Jump up ^ Chomsky, Noam; Edward S. Herman (1979-07-01). The Washington
connection and Third World fascism. Black Rose Books Ltd. p. 42ff. ISBN 978-0-
919618-88-6.
5. Jump up ^ Neo-Colonialism: the Last Stage of Imperialism (1965).
6. Jump up ^ Ali Mazrui, Willy Mutunga, ed. Debating the African Condition:
Governance and Leadership. Africa World Press, 2003 ISBN 1-59221-147-X pp.19-20,
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7. Jump up ^ Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism.
transcribed from Lenins Selected Works, Progress Publishers, 1963, Moscow, Volume
1, pp. 667766.
8. Jump up ^ From the Introduction. Kwame Nkrumah. Neo-Colonialism, The Last Stage
of Imperialism. First Published: Thomas Nelson & Sons, Ltd., London (1965). Published
in the USA by International Publishers Co., Inc., (1966);
9. Jump up ^ Wallerstein, p. 52: It attempted the one serious, collectively agreed-upon
definition of neo-colonialism, the key concept in the armory of the revolutionary core of
the movement for African unity; and William D. Grafs review of Neo-colonialism and
African Politics: a Survey of the Impact of Neo-colonialism on African Political
Behaviour (1980, Yolamu R. Barongo, in the Canadian Journal of African Studies, p.
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collective recognition at the 1961 All-African People's Conference.'
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Rpublique. Paris (ISBN 2234049482).
11. Jump up ^ Kaye Whiteman, The Man Who Ran Franafrique French Politician
Jacques Foccarts Role in Frances Colonization of Africa Under the Leadership of
Charles de Gaulle, obituary in The National Interest, Fall 1997.
12. Jump up ^ http://www.afrique-du-nord.com/article.php3?id_article=1877 (Quote by
Kateb Yacine in French)
13. Jump up ^ http://www.arabesques-editions.com/fr/biographies/kateb-
yacine1974605.html?page=0%2C1 (Quote by Kateb Yacine in French)
14. Jump up ^ "Cuba: Historical exception or vanguard in the anticolonial struggle?" speech
by Che Guevara on 9 April 1961
15. Jump up ^ Ernest Mandel, "Semicolonial Countries and Semi-Industrialised Dependent
Countries", New International (New York), No.5, pp.149-175
16. Jump up ^ Anuradha M. Chenoy. Soviet New Thinking on National Liberation
Movements: Continuity and Change, Soviet Foreign Policy in Transition pp. 145162.
Roger E. Kanet, Deborah Nutter Miner, Tamara J. Resler, International Committee for
Soviet and East European Studies. Cambridge University Press, (1992) ISBN 0-521-
41365-6; See pp. 149150 for the Soviet Bloc academic definitions of Neo-
colonialism.
17. Jump up ^ Rosemary Radford Ruether. Christianity and Social Systems: Historical
Constructions and Ethical Challenges. Rowman & Littlefield, (2008) ISBN 0-7425-
4643-8 p. 138: Neo-colonialism means that European powers and the United States no
longer rule dependent territories, directly through their occupying troops and imperial
bureaucracy. Rather, they control the areas resources indirectly, through business
corporations and the financial lending institutions they dominate. . . .
18. Jump up ^ Yumna Siddiqi. Anxieties of Empire and the Fiction of Intrigue. Columbia
University Press, (2007) ISBN 0-231-13808-3, pp. 123124 provides the standard
definition of Neo-colonialism specific to the US and European colonialism.
19. Jump up ^ Thomas R. Shannon. An Introduction to the World-system Perspective.
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colonialism is defined as a capitalist phenomenon.
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colonialism in page 7.
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Nations and the Politics of Nationalism. Taylor & Francis, (1977) ISBN 0-416-76810-5.
Provides the history of the word neo-colonialism as an anti-capitalist term (pp. 339
339) also applicable to the U.S.S.R. (p. 322).
22. Jump up ^ Edward M. Bennett. Colonialism and Neo-colonialism (pp. 285291) in
Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy. Alexander DeConde, Richard Dean Burns,
Fredrik Logevall eds. Second Edition. Simon and Schuster, (2002) ISBN 0-684-80657-6.
Clarifies that neo-colonialism is a practice of the colonial powers, that the Soviets
practiced imperialism, not colonialism.
23. Jump up ^ "World Bank, IMF Threw Colombia Into Tailspin" The Baltimore Sun, April
4, 2002
24. Jump up ^ "Europe Takes Africas Fish, and Boatloads of Migrants Follow" The New
York Times, January 14, 2008
25. Jump up ^ United Nations 2007
26. Jump up ^ Military backs China's Africa adventure, Asia Times
27. Jump up ^ Mbeki warns on China-Africa ties
28. Jump up ^ http://english.cntv.cn/program/bizasia/20101015/101588.shtml
29. Jump up ^ http://www.businessdailyafrica.com/Company%20Industry/-
/539550/850122/-/t43ipjz/-/index.html
30. Jump up ^ Chinese flocking in numbers to a new frontier: Africa
31. Jump up ^ Chinese imperialism in Africa
32. Jump up ^ China, Africa, and Oil
33. Jump up ^ Is China Africa's new imperialist power?
34. Jump up ^ "Is China the new colonial power in Africa?" Taipei Times, November 1,
2006
35. Jump up ^ China's Quest for Resources - A ravenous dragon The Economist, March 13,
2008
36. Jump up ^ "CHINAS INVOLVEMENT IN SUDAN: ARMS AND OIL". Human
Rights Watch. 2007-12-23.
37. Jump up ^ Goodman, Peter S. (2007-12-23). "China Invests Heavily In Sudan's Oil
Industry". Washington Post. Retrieved May 20, 2010.
38. Jump up ^ Reeves, Eric (2007-04-16). "Artists abetting genocide?". Boston Globe.
39. Jump up ^ "The Increasing Importance of African Oil". Power and Interest News
Report. 2007-03-20.
40. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c

d

e
http://koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2009/12/123_56697.html
41. Jump up ^ Report for Selected Countries and Subjects, IMF.org
42. Jump up ^ http://koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009/07/123_48943.html
43. Jump up ^ http://koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009/07/113_48556.html
44. Jump up ^ In a manner consistent with Immanuel Wallersteins World Systems Theory
(Wallerstein, 1974) and Andre Gunder Franks Dependency Theory (Frank, 1975).
Opoku Agyeman. Nkrumah's Ghana and East Africa: Pan-Africanism and African
interstate relations (Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1992).
Ankerl, Guy (2000). Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal
research. Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati,
Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
Bill Ashcroft (ed., et al.) The post-colonial studies reader (Routledge, London, 1995).
Yolamu R Barongo. neo-colonialism and African politics: A survey of the impact of neo-
colonialism on African political behavior (Vantage Press, NY, 1980).
Mongo Beti, Main basse sur le Cameroun. Autopsie d'une dcolonisation (1972), new
edition La Dcouverte, Paris 2003 [A classical critique of neo-colonialism. Raymond
Marcellin, the French Minister of the Interior at the time, tried to prohibit the book. It
could only be published after fierce legal battles.]
Frdric Turpin. De Gaulle, Pompidou et l'Afrique (1958-1974): dcoloniser et cooprer
(Les Indes savantes, Paris, 2010. [Grounded on Foccart's previously inaccessibles
archives]
Kum-Kum Bhavnani. (ed., et al.) Feminist futures: Re-imagining women, culture and
development (Zed Books, NY, 2003). See: Ming-yan Lai's "Of Rural Mothers, Urban
Whores and Working Daughters: Women and the Critique of Neocolonial Development
in Taiwan's Nativist Literature," pp. 209225.
David Birmingham. The decolonization of Africa (Ohio University Press, 1995).
Charles Cantalupo(ed.). The world of Ngugi wa Thiong'o (Africa World Press, 1995).
Laura Chrisman and Benita Parry (ed.) Postcolonial theory and criticism (English
Association, Cambridge, 2000).
Renato Constantino. Neocolonial identity and counter-consciousness: Essays on cultural
decolonization (Merlin Press, London, 1978).
George A. W. Conway. A responsible complicity: Neo/colonial power-knowledge and the
work of Foucault, Said, Spivak (University of Western Ontario Press, 1996).
Julia V. Emberley. Thresholds of difference: feminist critique, native women's writings,
postcolonial theory (University of Toronto Press, 1993).
Nikolai Aleksandrovich Ermolov. Trojan horse of neo-colonialism: U.S. policy of
training specialists for developing countries (Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1966).
Thomas Gladwin. Slaves of the white myth: The psychology of neo-colonialism
(Humanities Press, Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1980).
Lewis Gordon. Her Majestys Other Children: Sketches of Racism from a Neocolonial
Age (Rowman & Littlefield, 1997).
Ankie M. M. Hoogvelt. Globalization and the postcolonial world: The new political
economy of development (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001).
J. M. Hobson, The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation (Cambridge University Press,
2004).
M. B. Hooker. Legal pluralism; an introduction to colonial and neo-colonial laws
(Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1975).
E.M. Kramer (ed.) The emerging monoculture: assimilation and the "model minority"
(Praeger, Westport, Conn., 2003). See: Archana J. Bhatt's "Asian Indians and the Model
Minority Narrative: A Neocolonial System," pp. 203221.
Geir Lundestad (ed.) The fall of great powers: Peace, stability, and legitimacy
(Scandinavian University Press, Oslo, 1994).
Jean-Paul Sartre. 'Colonialism and neo-colonialism. Translated by Steve Brewer,
Azzedine Haddour, Terry McWilliams Republished in the 2001 edition by Routledge
France. ISBN 0-415-19145-9.
Stuart J. Seborer. U.S. neo-colonialism in Africa (International Publishers, NY, 1974).
D. Simon. Cities, capital and development: African cities in the world economy
(Halstead, NY, 1992).
Phillip Singer(ed.) Traditional healing, new science or new colonialism": (essays in
critique of medical anthropology) (Conch Magazine, Owerri, 1977).
Jean Suret-Canale. Essays on African history: From the slave trade to neo-colonialism
(Hurst, London 1988).
Ngg wa Thiong'o. Barrel of a pen: Resistance to repression in neo-colonial Kenya
(Africa Research & Publications Project, 1983).
Carlos Alzugaray Treto. El ocaso de un rgimen neocolonial: Estados Unidos y la
dictadura de Batista durante 1958,(The twilight of a neocolonial regime: The United
States and Batista during 1958), in Temas: Cultura, Ideologa y Sociedad, No.16-17,
October 1998/March 1999, pp. 2941 (La Habana: Ministry of Culture).
United Nations (2007). Reports of International Arbitral Awards. XXVII. United Nations
Publication. p. 188. ISBN 978-92-1-033098-5.
Richard Werbner (ed.) Postcolonial identities in Africa (Zed Books, NJ, 1996).
External links
China, Africa, and Oil
Mbeki warns on China-Africa ties
"neo-colonialism" in Encyclopedia of Marxism.
Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism, by Kwame Nkrumah (former Prime
Minister and President of Ghana), originally published 1965
Comments by Prof. Jeffrey Sachs - BBC
Harvard economist Jeffrey Sachs video (ram) - hosted by Columbia Univ.
The myth of Neo-colonialism by Tunde Obadina, director of Africa Business Information
Services (AfBIS)
http://www.africahistory.net/imf.htm IMF: Market Reform and Corporate
Globalization, by Dr. Gloria Emeagwali, Prof. of History and African Studies, Conne.
State Univ.
Academic course materials
Sovereignty in the Postcolonial African State, Syllabus : Joseph Hill, University of
Rochester, 2008.
Studying African development history: Study guides, Lauri Siitonen, Pivi Hasu,
Wolfgang Zeller. Helsinki University, 2007.