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In Gemcom, you can create surface models using a triangulated irregular network (TIN) Each data input point will be used as a vertex of at least one triangle. The boundary of the surface will be a convex polygon that encompasses all input points.
In Gemcom, you can create surface models using a triangulated irregular network (TIN) Each data input point will be used as a vertex of at least one triangle. The boundary of the surface will be a convex polygon that encompasses all input points.
In Gemcom, you can create surface models using a triangulated irregular network (TIN) Each data input point will be used as a vertex of at least one triangle. The boundary of the surface will be a convex polygon that encompasses all input points.
Chapter 8 Surfaces In This Chapter Introduction Surface Features Using Surfaces Creating Surfaces Intersecting Surfaces Contouring Surfaces Displaying Surfaces Surface Volume Reporting Creating a SEG for Block Model Interfacing Introduction In Gemcom, surfaces can represent several types of topographic information including: Original topographies As-mined topographies Pit designs Dump layouts Sub-surface structures such as geological structures, faults or lithological contacts. In Gemcom, you can create surface models using a triangulated irregular network (TIN), and then display and manipulate the models. Page 3144 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Surface Features Triangulated surfaces have many characteristics that differentiate them from other computerized surface models: Each data input point will be used as a vertex of at least one triangle, so the surface always exactly honours the input data. All polylines representing distinct surface features, such as toe and crest lines (known as breaklines), will be honoured in the TIN. Triangles will be as close to equilateral as possible while still maintaining edge integrity. The boundary of the surface will be a convex polygon that encompasses all input points. The surface will not have any holes in it, unless a clipping operation is performed after initial surface creation. As triangulated surfaces generally provide the best possible surface representation of topographical data, they have many uses in mining operations. Surface Creation Data Elements There are three data elements used to create and modify surfaces: 3D data points, called nodes 3D line segments connecting two nodes, called edges 2D polygons that can be used to remove parts of a surface that fall inside or outside their boundaries, called clipping polygons. Page 3145 Modelling Chapter 8: Surfaces Using Surfaces In Gemcom, you can: Create surfaces from combinations of active drillhole intersects, points and polylines. Intersect surfaces with other surfaces or solids. Contour surfaces to create new polylines. Create surface elevation grids from surfaces. Each of the above applications is described more fully in this chapter. For instructions on the performing the above procedures, see Chapter 12: The Surface Menu. Creating Surfaces Gemcom lets you create surfaces using active data consisting of discrete points (such as drillhole intersects, spot heights, or sample locations) and polylines representing breaks in slope (such as surface contours, bench crest lines, or bench toe lines). These surfaces are created as a series of connected triangular panels, also known as a triangulated irregular network (TIN). The surface is able to preserve all the breaks in the feature lines used to make the TIN. A TIN surface gives the best approximation of surfaces for subsequent operations such as volume calculations. You can also create surfaces using the Laplace gridding method. Creating TIN Surfaces The triangulation process can operate in either the XY plane (in plan), which is the most common method for modelling topographic data; or in a local plane fitted through the data, which is the best way to accurately model sub-surface, near vertical, or overturned structures (see Figure 8-1). Page 3146 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Forcing TIN Edges Gemcom can preserve edges (polyline segments) during the creation of a TIN in order to give the best possible representation of the surface. This can, however, cause problems if the polylines cross and there is an elevation conflict at the intersection point. If you are making a surface that includes polylines, it is recommended that you check for crossing edges and correct them using the polyline editing functions before proceeding with the surface creation. Figure 8-1: A surface created in the XY plane (top) and an overturned surface created in a best fit plane Page 3147 Modelling Chapter 8: Surfaces TIN Boundary Trimming Gemcom will, by default, make a surface whose perimeter is the convex limits of all data points used in its creation. There are times when this results in unsightly (and incorrect) surfaces, especially around the edges (see Figure 8-2). In addition to the surface/polygon clipping commands, you can specify a maximum edge length for the boundary of the TIN. In many cases, this will automatically remove these long boundary triangles and give a more realistic surface. Be careful not to make this number too small, as too many TIN edges may be removed and the TIN will be unusable. Validation of Surfaces Gemcom provides the capability for validating surfaces upon creation (or upon importation into Gemcom). Although construction errors with surfaces are far less common than with solids, it is generally a good idea to validate surfaces as well. Each edge in a valid surface is either part of two triangles, in the case of interior edges, or part of only one triangle, in the case of edges along the perimeter. Also, a triangle in a valid surface may not intersect any other triangles. When a surface is validated, Gemcom checks for self- intersecting triangles and for triangle edges connected to more edges than allowed. Without TIN boundary trimming With TIN boundary trimming Figure 8-2: Effect of TIN boundary trimming on concave perimeter Page 3148 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows If problems are discovered, the relevant areas are highlighted so that you can correct the surface. Gemcom lets you save the bad areas of the surface to assist visually in the correction of the surface errors. Laplace Gridding Laplace gridding provides a very fast and effective way to create gridded surfaces in any orientation to represent any of the following: Topographic surfaces (for example, created from drillhole collars or survey data) Faults (created from specific contact points on drillholes) Tops and bottoms of seams (again using drillhole interval data) Grade values on a specific plane (typically created using the real value component of extraction point data) Features The main features of using Laplace gridding are as follows: Gridding can be done on any plan. Grids on plan views, vertical sections, and inclined sections can be handled with equal ease. Different types of data can be used when making a single grid (for example, drillhole collars, contours, and control stations can all be used together to make a grid of surface topography). All the data used for the gridding process can be visually checked for correctness, both in 2D and 3D. The process is graphical so the results of the gridding can be seen immediately, both in 2D and 3D. The results can be saved in a number of different formats, allowing the results to be used by other Gemcom systems. Page 3149 Modelling Chapter 8: Surfaces There is no size limit to the grid; the amount of data used for gridding and the size of the grid itself is limited only by available memory. Data Points Laplace gridding allows you to create a grid on the current view plane using the same active data points as other surface creation commands, including: Points (extraction points or control stations) Polylines (usually status lines such as toes, crests, contours) Drillhole points (collars or interval points) Storage Formats Once the Laplace grid interpolation is complete, the grid can be saved in a number of different formats: Gemcom standard *.MEX extraction file ASCII status map file containing polylines along rows of the grid PC-MINE ASCII surface grid file Surface TIN The grid can be saved to a surface that can be contoured, clipped with other surfaces or solids, plotted, etc. Advantages Laplace gridding has a number of advantages over other interpolation methods (such as inverse distance and kriging): Robust, in that a grid will be produced regardless of the input data, unless data values exist in all grid cells or there are no data points in any grid cells. There is no logical limit on the number of input data points. In excess of 80,000 data points have been successfully interpolated. Page 3150 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows The method is not particularly sensitive to the distribution of input points. Lines or clusters of points do not give rise to any special problems. The time taken to create a grid does not depend significantly upon the number of input data points. It can even turn out that the run time for creating the grid will decrease as the number of points is increased. Run times from a few minutes to a maximum of around two hours can be expected. The grid has a smooth appearance and produces smooth looking contours. (This may not always be an advantage, depending upon the nature of the input data.) The degree of smoothing (bi-cubic spline) is userspecified. One disadvantage, however, is that the accuracy of the resulting grid cannot (as far as we know) be quantified in statistical terms. You must study the resulting grid visually and subjectively to decide whether you are happy with its appearance. Laplace Gridded Surfaces Versus TINs Gemcom provides two distinct methods of creating surfaces from point data, namely Laplace gridding and surface creation from TINs. Each method has its advantages. Laplace gridded surfaces Surface creation from TINs Pros Easily set up to coincide with block model or seam model. Effectively fills in areas of sparse or missing data. Preserves the original points. Cons Original data points usually not preserved in final grid. Yields poor results when data points are dispersed and/or irregularly distributed. Large triangles will be created. Page 3151 Modelling Chapter 8: Surfaces Laplace Gridded Surfaces Laplace gridding will form a grid (with user-defined size and location) and each cell of the grid will be assigned a value (typically an elevation or grade value) based on the distribution and proximity of known data points. The iterative method processes all cells, updating the values each time until eventually a smooth gridded surface has been created. Laplace gridding generally does not honour the original data points. For example, if you made a grid using drillhole collars, it is likely that many of the grid cells will be either slightly higher or lower than the drillhole collar points used in their creation (due to the averaging and smoothing of the Laplace technique). This may pose problems when the drillholes and resulting Laplace grid surface are shown together (for example, if you cut a section through the data) as the drillholes collars will not exactly coincide with the surface. This may pose even a bigger problem when modelling faults using drillhole intervals, where the preservation of the exact 3D points defining the fault are very important. Surface Creation from TINS TINs are formed by creating triangular panels that connect known points and/or polylines. Only known points are used in the TIN creation; there is no interpolation of new points with this method. Thus, sparse or missing data can lead to problems. For example, if you have only a few hundred drillholes and you want to make a surface representing the topography of the property, creating a surface using TINs may not give a satisfactory result. TINs work best when there is a high concentration of points to give adequate control and to keep the triangular panels to a relatively small size (for example, making a surface of a pit design). TINs will generally be attractive for working with surveyed stockpiles or open pits and design quality open pit models. Page 3152 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Combined Method Gemcom provides a third alternative. By combining the TIN and Laplace gridding methods to create a single surface, the strengths of both can be used while eliminating the drawbacks of using either independently. The process is as follows: 1. Activate the data points that will be used for creating the grid. 2. Create a Laplace grid that covers the area of interest and grid it. 3. Save the results to an extraction file. 4. Load the extraction file along with the original data points. 5. Create a surface using the TIN method. This process will first "fill in" the sparse areas with points from the Laplace gridding method, then create a TIN using both the interpolated points and the original data points. Both objectives are achieved; the surface honours the known data points exactly while still providing a smooth, natural representation of the whole surface by incorporating the interpolated points. General Procedure Follow these steps to create a Laplace gridded surface: 1. Activate the data points to be used for the gridding process. Depending on the type of surface you are creating, this may include any combination of drillhole, point, or polyline data. To use extraction file data: Choose Point } } Data } } Load Data from Extraction File. Select the name of the file containing the desired data to use for the grid from the File Name dialog box that appears and choose OK. In the editor that appears, enter the display parameters. If you are displaying location values, select the Elevation field as your display field. If you are displaying grade values, select either the Page 3153 Modelling Chapter 8: Surfaces Real or Integer field as your display field. See Volume I: Core for more information. To use drillhole data: Choose Drillhole } } Data } } Load Drillholes. From the picklists that appear, select the desired loading and display profiles and records. Use the Drillhole } }Select submenu to activate all (or part) of the data that you want to use. See Volume II: Exploration for more information. To use polyline data: Choose Polyline } } Data } } Load Polylines from Status Map. See Volume I: Core for more information. 2. Laplace gridding occurs relative to the current view plane. Determine the orientation you want your grid to follow by selecting View } }Vertical Section, Inclined Section or Plan View. You must select a plane to activate the desired orientation, although which plane you choose is not important, as the plane itself is not needed by the application. For more information on selecting planes, see Volume I: Core. 3. Change the current viewing mode to 2D. For manual gridding, this step is optional, but may help you to define the grid parameters, which must be specified in 2D planar coordinates. Decide on the extents and parameters for the grid, considering such factors as the distance between original data points, the total number of original data points, and the final level of density of data required. If you are also working with a surface elevation grid, you will likely want to coordinate the size of the Laplace grid with that of the SEG. 4. Choose Surface } }Create } }Create Surface by Laplace Gridding } }Define Grid Location Manually or Define Grid Location Graphically and follow the command procedures described in Chapter 12: The Surface Menu. Page 3154 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Laplace Gridding Process The Laplace gridding method is very simple in concept. Gemcom solves a set of finite difference equations in an iterative manner. The equation being solved is ( ) [ ]
2 2 4 4 0 + + = y C y z where C = Smoothing factor. If C = 0, then no smoothing will occur. The grid will try to join data points with straight lines. As C is increased, more smoothing is introduced, with the grid tending towards a bi-cubic spline function. Gemcom uses the following sequence to generate the grid: 1. Read in data and allocate to nearest grid cell. 2. Where data was derived from digitized polygon data, insert extra points automatically along the polygon line if the digitized points are too far apart. Use the integer value of records in the extract file to decide whether points belong to the same polygon. Exclude points more than one cell width from the boundary of the surface grid. 3. Set grid cell to average of all data values in the grid cells which contain more than one data point. At this point, processing of input data ceases. Only processing of the grid itself occurs in the following steps. 4. Set all unknown grid cells either equal to the closest known grid cell or to the average of all known grid cells. 5. Solve the finite difference equations iteratively, with the unknown grid cells being progressively adjusted to satisfy the above equation (to a limit of 999 iterations). The rate of convergence depends upon the amount of smoothing used and the distribution of initial data points. The maximum number of iterations, the iteration acceleration factor and the Page 3155 Modelling Chapter 8: Surfaces threshold for convergence have been preset to avoid any possible user confusion. Copying Surfaces You can create a new surface by copying and renaming an existing surface. The new surface will contain the same attribute information as the original. This command can be used to make a temporary backup copy of any surface prior to performing editing operations. As this command lets you enter X, Y, and/or Z offset values, you can copy and move a surface in one step. This is useful in cases where you want to make a solid from the surface for evaluation purposes. For example, if you have a surface that represents the top of a five-metre- thick seam , you can copy the top surface with an offset of -5 meters, thus creating the bottom of the seam. You can then mesh the two surfaces together to create a solid. Creating a Surface From Two Surfaces Using Math Functions You can create a new surface by applying a mathematical function to two existing surfaces. The available functions are plus, minus, divide, multiply, minimum, maximum, and average. The function operates on the Z values of the two surfaces, and, in concert with an optional scale factor and constant, yields the Z values of the resulting surface according to this equation: Z result = Scale Factor Function(Z top, Z bottom) + Constant Each node on the top surface is projected onto the "bottom" surface to calculate the new Z values according to the equation. The new surface will contain the same number of nodes as the first surface selected in this operation, and not the cumulative points of both surfaces as may be expected. Therefore, the top surface should have corresponding nodes on the bottom surface. For this reason, we suggest that this command be used with surfaces created by the Laplace Gridding Application and having exactly the same dimensions and XY locations. Page 3156 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows This command works relative to the current view plane, so it can operate on horizontal, vertical, and inclined surfaces. Intersecting Surfaces Gemcom lets you perform several advanced merging/clipping operations using surfaces. For example, you can clip all polylines or solids above or below a surface, select or deselect points above or below a surface, or merge surfaces together to make a new surface. This last capability is useful in cases where you have one surface representing topography and another representing a pit design, and you wish to combine them. As shown in Figure 8-3, you can: Create the polyline of intersection between two surfaces. Clip the portion of one surface that lies above a second, intersecting surface. Clip the portion of one surface that lies below a second, intersecting surface. Create the minimum, or the maximum, of two intersecting surfaces. Create the solid formed by two completely intersecting surfaces. By using the View menu commands with a limited corridor width, you can quickly view the top surface/plane intersection using surface models. These intersections can be used for plotting or as references for on-screen digitizing in conjunction with block model/drillhole/point information. Page 3157 Modelling Chapter 8: Surfaces Figure 8-3: Two intersecting surfaces, cut away to show detail (top) and the minimum of the two surfaces on left Page 3158 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Contouring Surfaces You can contour any surface to create new polylines. Contouring involves slicing surfaces with sets of parallel planes. Contour lines are the polylines of intersection between the surface being contoured and the parallel planes (see Figure 8-4). Contour lines are stored as polylines; once created, they can be edited, smoothed, manipulated or used in the same way as any other polylines. Contouring can be done in global or local view coordinates at specified intervals. You can define the planes in six ways: Contour in 3D global coordinates. This method contours the selected solids/surfaces using horizontal planes. You must specify the upper and lower elevation ranges (defined in global coordinates) and a contouring interval. For example, if you enter 100 as the upper elevation and 0 as the lower elevation with a 25 metre interval, you will get contours at 5 elevations, namely 100, 75, 50, 25, and 0 metres. Contour in 2D view coordinates. This method contours the selected solids/surfaces using planes parallel to the current view plane, allowing you to contour in any orientation. You must enter a towards distance for contouring (the positive distance in front of the view plane), an away distance (the positive distance behind the view plane), and a contour interval. For example, if you enter 15 as the towards distance and 10 as the away distance with a 5 metre interval, you will get contours on 6 different planes, these being 15, 10, and 5 metres in front of the active view plane, the active view plane itself (0 distance), and 5 and 10 metres behind the view plane. Contour current view plane only. This method uses the current view plane for contouring. No towards or away distances are required. Page 3159 Modelling Chapter 8: Surfaces Figure 8-4: Contours created on a set of plan views (top) and a set of vertical sections Contour all active vertical sections. This method contours the solids/surfaces using all active vertical sections. The actual planes used for contouring are obtained from the vertical section profiles active in the current Gemcom session. You can select vertical sections using Polyline } }Select } }Select Vertical Sections. Contour all active inclined sections. This method contours the solids/surfaces using all active inclined sections. The actual planes used for contouring are obtained from the inclined Page 3160 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows section profiles active in the current Gemcom session. You can select inclined sections using Polyline } }Select } }Select Inclined Sections. Contour all active plan views. This method contours the solids/surfaces using all active plan views. The actual planes used for contouring are obtained from the plan view profiles active in the current Gemcom session. You can select plan views using Polyline } }Select } }Select Plan Views. Gemcom is very flexible in that you can contour several solids and/or surfaces at once. In addition, solids need not be of the same classyou can contour Geology, Excavation, and Surface class solids in the same operation. Assigning Plane Attributes If you contour a Geology class solid, the resulting polylines will be 3D Rings that require a plane and rock code attribute. If you contour an Excavation or Surface class solid, the resulting polylines will be Status Lines that require a plane and line type attribute. There are two ways to assign the plane attribute: Automatically from plane. This command tells Gemcom to use the plane elevation (if contouring using the 3D Global coordinates option) or the distance from the view plane (if contouring using the 2D View coordinates option) as the plane attribute of all new polylines. For example, if a polyline was created by intersecting a solid with a plane at elevation 3860, activating this option would assign 3860 as the polylines plane attribute. This option should only be used in cases where you have planes defined with these names. If you are contouring using predefined planes (Vertical sections, Inclined sections, or Plan views) activating this option will assign the plane attribute of all new polylines to the name of the plane currently being processed. Based on default plane. The plane attribute for all polylines will be set to a user-specified default value. Page 3161 Modelling Chapter 8: Surfaces Surfaces with Identical Areas Intersection operations with surfaces require a line of intersection. If the two surfaces have large areas which are identical, the line of intersection will include all edges in those areas. With such a long line of intersection, processing time and the need for available memory greatly increases. However, temporarily shifting one of the surfaces a small amount (such as 2mm in elevation) will usually resolve the problem. Fixing Invalid Surfaces After Intersection The intersection of surfaces requires complex computations for many of the triangles which make up the surfaces. In isolated instances, the newly created surface may have triangles with extreme properties which render it invalid. However, temporarily shifting one of the surfaces a small amount (such as 2mm in elevation) will usually resolve the problem. Page 3162 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Displaying Surfaces Each TIN created within Gemcom (or imported into Gemcom) belongs to one of three classes: Geology, Excavation or Surface. Each active TIN is displayed based on its class assignment. You can define different display parameters for each class at any time. These parameters include: Solid display mode. You can choose one of two modes for displaying the TIN: Solid fill shows the TIN with solid coloured panels (when viewed in rendered mode). Wireframe shows only the TIN edges and no panels. Obtain colour from. Gemcom can use one of three methods to assign a colour to each individual triangle within the TIN: Primary colour method colours all triangles the same, according to the colour assigned to the TIN when it is created. Triangle dip method colours each triangle based on its dip angle (in degrees). This option is very useful in cases where the triangle dip values are critical, for example, in pit design or slope stability work. Gemcom can provide a very fast graphical overview of the slopes of your entire TIN. Triangle Z method colours each triangle based on the Z value of the triangle centroid. Colour profile for display. The Triangle Dip and Triangle Z display options require a colour profile to be defined that provides colours for all possible value ranges. It is generally wise to define colour profiles specifically for TIN viewing with these options. Z buffer shading mode. You can choose one of two modes for shading TIN panels in 3D rendered viewing mode: Flat shades each TIN panel a single colour. Flat-shaded objects retain a polyhedral appearance. Page 3163 Modelling Chapter 8: Surfaces Smooth assigns a colour to the centroid of each panel and blends the colours of adjacent panels at edges and vertices. Smooth-shaded objects appear curved. Surface Attributes In addition to path, names, and class, you can assign three attributes which affect the display characteristics of an individual surface: Panel colour. This parameter defines the colour in which the TIN will be drawn using the primary colour method. Transparency. You can make surfaces transparent in order to see data objects which are obscured from your line of sight. Smoothing. You can always display smoothshaded panels in rendered mode, regardless of program display settings. If you choose the Triangle Dip option and you want to view a design pit, you might define a colour profile called PIT-DIP with these ranges: 0 to 1 1 to 15 15 to 60 60 to 90 RED BLUE GREEN YELLOW This range shows the tops of benches. This range shows ramps. This range shows bench slopes. This range may show possible areas of slope failure. If you choose the Triangle Z option and you want to view the same design pit, you might define a colour profile called PIT-ELEV with these ranges: 1200 to 1240 1240 to 1280 1280 to 1320 1230 to 1360 1360 to 1400 RED BLUE GREEN YELLOW CYAN First Level Second Level Third Level Fourth Level Fifth Level Page 3164 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Surface Volume Reporting You can instruct Gemcom to determine the volume below a surface to a specified datum and issue a report. The resulting report includes: Surface name. Base elevation. Total XY area (the sum of all triangle areas where each triangle is projected onto the XY plane). Total surface area (the sum of all triangle areas where each triangle is projected onto its best fit plane). Total volume between the surface and the base elevation. Total triangles in TIN. Average TIN height from base elevation. If the Z value of the surface represents a grade value, this result gives the average grade over the entire area of the surface. Creating a SEG for Block Model Interfacing Gemcom can create a SEG from a triangulated surface. When you create a SEG from a surface, you can control the accuracy of the process by specifying an integration level. A SEG created from polyline data that preserves the feature breaks will give the truest possible representation of the surface. Page 3165 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Chapter 9 Solids In This Chapter Introduction Using Solids Types of Solids Solid Creation Guidelines Components of a Solid Component Requirements Amalgamation of Sub-Rings Dimples, Volcanoes, and Other Surfaces with Concavities Recommendations Logical Solids Solid Validation Fixing Invalid Solids Examples of Fixing Invalid Solids Fixing Duplication Errors Copying Solids Intersecting Solids with Planes and Other Solids Contouring Solids Displaying Solids Introduction Gemcom allows you to transform your 2D (two-dimensional) polygons into 3D (three-dimensional) solids. A solid in Gemcom is a 3D object that is created by first connecting polygons that define similar zones from one plane to another using tie lines, and then by automatically constructing a 3D triangulated surface around all the polygons and tie lines. Gemcom can create solids that represent orebodies or Page 3166 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows wastebodies, underground excavations and development such as ramps or stopes, etc. Using Solids Gemcom provides you with a set of powerful interactive tools for constructing 3D solids models (often called wire-frames). You can do the following: Create solids from combinations of polylines, points and 3D rings. Create tie lines to link polylines, points and 3D rings to control solid formation. Intersect solids with surfaces and other solids. Use solids to clip polylines. Contour solids. Create block models from solids. Calculate ore reserves inside solids and block models. Create new drillhole intersect data from solids. For detailed procedures, refer to Chapter 13: The Solid Menu. Types of Solids The solids which Gemcom uses can be separated into three categories: Geology solids. These are solids that represent homogenous volumes of ground and have rock code and grade attributes. Excavation solids. These are representations of voids left in the ground by mining. These solids may represent planned mining excavations or as-mined excavations. Page 3167 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Surfaces. .These are triangulated surfaces and are described in more detail in Chapter 8: Surfaces. Once created, a solid is a collection of triangular faces that encloses a volume. Every triangle edge is connected fully to another triangle edge. Consequently, there are no open areas or holes on the surface of a solid. Each solid is given a series of names to uniquely identify the solid, and a set of attributes that describes its properties. Solids can be created as a single entity that is known as a physical solid, having a single name and a single set of attributes to describe its properties. Solids can also be created as a group of like entities that are known as logical solids. Logical solids are also identified by a single name and a single set of attributes that are applied to all of the physical solids that form the logical solids. Once created, logical solids are treated as a single entity (i.e., the same way as a physical solid). An example of a physical solid could be a homogenous ore zone that is one complete piece; an example of a logical solid could be a homogenous ore zone that is broken into multiple zones, but is needed to be treated as a single entity. Geology Solids Geological solids represent homogenous volumes of ground. Each geological solid is identified by a three-part name, and is given a single rock-type attribute, and single grade values for each specified mineral. Geological solids are used to represent ore bodies, ore zones, dykes, sills, or any other geological zone(see Figure 9-1). Geological solids are generally constructed from combinations of 3D rings, polylines and points digitized on sections or plan views. Page 3168 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Figure 9-2: Examples of excavation solids Figure 9-1: Examples of geology solids Page 3169 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Excavation Solids Excavation solids represent voids in the ground created by mining. Each excavation solid is identified by a three-part name, and no other attributes. Excavation solids can represent development such as shafts, haulages, crosscuts, ramps or raises, or stope designs. Excavation solids can also represent excavation designs, or as-mined excavations (see Figure 9-2). Excavation solids can be constructed from digitized centrelines and cross-section profiles, outlines digitized on plan views, 3D rings, or surveyed data. Note that solids are commonly viewed in combination with other solid types and other data such as drillholes and block models for a more comprehensive visualization of data. For example, Figure 9-3 illustrates geology and excavation solids, drillholes, and block models together: Figure 9-3: Combinations of data types viewed together Page 3170 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Solid Creation Guidelines Solid models are created using three-dimensional triangulation that links together sets of planar and non-planar collections of polylines. These collections of polylines can be combinations of open-ended status lines, closed 3D rings and discrete points from drillhole intersects or other sources. The triangulation and solid formation takes place after you have linked the data elements together using three-dimensional tie lines that may be complex polylines with multiple points. Careful use and positioning of these tie lines allow you to apply extensive control on how splits, bifurcations and end closures of solids are handled. Tie lines force specific points of one polyline to connect with specific points on another adjacent polyline. At least one tie line connecting two adjacent polylines is required in order for Gemcom to create a mesh between them. All tie lines will be included as edges in the triangular mesh that forms the solid. Tie lines therefore provide as much or as little control as you like over the shape of the final solid. Figure 9-4: Two irregular polylines connected by four tie lines Page 3171 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids It is recommended that you start by using a minimum of tie lines, connecting pairs of polylines with one or two tie lines at logically corresponding points. Gradually add more tie lines as required to improve the shape of the solid or to resolve solid errors such as self- intersection. If polylines are highly irregular in shape, you may achieve the best results by using extra tie lines in areas where it is obvious that points match (see Figure 9-4). Bifurcation (division into two forks) frequently occurs wherever one polyline on a section must connect to two polylines on an adjacent section. Adding a tie line split is necessary to divide the single polyline into two sub-rings (see Figure 9-5). Tie line split Figure 9-5: Area of bifurcation Gemcom will automatically create end closures (close-offs) at the ends of a solid by determining which polylines are outermost (see Figure 9- 6). You may also need to create a close-off in an area of bifurcation, using one or more tie line splits. Page 3172 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Because the creation of tie lines is typically the most time-consuming part of solids modelling, it is highly recommended that you frequently save the ties to disk. Components of a Solid The components you use to create a solid are as follows: Rings Ties External points Part-rings Tie line splits Polylines that "close-off" the ends of the solid Figure 9-6: Close-offs Page 3173 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Figure 9-7 illustrates these components together. The following sections will discuss each component separately. Figure 9-7: Components of a solid tie line splits tie lines 3D rings part-rings external points Page 3174 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Rings A ring is defined as a 3D closed polyline (see Figure 9-8). The points that form the polyline may or may not lie on a plane. In order to be classified as a solid, an object must have at least one ring; otherwise, the object is a surface. Neighbouring rings can be at large angles to each other. Specifically, for any sequence of three rings, the angle between the plane of the first ring and the plane of the third ring must be less than 180. Each ring must form a simple circuit when it is projected onto its best- fit plane. As Figure 9-9 shows, a simple circuit means that the ring does not intersect itself. If it does, the solid creation process will report an error, and it will be necessary to modify the ring before attempting the solid creation process again. Figure 9-8: Rings Page 3175 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Sub-Rings Rings can either be single entities, or they can be split into sub-rings (see Figure 9-10) using tie line splits that connect points on the same ring (as opposed to tie lines that connect rings on different planes). Figure 9-10: Sub-Rings OK ERROR ERROR Figure 9-9: Rings must be simple circuits A single ring with no splits A ring split into sub-rings by two tie lines across its face Page 3176 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Ties A tie is a polyline that connects other elements of the solid to each other. A tie may have multiple segments. Each end of a tie lies on a ring, a part-ring, an external point, or a split. Any number of tie lines may start or end at the same point (see Figure 9-11). Figure 9-11: Examples of ties External Points External points are used to terminate sections of the solid. These are useful if you think there is part of the solid beyond the last ring, but have no further hard data. You can place a point logically beyond the last ring at an estimated location. You can think of an external point as a one-point ring. An external point must be connected by at least one tie (see Figure 9-12). Page 3177 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Part-Rings A part-ring is a partial ring, i.e., it is not closed. A part-ring is used when a full ring is not available. It modifies the solid surface in a local area. There are two types of part-rings: Internal. An internal part-ring is internal in that it is logically between other components of the solid (see Figure 9-13). External. An external part-ring is external in that it is not logically between other components. Instead, it is used to terminate a portion of the solid, as per an external point (see Figure 9-14). Figure 9-12: An external point Page 3178 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Figure 9-14: An external part-ring Figure 9-13: Internal part-rings Page 3179 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Tie Line Splits Tie line splits are polylines that divide a ring into two or more sub- rings. Splits may have multiple segments. Each split starts and ends on the same ring. Splits do not cross each other, nor do they join or touch each other, except for possibly their end points. Splits are used for bifurcation and/or close-offs. The area between the two highlighted splits in Figure 9-15 forms a close-off that separates the legs of the bifurcation. Figure 9-15: Splits Page 3180 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Component Requirements The specific requirements for the components of a solid are very few. However, it is important that the user understand them. Requirements for Ties & Part-Rings All part-rings need ties. External part-rings may be connected by ties only to a logically adjacent full ring. A tie may not connect an external part-ring to an internal part-ring, as shown in Figure 9-16. This is restated here as a warning. An external part-ring must not have part-rings for neighbours. In other words, no part-rings are allowed between an external part-ring and the adjacent full ring. e1 e2 e3 i1 i2 i3 Figure 9-16: An incorrect data set Figure 9-17 shows the correct use of an external part-ring. ! Error: the internal part- ring (i1, i2, i3) is not allowed between the full ring and the external part-ring (e1, e2, e3). Page 3181 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids a b c d Figure 9-18: Ties to the ends of internal part-rings Figure 9-17: A correct data set The external part-ring is connected directly to the full ring Points a, b, c, and d are the ends of internal part-rings. From each one there are two ties, in logically opposite directions Page 3182 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Each end of an internal part-ring needs exactly two ties, one in each of two logically opposite directions (see Figure 9-18). Requirements for Sequences of Ties Ties which join onto part-rings must be able to be joined into a sequence of ties, at the points where the sequence crosses the part- ring. The sequences must be completely separate, except possibly where they join a full ring or external point. See the following examples of correct and incorrect tie sequences. The legend in Figure 9-19 applies to all example diagrams in Figure 9- 20 and Figure 9-21. tie lines rings/part-rings Figure 9-19: Diagram legend Page 3183 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
A correct configuration a p Error: tie a is not a member of a sequence of ties crossing part-ring p. a b c d e Error: sequences abc and ade go through, but they are not separate. Figure 9-20: Example using two complete rings and two part-rings Page 3184 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows A correct configuration A correct configuration Error: a sequence of ties does not cross the part-ring. Figure 9-21: Example using two complete rings and one part-ring. Page 3185 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Requirements for Ties & External Part-Rings The requirements for ties which join external part-rings are very specific. The requirements are also very natural. If an external part-ring has only one tie to it, the tie must be to one end of the part-ring (see Figure 9-22). OK ERROR Figure 9-22: External part-ring with one tie If an external part-ring has two or more ties to it, there must be one tie to each end (see Figure 9-23). OK ERROR ERROR Figure 9-23: External part-ring with two or more ties Requirements for Ties Between Two Full Rings If two rings of the solid to be formed are connected by ties, there are certain requirements for the ties. For purposes of this section, we shall consider a sequence of ties to be a tie, and will ignore ties which connect to splits. We will also ignore part-rings. In all cases, if your ties violate these rules, the program will highlight the two rings and ask for more ties. You will need to add ties which do not connect to a split. The best ties to add have end-points which are not shared by other ties. Page 3186 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows If the two rings are connected by a single tie, there are no further requirements (see Figure 9-24). OK Figure 9-24: Two rings with one tie If the two rings are connected by two ties, the four end-points of the ties must all be different (see Figure 9-25). OK ERROR Figure 9-25: Two rings with two ties If the two rings are connected by three ties, the three ties must have at least five different end-points (see Figure 9-26). OK: 6 end-pts ERROR: 4 end-pts OK: 5 end-pts ERROR: 4 end-pts Figure 9-26: Two rings with three ties If the two rings are connected by four or more ties, there is no simple concise rule. However, it is far better to have many different end- points for the ties, than just a few shared end-points. Page 3187 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Requirements for Rings, Ties, and Part-Rings Certain conditions exist which would result in ambiguities of data, when dealing with rings, ties and part-rings: Sprays of ties Not enough ties Ties which connect to splits Sprays of Ties Two rings or sub-rings connected only by a spray of ties is ambiguous. A spray of ties is two or more ties with a single common end-point (see Figure 9-27). Figure 9-27: A spray of ties: you will be asked to supply more ties. Page 3188 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Not Enough Ties When there is a pair of rings with exactly two ties, with one or more part-rings, the case is ambiguous (see Figure 9-28). Ties Which Connect to Splits A tie may connect to any point of a split (see Figure 9-29). Figure 9-29: A tie connecting to an interior point of a split However, Figure 9-30 illustrates a requirement for additional ties. The two ties need some assistance; by themselves it is not clear whether Figure 9-28: Ambiguous case: you will be asked to specify more ties. Page 3189 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids the ring on the far right forms a solid with either one of the sub-rings, or both. The addition of ties which do not join the split is required to resolve the situation. Figure 9-30: Ambiguous case: you will asked to specify more ties. Page 3190 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Amalgamation of Sub-Rings For purposes of explanation in this section, sequences of ties between two rings will be considered to be a single tie. Also, part-rings will be ignored. Amalgamation of Sub-Rings on a Ring Face Each ring has two faces, or sides, to it. When a ring is divided into sub- rings, Gemcom makes a set of sub-rings for each face. The sub-rings for each face are then amalgamated according to these rules: Firstly, ties which connect to a split are deactivated temporarily. The reason for temporary deactivation is to ensure unambiguous relationships between the sub-rings. After temporarily deactivating ties which connect to splits, three rules come into force for the amalgamation of sub-rings. Rule 1: If sub-rings a and b are each tied to the same single sub-ring c, then a and b will be amalgamated into a single ring (on the side connected to c) prior to forming the solid with c (see Figure 9-31 and Figure 9-32). Page 3191 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Figure 9-32: Resultant solid Figure 9-31: Illustration of Amalgamation Rule 1 These are the rings and tie lines as they exist before solid creation. The two sub-rings on the middle ring will be amalgamated when meshing to the ring on the right. The split in the middle ring was ignored when meshing to the right ring, but honoured when meshing to the left one. Page 3192 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Figure 9-34: Resultant solid In Figure 9-33 and Figure 9-34, both the middle sub-rings are tied to the rings on the right and left, so the middle sub-rings will be amalgamated before forming the solid with the other rings. Note that this action is different from methods formerly used in GEM-SOLID. Figure 9-33: Illustration of Amalgamation Rule 1 Page 3193 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Figure 9-36: Resultant solid Rule 2: If sub-rings a and b are the adjoining sub-rings of ring R, and c and d are the adjoining sub-rings of ring S, and a is tied to c and b is tied to d, Gemcom will amalgamate a with b and c with d before forming the solid (see Figure 9-35 and Figure 9-36). Figure 9-35: Illustration of Amalgamation Rule 2 Both sets of sub-rings on the face of each ring will be amalgamated before forming the solid. Page 3194 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Rule 3: If a and b are both tied to the same sub-ring c, but a and b share no segments, this creates an error (see Figure 9-37). Dimples, Volcanoes, and Other Surfaces with Concavities Gemcom offers the capability to model surfaces with concavities. If a solid has concavities on the sides, the concavities will be represented in the rings, and solid formation will model the concavities without further processing (see Figure 9-38). Figure 9-38: A solid with a concavity on the side Figure 9-37: An amalgamation error Page 3195 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids If a solid has a concavity on the end, (e.g., if a close-off ring has a dimple in it), you can model this readily, but in a different manner. For example, a volcano would be modelled by constructing two solids: 1) a filled-in version of the volcano and 2) the plug at the top; and then clipping the former against the latter using the solid operations described elsewhere in this manual (see Figure 9-39). Recommendations The insertion of ties can have a very strong influence on the final solid. The filled-in volcano The plug at the end of the volcano The modelled volcano Figure 9-39: Modelling a volcano Page 3196 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Controlling the Formation of Triangles Let us look first at a simple example. n f A near ring n and a far ring f n f With three ties added One triangulation of the upper surface Another triangulation of the upper surface Page 3197 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Figure 9-40: Alternate triangulations Figure 9-40 illustrates that there are multiple ways of creating triangles to form a solid. Note that different sets of triangles will give different volumes, different cross-sections, etc. If you have a preference for the triangulation of your solid, then it is recommended that you place ties to express your preference. Between ties, the program will choose triangles for you. You should examine your solid carefully, and either add more ties or modify your current ties to produce the solid that you want. Ties with More Than Two Points Your ties may have many points. This enables you to control the shape of a solid in a local area. However, if you use ties with more than two points, you may need to control the triangles on either side of the multi-point tie. You would exercise control of the triangles by placement of more ties (see Figure 9-41.) Page 3198 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Bidirectional Bifurcations It is possible to create a solid which contains a bidirectional bifurcation (see Figure 9-42). A solid with a concavity A possible triangulation. A more conventional triangulation Figure 9-41: Alternate triangulations Triangles on the back side have been omitted for clarity. Addition of this tie line restricts the influence of the concave tie. Page 3199 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Figure 9-42: A bidirectional bifurcation The resulting solid will have two parts which meet only along a line. This is not recommended practice. Triangles which adjoin the meeting line will have more than the normal one neighbour per edge. Zero-Thickness Portions of a Ring It is possible for the data to produce solids in which some rings contribute zerothickness portions to the solid. This is allowed as a preliminary step to permit test-formation of solids, but is not recommended for the final solid. Triangles on the two faces of the zerothickness portions will have more than the normal one neighbour per edge (see Figure 9-43). Page 3200 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Ties Be generous when inserting ties, especially with ties that do not connect to splits. Logical Solids A logical solid is simply a collection of physical solids which have been designated as belonging logically together. A logical solid may be useful in a zone in which the ore is extensively fractured, where each physical solid represents a parcel of ore (see Figure 9-44). Figure 9-44: Cross section through a logical solid Logical solids are also used for nesting. Two solids are nested when one fully encloses the other. For example, an orebody of one type could contain an orebody of another type (see Figure 9-45). a Figure 9-43: A zerothickness portion of a solid Page 3201 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Figure 9-45: Cross section through a nested solid The concept of nesting includes cases in which one solid fully encloses multiple solids which may in turn enclose other solids, etc. Volume Calculations for Logical Solids Gemcom makes certain assumptions about each physical solid member of a logical solid when performing volume calculations for the logical solid. Gemcom assumes that the physical solids which are outermost (i.e., not contained in any other physical solid) contribute positively to the volume. The physical solids which are next to outermost contribute negatively to the volume. The contributions of any other physical solids continue to alternate according to their level of nesting. Page 3202 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows In Figure 9-46, the volume of the logical solid is the volume of A minus the volume of B plus the volume of C. Solid Validation Gemcom provides the capability for validating solids. It is strongly recommended that you validate all solids upon creation (or upon importation into Gemcom). Invalid solids can lead to incorrect volumetrics as well as errors when intersecting solids with other solids or surfaces. Early validation will help to ensure reliable results. When validating solids, the program checks for invalid triangle edges and self-intersection. To be valid, a solid may not intersect itself. A solid is self-intersecting when one part of the solid intersects another part of the same solid (i.e., when any of its triangles intersect each other). As well, each edge in a valid solid must be part of only two A B C Figure 9-46: Cut-away drawing of a nested logical solid Page 3203 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids triangles (or one triangle in the case of edges along the perimeter of a valid surface). Whenever a solid is validated, the program looks for self-intersecting triangles and counts triangle edges to determine if any are connected to more edges than allowed. If any errors are discovered, Gemcom displays an error message and highlights the problem areas. Fixing Invalid Solids There are a number of situations that give rise to problems associated with solid construction. Most of the problems are related to the varying shapes or odd placement of the polygons (3D rings) being meshed. The first step in fixing an invalid solid is to inspect the area(s) identified by the program as containing self-intersecting triangles or invalid edges. Gemcom allows you to form a solid (or save polylines) of the incorrect triangles to facilitate the inspection. If the original solid was formed from ties and rings, you can display the bad triangles with the original ties and rings. There are several strategies for correcting invalid solids: Strategic placement of tie lines. One way to eliminate self- intersection is to change or add tie lines. The original placement of a tie line may be forcing the creation of triangle edges in an inappropriate direction. Adding full or part-rings. Full or part-rings can be added between rings to maintain separation. Changing or adding tie line splits. Since all tie lines (including splits) can have multiple points, you can add points to change the shape of the split. Alternatively, you can put in two splits close together, which creates a small close-off between them. This will separate the two legs of a bifurcation a small amount. Or, you can create tie lines from a split to a ring to improve the triangulation. Page 3204 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Adding nodes or thickening the 3D rings. You can resolve solid self-intersection by thickening the rings or the ties (or both). Thickening is the process of increasing the density of points along a line. However, the thickening of lines may produce more triangles in the solid than actually required, thus unnecessarily increasing the processing time and the memory needed. For these reasons, this strategy should be used sparingly: it is usually best to add nodes manually in only the problem areas. Another possibility for correcting invalid solids may be the modification of the original 3D rings. While this can solve meshing problems, it is usually undesirable given that the purpose of solid building is to create a solid that conforms to defined 3D shapes. Examples of Fixing Invalid Solids Three examples are presented here of common situations that can produce invalid solids or surfaces. For each example, we will outline the steps that can be taken to correct (or prevent) the problems. For simplicity of illustration, we will use solids being created with two or three 3D rings at a time. The example dataset is a series of 3D rings that represent the lithological extent of a vein structure (see Figure 9-47). Each ring has been digitized on section. However, they are non-planar, meaning that some points have been digitized at distances in and out of each section. The first example illustrates the steps used to correct an invalid solid that was created from two 3D rings that are varying in both shape and size. The other examples illustrate cases where the narrowness of rings and their positions relative to each other are the critical factors causing problems. Page 3205 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Changing Tie Lines In the first example, we will create a solid by meshing the 3D rings on section 10500E and 10550E. In the first attempt, we place one tie line connecting the top of each ring (see Figure 9-48). 10500E 10550E 10400E 10350E 10200E 10150E West Figure 9-47: 3D rings on sections from the example dataset Page 3206 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Figure 9-49 shows the resulting solid. However, upon validating the solid using Solid } }Options } }Check Solid/Surface Validity, we find Section 10500E Tie line Section 10550E Figure 9-48; Original placement of tie line Figure 9-49: Resulting solid Page 3207 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids that the solid has twenty-four self-intersecting triangles (see Figure 9- 50). We save the bad triangles as a solid so that we can display the exact location of the problem areas onscreen (see Figure 9-51). All other solids are turned off or de-selected. We can now see that there are two self-intersecting areas. We shall examine each one. Figure 9-50: Solid verification status box Area B Area A Figure 9-51: Bad triangles displayed as a solid Page 3208 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Two conditions are causing the self-intersection of triangles in Area A. The first is related both to the placement of the original tie line connecting the 3D rings and to the varying shape of each ring. The solid creation process normally connects nodes on one ring that are proximal to nodes on a connected ring. The placement of a tie line overrides this normal construction process and alters which nodes will be connected to others. In Figure 9-52, the triangular edges that make up Area A are oriented in the same direction as the tie line. This is causing unnecessarily long triangular edges, resulting in self- intersection. The second condition in Area A is the shape of the 3D ring on section 10550E (the shorter ring). The narrowness of this ring increases the probability of self-intersecting triangles, especially when the triangular edges are long. The problem in Area B is quite evident in Figure 9-52: the triangular edges are intersecting the back face of the solid on ring 10500E. As in Area A, the self-intersecting triangles are a result of two conditions. Again, triangle edges are unnecessarily elongated because of a solid Area A Area B Narrow 3D ring Ring 10500E Tie line Ring 10550E Figure 9-52: Close-up of problem areas Page 3209 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids creation pattern that is based on the poor placement of the tie line. The second condition is due to the meshing of non-planar rings (creating the bend at Area B). Both areas can be easily corrected. The key is to determine a common condition contributing to both problems. Since unnecessarily long edges occurs in both areas, it follows that we should direct our attention to changing the placement of the original tie line. A better placement is illustrated in Figure 9-53: New tie lines Figure 9-53: New placement of tie line Placing two tie lines in this manner should reduce the chance of unnecessarily long triangle edges. Page 3210 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Notice the new orientation of the resulting triangle edges in Figure 9- 54, when compared to the original solid. Another validity test finds that none of the triangles self-intersect. The new solid is valid. Adding Nodes and Part-Rings Our second example examines the same problem of self-intersecting triangles between 3D rings. In this case, the bottom of the solid is visibly intersecting the top of the solid. We are using sections 10350E and 10400E: Figure 9-54: Resulting solid Page 3211 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Section 10350E Section 10400E Area C Area D Figure 9-55: Bad triangles displayed as solid As seen in Figure 9-55, we have placed the tie lines so as to eliminate the possibility of self-intersecting triangles in Area C. However, after validating the solid, we see that triangles self-intersect in Area D. When the area of self-intersection is rendered, the bottom of the solid can be seen peeking through the top. In the 3D view (Figure 9-56), we can see that the narrowness of the 3D rings is a factor, combined with the unnecessarily long triangular edges. In the 2D view (Figure 9-57), we can also observe that the sharp and narrow bend on ring 10350E is contributing to the self-intersection. Page 3212 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Two strategies for correcting the solid are possible. Bottom of solid protruding through the top Figure 9-56: Rendered 3D view of problem area Ring on section 10400E (foreground) Area of self-intersecting triangles Tie lines Ring on section 10350E (background) Sharp and narrow bend Figure 9-57: 2D view of section, looking west Page 3213 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids The first is to insert part-rings between both rings. These part-rings force the solid creation process to maintain some solid thickness between the original rings, thus reducing the chance of self- intersection. The second strategy would be to insert more points along both rings in the area of self-intersection. Adding nodes reduces the length of triangular edges, thereby minimizing the chance of self-intersection. Nodes are added using Polyline } }Multiline } }Thicken. In Figure 9-58, we add two internal part-rings in the area of the problem. An extra node is also inserted on ring 10400E to provide an anchor for the back face of the part-ring. The resulting solid is correct with no self-intersecting triangles. Figure 9-59 shows another way we could have corrected the solid. The addition of nodes and a few extra tie lines for control appears to be the easiest strategy. Additional node Two part-rings Additional tie lines Additional tie lines Figure 9-58: Adding two part-rings Page 3214 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Adding 3D Rings Gemcom performs validity checks on a hierarchical basis. The process first looks for invalid edges, and then for self-intersecting triangles. If the system encounters invalid edges, it will discontinue any further checks for self-intersection. Invalid edges occur when three or more triangles share an edge. The most likely occurrence of this is in areas of bifurcation, when the inside surface of the solid becomes coincident with itself: part of the surface may internally touch another part of the surface. You can visualize this by thinking of squeezing a balloon: where your thumb and index finger touch each other would be an invalid edge. In the following example, our attempt to validate a solid created from rings on sections 10150E and 10200E produces the error message seen in Figure 9-60: Ring has been thickened Ring has been thickened Figure 9-59: Adding extra nodes and ties Page 3215 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids The error message indicates that the meshing process has detected one bad edge. The problem area is located along the edge of bifurcation (see Figure 9-61). Section 10150E Section 10200E Tie line (line of bifurcation) Tie line Tie line Figure 9-61: Placement of tie lines for bifurcated solid creation Figure 9-62 shows that the four bad triangles have a coincident edgethe line of bifurcation. Fortunately, the solution is simple. By adding another ring adjacent to section 10150E, we can force the back side of the solid away from the Figure 9-60: Solid verification status box Page 3216 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows plane containing the line of bifurcation. Since the ultimate goal is to create a solid for all rings, we can add the needed ring by simply activating the ring on the next section (10100E). We then add some tie lines and create a solid using all three sections (see Figure 9-63). If no other sections had existed in our dataset, we could have copied the ring on section 10150E and placed the duplicate a small distance west of the bifurcation. We would then construct the solid by Bad triangles Bad triangles Bad edge (coincident with tie line defining line of bifurcation) Figure 9-62: Rendered 3D view of the four bad triangles Ring on section 10100E Area of bifurcation Figure 9-63: Adding a new 3D ring Page 3217 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids connecting the duplicate ring with the ring on section 10150E with as many tie lines as necessary. Remember that after you fix invalid edges, you must validate the new solid to check for any self-intersecting triangles that were previously ignored by the validation process. Fixing Duplication Errors Figure 9-64 shows a common error message encountered during solid creation: Figure 9-64: Solid creation error message However, your dataset of 3D rings may clearly show that all tie line endpoints are connected to only one ring. The problem is often that some of the rings are duplicated and thus not readily visible. You may have unintentionally produced this situation by loading a dataset of 3D rings or tie lines more than once. You can check for duplicate rings, lines, or tie lines by activating all lines and running the consolidation process using Polyline } }Multiline } }Consolidate. This process checks for duplicate lines and segments and eliminates them in one step. Copying Solids You can create a new solid by copying and renaming an existing solid. The new solid will contain the same attribute information as the Page 3218 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows original. This option can be used to make a temporary backup copy of any solid prior to performing editing operations. As this option allows you to enter X, Y, and/or Z offset values, you can copy and move a solid in one step. For example, if for some reason a solid is in the wrong location but you know the XYZ offsets that would correct the error, by giving the new solid the same name as the original you can overwrite the original solid in the proper position. Intersecting Solids with Planes and Other Solids You can create solids by intersecting solids with other solids, surfaces or planes. You can calculate and view these intersections at any orientation in both 2D and 3D. The ability to intersect and combine solids is an extremely powerful feature of the solids modelling capabilities of Gemcom. Figure 9-65: Two intersecting solids Examples operations refer to the sample solids in Figure 9-65. You can interactively select solids with the mouse and then do the following: Create the polyline of intersection between two solids. Clip a solid inside or outside a polygon. Clip the portion of a solid that lies above or below a surface. Clip the solid portion of a solid that lies inside another solid (see Figure 9-66). Page 3219 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Figure 9-66: Solid A clipped by solid B Intersect solid with another solid (see Figure 9-67). Figure 9-67: Solid A intersected with solid B Create the union of one solid with another solid (see Figure 9-68). Figure 9-68: Union of solid A and solid B You can use the solid-to-surface intersection options to assist in building accurate geological models, for example, by trimming Page 3220 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows geological solids with surfaces that represent fault planes, or by trimming solids that protrude above surface topographies. The solid-to-solid options can be effectively used to add further control to the shapes of solids representing ore zones, or can be used in various underground mine planning functions when solids are being used to represent mine development, stopes or other excavations that require trimming or combining. Intersecting Logical Solids As with any solid, a logical solid should not intersect itself; surfaces of the member physical solids may not intersect each other. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that you avoid cases in which the physical solids touch or intersect at a point or a line, or nearly at a point or line (see Figure 9-69 and Figure 9-70). Figure 9-69: Two solids intersecting in a single point Figure 9-70: Two solids intersecting in a line segment Page 3221 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids If any of these conditions exist, you should change the solids slightly, by placing a significant amount of space between them (e.g., 0.1 metre). Intersection operations between logical solids produce the same intuitive results as for physical solids. However, intersections between a surface and a logical solid make sense only when the surface intersects all of the physical solids members of the logical solid. If the surface misses any of the physical solids, the result will be undefined. Fixing Invalid Solids After Intersection The intersection of solids requires complex computations for many of the triangles which make up the solids. In isolated instances, the newly created solid may have triangles with extreme properties which render it invalid. However, temporarily shifting one of the solids a small amount (e.g., two millimetres in elevation) will usually resolve the problem. Contouring Contouring involves slicing solids with sets of parallel planes (see Figure 9-71 and Figure 9-72). Contour lines are the polylines of intersection between the solid being contoured and the parallel planes. The contour lines are stored as polylines, so once they are created they can be edited, smoothed, manipulated or used in the same manner as any other polyline. This means that you can create solids from sets of polylines on vertical sections, create contours on plan views, edit the polylines that were created in the contouring process, and then rebuild the solids from the plan view data to get a new interpretation of your data. You can define the planes in a number of ways: As horizontal planes, by specifying the upper and lower elevations and the separation distances between the planes. In the current view plane, with an upper and lower local Z value, and separation distances between the planes. Page 3222 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows As the current view plane. Using all active vertical sections. Using all active plan views. Using all active inclined sections. The resulting solid/surface/plane intersections will be saved as polylines. The attributes assigned to these polylines will depend on both the user inputs and the attributes and class of the contoured TIN. Figure 9-71: Contours from a solid using vertical sections Figure 9-72: Contours from a solid using plan views Page 3223 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids If you are contouring Geology class solids, the resulting polylines will be stored as 3D Ring polylines and will inherit the rock code from the solid. If you are contouring Excavation or Surface class TINs, the polylines will be stored as Status Line type and will be assigned the default status line type. If you are contouring pre-defined planes (for example, all vertical sections), the plane attribute of the polylines will be assigned based on the section name. You can preset default values for all the polyline attributes if you dont want the program to automatically assign the attributes for you. The polylines created from contouring can be used for all normal polyline operations (clipping, solid creation, editing, etc.). Displaying Solids Each TIN created within Gemcom (or imported into Gemcom) belongs to one of three classes: Geology, Excavation or Surface. All active TINs are displayed based on their class assignment. You can define different display parameters for each class at any time. These parameters include: Solid display mode. You can choose one of two modes for displaying the TIN. Solid fill shows the TIN with solid coloured panels (when viewed in rendered mode). Wireframe shows only the TIN edges and no panels. Obtain colour from. Gemcom can use one of three methods to assign a colour to each individual triangle within the TIN: Primary colour method colours all triangles the same, according to the colour assigned to the TIN when it is created. Triangle dip method colours each triangle based on its dip angle (in degrees). This option is very useful in cases where the Page 3224 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows triangle dip values are critical, for example, in pit design or slope stability work. Gemcom can provide a very fast graphical overview of the slopes of your entire TIN. Triangle Z method colours each triangle based on the Z value of the triangle centroid. Colour profile for display. The Triangle Dip and Triangle Z display options require a colour profile to be defined that provides colours for all possible value ranges. It is generally a good idea to define colour profiles specifically for viewing TINs with these options. Z buffer shading mode. You can choose one of two modes for shading TIN panels in 3D rendered viewing mode: Flat shades each TIN panel a single colour. Flat-shaded objects retain a polyhedral appearance (see Figure 9-73). Smooth assigns a colour to the centroid of each panel and blends the colours of adjacent panels at edges and vertices. Smooth-shaded objects appear curved (see Figure 9-74). Figure 9-73: The flat-shaded sphere displays a polyhedral, "golf ball" appearance Page 3225 Modelling Chapter 9: Solids Solid Attributes In addition to path, names, and class (and grades for Geology solids) you can assign three attributes which directly affect the display characteristics of an individual solid or surface: Panel colour (for excavations or surfaces) or Geological code (for geology solids). This parameter defines the colour in which the TIN will be drawn using the primary colour method, either explicitly or via the rock code profile. Transparency. You can make solids and surfaces transparent in order to see data objects which are obscured from your line of sight. When you define multiple overlapping transparent solids, Gemcom may make some of them opaque for clarity. Smoothing. You can always display smoothshaded panels in rendered mode, regardless of program display settings. Figure 9-74: The smooth-shaded sphere displays a smooth, "ping- pong ball" appearance Page 3227 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting Chapter 10 Reserves Reporting In This Chapter Introduction Components of Reserves Reporting Report Types Report Structure Reserves Reporting Profiles Mined and Filled Volumes Default Rock Code and Grades Overlapping Solids Needling Checking Needle Accuracy Using Clipping Polygons Issuing a Report Polygonal Reserves Introduction The Volumetrics menu allows you to produce reserves reports containing volume, grade, density, tonnage and product information. The volumetrics toolbox is extremely flexible: you can report quantities of ore and waste within solids and between surfaces by groupings of rock codes and grade ranges, and with varying levels of detail. Volumetrics can incorporate block models for the reserve calculations, by evaluating the proportion of each block that is contained within a solid or between surfaces. You can also report polygonal reserves. Page 3228 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows During reserves reporting, the program will assemble a number of individual categories created from a combination of reporting profiles, active solids and surfaces, block models, and specified planes. For example, the comprehensive nature of Gemcom Volumetrics would allow you to produce reports showing: Mined and filled volumes between two surfaces, sorted by bench, rock code, and by high, low, and waste copper grade ranges. The grades and densities could come from block models. The tons of ore and waste (dilution) in a planned stope, sorted section-by-section, with the ore sorted by gold grade ranges that are sorted by rock code. The grades could come from block models and the densities from geology solids. The Volumetrics menu provides meaningful reports whether you are working in an open pit or underground environment, and in either the planned or as-mined stages. For step-by-step procedures for creating reserves reports, see Chapter 14: The Volumetrics Menu. Components of Reserves Reporting Gemcom estimates volumes by penetrating various data components with a number of needles. Geometric definitions and density and grade values are derived from the following data: Geology solids. A geology solid is a volume of a homogenous geological zone typically representing orebody limits and/or rock code units. The rock code, density and/or grade attributes of these solids (assigned when a solid is created) can be used to classify the material contained within each geology solid during reserves reporting. You can create one report using many geology solids, with each being reported individually. Excavation solids. Excavation solids are usually associated with an underground mine, typically representing the total volumes of stopes, headings, or pit designs. As these solids are commonly used to Page 3229 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting represent development-type solids, they do not contain rock code, density or grade information. For reserves reporting, Gemcom handles planned and as-mined excavation solids in the same way. You can create one report using many excavation solids, with each being reported individually. Surfaces. Surfaces are associated with open pit mines, and may represent original topography, pit designs, pit status maps, or stockpiles. They may also be sub-surface structures such as faults, the tops or bottoms of coal seams, or lithological contacts. A surface does not have rock code, density or grade information. Two surfaces are used in reserves reporting to represent the total volume between the top surface and the bottom surface, either planned or as-mined. An environment using Gemcom for mine planning may want to report the volumes and grades between the original topography and a 20 year pit design; an operating mine may want to report the amount of material mined during the previous month or the amount of material in a stockpile. Planes. Defined plan views, vertical sections, or inclined sections can be used to subdivide any reserves report into logical mining or planning units. Using planes allows for much reporting flexibility. For example, a reserves report of a 20 year pit design, or a large stope design, would likely need to be structured on a plan view-by-plan view (bench-by-bench) basis. Other mining methods (e.g., strip mining), may require a report to be sorted by vertical sections, each representing a particular phase of mining. Block models. Density and grade values for reserves reporting may come from block models in the currently assigned orebody project. Standard, waste or ore density block models provide relative density values for a rock code. Grade block models provide grade information for one grade element. If you have complex solids that you need to map to a variety of block models, you can assign each Gemcom rock code to a different set of block models (a folder). Each folder can contain different density and grade models. For example, you may assign a high grade rock code to one folder which contains a high grade block model. Then, you can Page 3230 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows assign a low grade rock code to a folder which contains a low grade block model. This way, one block of an entire block model can have different rock codes and different grades (controlled by the Gemcom solids). You define the block model names and folders. See Chapter 3: Block Model Projects for more information on defining block models and folders. Rock type. When creating rock code definitions in Gemcom, it is possible to tag a rock code as barren (waste). This allows for flexible and efficient reserves reporting since you can include areas that will not be accessed for grade calculations; any rock code designated as waste contributes only volume and density information to the reserves reporting calculations. Generally you would use a waste designation for host rock or for the reserves reporting default rock code (for unmodelled areas). Report Types By combining the various report components, many types of reserves reports describing volume, tonnage, grade and product can be issued. The different combinations are outlined in the tables below. Volume calculated Density and grade source Sample applications Activate Multiple geology solids Solid attributes Conventional in-situ geological reserves when you have created many geological solids but no detailed block models of grades. Geology solids Multiple excavation solids User-specified defaults Developments remote from the main ore zone (i.e., the tunnels do not intersect any geology solids). Simple report for project with many excavation solids. Excavatio n solids Page 3231 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting Volume calculated Density and grade source Sample applications Activate Intersection of multiple geology and excavation solids* Solid attributes (geology solids) Quick and approximate reserve calculations. Dilution assessment where solids have been defined for ore zones but not for surrounding host rock. If excavations extend beyond the ore zones into the host rock, outer material will be classified by user- specified default parameters and considered dilution. Geology solids and Excavatio n solids Block model material within multiple excavation solids Block models When geology is either extremely complex or extremely simple, and it is considered unnecessary to construct geology solids. When geology is complex, a small block size is desirable. The rock code model could be built from bench plans or cross-sectional polygons; the report would logically be subdivided by plan view. Short-term planning operations where several excavations lie entirely within a given geology solid. Or, if large blocks have been kriged using indicator or log normal short-cut methods, the exact location of ore within a block will be unknown. In this case, precise geological control at a block-by-block level may not be available and interaction with geology solids may not be required. Excavatio n solids and Block models Block model and geology solid material within multiple excavation solids** Solid attributes (geology solids) or block models An underground mine, reported by plan view or by section. This type of report is suitable for detailed reserve calculations and could be done following a report computing the intersections of the geology solids and block models. Geology solids, Excavatio n solids and Block models * For these reports, the needle pattern only needs to cover the excavations. This permits a denser needling pattern in the area of interest, which is particularly useful when you have large geology solids and small excavation solids. ** If a high level of accuracy is required, needle generation and reserves calculations for this type of report may take several hours. Therefore, it is recommended that you initially do a few test runs using only one or two solids. Page 3232 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Volume calculated Density and grade source Sample applications Activate Block model material within multiple geology solids Solid attributes or block models Conventional detailed in-situ reserves reports (e.g., when you have created a high grade solid, a low grade solid, and a block model of grades using kriging or inverse distance techniques). Conventional reports may be modified for cases where adjacent solids have very different grades, and the blocks containing both rock codes would be poorly represented by one average grade. You can point solids to different grade block models by assigning block model folders to the rock codes assigned to the solids. With different block models for different grades, you can have more than one rock code per block and thus a more accurate representation of grade values. You can choose a block size based upon geostatistical considerations rather than having to use a small block size and use different interpolation techniques for the different grade block models if desired. Geology solids and Block models Mined and filled volume between two surfaces User-specified defaults Total volume for a pit design. Surfaces Intersection of multiple geology solids with Mined and filled volume between two surfaces Solid attributes (geology solids) Calculating tonnage when strip mining coal. The report would likely be subdivided by vertical section, representing the different phases of mining. Dilution assessment where solids have been defined for ore zones but not for the surrounding host rock. Where the area between the surfaces extends outside of the ore zones into the host rock, the outer material will be classified by user-specified default parameters and considered dilution. Geology solids and Surfaces Page 3233 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting Volume calculated Density and grade source Sample applications Activate Block model material within mined and filled volume between two surfaces Block models To simply determine the total ounces of gold in a pit, before the location of the ore within different rock codes or within specific benches is relevant. Block models and Surfaces Block model and geology solid material within mined and filled volume between two surfaces** Solid attributes (geology solids) or block models Open pit mine requiring a report subdivided by plan views representing benches. This report is suitable for detailed reserve calculations and could be done following a report computing the intersections of the geology solids and block models. Geology solids, Block models and Surfaces ** If a high level of accuracy is required, needle generation and reserves calculations for this type of report may take several hours. Therefore, it is recommended that you initially do a few test runs using only one or two solids. For estimating ore reserves, you must have at least one geology solid, or one excavation solid, or two surfaces. When combining geology solids with excavation solids or surfaces, only the data within the excavations or surfaces is reported. Reports that include interaction with one or more block models will generally take longer to produce than other reports. Page 3234 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows The report illustrated in Figure 10-1 would provide ore/waste totals within the pit sorted on a plan view-by-plan view basis. Report Structure The Reserves Reporting process ultimately creates numerous individual reporting categories, each classifying "homogenous" material. For example, an individual reporting category may contain this type of information: All material in stope S100 on plan view B256 that is rock code ORE and contains copper grades greater that 0.25 % and gold grades between 2 and 8 grams/ton These categories are assembled according to the user-specified hierarchy of (up to) four sorting options. The inclusion of the various sorting options is determined by the data components of the report. The individual reporting categories are further defined by the way you X Z B260 B220 B180 B140 B100 Original topography Geology solids Planviews B100-B260, representing mining benches Pit design Figure 10-1: Report combining surfaces, geology solids and plan views Page 3235 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting have defined and linked rock codes and grade ranges (see the following section Reserves Reporting Profiles). The four sorting options for each reserves report are: Excavation. Sorts information by excavation or into mined and filled totals (see the following section Mined and Filled Volumes). Plane. Sorts information by vertical sections, inclined sections or plan views. Rock group. Sorts information by a defined grouping of rock codes. Rock groups define groupings of geological materials (rock codes) that you want reported together. Grade group. Sorts information by a defined grouping of grade ranges. Grade groups define upper and lower bounds of grade ranges for the defined Gemcom reserves minerals. By arranging the sorting options in a desired order, you control the structure of the report: the top level option is sorted by the second level option, which in turn is sorted by the third, etc. For example, for a reserves report for a geological solid, you might use (and sort in this order) two excavations, twenty plan views, one rock group and one grade group. Each excavation would be reported by plane, each plane would be reported by rock group, and each rock group would be reported by grade group. The quantity of categories is determined by the selected data components and the number of rock group and grade groups included in the report: N = excavations planes rock groups grade groups The number of individual reporting categories is further determined by the number of rock codes in each rock group and the number of grade ranges within each grade group. Note that it is possible to quite quickly create several thousand individual categories! For each individual category, the following values are reported: Page 3236 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Volume. The amount of volume totalled from the needle intervals containing the material for the category (needle area needle length). Density. The density of the material in the category, which varies according to the rock code and/or grade of material. Tonnage. The weight of the material in the category, determined by the volume and the density. Grade. The grade value (e.g., CU%) of each grade element (as defined in Gemcom) in the category. There may be up to ten grade fields in a report, as Gemcom allows up to ten grade elements per project. Product. The product (grade tonnage) for each grade element (as defined in Gemcom) in the category. There may be up to ten product fields in a report, as Gemcom allows up to ten grade elements per project. The report produces segments with subtotals for each of the above fields, and grand totals for each field. Figure 10-2 shows one segment of a simple reserves report for a geology solid using one excavation solid, thirty vertical sections, one rock group and one grade group (with four grade ranges). The report is sorted in the order of excavation, plane, rock group, grade group. The only grade element defined for the Gemcom project is percentage of copper. This report would have a total of thirty such subtotalled segments, each having four individual reporting categories. You may specify whether you want values within each segment to be reported by an incremental or cumulative method. Incremental values (as seen above) show the individual reporting categories, whereas cumulative values include the values for the individual category summed (in the cases of volume, tonnage and product) or averaged (in the cases of density and grade) with the values for the preceding categories in that field. Page 3237 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting Totals for EXCAVATION STOPE1 Subtotals for PLANE 210 Subtotals for ROCKGROUP SILL GRADEGROU P VOLUME M**3 DENSITY T per M**3 TONNAGE T CU% Grade CU% Product Waste 2755.685 2.450 6751.429 0.00 0.0 Low 80.031 2.450 196.077 0.05 10531.3 Med 339.439 1.000 339.439 0.08 26191.1 High 64.845 2.450 158.870 0.18 28679.1 Subtotal 3240.000 2.298 7445.814 0.01 65401.4 Subtotal 3240.000 2.298 7445.814 0.01 65401.4 Figure 10-2: A subtotalled segment from a reserves report Gemcom allows you to control the format of the report as well. You can specify the field width and the number of decimal places for the values in the report, and customize the unit descriptions in the column headers. Fields that will not be meaningful may be suppressed. Categories reporting volume errors may appear at the end of the report. These are duplication errors that occurred when the selected components were evaluated. Geology solids may overlap each other, as may excavation solids or planes. Geology volume errors are resolved by the order of solid precedence. Overlapping excavation solids or overlapping planes are reported twice. Since excavations and planes are reported completely, there will often be duplication errors with these elements. See Overlapping Solids in this chapter. Each reserves report provides you with grand totals. These include a total report volume and a total needle volume for comparison. If the needle volume exceeds the report volume, Gemcom has been unable to categorize all material. In most cases, this serves to alert you to check your report profiles or plane definitions for error. For efficiency, Gemcom allows you to create up to three different reports using the same data at the same time. For example, you may Page 3238 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows want one report to give a bench-by-bench report of grade ranges and another to show the same data sorted first by grade group and then by bench. Reserves Reporting Profiles The way you define and link rock groups and grade groups in reserves reporting profiles largely controls the structure of the individual reporting categories. Rock groups define groupings of one or more rock codes that you want reported together. Each rock group must be linked to a grade group. Each grade group defines grade ranges for one or more of the defined Gemcom reserves minerals. The rock codes you have defined in Gemcom can be put separately or in combination into uniquely named rock groups. For example, you might logically organize the rock codes into groups that have similar processing costs for the element(s) sought after. These rock groups will either be sorted as a unit or serve to sort other parts of the report as a unit. You can have any number of rock groups in a report. Organizing grade ranges for the elements is equally flexible. Grade ranges for each element can be put separately or in combination into uniquely named grade groups. As with rock groups, you may want to group elements that have, for example, similar processing costs. Each FROM-TO value for one element would thus be linked to the FROM- TO value(s) for one or two other elements. For example, you can have the program report a grade range of 1-2 % copper wherever a certain amount of gold is also present. You can link a specific grade group to more than one rock group within a report. Grade ranges include the highest grade that you are seeking and other meaningful ranges. The reserves reporting process works sequentially; if you erroneously create a duplication within a range of grades, it will not be reported twice by the program. Therefore, grade ranges must be carefully prepared. Similarly, the grade ranges for each element should encompass all possible material to ensure that your report totals are complete. To be certain that you have not unintentionally allowed any gaps in your Page 3239 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting grade ranges, you might add a catch-all range to capture any remaining material. You can create such a range by defining a grade group that has one range of 0 to 100 and linking it to a rock group that contains all rock codes. Since the reserves reporting process works sequentially; these two groups would be entered last in the reserves reporting profile. Alternatively, you could add a grade range of 0 to 100 at the end of each list of grade ranges for each element. For example, CU% Low 0.5 - 1 Average 1 - 2 High 2 - 10 Rest 0 - 100 The way you order the rock groups and grade groups in the reserves reporting profile will affect their order on the report. The rock group that is entered first in the profile will be appear as the first rock group on the report, and so on. Similarly, the corresponding grade group for the first rock group will be used first by the reporting process, etc. Mined and Filled Volumes Reserves reporting allows you to report volumes between surfaces (e.g., between an original surface topography and a pit design). When using surfaces for volume calculations, Gemcom requires you to specify which surface is the top and which is the bottom so the reporting process can correctly categorize all material as either mined or filled. Usually the top surface will be the original topography or the earlier of the two surfaces (when calculating as-mined volumes). The report will contain any material bounded by the two surfaces. Mined material will be below the top surface and above the bottom surface; filled material will be above the top surface and below the bottom surface. Some examples follow: Page 3240 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Top surface Mined volume Bottom surface Figure 10-3: Volume between a pit design surface and original surface topography In Figure 10-3, the surface topography is defined as the top surface. The volume of material in the pit would be reported as mined (because it is below the top surface). Filled volume Top surface Bottom surface Figure 10-4: Volume between a stockpile surface and original surface topography In Figure 10-4, the surface topography is again the top surface. The volume of material in the stockpile would be reported as filled (because it is above the top surface). Page 3241 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting Filled volume Mined volume Top surface Bottom surface Figure 10-5: Volume between two pit status maps In Figure 10-5, the earlier of the two surfaces is the top surface. The volume of material that has been removed would be reported as mined (because it is below the top surface); the volume of material that has been added would be reported as filled (because it is above the top surface). Using surfaces in reserves reporting is a major sorting option similar to including two excavation solids in a report. Both mined and filled values will be calculated for each segment of the report. Default Rock Code and Grades Gemcom can create reports using excavations or surfaces which can include rock code information without the need for a complete geological solids model to exist. It is not uncommon to create a geological solids model that has gaps, meaning that some regions of the property do not lie inside geology solids. In many cases only ore rock types are modelled while the surrounding waste material (commonly known as host rock) is not. This may be done when the total modelling task is too complex, the waste solids would be of little interest, or time constraints limit the modelling effort. While this is a common and legitimate method of solids modelling, there are cases where these regions would cause ambiguities in Page 3242 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows calculations of reserves. Therefore, Gemcom treats these areas as default regions. Default regions include the following: A region inside an excavation solid but outside any active geology solids (Figure 10-6). Geology solid Excavation solid (planned stope) Default region Default region Figure 10-6: Default regions inside an excavation solid A region between surfaces but outside any active geology solids (Figure 10-7). Page 3243 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting A report where there are no geology solids (Figure 10-8). Top surface (original topography) Bottom surface (pit design) Default region Figure 10-8: Default region without geology solids Top surface (original topography) Geology solid Bottom surface (pit design) Default region Figure 10-7: Default region between surfaces Page 3244 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows In all of these cases, volume will be determined by the excavation or surfaces, but the reserves reporting process must know the characteristics of the unknown material, including rock code, density and grade values. You specify the default rock code and default grades to supply this information. During the reserves reporting process, Gemcom will look inside each excavation (or between surfaces) and process all geology solids that are contained within. If it encounters regions that have not been modelled, Gemcom uses the default rock code (with its associated ore/waste rock type and/or density). Generally, Gemcom then either accesses the default grade values (usually set to 0) or uses no grade values at all. The handling of the default regions will vary depending on the report contents and Gemcom rock code parameters. Firstly, default regions only exist when using excavation solids or surfaces in the reserves report, and then only if there are regions inside the excavations or between surfaces that are outside geology solids (see Figure 10-9). In cases where no geology solids are included in the reserves report, the entire property (i.e., all regions inside excavations and between surfaces) is assumed to be the default rock code. Default region density and grade data sources are defined in the following table. Rock type Block model(s) included? Density source Grade source Ore Yes No Block model Default rock code Block model Default grade value Waste Default rock code None
Page 3245 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting In most cases, the default rock code will be the host rock. Often, this will be designated as a waste rock type, or have assigned default grades of 0 (assuming the host rock contains no significant grade quantities). In other cases, assigning grades other than 0 may give a more realistic answer if you know that the default rock code contains some metal. To have default regions included in the report, make sure that one of the rock groups defined in your reserves reporting profile contains the default rock code. In addition, to have default grade values included in the report, make sure the default grades that you have entered are included in at least one of the grade ranges within a grade group. For convenience, you may want to put the default rock code in its own rock group (and grade group) to have it reported separately. Or, you may include the default grade range in a catch-all grade group linked to a catch-all rock group (see Reserves Reporting Profiles). Default region Excavation solid Default region Block model Figure 10-9: Default region with block model and ore default rock type Page 3246 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Overlapping Solids Reserves reporting allows for the inclusion of solids that overlap. In some cases, overlap can be the result of errors made when creating or selecting the solids. However, in other cases you may produce this overlap intentionally, such as when wanting to simplify solid creation. Reserves reporting will not accumulate volume, density or grade totals twice when handling geology solids. Instead, if geology solids overlap each other, solid precedence will determine which solid "owns" the overlapping material. This facility can be used to greatly simplify the solid creation process. For example, you may have a property where the host rock contains more recently formed dykes. Instead of creating separate solids for all the parts, it may be more efficient to simply create one solid for the host rock code and let Gemcom handle the overlaps for you (see Figure 10-10). X Y D1 D2 D3 R1 Rock type R is represented by only one solid. The rock type Dyke (D1, D2, D3) has a higher precedence than R. Areas compeletely within both rock types will be assigned to Dyke. Figure 10-10: Assignment of overlapping solids Page 3247 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting You may want to include two or more planned excavations in a report for comparison purposes. If excavation solids overlap each other, the volumes are reported twice. Note that while the excavations will appear individually in the report, the grand totals for the report will be misleading. For this reason, using overlapping excavation solids in reserves reporting should be done with caution. Solid Precedence You can use Volumetrics } }Define Solid Precedence to explicitly define the order of precedence by assigning a number to each solid of interest, where the lowest number receives highest precedence. When geology solids overlap, the higher precedence solid will determine volume, density and grade information This method overrides the default method and usually should be employed, as it removes any ambiguity as to precedence. Default solid precedence is determined by the order in which rock codes are listed alphanumerically. For example, if one solid with rock code 10 and another with rock code 20 overlap, 10 will occur closer to the top of the Gemcom rock code listing. Thus, rock codes that represent the most recent geological formations might be cleverly given a prefix to force them to the top of the listing, so as to override the older formations. This list may be edited at any time. For example, suppose you have a deposit that encloses two as-mined excavations. You can simply create one geology solid for the deposit (rock code zdyke) and two excavation solids (rock code sill). With "sill" higher on the rock code list, the excavation volumes will be reported in place of the geology where appropriate. Page 3248 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Needling Gemcom calculates volume, tonnage and grade for solids using a numerical integration technique called needling. This method is named needling as it can be likened to inserting hundreds or thousands of "needles", or drillholes, through the solids to see what the solids contain (see Figure 10-11). A needle is essentially a vector in 3D space that intersects selected data objects (i.e., solids, surfaces, block models, and planes). By checking the entrance and exit points of each needle through the solids, the reserves reporting program determines which regions fall within them. The length and area of each needle determines the volume, grade and density information that pertains to those regions. The total volume of each solid is the sum total of the volumes from all the individual needles that pass through it. The summation of all needle information provides the complete reserves report for the selected solids (see Figure 10-12). The needling process requires you to do the following: 1. Define the orientation, size and location of a 2D grid on a plane from which the needles will be generated. 2. Specify what type of needle pattern you want to use. 3. Specify how many needles you want to use. For each needle, Gemcom will then: Generate the needle vector in 3D based on the needle grid dimensions. Intersect the needle with all active data objects. Categorize each intersected section of the needle based on which data objects have been intersected. A typical reserves report may involve tens of thousands of needles being processed in the above manner. Page 3249 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting X Area inside dotted line shown in greater detail below. Stope Needles Geology solid Y Figure 10-12: Sectional view showing geology solid and stope being intersected with horizontal needles X Each needle that intersects the solid contributes a portion of the total volume based on needle weighting and needle/solid intersection length. Geology solid Y Figure 10-11: Sectional view of geology solid and coarse needle spacing showing how intersections approximate solid volumes Page 3250 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows In Figure 10-13, the total volume of the needle includes all sections within the geology solid and the excavation solid. Gemcom uses the following formula to perform needling: ( ) Volume V W W A X i j k l i NrowG j NcolG k NG l NG k l ij ( ) , , , = = = = =
1 1 1 1 where: NrowG = number of rows defined for current needle pattern NcolG = number of columns defined for current needle pattern NG = selected integration level (needle density) of 1 - 20 i = current row being needled j = current column being needled k,l = current needle within row/column i,j W = weights for whichever quadrature method (needle pattern) has been selected Needle exits geology Needle exits stope Needle enters stope Needle enters geology Figure 10-13: Close-up view of a single needle entering and exiting the geology solid and stope Page 3251 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting Aij = area (usually cross-sectional) for current row/column i,j X(i,j,k,l) = length of intersection of current needle with solid currently being evaluated The number of needles required depends on the necessary level of accuracy. As is the case with most numerical integration methods, the more needles you use, the better the end result but the longer the processing time. Since generating these often complex reports may involve a considerable amount of time, your goal should be how to best achieve satisfactory results in a reasonable time frame. Therefore, it is important to understand all three variables that control needle generation: Grid Pattern. This determines the orientation and location of the needles. The size of the grid cells contributes to the number of needles generated. Needle Pattern. This defines the pattern of needles within each grid cell. Depending on the pattern, needles within the same cell can have a different weighting. Integration Level. This controls the number of needles that are generated within each grid cell. The more needles, the smaller the area of each needle. The relationship between these three variables (and actual needle length) determines the total area and weighting of each needle. The following sections describe each variable in detail. Page 3252 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Grid Pattern Needles are generated on a 2D "grid" located on a 3D plane. The specific plane is either the selected current view plane or a plane relative to a block model. The location of the grid itself is either determined automatically by the extents of the data, aligned with a block model or defined manually by the user. Gemcom then generates needles normal to the plane (in 3D), extending in both directions. In general, needles oriented perpendicular to the "strike" of solids will give more accurate volume results than needles oriented parallel to the strike (see Figure 10-14). There are two main reasons for this: more needles will have contact with the solid, therefore providing a more accurate numerical approximation of the solid volume Figure 10-14: Needle orientation Parallel to the strike Perpendicula r to the strike Page 3253 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting the volume representation of each individual needle section will contain less potential cumulative error, being shorter in length The needle grid is made up of a matrix of rows and columns, the total number of which is determined by the size of the grid cells and the total area covered by the grid. The following parameters define each grid: cell height cell width number of rows number of columns starting XY location of the grid's lower left corner grid rotation angle (optional) There are five different methods for determining the above parameters: by using block model rows, columns or levels, or by using an automatically defined or user-defined grid. Most of the methods will automatically calculate some or all parameters for you. Descriptions of each method follow. Gemcom requires that vertical needles be used for volumes between surfaces. A vertical direction is needed to ensure entrance and exit points for the needles because sides in a surface solid are only implied in Gemcom. This means the needle grid must be defined either from block model levels or by using the Auto-Fit or Defined Grid method with a plan view as the current view plane. If you wish to limit the extents of the grid relative to the data, you would use a clipping polygon, specify certain planes only, or use the user-defined method. Page 3254 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Using Block Models for Reserves Reporting In order to use block models for grade and/or density information, the needles must run along the rows, columns, or levels of the block model. It is most convenient (and least error-prone) to obtain all grid dimensions directly from the orebody project. The three methods that allow this are Rows, Columns, or Levels. With these methods, you need not enter any additional information about the grid as the block model dimensions provide all required grid details: cell height and width, number of rows and columns, starting XY location of the grid's lower left corner, and the optional grid rotation angle. While not generally recommended, for certain advanced applications it is also possible to access block model data using the Auto-fit or Defined Grid method (see below) with the current view plane oriented parallel to the rows, columns, or levels of the block model. Block model rows Block model columns Block model levels Grid cell height Block model level height (may vary from level to level) Block model level height (may vary from level to level) Block model row height Grid cell width Block model row height Block model column width Block model column width Number of grid rows Block model levels Block model levels Block model rows Number of grid columns Block model rows Block model columns Block model columns Grid lower left corner Block model minimum X, maximum Y, minimum Z Block model minimum X, minimum Y, minimum Z Block model minimum X, minimum Y, maximum Z Grid rotation angle 0.0 0.0 Block model rotation angle Page 3255 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting X Z Y Figure 10-15: Needles oriented along block model rows With the Rows method, the grid plane is created on the west side of the block model and needles are generated west to east (see Figure 10- 15). This orientation is recommended for most solids/block model reports for two reasons. Firstly, with any block model, rows are generally oriented perpendicular to the strike. Secondly, because the file structure of block models is based on rows, this method will be the most efficient. Block model access may represent as much as 50 percent of the total processing time in reserves reporting. In most cases, with this method block model access will be between 5 and 20 times more efficient using rows than with columns or levels. With the Columns method, the grid plane is created on the south side of the block model and needles are generated south to north (see Figure 10-16). With certain irregular solids (e.g., a narrow vein deposit), this method may be most appropriate. Computation times will be slower however. Page 3256 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows X Z Y Figure 10-17: Needles oriented along block model levels With the Levels method, the grid plane is created on the top of the block model and needles are generated top to bottom (see Figure 10- 17). Using needles parallel to levels is necessary for the evaluation of X Z Y Figure 10-16: Needles oriented along block model columns Page 3257 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting surfaces such as open pit designs, stockpiles, or coal seams. You cannot use needle grids from block model rows or columns when using surfaces. Defining the Needle Grid Using the Auto-Fit Method This method only requires that you first choose a cell height and width for the needle grid; all other information is calculated automatically. Gemcom projects the active solids/surfaces onto the current view plane to determine the extents of this data. The grid lower left corner location, and the number of rows and columns are then calculated automatically using the projected data extents and the input cell height and width (see Figure 10-18). The main advantages of this method are that you need not calculate the grid dimensions, and you can be certain that the needle pattern will completely cover the active solid/surface data. The smaller the size of cell height and width, the more cells created. The number of cells created multiplied by the density of needles generated within each cell (the integration level) will ultimately determine the total number of needles. Defining the Needle Grid Using the Defined Grid Method This method allows you to define all information about the grid manually. Usually, one of the other methods will provide all the flexibility you need; however, this method is included to allow maximum flexibility. For example, you could choose this method when you only want to generate needles for a certain part of the data. As well, a grid rotation option is provided for both convenience and efficiency. It may be easier to create a grid first and then rotate it over an unusually shaped solid. And, by fitting a grid more concisely (over a narrow, diagonally oriented deposit for example), you will often be able to avoid generating unnecessary needles (see Figure 10-19). Page 3258 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows To create a user-defined grid, you must inspect your data onscreen on the appropriate current view plane. Generally, the first step is to decide on a suitable cell height and width. The smaller the size of cell height and width, the more cells created. The number of cells created multiplied by the density of needles generated within each cell (the integration level) will ultimately determine the total number of needles. Both the cell size and the integration level control the total number of needles generated. In general, any way the total density is derived will produce the same result. That is, 400 cells with 1 needle per cell are equivalent to 1 cell with 400 needles with the same total area. You must then determine the XY location of the grids lower left-hand corner. Calculate the number of rows and columns from the number of cells needed to cover the total extents of the data. Past experience has shown this method to be the most prone to error as a simple data entry mistake can result in the needles being X Y The extents of the needle grid are calculated by projecting active solids and surfaces onto the current view plane. Only the cell height and width are input by the user. Figure 10-18: Auto-fit grid method Current view plane is a plan view Page 3259 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting generated in the incorrect location (therefore giving invalid volumes). For this reason, it is strongly suggested that one of the other needle grid methods be used if possible. Needle Pattern The reserves reporting process provides different needle patterns that control the location of individual needles within each cell of the needle grid. Each pattern will give equally accurate results if enough needles are used (as is the case with all numerical integration techniques). However, each pattern will give superior results under certain situations where a small number of needles are used. There are three needle patterns available: Regular grid Irregular grid Regular Gauss X The extents of the needle grid are determined by the number of rows and columns, and the cell height and width. All are input by the user. Y The lower left corner of the grid is input by the user. - 30 User has the option of defining a counterclockwise rotation angle for the grid. Figure 10-19: Defined grid method Current view plane is a plan view Page 3260 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows The patterns control the placement of needles within each cell, and thus the different weighting of each individual needle. The weighting is the 2D area that is represented by the pierce point of each needle. The pierce point determines the density and grade information for the total volume of the needle. Choosing the appropriate needle pattern depends on the shape of your solids. In general, regular solids should be needled with a varying pattern (either irregular grid or regular Gauss). Irregular solids are often best combined with the Gauss pattern; a narrow deposit benefits from the irregular grid pattern. The regular grid works reasonably well with all sizes and shapes of solids. In cases where the reserves report contains combinations of the various "shapes" of solids, you will have to make a decision about the most appropriate pattern. For example, if you were evaluating several hundred stopes and headings against one large irregular ore solid, the best pattern type would probably be the irregular grid as the excavation volume accuracy would be the more critical number. Regular Grid This pattern gives all needles within the cell equal weighting. All needles are spaced equally apart over each cell and over the entire needle grid. In most cases, this method always works reasonably with any solid and has the advantage of being the most intuitive to visualize (see Figure 10-20). Level 3 (9 needles/cell) Level 5 (25 needles /cell) Figure 10-20: Regular Grid Page 3261 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting Note that combining regular solids with a regular grid has the potential for cumulative error (see Figure 10-21). Figure 10-21: Illustration of the potential for cumulative error with a regular grid and a regular solid Irregular Grid This pattern equally subdivides each cell based on the needle density (or integration level, described below), then randomly locates a needle within each subcell. For example, a 15 x 15 foot cell with integration level 3 would be subdivided into nine 5 x 5 foot subcells. Each subcell would contain a single needle randomly located within it (see Figure 10-22). This method is most appropriately used when evaluating long horizontal or vertical structures (e.g., underground development), narrow deposits, or small, regular solids (e.g., small stopes), as it minimizes the potentially cumulative errors that may result from using the more regular patterns. Page 3262 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Level 3 (9 needles/cell) Level 5 (25 needles/cell) Figure 10-22: Irregular Grid Regular Gauss This pattern places less weighting on needles closer to the edges of the cell and more weighting on needles near the centre (see Figure 10-23). As there is a higher concentration of needles close to the cell edges, the needle spacing and area will vary within each cell. This method is recommended when evaluating irregularly shaped solids (geology or excavation). Level 3 (9 needles /cell) Level 5 (25 needles/cell) Figure 10-23: Regular Gauss Page 3263 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting Integration Level You can control the overall needle density by specifying how many needles will be created for each individual cell of the needle grid. The number of needles per cell is equal to the integration level squared. The levels and the corresponding number of needles are shown below: Integration level Needles per cell 1 1 2 4 3 9 4 16 5 25 6 36 10 100 20 400 One factor to consider when choosing an integration level is the desired level of accuracy. The higher the integration level, the more accurate your volume estimation will be. However, needle integration level is the main factor in reserves reporting processing time. The greater the integration level, the greater the processing time as well. Under most circumstances, a report that uses 25 needles per cell will take 25 times as long to complete as a report using 1 needle per cell. Therefore you would ideally use a large number of needles per cell only for important runs and when time is not an issue. As well, as is the case with virtually all statistical methods, a larger number of samples (in this case, needles) will not necessarily give proportionally more accurate results. For example, using 400 needles per cell may provide the same results as 25 needles per cell (say within .01%) but the report generation could take 16 times longer to complete. In this example, the additional degree of report accuracy would likely not justify the extra processing time. The other factor to consider when choosing an integration level is the shape of your solids. A deposit with an irregular shape will require Page 3264 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows more needles for accuracy than a deposit with smooth edges. As well, a wide deposit needs more needles than a narrow one. In Figure 10-24, the same irregular solid is shown with first an integration level of three needles per cell and then nine needles per cell. The higher needle density provides a superior representation of the volume of the uneven-edged solid. Cell Size Versus Integration Level The cell size and integration level control the total number of needles generated. In general, any way the total density is derived will yield the same result. That is, 400 cells with 1 needle per cell are equivalent to 1 cell with 400 needles with the same total area. In a Regular or Irregular Grid pattern, the number and placement of needles will ultimately be the same. However, when using the Regular Gauss pattern, the needle placement will vary. In Figure 10-25, the number of needles and the total area covered is identical, but the different cell size and integration level has produced different needle spacing. Figure 10-24: Different integration levels with an irregular solid Page 3265 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting 100 needles per cell 4 cells with 25 needles per cell Figure 10-25: 100 needles of Regular Gauss Checking Needle Accuracy After considering the various components of your report, the size and shape of your solids and the necessary level of accuracy, you can test your needling parameters. Gemcom will compute the true volume of any valid solid and the needle volume of the same solid and report the total volume difference and the percentage error (needle volume minus analytical volume). By comparing the needled volume with the analytical volume, you can decide whether you have selected a needling pattern that is sufficiently accurate. 1. Choose Solids } }Select Solids/Surfaces from List to activate solids providing a representative sampling of the size, shape and complexity of the solids you will use for reserves reporting. 2. If you are using a defined grid or an auto-fit grid, select the view plane on which you defined the needle grid (using View } }Vertical Section, Inclined Section, or Plan View). 3. Define the needle parameters using Volumetrics } }Define Needle Pattern. Start with simple needle creation parameters (e.g., needles along block model rows, regular grid needle pattern, and integration level 1). Page 3266 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows 4. Choose Volumetrics } }Check Needle Accuracy to compute the needle volume and the true volume of the solids, and report the difference and the percentage error. By comparing the needled volume with the analytical volume, you can decide whether you have selected a needling pattern that is sufficiently accurate. You must decide on an acceptable level of needle accuracy (e.g., plus or minus 0.5 percent). Remember that it may take twenty times as many needles to go from 0.5 percent down to 0.1 percent accuracy and the process will take twenty times as long. Be realistic in the level of accuracy you need, taking into account the accuracy of your solids models themselves. 5. Change the needle parameters until you are pleased with the results. In most cases, increasing the integration level alone will improve the test results most dramatically; however, changing the needle grid orientation and needle pattern may improve the results without increasing processing time. Once you have found parameters that give good results, you can use them for all subsequent reports for that project with high confidence. Using Clipping Polygons Clipping polygons provide a very flexible way of defining the region that will be included in a reserves report. When used in reserves reporting, a clipping polygon serves to limit the needles that are used for the actual reserves reporting calculation. Because a clipping polygon can be any shape, using one will often provide you with better representation than by limiting a report on a plane-by-plane basis. One clipping polygon may be used in any reserves report. As always, Gemcom creates a 2D grid on a particular view plane and generates needles that run normal to this plane; however, only needles that are inside the clipping polygon are processed. This allows you to easily limit the region that will be reported, for example, by defining a clipping polygon that surrounds an area in an excavation where a specific shovel has been digging. Or, you might define a clipping polygon that surrounds a stope for which you want a volume. Page 3267 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting You define a clipping polygon on the current view plane using Polyline } }Create } }Clipping Polygon. The most important aspect of using clipping polygons in reserves reporting is making sure the coordinates of the clipping polygon match the coordinates of the plane used for needle generation. In some cases, this is straightforward. For example, if you will be selecting the Auto-Fit on the Current View Plane method or Defined Grid on the Current View Plane method for the needle orientation, you simply select the appropriate view plane (using View } }Vertical Section, Inclined Section, or Plan View) when creating the clipping polygon in 2D mode. The process is less intuitive when you will be using a plane from a block model definition since Gemcom automatically sets the current view plane when generating the report. For example, selecting needles along block model rows will set the current view plane to Column 1 of the block model; selecting needles along columns will set the current view plane to Row 1 of the block model; selecting needles along levels will set the current view plane to Level 1 of the block model. To create the clipping polygon, you must first set the current view plane accordingly. Issuing a Report It is always advisable to check that everything is set up correctly before issuing a reserves report, as the process can be quite lengthy. If the necessary data is inaccessible or if you have not defined all the required parameters, Gemcom will display an appropriate error message. After defining all needle grid parameters, reporting profiles, report contents, options and formats, and verifying needle accuracy, follow these steps to issue a report. 1. Choose Solid } }Data } }Select Solids/Surfaces from List to activate the solids and/or surfaces that you want to evaluate. 2. If you are using a defined grid or an auto-fit grid, select the view plane on which you defined the needle grid (using View } }Vertical Section, Inclined Section, or Plan View). Page 3268 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows 3. Choose Volumetrics } }Create Reserves Report. During the report generation, an onscreen status window shows the current state of processing, and eventually the summary information. The pattern of data accumulation can often be used to diagnose problems in the report setup. The table below describes the items in the status report and possible error indications. Data Item Meaning Comments Total Number of Needles Generated. Number of grid rows number of grid columns number of needles per cell. Can easily exceed several hundred thousand or more. Number of Intersecting Needles. Number of needles that intersect at least one solid (or two surfaces if applicable). Only these needles will be used for accumulating totals for the reserves report. Number of Invalid Needles. Needles that contain an odd number of intersections and are not used in the report. May occur if a needle intersects an invalid solid (any needle though a valid solid should have an even number of intersections) or if a needle only intersects one surface (intersections with both surfaces are required when reporting volumes between surfaces) Number of Non- intersecting Needles. Number of needles that have no intersections with solids or surfaces. Total Accumulated Volume (*1000). Total needle volume (in thousands) of all intersecting needles generated. Also appears in the report. A discrepancy between this amount and the total reported volume that appears in the report indicates some material has been unreported. Unless this was intentional, all rock groups should be checked for missing rock codes; all grade groups should be checked for missing grade ranges; and Gemcom plane definitions should be checked for error. If this value remains at zero during the report generation, it is likely that the needle grid pattern is located in the wrong place. Page 3269 Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting Data Item Meaning Comments Vertical Section Overlap Volume Error (*1000). If the vertical section corridors overlap, the amount of overlap volume (in thousands). Almost always indicates an error. Geometric definitions of the vertical sections should be carefully checked. This number will also appear in the report. Note that the report totals will include these overlapping volumes. Inclined Section Overlap Volume Error (*1000). If the inclined sections corridors overlap, the amount of overlap volume (in thousands). Almost always indicates an error. Geometric definitions of the inclined sections should be carefully checked. This number will also appear in the report. Note that the report totals will include these overlapping volumes. Plan View Overlap Volume Error (*1000). If the plan view corridors overlap, the amount of overlap volume (in thousands). Almost always indicates an error. Geometric definitions of the plan views should be carefully checked. This number will also appear in the report. Note that the report totals will include these overlapping volumes. Excavation Overlap Volume Error (*1000). The overlap volume (in thousands) of the active excavations. Should remain at 0.0 in most cases. If a non- zero value appears (and the overlap is not intentional), you may have to rebuild or edit your excavation solids to make sure they have no common volume. This number will also appear in the report. Note that the report totals will include these overlapping volumes. Geology Overlap Volume Error (*1000). The overlap volume (in thousands) of the active geology solids. Should remain at 0.0 in most cases. If a non- zero value appears (and the overlap is not intentional), you may have to rebuild or edit your geology solids to make sure they have no common volume. This number will also appear in the report. Note that with geology solids, the overlap of volume, density and grade will not be reported twice within the report totals. Instead, solid precedence determines which solid is assigned the material. Mined/Filled Volume (*1000). Accumulated mined and filled volumes (in thousands) of the needles processed (for reports using surfaces.) Appears also in the report. If a discrepancy exists between these figures and the total needle volume, some material has been unreported. Unless this is intended, all rock groups should be checked for missing rock codes; all grade groups should be checked for missing grade ranges; and Gemcom plane definitions should be checked for error. Report Generation is % done. The percentage of the needles processed thus far. As the processing time required for each needle may vary considerably, this may not be a good indicator of the time required to complete the report; it may be longer or shorter than the percentage may suggest. Page 3270 Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows Polygonal Reserves If you have modelled your lithology using polygons, you may issue a polygonal reserves report. Polygonal reserves are calculated by first determining the areas of polygons which have been assigned material types (rock code, grades, etc.). Area is then multiplied by plane thickness to obtain volume. Volume is then multiplied by density to yield tonnage. The structure, formatting, and output options for a polygonal reserves report are similar to those available for standard reserves reports. See Report Structure earlier in this chapter.