Political Science Workbook July Chapter 1 - 3

XAVIER UNIVERSITY ATENEO DE CAGAYAN
CHAPTER 1
An Introduction to Politics
By John Mark H. Nuncio

A good Catholic doesn't meddle in politics.' That's not true. That is not a good path. A good
Catholic meddles in politics, offering the best of himself - so that those who govern can govern.
-Pope Francis

Leaning Outcome/s:
1. Develop critical thinking in defining the nature and scope of politics.
2. Explain the difference between politics as art and politics as science.
3. Promote the appreciation of the importance of politics and Political Science.

Politics besets us. Like the air that we breathe, it is indispensable and
necessary but unlike this element, it is oftentimes not felt by the people
exercising and engaging in the practice. It is truly a marvel of human interaction
but proves to be painful as it has the dangerous capability of destruction. It is
chaotic but peaceful; produces conflict but fosters understanding; hateful yet
conciliatory; an alpha and an omega. The irony of politics is so confusing and
confusion is such an eminent problem that must be solved. This chapter offers
answers for the most curious and puzzled minds even up to the laziest soul within
the four solid corners of the classrooms we go back to the basics of this highly
controversial term, concept, discipline and practice.
An Answer to a Question
Why is such a natural question posed by humanity triggered by his very
own curiosity. A lot of whys have been thrown to the pool of reality and
students who are taking the course on basic Political Science are definitely not
POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE WITH PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION: 1
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Man by nature is
a political
animal.
-Plato
All educational institutions shall include the study of the Constitution as part
of the curricula.
an exemption from this common scenario. Why do I have to take this pain in
the head? would be the typical structure of the inquiry. This simple question
does not need extensive research in order to come up with a satisfying answer
since Article XIV; Sec. 3 (Paragraph 1) of the 1987 Philippine Constitution states it
in a very brief but concise manner:
Understanding the Misunderstood
Rebellious teens always feel like the entire world does not understand their
plight when in fact politics shares the same feeling that they have. It truly
belongs to the league of the misunderstood. Thus, for us to understand it, we
must learn from the men who attempted to know it more deeply and
successfully established their intimate relationship with politics.
The ancient times are rich in intellectual
treasures germane to the concept of politics. Plato
defined it as the study of the affairs of the polis (city-
state) which he defined as the most sovereign and
inclusive association.
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The city-states, such as Sparta and Athens, which
flourished in Greece, are considered to be highly advanced political
communities where direct democracy (initial form of present democracy) was
exercised. Aristotle explained in his celebrated work Nicomachean Ethics that
the end of politics is the best of ends; and the main concern of politics is to
CHAPTER 1: AN INTRODUCTION TO POLITICS

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engender a certain character in the citizens and to make them good and
disposed to perform noble actions.
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This entails that politics is a process of
collaboration between the governor and the governed in achieving a goal that
is common to all.
During the Middle Ages, the church is the focus of every inquisitive mind.
Even politics was translated using terms associated with the religious realm.
Medieval thinker St. Thomas Aquinas believed that politics is a natural
phenomenon that cannot be evaded by man. But as a reminder, he further
emphasized that man is not ordained to the body politic according to all that
he is and has.
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Contentment and full splendor of each human individual will
always be found in the arms of God.
The Renaissance considered as the Age of Reason broke the monotony
of the Era of the Church as thinkers of this period destroyed the wall that
isolated human beings from the rest of the world. Niccolo Machiavelli, in The
Prince, viewed politics as a clever undertaking of utilizing power effectively
summed up by the notion the end justifies the means. He asserted that good
rulers sometimes have to learn "not to be good" in order to maintain the stability
of the state.
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The contemporary times have its fair share of people who have been
enthusiastic in understanding politics. Harold Lasswell, an American political
scientist gave one of the most widely recognized definition of this term as who
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gets what, when and how. His brief but all-encompassing description suggests
the following:
1. The entities interplaying in the political system;
2. The ultimate goal to be attained and the resources to be apportioned;
3. The timelines involved in the process of getting there and the
distribution as well; and
4. The methods employed in carrying out the given objectives.
Canadian modern political scientist David Easton simply defined it as the
authoritative allocation of values, which generally relates to the policy-making
functions of the government in the apportioning of resources or values which
are deemed to be authoritative as it binds the members of the society.
Accordingly, values in Eastons definition refers to any valuable thing that
every person wants to seek in his entire lifetime and comprises both tangible and
intangible ones.
Yale Universitys very own Robert Dahl also provided an enlightening view
about politics. He considered it as the existence of rules or authority within the
state.
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This signifies the necessity of an established governing body within the
bounds of the state that would promote the greater well-being of the people as
it distributes what is due to each member.
On a more local perspective, in the words of former Senator Ernesto
Maceda, politics is the art of compromise to achieve certain ends.
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The
political realm is full of various interests which tend to collide with each other

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due to certain incompatibilities and these must be balanced so as to promote
harmony rather than conflict within the political system.
From the various views presented, we can construe that politics is:
1. Inherent in society and people cannot evade the practice of such. The
term politicians does not only encompass the people we vote during
elections but also includes commoners in society;
2. Important in the affairs of the state and the government and involves
power relationships;
3. An undertaking that advances the welfare of the governed but does
not totally depend on the efforts of the governor; and
4. A process whose character is shaped by the people engaging in it.
Knowing the Basic Ingredients
Cooking your favorite dish will not be possible without the ingredients listed
in the cookbook. The political menu would also be considered as a failure
without the fundamental concepts that are considered as inseparable and
necessary in the engagement on politics.
1. Power could be considered as the top-notcher in the list. It is simply
defined as the capacity to make someone do what you wanted him to do
which can be voluntary or involuntary in nature. Furthermore, it is described as
the currency of all politics,
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which means that power is an integral part of the
political processwithout it, the state, government and other societal forms and
structures will never function properly. Indeed, it is the lifeblood of the political
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system. John French and Bertran Raven identified five bases or types of power
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namely:
a. Expert power which primarily relates to the expertise of the
leader;
b. Referent power that directly corresponds to the character and
innate charisma of the person having it which gravitates the followers toward
him;
c. Reward power which is associated to the ability of giving rewards
or merits to the members courtesy of the leader himself;
d. Legitimate power that refers to the legitimacy of the ruling
individual over the members, often depending on the degree of acceptance of
the latter; and
e. Coercive power which is based on the development of fear
within the minds of the governed due to the consequences employed by the
leader if they wont follow orders and mandates.
2. Authority is somewhat a by-product of power. It is defined as the right
to command and direct, to be heard or obeyed by others and to be voluntarily
accepted by the people and therefore exist without the imposition of
sanctions.
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The ruler himself is regarded as the rightful one and that he exercises
rightful power over the members which results to compliance and less friction
among the ruled. Basically, authority is largely subjective
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, heavily dependent
on ones view of whom is rightful or not.

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Summary of
Approaches:

1. Behaviouralism
2. Rational Choice
3. Institutionalism
4. Constructivism
5. Marxism
6. Feminism
7. Normative
Approach

3. Legitimacy might be viewed as synonymous to authority but
fundamentally speaking, in most cases, the former is one of the prerequisites of
the latter in the political set-up. To be more specific, political legitimacy is a
virtue of political institutions and of the decisions (e.g. policies, law) made within
them.
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Unlike authority, it is usually based on sanctions available at the rulers
disposal such as doctrine, ideology, laws, and processes and to a certain extent,
the use of force, in order to justify the regime. Without legitimacy, the assertion
of having authority usually goes to the pit of letdown.
4. Last but not the least is influence which refers to the indirect sway of an
individual as he exercises power over the others. It can be regarded as a
component of power in the sense that it typically acts as a minor driving force
for the people to be convinced of a particular political agendum and thus,
move for the realization of the same. The amount of influence usually varies and
is highly reliant on wealth, prestige, and honor as well as the linkages established
by a person.
Viewpoint Matters: Approaches to Politics
Politics is truly relative because not all people
share the same sentiments and ideas about it. Just
like beauty, it definitely depends upon the eye of the
beholder. Hence, we must take into account how
groups of people, particularly those in the academic
and scientific world, treat and view politics in their
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own perspective and language. On this segment, eight approaches in the study
of politics will be uncovered and presented.
1. In the early stages of studying politics, the Traditional/Historical
Approach became the front-runner in understanding what is the political? This
approach extensively utilizes the lexicon of history in comprehending the
complexities of the political landscape covering institutions, structures,
governments, legal systems, etc. It stresses the vitality of chronology and tracing
the roots and development of the previously stated variables so as to fathom
the factors or reasons that catapulted the present conditions of the same.
2. Behaviouralism concentrates on the study of the political behavior of
the individuals partaking and intermingling within the political system. Such
behavior encompasses the distinct features and dynamics of the electorate, the
bureaucrats, the policy-makers, the civil society, etc. This approach
concentrates on a single, deceptively, simple question: why do people behave
in the way they do?
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This particular viewpoint on political analysis utilizes the
empirical methods of the natural sciences in which the core variable is
observable behavior.
3. The rationality and self-interest of the human species is on the spotlight
of the Rational Choice advocates. Rationalists tend to view political action as
being driven by ones own instincts in the attainment of goals. Convergence
between the Rationalist and Behaviouralist outlook can be seen on the light of
using political behavior for understanding political phenomenon. But it is

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important to note that the former also incorporates the possible outcomes of
every action done by an individual within the environment where he belongs.
Moreover, this approach employs the principles of the field of economics
concerning the need to discover peoples incentive structures in order to
explain their actions.
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4. On its initial stage, the Institutional approach was more centered on
the study and laying out descriptions about constitutions, legal systems,
government structures, and their comparison over time and across countries.
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Institutionalists tend to be inclined on the traditional analysis of politics in the
sense that they are limited on understanding and presenting explanations
regarding the conduits of representation and policy-making or in simpler terms,
the institutions found within the political arena. This traditional stance was
challenged by newer approaches and In order to address such weakness, a
new institutionalism emerged from oblivion wherein conventional analysis of
the structures was added with a more keen attention towards the relationship
between the individuals and institutions.
5. Constructivism is based on the belief that people do one thing and
not another due to the presence of certain social constructs.
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These social
constructs acts as the cilia or filtering agent of our reactions or interpretations of
the phenomena and things found in the landscape of the political. It typically
includes norms, doctrines, structures, as well as the political orientation of an
individual or a group of people shaping political perception.
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6. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels developed an approach which is
named after Marx himself. Marxism concerns with the study of the class struggles
that had occurred in the vast expanse of history and expounds on the dynamics
of production and consumption and the rise of the working class as capitalism
continues to exploit them. Marxists argue that organizational structures are not
rational systems for performing work in the most efficient manner; rather, they
are power systems designed to maximize control and profits.
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Thus, they view
politics as a landscape characterized by control wherein those situated in the
higher level (capitalists) tend to displace those at the bottom (proletariats). The
eventual actions, normally in the form of a revolution, initiated by the oppressed
individuals are driven by pressure brought about by this status quo of the
hierarchy.
7. A contemporary approach yet a very striking one, feminism emerged
as a movement and body of ideas that aimed to enhance womens status and
power.
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It visualizes the area of politics via the power dynamics involved
between men and women. Moreover, it emphasizes and addresses the plight of
the women sector regarding the conventional scope of the political being
confined in a masculine point of view.
8. Finally, we have the normative approach that went beyond
understanding the usual inquiry of what it is? and sees the political milieu on
the more heavier issue of what ought to be? It involves the descriptions of
significant elements found in the system and continues to venture on a more

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distant road by forming specific regulations or norms to guide the conduct of
people, structures, organizations, etc. Indeed an approach advancing a
contemplated right track.
Theories to Ponder
Philosophy has been an essential part of politics and it has provided the
foundations in understanding the mechanisms and interactions inside the
political system. The following are the most salient and prominent political
theories, most of which are of great value in international relations, that are
constantly used in order to comprehend political circumstances:
1. The Social Contract Theory explains the origin and the formation of the
state through a contract concluded by men living in a state of nature. The
social contract has three versions:
a. Thomas Hobbes in his well renowned Leviathan paints the state of
nature as a chaotic society where the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish
and short.
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In the Hobbesian version, the state of nature is a competitive
platform and the nature of contract is a necessary one. In addition, the chosen
ruler is a supreme monarch (The Leviathan) exercising absolute powers.
b. The second version was devised by English philosopher John Locke
whose state of nature is not as chaotic as that of Hobbes since men are
considered to be rational beings. The nature of the contract is voluntary which
means that the ruler is accountable to the people by advancing their interests
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and welfare. If the ruling individual proves to be inefficient and ineffective, the
right of revolution can be invoked by the governed.
c. Jean Jacques Rousseau proposed his own version of the social
contract by asserting that the state of nature is a peaceful one. Competition
was not that pervasive since nature can provide for the needs of men and
every individual has compassion towards the others. The nature of the contract
was a general consensus and the ruler is of the same type as that of Locke.
Lastly, the government formed through the general will of the people is an
extremely strong and direct form of democracy.
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2. The Divine Right Theory belongs to the same league as that of the
social contract theory due to the reason that it also deals on the highly sensitive
topic of state formation. But it goes beyond the bounds of the origin of the state
since this also covers the dynamics of power being the major justification of the
divine right rule of monarchs in the past. On the context of the origins of the
state, it holds that the state, like mankind, was a creation of the Divine
Providence. Moreover, this theory strengthens the belief that the Supreme Being,
aside from crafting the state, is the main entity who designates the person or
group of persons that will exercise power and rule over the populace. Divine
right theorists insist that the ruler's authority was from God alone and not from the
community.
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3. Political Idealism advocates the innate goodness of human beings
and postulates that the state was institutionalized in order to provide and

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cultivate what we call general welfare. Idealism is grounded on morality
encompassing concepts such as justice, peace, order, equality, etc. This
political philosophy takes a more optimistic stance about politics and at some
point, conceptualizing a utopian social and political order where everything
and everyone is guided by what is right.
4. What is ideal may not be real is the salient standpoint of Political
Realism. This theory stresses the selfish interests propelling every person as well as
the state as a whole which must be satisfied not just for greater glory but mainly
because its a must for survival. Realism deviates from the near perfect political
view of idealists by assuming that clashes are normal phenomena and in order
to achieve success, what is moral or right could be twisted for convenience.
What is practical is necessary.
5. Rationalism could be contemplated as a middle ground for Idealism
and Realism. It is not as exemplary as the former and is not as harsh as the
latter. Rationalist believes in the power of the mind and reason by advocating
that even though political beings have the tendency to become selfish, there is
also a side in us that values reconciliation and compromise. For the case of the
state, it can be argued that it displays a commitment to the idea that it is
inappropriate to promote the national interest without any regard for
international law and morality.
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6. Political Extremism is a very absolutist political philosophy concerning
politics. It does not conform to the view of realism about assessing actual
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Other Political Theories:

1. Utilitarianism
2. Liberalism
3. Social Darwinism
4. Just War Theory
5. Interventionism
6. Marxism
7. Ethnic Conflict
Theory
8. Domino Theory

situations nor cares for the power of reason as what rationalists try to magnify. At
certain points, it resembles idealism but it is much darker due to the fact that
extremists see todays reality the same as the reality of tomorrow and the
coming days. Its like fitting a shoe that does not fit the size of your feet.
7. Balance of Power is a theory that is commonly used in the field of
International Relations. It postulates that balance in the international political
arena is realized via the existence of power levels that each state possesses
one may be hard and menacing, the others might be soft and vulnerable.
Usually, the balance is attained through the formation of alliances whether
permanent or temporary. Hence, the balancing process helps to maintain the
stability of relations between states.
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8. Game Theory is another significant model in comprehending the
dynamic in politics. From the word itself, it considers political relationships as an
endeavor where one party wins and the other suffers losses to a certain degree.
Strategy is very crucial in this theory because one is assumed to be clever in
evaluating the future steps of the enemy in a game characterized by survival
of the fittest.
9. Finally, we have a theory that gives
importance to the core role played by a dominant
state in international politics. The Hegemonic
Stability Theory holds that in the affairs of the
international community, one state (hegemon) is

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recognized as the prime mover of the entire system which can be regarded as
a world leader. For a state to be a hegemon, it must have three attributes:
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a.) the capability to enforce the rules of the system;
b.) the will to do so; and
c.) a commitment to a system which is perceived as mutually beneficial to
the major states.
REFLECTION:
Janet Lim Napoles, Jinggoy Estrada, Ramon Revilla, Jr., and Juan Ponce
Enrile are making headlines right now. PDAF scam has heightened the dilemma
of massive graft and corruption in the country. Considering the current realities
of the Philippines, is politics absolutely dirty or not?

The Clash of Art and Science
The dichotomy of art and science has always been the subject of so
much debate for a very long time. The disparity between these two contrasting
areas is also evident in the realm of politics. Some would contend that it is
political art, while other might assert that it is political science. What is really the
nature of politics?
Definition of terms would be very helpful in answering this disturbing
question. Art is described as the power of performing actions especially
acquired by experience, study, and observation.
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Meanwhile, science, which
comes from the Latin word scire meaning know, implies a systematized body
of knowledge. Both art and science deals with the understanding and learning
of what is there, yet art is characterized as traditional while science is rather
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contemporary. From the descriptions given, we can construe that art is guided
by actual experience that keeps on improving as someone imbibes more vivid
images of reality. Thus, it is more open to changes and can accommodate
variations over time. On the other side of the scale, science is firm and values
uniformity because of the presence of constants and methodologies that must
be strictly followed for an undertaking to be considered acceptable.
Furthermore, it is generally guided by the empirical and uses the gravity of
numbers to solidify a scientific guess known as hypothesis.
Contemplating on these explanations, one would conclude that politics
as a field of study and as a practical undertaking takes the form of both art and
science as it flourishes in actuality. Political Art is normally seen through the
lenses of ones own strategy and style which constructs a new identity that is
distinct from others. This aspect of politics produces the variety in the political
landscape. What is stressed in the dominion of politics as art is the critical
importance of properly using the power of the mind, commonly known as
common sense, to devise a plan of action which suits the taste of others.
Flexibility is a vital trait that must be developed by a political persona reminding
him how to mix and match charisma, skills, influence, resources and character,
etc. in order to develop the artistic side of his politics.
It is safe to say that political art is truly predominant in the realm of
practical politics but in the modern era, politics as science has emerged as a
very influential aspect not just in the academicians corner but also in the actual

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Politics is truly
the art and
science of
government.
application as well. As a science, politics attempts to incorporate the basic
methods of the natural and physical science in the study and analysis of those
enclosed within the limits of the political. Political scientists have learned the
credibility and reliability of figures and numbers in the interpretation of political
phenomena and now employ the methods of data acquisition or collection,
usually done through surveys, and data analysis and interpretation with the aid
of notable principles in mathematics specifically from the great sage statistics.
In reality, political art, even though it is fairly widespread, would not be
solely depending on instincts and common sense. The
political game in the current paradigm needs
collaboration between the two aspects of politics for
someone to become more effective and responsive in
a changing environment. Right now, political individuals consult with numbers to
assess the success or failure of their political campaigns via pre-election polls
usually conducted by third party survey firms like SWS and Pulse Asia. Indeed,
the best and efficient decision and policy-creators make an effort to strike a
balance between politics as art and politics as science to better
comprehend what not to do and what is to be done.
Political Science Defined
Now that we have discerned the difference between the two aspects of
politics, let us move on to a much more interesting discussion concerning the
academic discipline of the politicalthe field of Political Science.
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Basing on the study of word origin, Political Science is the crossroad of two
remarkable terms coming from the rich languages of Greek and Latin: polis
(city-state) and scire (know).Therefore, Political Science refers to the knowledge
of the city-state, a political society which can be considered as the states
equivalent in the olden times.
Aristotle, the regarded Father of Political Science, simply defined it as a
political investigation
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whose main objective was to ascertain the totality of
politics. Conducting such investigation would certainly require the formation of
questions or inquiries that would direct the whole process of discovery. Plato,
Aristotles mentor, who is now considered as the parent of Political Philosophy
first identified the essence of politics through the recognition of the philosopher
kings capability and wisdom to rule over the others. The beginnings of the
discipline have assumed the personality of political philosophy until French
political thinker Jean Bodin devised the term political science based on the
organization of institution related to law.
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Generally speaking, defining Political Science takes two to tango. In its
traditional sense, it is the study of the state in all its elements, aspects, and
relationships that includes its government, and its organs and institutions through
which the state functions.
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On a much modern sense, the discipline has
expanded by including the political attitudes and behaviors of people, how
they influence the structures and institutions, and the issues circulating in the
scene of governance. It is the oldest social science and has many points of

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contact with history, law, economics, and philosophy.
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Hence, Political Science
is a vital branch of social science that deals with the comprehensive study of
the state covering its structures such as the government, the personalities such
as officials and people, the processes involved in its local and international
affairs, and the interaction among these identified actors and variables in the
political system. Moreover, it is the systematic study and analysis of the sphere of
politics.
Political Science: Branches
Like any other sector of science, the field of Political Science which is one
of the daughters of the greater branch of social science, has developed its own
subdivisions overtime. The long list includes the following:
1. Political Theory establishes the link between Political Science and the
area of study known as Philosophy. This branch studies and contributes to an old
and ever-evolving dialogue about the ultimate realities that shape political life
and the ultimate principles that should guide it.
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Its primary concern is to give a
closer look to the basics of politics such as justice, rights, liberty, freedom, power,
etc. and understand their application in reality.
2. The actions undertaken by the government is the major focus of Public
Administration. It is all about how governments organize and operate, about
how bureaucracies work and interact with citizens and each other.
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Public
administration evaluates the behavior developed by bureaucracies and has
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high regard on citizens feedback concerning the program of action initiated by
the government and its other instrumentalities.
3. Differentiated from the area of Public Administration, Public Policy is a
branch that heavily deals with the system of regulations and laws that directs
the flow and course of both governmental action and inaction. Such regulations
have the ability of binding society due to the fact that it is promulgated by a
structure blessed with authority and power. Yet the irony is demonstrated by the
fact that public reaction can change or shape it.
4. Political Economy comprehends the influence and dynamic forces of
economics in the political system. It is not with the body politic, but with that
body social or body industrial that I have called the body economic, that
political economy is directly concerned
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says Henry George in his celebrated
work The Science of Political Economy. The thesis of this segment is the influence
of economic factors such as wealth, the means of production, the distribution of
wealth, goods, and services, etc. in the conduct of politics and how do they
affect the political actors behavior and attitudes.
5. The evaluation of political systems and governments that had
flourished in the face of the Earth catches the attention of Comparative Politics.
Contrasting and comparing are techniques that experts in this area employ in
order to determine the degree and reasons for the success or failure of one
structure or system from the other accounting factors such as geography,
culture, traditions, etc.

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6. International Relations emphasizes on the interaction of states and
nations within the confines of the international political setting. The study of
organizations and institutions whose scope is primarily international in nature,
foreign policies and stance on global issues such as terrorism and global
warming, and the general relations of states whether peaceful or hostile, is
embraced by international relations.
In An Open Relationship
If Political Science was a Facebook user, expect that its list of friends
would be overwhelming because the field is undeniably friendly proven by its
noteworthy connections with other areas of study.
Philosophy. The discipline of Philosophy has significant multifarious
contributions to the development of Political Science as a separate field of
expertise in the sense that the latters foundations was molded by Political
Philosophy. The political is simply guided by its wisdom as it expounds the
essences of justice, love, order, morality, power, authority, etc. and sets
standards that may not be completely realized in practice considering the
variety of interpretation.
History. Tracing the origins and developments through time is the salient
concentration of History. Interdependence exists between the two disciplines
and in the case of Political Science; the understanding of the present political
status quo could be fully realized through the help of the historical
reconstruction of the past. Accordingly, the historical beginnings of the
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government and its institutions are necessary inputs to explain the current
dynamics of the states social environment.
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In addition, the visualization of
future political phenomena can be predicted based on trends or patterns
found in the domain of the past.
Psychology. The relationship between it and Political Science can be seen
on the scientific side of politics particularly in the study of political behavior.
Psychology translates the bland descriptions of Political Science into deeper
explanations using observable behaviors of the electorates, bureaucrats, and
other entities inside the political system that serves as driving force by producing
feedbacks to the institutions. In fact, a new hybrid field has been shaped from
the convergence of the principles and tenets of Political Science and
Psychologythe contemporary Political Psychology.
Sociology. This branch of social science whose core is directed towards
the study of a greater system or society has served as an essential device in
uncovering the hidden aspects of politics. Man by nature is a political animal;
thus, every person practices politics in a daily basis and we always belong and
are influenced by the societal constructs surrounding us. For example, public
opinion is crafted by the events and things occurring in the expanse of the
societal set-up. The environment really molds and has a strong impact to politics.
Education. Knowledge and critical thinking is very important in the political
realm and education inculcates these essential things to the people. The area
of education empowers individuals to step up their game and be actively

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involved in the political matters. Education motivates the common tao to be
more participative in governmental processes such as elections and policy-
making and abolishes the mental passiveness of being merely governed.
Economics. Political Science and this discipline are intertwined by the fact
that political institutions and structure specifically the government and other
related organizations are deeply affected by the economic resources available
at its disposal. Economics deals with the management of the income, supplies,
and expenses of a household, community or government, or other group or
organization.
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Economics serves as the prompter of the government in the
production or generation and the apportioning of resources while Political
Science manages the process by pinpointing priorities from non-priorities.
Management. This field holds a prime position in all organizations.
Management typically involves the basic processes of planning, coordination,
staffing, budgeting, etc. which makes every organizational programs and
undertakings more effective and successful. Political Science enlightens
managers by giving assistance in ascertaining the prioritized goals, staffing the
right people, drafting proper budgetary allocations, and providing the right
measures for coordination.
Engineering. This is a breakthrough discipline where the canons of
Mathematics, Thermodynamics, and other empirical scientific areas of study are
applied into reality as observed in the establishment of government projects
that can be seen by the naked eye. Political Science advocates development
ST
EDITION
24
while Engineering makes development possible. The former evaluates the need
of the community while the latter realizes the need via concrete structures that
fosters opportunity for economic and social advancement and prosperity.
Accountancy. It is the discipline which ensures that public revenues are
lawfully, effectively, efficiently, and economically spent through proper auditing
procedures and with due diligence.
34
The link between this academic area and
Political Science is that Accountancy offers conduits for checking governmental
revenue generation and spending that promotes the values of accountability
and transparency among political leaders, public servants or officers, and
bureaucrats.
Statistics. Political Science needs Statistics more than Statistics needing it.
The significance of the mathematical discipline in the context of understanding
the nature of politics is seen in the move of Political Science towards becoming
a more scientific-based field of specialization. Political Scientists, in the conduct
of their research works, requires the higher level analysis of data that is provided
by Statistics. It is not an issue of quantitative defeating qualitative but it only
faces current challenges where numbers proved to be something that matters.
Importance of Political Science
The rationale behind the inclusion of Political Science in the curricula of
tertiary education is anchored on realizing the following goals:
1. Knowledge and Competence. Political Science offers a colossal
chance to imbibe substantial knowledge and information on political concepts

25
and appreciate the essential functions of the government and the state in
providing the best for its people. Moreover, students would be able to learn their
basic rights as citizens of the country and the accompanying limitations in the
exercise of the same. Individuals who explore the richness of Political Science
would also appreciate the various governmental processes involved in the
advancement of the general welfare particularly the complexities of legislation,
administration, and interpretation of the body of rules and laws of the state.
2. Skills. This relates to the acquisition of legal skills as students would
venture the wholeness of the fundamental law of the land. They would develop
the keen ability in handling situations wherein conflict of interests and
encroachment of rights are involved. Persons with enough knowledge of the
discipline can provide basic legal assistance concerning the requisites of due
process and how to recover rightful damages when there is grave abuse of
discretion from authorities as well as private entities in the intervention of ones
rights. In addition, works as a preparatory course for students who want to
pursue careers in Foreign Service, government, the academe through research
and teaching, etc. Filipinos are empowered by Political Science to empower
their fellow Filipinos.
3. Values. Political Science supplants the seeds of nationalism and good
citizenship to the young bright minds of the country as they learn their
responsibilities as Filipino citizens and realizes their critical role in nation-building
and catalyzing change in the society. The discipline aims inculcate into their
ST
EDITION
26
cerebral domain that they, as youths, are the true hope of the fatherland and
that they must be aware of the dynamic environment where they belong.


27
ENDNOTES

1
Ricardo S. Lazo, 2009, Introduction to Political Science, (Manila: Rex Book Store), p. 3.
2
Edward Clayton, Aristotle: Politics, Michigan, USA,
<http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/#H4>, accessed 30 March, 2014.
3
Aquinas, Summa Theologica, I-II, 21.4 ad 3, as cited in P. Koritansky, 2007, Aquinas: Political
Philosophy, <http://www.iep.utm.edu/aqui-pol/>, accessed on 15 April, 2014.
4
Dr. L. Kip Wheeler, Niccolo Machiavelli and the Prince, updated 14 March, 2014,
<https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/machiavelli.html>, accessed 1 April, 2014.
5
Ricardo S. Lazo, 2009, Introduction to Political Science, (Manila: Rex Book Store), p. 3.
6
Roman R. Dannug and Marlo B. Campanilla, 2004, Politics, Governance and Government with
Philippine Constitution, (Quezon City: C & E Publishing), p. 3.
7
Thomas M. Magstadt, 2013, Understanding Politics: Ideas, Institutions, and Issues, (USA:
Cengage Learning), p. 5.
8
Dannug and Campanilla, op.cit., p. 19.
9
Ibid., pp. 20-21.
10
Donna Lee Bowen, Power Vs. Authority (2003),
<http://magazine.byu.edu/?act=view&a=1202>, accessed 10 May, 2014.
11
Political Legitimacy, 29 April 2010,
<http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legitimacy/> accessed 11 May, 2014
12
David Sanders, 2010, Behavioural Analysis, in Theory and Methods in Political Science (3
rd

Edition), (United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan), p. 23.
13
Levitt, 2005: 2011, Rational Choice as cited in ibid., p. 44.
14
Vivien Lowndes, 2010, The Institutional Approach, as cited in ibid.,p. 60.
15
Craig Parsons, 2010, Constructivism and Interpretive Theory, as cited in ibid., p. 80.
16
Braverman, 1974, as cited in Marxist Theory,
<http://faculty.babson.edu/krollag/org_site/encyclop/marx_theory.html>, accessed 1 May,
2010.
17
Vicky Randall, 2010, Feminism, as cited in op.cit., p. 80.
18
Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, 186, as cited in Jonathan Wolff, 2006, An Introduction to Political
Philosophy, (New York: Oxford University Press), p. 8.
19
Jean Jacques Rousseau, as cited in Social Contract Theory,
<http://www.iep.utm.edu/soc-cont/#SH2c>, accessed 13 May, 2014.
20
J.P. Sommerville, Absolutism and the Divine Right of Kings

ST
EDITION
28

<http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/351-172.htm> accessed 28 April, 2014.
21
Mark Beavis, IR Paradigms, Approaches, and Theories, last updated 12 March, 2014,
<http://www.irtheory.com/know.htm>, accessed 5 May, 2014.
22
Ibid.
23
Ibid.
24
25
26
Christopher Fuster Bueno, Origin of Political Science,
<http://savior.hubpages.com/hub/Origin-of-Political-Science>, accessed 6 May, 2014
27
Reynold Reyes-Laurente, 2006, Essentials of Political Science 2, (Manila: Rex Book Store), p. 8.
28
Bueno, loc.cit.
29
Robert G. Moser, Political Theory,
<http://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/government/graduate-program/fields/political-
theory.php>, accessed 7 May, 2014
30
31
As cited in <http://schalkenbach.org/library/henry-george/science-of-political-
economy/spe109.html#p-11> accessed 3 May, 2014.
32
33
Reynold Reyes-Laurente, 2006, Essentials of Political Science 2, (Manila: Rex Book Store), p. 18.
34
Dannug and Campanilla, op.cit., p. 65.

CHAPTER 2
The State and Government
By Roderico Y. Dumaug, Jr.

Please, I would like to ask all those who have positions of responsibility in economic, political
and social life, and all men and women of goodwill: let us be protectors of creation,
protectors of Gods plan inscribed in nature, protectors of one another and of the environment.
-Pope Francis

Leaning Outcome/s:
1. Think critically on the formation of States and Governments as it exists today in the
Philippines.
2. Discuss in detail the policymaking and political structures of the Philippines.
3. Compare and contrast the three inherent powers of the State as it is exercised at present
in the Philippine national and local governments.

As one of the principal objects in the study of politics, the State is the most
powerful political institutions within a country. It is also considered as the basic
unit in the international community and the principal subject in the field of
International Law. Some students believe that the term State is synonymous with
the term Government but the two are different with the former being a more
durable institution while the latter may easily come and go and being an
element of the former. In this chapter, the basic concept of State and of the
Government will be discussed in continuation and in actualization on what we
learned from the previous chapter about the concept of politics.
Definition of State. Anchoring on the concept of international law, State is
defined as a group of people living together in a definite territory under an
ST
EDITION
30
James Garner defined State
as a community of persons
more or less numerous
occupying a definite portion
of territory completely free of
external control and
possessing an organized
government to which a great
body of inhabitants render
habitual obedience.
independent government organized for political ends and capable of entering
into international relations.
1

It is also defined by our Supreme Court as
a community of persons, more or less
numerous, permanently occupying a definite
portion of territory, independent of external
control, and possessing a government to which
a great body of the inhabitants render habitual
obedience; a politically organized sovereign community independent of
outside control bound by ties of nationhood, legally supreme within its territory,
acting through a government functioning under a regime of law.
2

Nation, on the other hand, from its etymology which is nasci meaning to
be born, is understood in relation to birth or origin and signifies a common race
characterized by a community of language and customs.
To illustrate the above etymological definition of nation, several states in
the world belong to one and the same nation like the Arab nation in the Middle
East comprising independent countries like Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Egypt, Lebanon,
Yemen and several others. There is also one state which is generally known to be
composed of one nation and an example to this is the United Kingdom of their
English nation. There are states also which are composed of several nations and
the most famous for that is the United States of America which is considered as
CHAPTER 2: THE STATE AND GOVERNMENT

31
the melting pot of all nations for all known nations of the world comprise the
American nation. It is also possible that there are nations which do not have a
state of their own like the Jews before the formation of the Israeli state in 1948
especially during the first two World Wars, or of the Poles after the dissolution of
their country in 1795, the Italians before the State of Italy was organized in 1870
or of the Kurdish nation currently struggling for self-determination from Iraq or
Turkey.
Some authors would say that the term United Nations is a misnomer
because this international organization is composed actually of states and is not
an organization of races or of nations. To refer it as a United States instead of a
United Nations may be more confusing considering the very popular United
States of America. Theoretically, state is a legal concept and the nation refers to
a racial or ethnic concept.
Reflection 2.1. The existence of the Philippine State can be traced back
on July 12, 1898 when President Emilio Aguinaldo organized the Malolos
Government, and we were widely accepted to the family of nations during the
Commonwealth Period and when were given independence by the United
States of America in July 4, 1946. The Philippines was one of the originally
signatories for the organization of the United Nations. We understood in this
chapter that the term nation refers to a particular race or ethnic origin. Do you
think that there exists a unique Filipino nation? Explain.
ST
EDITION
32
Essential Elements of
the State:

1. People
2. Territory
3. Sovereignty
4. Government

Elements of a State. For a state to have international personality it
possesses the following essential elements:
1. People are the inhabitants of the state or
the human beings living within a territory. To sustain
itself the term people must be of both sexes, capable
of procreation and should be sufficient in numbers. In
our 1987 Constitution, the term people refer to the inhabitants
3
, citizens
4
and the
voters
5
.
2. Territory refers to that fixed portion of the earth surface where the
people of the state reside. Defining a states territory is necessary for sovereign
and jurisdictional reasons and in order to support the needs of the people in the
state. Pragmatically, the territory must be big enough to support the inhabitants
and small enough that it can be easily administered and defended.
3. Sovereignty is defined as the supreme and uncontrollable power of the
State and the right to exercise within its territorial boundary, to the exclusion of
any other state, the functions of a state. Others may equate it with the term
independence. State possesses that sole right of making decisions and power to
direct its own affairs, both external and internal, without the interference of other
states.
Sovereignty is classified into external and internal sovereignty. Internal
means the power of the state to enter into international intercourse with other

33
states or international organizations to the exclusion of other states. Internal
sovereignty means the inherent power of the state to run its internal affairs
independently from the other states.
Characteristically, sovereignty is permanent, exclusive, comprehensive,
absolute, indivisible, inalienable and imprescriptible. The concept of imperium in
reference to sovereignty means that the states authority to govern embraced
in the concept of sovereignty includes the passage of laws governing a territory,
maintaining peace and order over it and in defending it against foreign
invasion. In the concept of dominium, the states have the capacity to own or
acquire property.
6

The fundamental rights of the state are the (1) right of existence and self-
defense, (2) the right of sovereignty and independence, (3) the right of equality,
(4) the right of property and jurisdiction, and (5) the right of legation or
diplomatic intercourse.
7

The Doctrine of Act of State originally says that a nation is independent
within its territorial jurisdictions and its internal affairs may not be questioned in
the courts of any other nations. This is applicable to acts that are carried out by
a government office or officer authorized to exercise governmental or sovereign
powers and these formal acts are supported by legislation or of an executive
order.
ST
EDITION
34
4. Governmentis that institution or aggregate of institutions by which an
independent society makes and carries out those rules of action which are
necessary to enable men to live in a social state or which are imposed upon the
people forming that society by those who possess the power or authority of
prescribing them.
8

The existence of an organized government is important because the state
must have an institution to represent itself in the family of nations and to
maintain social order within its territorial jurisdiction, and where the form of
government is not an essential requirement.
As one of the essential elements of a State, the government is an
instrument through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and
realized.
The two functions of the government are the (1) Constituent Functions
which are compulsory because it is constitutive of the very bonds of the society,
and (2) Ministrant Functions which are undertaken to advance the general
interest of the society
9
and are merely optional.
The constituent functions include:
(1) The keeping of order and in providing protection to persons and
property;
(2) The fixing of the legal relations between husband and wife and
between parents and children;

35
(3) The regulation of the holding, ownership, transmission, transfer and
exchange of property, and in the determination of liabilities for debt or for
crime;
(4) The determination of the contractual rights between persons;
(5) Definition and the punishment of crime;
(6) Administration of justice in civil cases;
(7) The determination of the political duties, rights, privileges, and
relations of the citizens;
(8) The dealings of the state with other States: the preservation of the
state from external danger or the encroachment of its international interests.
10

The ministrant functions which are not compulsory cover the regulation of
trade and industry, the establishment of standard weights and measures, laws
on tariffs, navigation laws, and the like, on the regulation of labor, the
construction and maintenance of roads, railways and other infrastructure
projects, maintenance of postal and telegraph and waterworks systems,
sanitation, including the regulation of trades for sanitary purposes, education,
the care of the poor and the incapable and others.
11

In protecting its citizens, there is that Doctrine of Parens Patriae which
means that the government is the guardian of the rights of the people.
12

ST
EDITION
36
Government is a term distinct from the word Administration because the
latter refers to the group of persons in whose hands the reins of the government
are held for the time being.
Reflection 2.2. Can you differentiate the State of the Republic of the
Philippines, the 5
th
Republic of the Philippines and the administration of President
Benigno S. Aquino III in terms of the manner of its formation and dissolution?
Explain.
Forms of Government. The following are some of the popular forms of
government in the world today classified into the number of people ruling, as to
the relationship between the national and the local, on the status of the rulers
running the government and according to the relationship between the
executive and the legislative branch.
A. As to the number of people ruling
1. Monarchy is a government where the supreme power is hold by an
individual or by a single sovereign as head of state through hereditary transfer of
power or one who comes from a royal family. This form of government is
classified into (a) Absolute Monarchy, where the monarch exercises absolute
powers, and (b) Limited Monarchy, where the monarch delegates some of his
powers to another government body. An example of absolute monarchy in
existence today is Saudi Arabia and Brunei. United Kingdom and Japan are
known to have powerful absolute monarchies before but now they are

37
constitutional monarchy where Queen Elizabeth of Great Britain and Emperor
Akihito of Japan have limited government powers or control enshrined in their
constitutions. Their major role as heads of state is their countries ceremonial
figures.
2. Oligarchy is a form of government where power is vested by few
powerful persons like a dominant clan, elite or clique who rule for their own
vested interests especially for the accumulation of wealth and privileges. It is
usually called as the government of the few. This can be in the form of (a)
Aristocracy, Plutocracy and Theocracy.
3. Democracy is a government where power is hold directly or
indirectly by the citizens under a free and universal suffrage. The term
democracy is taken from a Greek word dmokrata (demos for people and
kratos for power) which means a government of the people, the power of
the people or the government of discussion. Values like pluralism, the rule of
law, freedom and liberty, and human rights are attributed to democracy.
B. As to the relationship between the national and the local
1. Unitary is a government where powers are concentrated in one
central government. Central government may delegate or transfer limited
power or control to their sub-national, tiers or local government units. However,
the central government still possesses supreme power to recall the powers it
delegated.
ST
EDITION
38
2. Federal is a government with self-governing regions, states, local
units or tiers united by one central government usually called the federal
government. There is a clear division of powers between the national and their
local governments. In the federation, the self-governing status of states, regions
or constituent units are guaranteed by the constitution and cannot be changed
unilaterally by the central or federal government.
C. As to the status of the rulers running the government
1. Civil Government when it is run by a civilian authority and this is
usually formed after toppling a military or an authoritarian regime.
2. Military Government when the government is run by the members
of the Armed Forces.
D. As to the relations between the Executive and the Legislative Branch
1. Presidential form of government is a government where there is a
complete separation of powers between the executive and the legislative
branch both in tenure and prerogatives. It is also described as a government
where their head of state and their head of government are held by one and
the same person.
2. Parliamentary form of government is when the head of government
is elected from among the members of the legislative branch to perform
executive functions and conferred by the legislature complete control and
administration of the law. The citizens in this government indirectly elect their
countrys chief executive through the election of their legislative representatives.

39
E. Other forms of Government
1. Dictatorship is a regime of one single leader who may have not
been elected and is using force, usually the military, to keep in power and to
be in control. In this government, there is no respect on public opinion or of the
individual human rights.
2. Totalitarian is a government ruled by a single political party where
citizens are forced to vote for the party and candidates chosen by the
government. This is an extreme form of an authoritarian government.
3. Republican is a representative form of government where its powers
and authority are directly or indirectly derived from the people.
4. Theocracy is a government where the rulers are claiming to be
ruling based on a set of religious ideas or as agent of a God or deity.
5. De Jure is a government which has rightful title founded upon a
constitution but no power or no control either because the same has been
withdrawn from it or because it has not yet actually entered into the exercise
thereof.
6. De Facto a government which actually exercises power or control
but without legal title.
13
It is operating against the duly constituted government.
In understanding the forms of government, it is important to know the
distinctions between the Head of State and the Head of Government. The
former is the national leader of country who will represent the nation in the
international community while the latter is the chief executive who leads in
ST
EDITION
40
Principles governing the
operations of government:

1. Separation of Powers
2. Principles of Checks
and Balances
3. Blending of Powers

running the domestic affairs of the government. In a Presidential form of
government, the head of state and the head of government is hold by one and
the same person who is the President like in the case of the United States of
America and of the Philippines. It is quite different in the parliamentary form of
government where the head of state is usually the King, Queen, Emperor or
President who is performing ceremonial functions only while their head of
government is another leader usually named as Prime Minister or Chancellor like
in the case of Germany.
Principles Governing the Operations of the three branches of Government.
Governments, usually in democratic and republican states, are divided into
three branches namely the Legislative which has the power to make laws, the
Executive with the powers to execute and enforce the laws and the Judiciary
with the power to interpret the meaning, application and enforcement of the
laws. In democracy, the following are the principles governing the operations of
these three branches:
1. Separation of Powers Principle of dividing government powers into
three parts namely the legislative power to the legislative branch, executive
power for the executive branch and judicial
powers to the judiciary. No single person or
groups of persons hold more than one
government powers, hence, in this principle,

41
concentration and overlapping of powers are held unconstitutional.
2. Principles of Checks and Balances The powers of the three branches
of the government are equal and balanced with each other and it means that
no branch will have so much power capable of dominating the other. Although
each has designated separate powers, the other branch has the power to
check the other to ensure that no branch will control the government or exceed
in the exercise of its powers, and this is actualized through their sharing of
powers.
3. Blending of Powers -The three branches are not independent from
each other rather they are interdependent with each other. A branch cannot
exist without the presence of the other branch. Legislative measure passed by
the legislative branch becomes a law when signed by the Chief Executive, and
its intents and purposes are actualized when enforced or implemented by the
executive branch. Its legal acceptance is checked through the judiciarys
power to interpret it when confronted with questions on constitutionality, legality
or propriety.
The Three Fundamental Powers of the State. In this chapter, we have
already discussed the concept of State, the organization of its Government to
bring about its will and purposes, the Administration which will run the affairs in
the government and the several forms of government. These over-all concepts
can better be realized with the exercise of the states three fundamental powers
which are the Police Power, Eminent Domain and Taxation. Upon the formation
ST
EDITION
42
Three Inherent Powers of the
State:

1. Police Power
2. Power of Eminent
Domain
3. Power of Taxation

of the State as an international entity, simultaneously, these three powers
commence to exist without a need of it to be expressly conferred by another
state, by the legislature or by a constitution. This is one of the unique natures of
the three powers that it is inherent in the state.
A. Police Power is a power called the
law of overruling necessity which means the
power of the state in promoting the public
welfare by restraining the use of Liberty and
Property. The bases for the exercise of this power are the public necessity, and
the right of the State and of the public to self-protection and self-preservation.
Its justification is the Latin maxim salus populi est suprema lex which means that
the welfare of the people is the supreme law.
It is the legislature who generally exercises this power. The President or the
Chief Executive, administrative bodies and the local government units also
exercise police powers.
The limitations in the exercise of police powers are outline in the following
requisites:
1. Lawful Subjects it is the interest of the public as differentiated from a
particular class requires the basic requirement in the exercise of police power.

43
2. Lawful Means the means employed are reasonably necessary for the
accomplishment of the purpose and should not be unduly oppressive to the
people.
3. When it is exercised by a delegate police power can be validly
exercised when expressly granted by law through the legislature, in the case of
the local government unit, within its territorial boundaries (except to protect
water supply), and must not be contrary to law.
B. Power of Eminent of Domain is the power of the State to acquire
private property for public use upon payment of just compensation. The basis in
the exercise of this power is the necessity of the property for public use.
Congress has the power, generally, to exercise eminent domain. The President,
local legislative bodies, public and quasi corporations can also exercise this
power.
In the valid exercise of this power, it follows the compliance of two stages.
First is the determination of the authority on the part of government or
corporation to exercise the power and the propriety of its exercise. Second is the
determination of just compensation.
The following are the requisites in the exercise of the power of eminent
domain.
1. Necessity
2. Private property
ST
EDITION
44
3. Taking
4. Public Use
5. Payment of Just Compensation, and
6. Due Process where the owner of the property to be acquired is given
the opportunity to be heard.
C. Power of Taxation is the power by which the State raises revenue to
defray the necessary expenses of the government. It is also defined as the
power to demand from the members of the society their proportionate share or
contribution in the maintenance of the government.
14

The scope of taxation includes persons, property or occupation within the
taxing jurisdiction of the taxing authority, and its basis is the lifeblood theory
which means that taxes are the lifeblood of the government and such power is
emanating from the necessity of the government to survive.
Like the other two powers, taxation is exercised generally by the
legislature and can be exercised also by the President
15
and delegated to the
local legislative bodies
16
.
For the valid exercise of the power of taxation, it has inherent and
constitutional limitations.
1. Inherent limitations in the exercise of taxation
a. Should be for public purpose
b. Power cannot be delegated

45
c. Territoriality or the situs of taxation
d. Exemption of the government from taxation
e. International comity
2. Constitutional limitations
a. Due process of law
b. Equal protection of the law
c. Uniformity, equitability and progressivity of taxation
d. Non-impairment of contracts
e. Non-imprisonment for non-payment of poll tax
f. Origin of appropriation, revenue and tariff bills in the lower house
g. Non-infringement of religious freedom
h. Delegation of legislative authority to the President to fix tariff
rates, import and export quotas, tonnage and wharfage dues
i. Tax exemption of properties actually, directly and exclusively
used for religious, charitable and educational purposes
j. Need for majority votes of all members of Congress in case of
legislative grant of tax exemptions
k. Non-impairment of the Supreme Courts jurisdiction in tax related
cases, and
l. Tax exemption of revenues and assets of, including grants,
endowments, donations, or contributions to, educational
institutions.
ST
EDITION
46
Double Taxation means additional taxes are laid on the same subject by
the same taxing jurisdiction during the same taxing period and for the same
purpose.
17

License fee on the other hand is different from a tax in the sense that the
basis of the former is the police power to regulate while the latter is for the
government to raise revenue. The amount to be collected in the imposition of
fees must be limited only to the cost of issuing the license and the necessary
inspection while the tax rates or amounts are unlimited provided that they are
not confiscatory. The objects of taxation are persons and property while fees are
paid for the privilege of doing something but such privilege is revocable. For the
non-payment of taxes, the business or activity does not become illegal but
becomes illegal when failure to pay the fees.
DISTINCTIONS
SUBJECT POLICE POWER EMINENT DOMAIN TAXATION
Scope of Power Regulates both
Liberty and
Property
Affects only the
Property Rights
Affects only the
Property Rights
Who May Exercise Only the
Government
Maybe exercised
by Private Entities
Only the
Government
Necessity to
Exercise
Public necessity
and the right of
the State and of
the public to self-
preservation and
self-protection
Necessity of the
public for the use
of private
property
Public necessity
Property Taken
Property is intended
for noxious
purposed and when
taken must be
destroyed.
Property taken is
wholesome and is
used for public
purposes.
Property taken is
wholesome and is
used for public
purposes.

47
Compensation Compensation is
the intangible,
altruistic feeling
that the individual
has contributed to
the public good.
Compensation is
full and fair
equivalent of the
property taken.
Compensation is
the protection
and public
improvements
instituted by the
government for
the taxes paid.
Effects on
Contracts
Contracts may be
impaired
Contracts may be
impaired
Contracts may be
impaired

ST
EDITION
48
ENDNOTES

1
Isagani A. Cruz, 1998, International Law, 8th Edition. (Quezon City: Central Lawbook Publishing
Company,), p. 29.
2
CIR v. Campos Rueda, 42 SCRA 23
3
Article 2, Article 3 and Article 13 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.
4
Preamble, Article 2 and Article 3 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.
5
Article 7, Article 16 and Article 18 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.
6
Lee Hong Hok vs. David, 48 SCRA 372
7
Cruz, op. cit. p. 92.
8
US v. Dorr, 2 Phil 332
9
Bacani v. NACOCO, 100 Phil. 468
10
Woodrow Wilson (n.d.), The Functions of Government. Retrieved April 18, 2014 from
http:www.history-world.org/govfunc.htm.
11
Ibid.
12
Government of Philippine Islands v. El Monte de Piedad, 35 SCRA 738
13
Lawyers League for a Better Philippines v. Aquino, GR No. 73748, May 22, 1986
14
Isagani A. Cruz, 1995, Constitutional Law, 6th Edition, (Quezon City: Central Lawbook Publishing
Co., Inc), p. 81.
15
Section 23 (2) and Section 28 (2), Article 6 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.
16
Section 5 of Article 10 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.
17
Cruz, Constitutional Law, op. cit., p. 86.
Bibliography
1987 Philippine Constitution. (n.d.).
Bacani v. NACOCO, 100 Phil 468.
CIR v. Campos Rueda, 42 SCRA 23.
Cruz, I. A. (1995). Constitutional Law. Quezon City: Central Lawbook Publishing.
Cruz, I. A. (1998). International Law. Quezon City: Central Lawbook Publishing Company.
Government of Philippine Island v. El Monte de Piedad, 35 SCRA 738.
Lawyers League for a Better Philippines v. Aquino, GR No. 73748 (Supreme Court May 22, 1986).
Lee Hong Hok v. David, 48 SCRA 372.
Willson, W. (n.d.). The Functions of Government. Retrieved April 18, 2014, from www.history-
world.org/govfunc.htm: www.history-world.org/govfunc.htm

CHAPTER 3
Foundations of Philippine Politics and Government:
Philippine Political History and Filipino Values
By Roderico Y. Dumaug, Jr.

Let us remember Paul VIs words: For the Catholic Church, no one is a stranger, no one is
excluded, and no one is far away.(Homily for the closing of the Second Vatican Council, 8
December 1965) Indeed, we are a single human family that is journeying on toward unity,
making the most of solidarity and dialogue among peoples in the multiplicity of differences.
-Pope Francis

Leaning Outcome/s:
1. Write clearly and with purpose the issues affecting Philippine politics.
2. Analyze contemporary problems in the country like poverty, corruption and rebellion in
light of the conceptual frameworks in this chapter.
3. Describe the importance of the political history and Filipino values in analyzing current
political problems of the country.

In the previous chapters, we learned the basic concepts of politics and of
the formation of states and governments. For now we have an idea on the
important role of politics in our society and, likewise, that by understanding the
concepts of states and governments in the previous chapter we are inculcating
the value of loving this country or nationalism which means the nations interest
should be above personal interests.
In applying those concepts, we have to go deeper in the Philippine
context through learning the foundations of our politics and governance.
ST
EDITION
50
The term Nationalism is
sometimes used
interchangeably with
patriotism. The former is
identified with certain special
political programs while
patriotism does not have any
political program.
The topics in this section are relevant. Our country is facing several
recurring problems since the formation of the Malolos Government more than a
hundred years ago. Problems like the never ending corruption in the
government, the hardening poverty especially in the rural areas and rebellion in
the provinces and several others. In looking for the solution to these seemingly
unsolvable problems, one approach is to go back to the foundations of our
nation and examine the beginnings of the Philippine State.
Generally, a study that deals on building the Filipino nation is a broad
topic. In this particular chapter, however, we identified two of the most
important foundations of our nation: that which is (1) our political history
particularly the evolution of Philippine politics, democracy, government and of
our constitution, and (2) the Filipino values which may define how we built and
preserved this nation and our basis of confronting our national problems.
Nationalism is such political phenomenon
expressed by the people through patriotism
1
,
and it means the promotion of national interest
above self, and whereby the will of the citizens
is to associate the nation with the states
political position
2
. It is also understood as mobility of feelings and national
sensations for homeland and catching political and economic goals
3
.
The following are some descriptions on the term nationalism:
CHAPTER 3: FOUNDATION OF PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT

51
1. A consciousness that one belong to a particular nation with sentiments,
feeling and aspirations for its prosperity and security.
2. An ideology which includes cultural doctrine of nations and of the
national will and which prescribes for the actualization of the
aspirations and will of the nation.
3. A political and social movement for the achievement of the nations
goals and actualize the national will
4
.
4. Pertains to the geographical identification of people.
5

Philippine Political History. The common definition of political history is the
narrative and analysis of political events, ideas, movements and leaders
6
and
central to this historical account is power its structure, use and diffusion within
a society.
7
Concisely, political history is defined as the study of that dynamic
activity in the past experience of human societies which has direct relevance to
the organizational aspects of those societies.
8

In the Philippine context, the description of former Chief Justice Reynato S.
Puno may best explain our nations political history when he said that, If you
look at our current news you will discover that they are repeats of past news,
perhaps with some modifications but repeats nevertheless. To a movie goer,
such repeats pose no problem. He simply tells himself, Napanood ko na iyan,
and simply walks away. I wish we can adopt that dismissiveness, that
nonchalance, that indifference to problems that keep repeating themselves to
ST
EDITION
52
Filipinos from generation to generation. If we give up, if we do not care
anymore, then the Filipino is ready for the requiem.
9
Simply, the popular adage
that a nation forgetting or not learning from its past is condemned to repeat
history, to repeat the mistakes or failures in the past.
Aside from the recurrence of our problems, there are inconsistencies in the
way our nation is being organized and in the words of former National Security
Adviser, Retired General Jose T. Almonte, he said that we have a factional
politics, a nation ruled by men, institutions run by political personalities, civil
service despoiled by politics, weak financial system, an irresponsible Congress, a
monarchic and very powerful President, oligarchy, political system working at
cross purpose, policymaking captive to vested interests, nationalism to justify a
closed markets, patronage system and the poor remain to be a staunch
supporters of patronage, a nation not producing and extreme social injustice in
the urban poor sector and in the rural areas
10

Beginnings of Philippine Democracy. Firstly, the theme that we are going
to discuss which will provide us an understanding of Philippine political history is
the democratization of our nation. We are going to trace the beginnings of
democracy in our history. This particular study is relevant because of the
political development today which is the rapid spread of democracy in the
developing world like the Philippines. It is once theorized that the present
generation is not only benefited by the end of Cold War or of the collapse of the

53
Berlin Wall or of the passing of a post-war period, but rather in the end of history
as such. The present is actually marked as the end point of mans search for
ideology and the commencement of the universalization of Western liberal
history.
11
Indeed there is a strong appeal among the nations for a government
where the citizens have substantial participation in its formation, where they are
part in choosing its political leaders, be involved in the public decision-making
processes and that they can enjoy their freedoms and liberties like freedom of
expression, fair trials, practice their religion, equal rights among women and the
minorities and others. This concept has culminated in events like the Arab Spring
that toppled down non-democratic regimes in the Middle East which have
created a world opinion which says that ultimately, democratic governance is
considered to be generally right
12
.
In our context, Philippine democracy can be simply traced by
enumerating our nations significant historical periods:
1. Pre-Spanish Period, until the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521
2. Spanish Period, 333 years of colonization which ended in 1898
3. The American Period, almost a half century of being a colony from
1898 to 1946
4. Japanese Period during the Second World War, 1941 - 1945
5. Contemporary Philippine Republics, counting from the 3
rd
up to the
current 5
th
Republic, 1946 up to the present
ST
EDITION
54
The simple periods of Philippine political history are based on the arrival of
or the end of colonization in the country, and second, though introduced during
the Commonwealth Period from the Americans, democracy takes its full course
only very recently when we were given independence almost 70 years ago on
July 4, 1946 with brief interruption during the Martial Law period.
Another example for this is our pre-Spanish period. The time that God
created the world or from the birth of this Universe until March 21, 1521, such
long period covering possibly important events is called the Pre-Spanish period
in the Philippines. We lack sufficient historical data of our distant past especially
the periods before the arrival of the Spanish colonizers. The gap is wide enough
and the quest is necessary. Necessary in the sense that the search may help us
identify our roots and later on define our identity as one Filipino nation.
Likewise our democracy is quite young. Despite being regarded as one of
the first independent States in Asia, ours is still in transition. Democracy in
transition, as compared to consolidated democracy, is defined as the interval
between one political regime and another which involves the process of
dissolution of an authoritarian regime and, on the other, by the installation of
some form of democracy, the return to some form of authoritarian rule, or
theemergence of a revolutionary alternative.
13

In the words of Samuel Huntington in his seminal work on Democracys
Third Wave said that democracies in transition as part of the wave of

55
democratization is described as a group of transitions from nondemocratic to
democratic regimes that occur within a specified period of time and that
significantly outnumber transitions in the opposite direction during that period of
time. A wave also usually involves liberalization or partial democratization in
political systems that do not become fully democratic.
14

During the pre-Spanish, Spanish, American and Japanese Occupation,
our political systems were not democratic. Except for some limited aspects
during the American and Commonwealth period. In those times when we were
still a colony, the country lacked the basic electoral democracy of free and fair
elections, theres an absence of democratic government processes, conflicts
were not settled peacefully and the people were not enjoying political and civil
rights. After our independence from America, the Martial Law period in
September 21, 1972 including the 4th Republic was non-democratic due to the
dictatorial powers of Marcos enshrined in the 1973 Constitution and there was
limited exercise of political rights and freedoms of the people. In totality, our
almost 70 year old democracy briefly interrupted during the Marcos regime is
young hence ours is in transition. Most developing countries in the world whose
democracy is in transition shared the same problems like poverty, corruption,
rebellion and with weak institutions.
Democracy, as a political system, may not be the best but it is the only
system that recognizes and respects the dignity of every person. From among
ST
EDITION
56
the many political systems in the world, democracy is considered compatible
with the free exercise of human freedoms, liberty and other human rights. In
theory, citizens in democratic states participate in the formation of their
governments and in electing their leaders. Although democracy and economic
development are not in any way connected like what is asserted to have
occurred in India, South Korea, some of the countries in the Middle East who are
endowed with abundant natural resources or even China which is non-
democratic but is the worlds 2
nd
largest economy.
15
However, it is proven that
the opportunities of a person to participate in the generation of wealth are
more afforded in an environment that is democratic.
Timeline of Philippine Governments. The following are the timeline of the
formation of the various Philippine Governments:
PERIOD
NAME OF
GOV'T
CONSTITUTION
PRESIDENT/ HEAD
OF STATE/HEAD OF
GOV'T
LEGISLATURE
1
1899
-
1901
1st Philippine
Republic
Malolos
Constitution
(1899)
President Emilio F.
Aguinaldo (1899 -
1901)
Assembly of
Representativ
es
2
1898
-
1902
US Military
Government
in the
Philippines

General Wesley
Meritt (1898)
1st Philippine
Commission
General Elwell S.
Otis ( 1898 - 1899)
Dr. Jacob
Schurman (1899 -
1901)
General Arthur
MacArthur, Jr.
(1900 - 1901)
General Adna
Chaffee (1901 -

57
1902)
3
1902
-
1916
Government
of the
Philippine
Islands
Philippine
Organic Act
(1902 - 1916)
William Howard Taft
(1901 - 1904)
Upper House:
Philippine
Commission
(1907 - 1916;
Appointed)
Luke Edward
Wright ( 1904 -
1905)
Henry Clay Ide
(1905-1906)
Lower House:
Philippine
Assembly
(1907 - 1916;
Elected)
James Francis
Smith (1906 - 1909)
William Cameron
Forbes (1909 - 1913)

Newton Gilbert (
1913)

Francis Burton
Harrison (1913 -
1921)
4
1916
-
1935
Government
of the
Philippine
Islands
Jones Law
Francis Burton
Harrison (1913 -
1921)
Upper House:
Senate (1916 -
1935; Elected)
Charles Yeater
(1921)
Leonard Wood
(1921 - 1927)
Eugene Allen
Gilmore (1927)
Henry L. Stimson
(1927 - 1929)
Eugene Allen
Gilmore (1929)
Lower House:
House of
Representativ
es (1916 -
1935; Elected)
Dwight F. Davis
(1929 - 1932)
George C. Butte
(1932)
Theodore
Roosevelt, Jr. (1932
- 1933)
Frank Murphy (
1933 - 1935)
5 1935 Commonwe 1935 President Manuel L. National
ST
EDITION
58
-
1946
alth
Government
Constitution Quezon (1935
1944, Nacionalista
Party)
Assembly of
the Philippines
(1935 - 1941;
Elected) President Sergio
Osmena (1944
1946, Nacionalista
Party)
President Manuel
A. Roxas (1946
1948, Liberal Party)
1st Congress
of the
Commonweal
th (1945)
6
1943
-
1945
2nd
Philippine
Republic
1943
Constitution
President Jose P.
Laurel (1943 1945,
KALIBAPI)
National
Assembly of
the 2nd
Republic
(1944,
Appointed)
7
1946
-
1972
3rd
Philippine
Republic
1935
Constitution
President Manuel
A. Roxas (1946
Upper House:
Senate
President Elpidio
Quirino ( 1948
President Ramon
Magsaysay (1953
1957, Nacionalista
Party)
President Carlos P.
Garcia (1957
1961, Nacionalista
Party)
Lower House:
House of
Representativ
es
President Diosdado
Macapagal (1961
President
Ferdinand E.
Marcos, Sr. (1965
1986, Nacionalista
Party, KBL)
8
1972
-
1981
Martial Law
1973
Constitution
President
Ferdinand E.
Marcos, Sr. (1965
Legislative
Advisory (1976
- 1978)

59
1986, Nacionalista
Party, KBL)
Batasang
Pambansa
(1976 - 1978)
9
1981
-
1986
4th Philippine
Republic
1973
Constitution
President
Ferdinand E.
Marcos, Sr. (1965
1986, Nacionalista
Party, KBL)
Interim
Batasang
Pambansa
(1978)
Regular
Batasang
Pambansa
(1984)
11 1986
Revolutionar
y
Government
1986
Constitution
(Freedom
Constitution)
President Corazon
C. Aquino (1986
1992, UNIDO)
Reestablishme
nt of the
Bicameral
Legislature
(1986)
12
1986
-
pres
ent
5th Philippine
Republic
1987
Constitution
President Corazon
C. Aquino (1986 -
1992)
Upper House:
Senate
President Fidel V.
Ramos (1992
1998, Lakas-NUCD)
President Joseph E.
Estrada (1998
2001,LAMP)
President Gloria M.
Macapagal-Arroyo
(2001-2010, Lakas-
KAMPI)
Lower House:
House of
Representativ
es
President Benigno
S. Aquino (2010

Philippine Presidents. The table below shows the list of Philippine Presidents
with their term of office, the Constitutions during their tenure, their Vice-
Presidents and the province where they come from.

ST
EDITION
60
PERIOD CONSTITUTION POSITION NAME PROVINCE
1
1899
1901
Malolos
Constitution
President
Emilio F.
Aguinaldo
Luzon
Prime Minister
(President of
the Council
of
Government);
January 1899
Apolinario Mabini Luzon
Prime Minister
(President of
the Council
of
Government);
May 1899
Pedro A. Paterno Luzon
2
1935 -
1944
1935
Constitution
President
Manuel L.
Quezon
Luzon
Vice-
President
Sergio Osmea Visayas
3 1944
1943
Constitution
President Jose P. Laurel Luzon
4
1944 -
1946
1935
Constitution
President Sergio Osmea Visayas
5
1946 -
1948
1935
Constitution
President Manuel A. Roxas Visayas
Vice-
President
Elpidio Quirino Luzon
6
1948
1935
Constitution
President Elpidio Quirino Luzon
1949
1953
1935
Constitution
President Elpidio Quirino Luzon
Vice-
President
Fernando Lopez Visayas
7
1953
1957
1935
Constitution
President
Ramon
Magsaysay
Luzon
Vice-
President
Carlos P. Garcia Visayas
8
1957
1935
Constitution
President Carlos P. Garcia Visayas
1957
1961
1935
Constitution
President Carlos P. Garcia Visayas
Vice-
President
Diosdado P.
Macapagal
Luzon
9
1961-
1965
1935
Constitution
President
Diosdado P.
Macapagal
Luzon

61
Vice-
President
Emmanuel Pelaez Mindanao
10
1965
1972
1935
Constitution
President
Ferdinand E.
Marcos
Luzon
Vice-
President
Fernando Lopez Visayas
1972
1976
1973
Constitution
President
Ferdinand E.
Marcos
Luzon
1976
1981
1973
Constitution
President &
Prime Minister
Ferdinand E.
Marcos
Luzon
1981
1986
1973
Constitution
President
Ferdinand E.
Marcos
Luzon
Prime Minister
Cesar Emilio
Aguinaldo Virata
Luzon
11
1986
1986
Constitution
(Freedom
Constitution)
President
Corazon C.
Aquino
Luzon
Prime Minister Salvador Laurel Luzon
1986
1992
1987
Constitution
President
Corazon C.
Aquino
Luzon
Vice-
President
Salvador Laurel Luzon
12
1992
1998
1987
Constitution
President Fidel V. Ramos Luzon
Vice-
President
Joseph E. Estrada Luzon
13
1998
2001
1987
Constitution
President Joseph E. Estrada Luzon
Vice-
President
Gloria M.
Macapagal-
Arroyo
Luzon
14
2001
2004
1987
Constitution
President
Gloria M.
Macapagal-
Arroyo
Luzon
Vice-
President
Teofisto
Guingona
Luzon
2004
2010
1987
Constitution
President
Gloria M.
Macapagal-
Arroyo
Luzon
Vice-
President
Manuel Leuterio
de Castro, Jr.
Luzon
15
2010
2016
1987
Constitution
President
Benigno S.
Aquino
Luzon
Vice- Jejomar C. Binay, Luzon
ST
EDITION
62
President Sr.

The following are some of the salient events in the political history of
Philippine leadership:
1. The first President and Vice President elected by the people President
Manuel L. Quezon and Vice President Sergio Osmea
2. The only President who lost in a re-election to the Office to which he
succeeded President Sergio Osmea in the 1946 Presidential Elections
against President Roxas.
3. The first elected President and Vice President who came from the
opposing political parties President Diosdado P. Macapagal and his
Vice President Carlos P. Garcia
4. Two women became President and swept into power by people
power revolution President Corazon Aquino in the 1986 EDSA
Revolution and President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo in the 2001 EDSA II
People Power
5. A President with two Vice Presidents President Gloria Macapagal
Arroyo with VP Teofisto Guingona (2001 -2004) and VP Manuel de
Castro (2004 2010)
6. A Vice President of two Presidents and was elected thrice into such
office VP Fernando H. Lopez who was elected in 1949 as VP of

63
President Quirino and in 1965 and 1969 Presidential elections as VP of
President Marcos.
7. The 3 Presidents who succeeded without a Vice-President for the
remainder of the term to which they succeeded Pres. Osmena after
the death of Pres. Quezon in 1944, Pres. Quirino after the death of
President Roxas in 1948 and President Garcia after the death of Pres.
Magsaysay in 1957.
8. Three Ilocano Presidents Presidents Quirino, Magsaysay and Marcos.
9. Children of former Presidents who ran for the Presidency Two
Presidential children lost: Sergio Osmena, Jr. who ran and lost in 1969
against Marcos and Salvador Laurel who ran and lost in the 1992
election against Ramos. Those who ran and won are Macapagal-
Arroyo in 2004 and Benigno S. Aquino, Jr. in 2010.
10. The following are the Presidents who broke with their original political
party and transferred to or formed another party when they ran and
won the Presidency: Roxas from Nacionalista to Liberal, Magsaysay
from Liberal to Nacionalista, Marcos from Liberal to Nacionalista,
Ramos from LDP and formed Lakas NUCD-UMDP, Estrada from Liberal
and formed Partido Ng Masang Pilipino, and Arroyo from LDP to form
KAMPI.
11. In the 1935 Constitution, the President and Vice-President are
geopolitically balanced while in the present 1987 Constitution, the
ST
EDITION
64
elected President and Vice-President are all from Luzon. The country
never had a President from Mindanao.
12. Twelve Presidents are from Luzon, three from Visayas and none from
Mindanao.
13. There were 15 Presidential elections since 1935 up to the present, 30
Senate elections since 1916 and 25 elections for the House of
Representatives and 4 Assembly elections since 1907.
14. There were 10 Philippine Legislatures, 5 National Assemblies, 1 Congress
of the Commonwealth and 15 Congresses of the Republic.
15. The Philippine has 80 years of bicameral congress (1907 1934, 1945
1972 and 1987 to present) and 19 years with unicameral congress (1935
1941, 1943 1944 and 1978 1986)
16. Before 1941, Senators were elected by Districts and from 1941 to
present elections of Senators is at large.
17. There were 22 Senators elected by Districts from 1916 to 1933; 24
Senators elected in 1941, 1987 and in 1992; 8 Senators were elected
from 1947 1971; and 12 Senators elected from 1995 to present
(except in 2001 where 13 Senators were elected and the 13
th
Senator
served for the unexpired term of Senator Guingona who became VP of
Pres. Arroyo in 2001).
18. The Philippines has 10 years of block voting (1941 1951), 32 years of
two-party system (1907 1941, 1946 1972) and there are 58 seats in

65
The term Values generally
means as set of principles or
standards of behavior or
ones judgment of what is
important in his life. The old
French of the term is the
feminine past participle
valoir and its Latin
equivalent is valere which
means be worth.
the House of Representatives which are reserved for the party list
groups. For 8 years, party list groups were appointed from 1987 1995
and since 1998 up to the present, they are already elected.
19. Manuel L. Quezon was the longest serving Senate President from 1916
1935, longest serving Speaker of the House was Sergio Osmena, Sr.
from 1907 1922, Senator Camilo Osias was the shortest termed Senate
President for 13 days and Representative Arnulfo P. Fuentebella as the
shortest termed Speaker of the House of Representatives for 72 days.
20. The 1935 Constitution was ratified on May 14, 1935 with 96% (1,213,046
votes) voted Yes and only 4% of the electorate were not in favor.
21. On April 30, 1937 plebiscite, 91% of the Filipino electorate voted Yes
in favor of granting suffrage to women.
Filipino Values. This is the second
foundation that will be discussed in this section
which will help us in understanding Philippine
politics and government. It must be noted that
in learning this particular subject, we must relate
it to the current realities of our society, the
nation and public governance, and anchor the same on the value on human
dignity and the universitys core value on man and woman for others.
ST
EDITION
66
Values are also understood as things, ideas or people which are important
to us; that which will shape our behavior and define who we are; the things,
standards or qualities which are considered worthwhile or desirable; beliefs that
people have as basis for their decision making; which will commit persons to
action; and principles, standards or qualities which are considered worthwhile or
desirable.
Common perceptions and behavior of the people are created by values,
and political culture also describes the shared values of the people in a
particular political system.
Rokeach defines Values as an enduring belief that a specific mode of
conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an
opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence
16
. It is
described that a belief which is considered as a desirable mode of conduct is
called an instrumental value while a belief that considers a desirable end-state is
referred to as terminal value.
17
For example, if an individual considers freedom
as valuable end-state of existence then he believes that freedom is better
compared to slavery
18
. Rokeach classifies terminal values into two kinds (1)
values that are self-focused are called personal values, and (2) those values
that are others-focused are called social values. Likewise, instrumental values
are also of two kinds (1) values which when violated result to twinges of
conscience or a feeling of guilt for committing wrong and this is called moral

67
values, and (2) those which when violated will cause shame on personal
inadequacy on competence or the so called self-actualization values
19
.
Schwartz and Bilsky made a summary on the common definition of values
as: (1) concepts or beliefs, (b) about desirable end-states or behaviors, (c)
which transcends particular situations, (d) guide selection or evaluation of
behavior and events, and (e) are ordered by relative importance.
20

Filipino Values. Father Gorospe, S.J. described the distinct Filipino value
system as that which arises from our culture or way of life, our distinctive way of
becoming human in this particular place and time
21
. He enumerated four ways
in which to understand Filipino values:
1. The universality of human values including the Filipino values but there
are some elements of the latter which are uniquely Filipinos.
2. Some of the elements of Filipino values are also present in other
peoples or cultures value system. The uniqueness of Filipino values
which make it different from the other values lie on how these
elements are ranked, given importance, combined or emphasized.
3. The universal human values in a Filipino context (historical, cultural,
socio-economic, political, moral and religious) take on a distinctive set
of Filipino meanings and motivations. This is true not only of the aims
and goals, beliefs, convictions, and social principles of the traditional
value system of the lowland rural family but also of what Fr. Horacio de
ST
EDITION
68
la Costa, S.J. calls the Filipino "nationalistic" tradition (pagsasarili,
pagkakaisa, pakikisama, pakikipagkapwa-tao, and pagkabayani
22

4. Filipino values exist in the sense that the historical consciousness of
these values have evolved from among our people
23
. The Filipino
concept of justice has evolved from inequality to equality, and to
human dignity; from the tribe, to the family, and to the nation. Filipino
consciousness of these different values varies at different periods of our
history
24
. It is only in the last two decades that the Filipino people have
become more conscious of overpopulation and family planning,
environmental pollution and wildlife conservation, and the violation of
human rights (Martial Law), active non-violence and People Power
(1986 non-violent Revolution)
25
.
Filipino values according to Enriquez are categorized into the following:
1. Filipino Core Value which is the core construct of being a Filipino and
which makes up an intricate and complex system based on the concept of
Asal. This value is the standard for ideal conduct of a Filipino for it is considered
to be good, ethical, moral, desirable, beautiful and true. To reiterate, this is what
makes a Filipino.
The concept of Asalis composed of three core elements: (1) Kapwa
which pertains to relational standard or in dealing with other, (2) Damdamin

69
which is the emotional standards and (3) Dangal referring to the moral
standard.
Kapwa, which is the core value of Filipino personhood means shared
self, a shared identity, of being one with another, such value that connects a
Filipino to anyone outside him or herself and which implies an obligation to a
Filipino to treat anyone as human being and as equal.
26
It is said that without
Kapwa, once ceases to be a Filipino.
2. Filipino Shared Inner Perception which is best exemplified in
Pakiramdam which follows with the shared identity of Kapwa. This is the way
in which a Filipino deals with other people through the use of Damdam, or such
inner perceptions of the feelings and emotions of other persons.
Pakiramdam means that feeling for another, being aware, sensitive
and attentive to the subtle cues and non-verbal behaviors of the other person.
Other definitions of Pakiramdam are the capacity for compassion, empathy,
and sympathy; is the pivotal value of shared inner perception which refers to
heightened awareness and sensitivity, a covert individual process by which a
person tries to feel and understand the feelings and intentions of another; a
heightened awareness and sensitivity for the other and is an active and
dynamic process involving great care and deliberation, paying attention to
subtle cues and non-verbal behavior, and employing mental role playing;and,
simply means feeling for another or a request to feel or to be sensitive to
others
27
.
ST
EDITION
70
3. Filipino Shared Humanity or the Kagandahang Loob or the shared
nobility, such value which impels Filipinos to help other people who are in need
of help because of such feeling that everyone is part of community or of being
part to a Filipino humanity. This value can also be understood as generosity
towards other people, shared inner nobility or shared humanity. This particular
noble value moved Filipinos towards heroism.
4. Filipino Surface Values which can be seen from the outside and which
are considered ambivalent because they can be interpreted positively or
negatively. These values are used as strategies by Filipinos in building
relationships exemplified through their interpersonal or group communications.
28

Surface values function like a coping mechanism which put Filipinos to give its
guts and determination rather than being passive and of an escapist way in
facing problems.
29
The following are some of the surface values which are
ambivalent, that which can be interpreted positively or negatively.
The following are some of the Filipino surface values enumerated by
Emerita S. Quito in her article The Ambivalence of Filipino Traits and Values
30
:
(a) Hiya or shame which can be negatively interpreted because it arrests
or inhibits one's action. This trait reduces one to smallness or to what Nietzsche
calls the "morality of slaves", thus congealing the soul of the Filipino and
emasculating him, making him timid, meek and weak. Positively because, it
contributes to peace of mind and lack of stress by not even trying to achieve.
31


71
(b) Ningas-cogon or procrastination which is negative by all standards,
because it begins ardently and dies down as soon as it begins. This trait renders
one inactive and unable to initiate things or to persevere. Positive, in a way,
because it makes a person nonchalant, detached, indifferent, nonplussed
should anything go wrong, and hence conducive to peace and tranquility.
32

(c) Pakikisama or group loyalty which is interpreted negatively because
one closes one's eyes to evils like graft and corruption in order to conserve
peace and harmony in a group at the expense of one's comfort and positively
because one lives for others and theres peace or lack of dissension is a
constant goal.
(d) Patigasan or test of strength which is understood to be negative
because it is stubborn and it resists all efforts at reconciliation. The trait makes us
childish, vindictive, irresponsible and irrational. Actions resulting from this trait are
leaving the phone off the hook to get even with one's party line; stopping the
engine of the car to prove that one has the right of way; standing one's ground
until the opposite party loses its patience. Positively because it is assign that we
know our rights and are not easily cowed into submission. It is occidental in spirit,
hence in keeping with Nietzsche's "will to power."
33

(e) Bahala Na or resignation is considered negative, because one leaves
everything to chance under the pretext of trusting in Divine providence. This trait
is really laziness disguised in religious garb. It is also considered positive because
ST
EDITION
72
one relies on a superior power rather than on one's own. It is conducive to
humility, modesty, and lack of arrogance.
(f) Sakop or inclusion is viewed as negative because one never learns to
be on one's own but relies on one's family and relatives. This trait stunts growth
and prevents a person from growing on one's own. Generating a life of
parasitism, this trait is very non-existential. Blaring music, loud tones are a result of
this mentality. We wrongly think that all people like the music we play or the
stories we tell. This mentality also makes us consider the world as one vast
comfort room. Positively because one cares for the family and clan; one stands
or falls with them. This trait makes a person show concern for the family to which
he belongs.
34

(g) Maana or Bukas Na or procrastination is negative because one
constantly postpones action and accomplishes nothing. This aggravates a
situation, a problem grows beyond correction, a leak or a small break becomes
a gaping hole. This arises from an indolent mentality that a problem will go away
by itself. It is positive because one is without stress and tension; one learns to
take what comes naturally. Like the Chinese wu-wei, this trait makes one live
naturally and without undue artificiality.
35

(h) Utang Na loob or indebtedness is understood as negative because
one overlooks moral principles when one is indebted to a person. One who is
beholden to another person will do anything to please him, thinking that by
doing so he is able to repay a debt. One condones what the other person does

73
and will never censure him for wrongdoing. Positive because it is a recognition
of one's indebtedness. This trait portrays the spirit behind the Filipino saying, "He
who does not know how to look to the past will never reach his destination."
36

(i) Kanya-kanya or of self-centeredness is considered negative because
it is self-centered; one has no regard for others. So long as my family and I are
not in need, I do not care about the world. It is positive because one takes
care of oneself and one's family: "Blood is thicker than water.
37

Colonial mentality or the influence of foreign values destroys our
indigenous Filipino values. The exercise of the surface values together with the
core values on Kapwa, Pakiramdam and Kagandahang Loob is the ideal one
and may compose the true value-laden Filipino. It is said that once the surface
value is affected by colonial mentality or influenced by foreign values or
exercised negatively it is viewed then that will make a Filipino bad; when it is the
core value on Pakiramdam then that makes him worse, and worst or no longer a
Filipino when the core value Kapwa is absent.

ST
EDITION
74
ENDNOTES

1
James G. Kellas, The Politics of Nationalism and Ethnicity, 2
nd
Edition (New York, NY: St. Martins
Press Inc., 1998), p. 67 cited in Defining Nationalism,
http://catarina.udlap.mx/u_dl_a/tales/documentos/lri/cruz_f_c/capitulo1.pdf, (April 18, 2014)
2
William Bloom, Personal Identity, national identity and international relations, (Cambridge, GB:
Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 83 as cited Ibid.
3
Ata Anbarani, Nation, Nationalism in Controversial Debates and Thought: A Review of Origin of
Nation and Nationalism, Canadian Social Science, Volume 9 No. 3,
DOI:10.3968/j.css.1923669720130903.2764
4
Smith, A. (1991 A). The ethnic origins of nations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cited in Ata
Anbarani, Nation, Nationalism in Controversial Debates and Thought: A Review of Origin of
DOI:10.3968/j.css.1923669720130903.2764
5
Sargent, L. T. (1999). Contemporary Political Ideologies. Orlando: Harcourt Brace cited in Ata
Anbarani, Nation, Nationalism in Controversial Debates and Thought: A Review of Origin of
DOI:10.3968/j.css.1923669720130903.2764
6
Mary Boatwright, New Approaches to Roman Institutional and Political History: Duke University,
http://apaclassics.org/sites/default/files/documents/MTBAPA2009.pdf (April 18, 2014).
7
Jacques Le Goff, as quoted in William E. Leuchtenburg, The Pertinence of Political History:
Reflections on the Significance of the State in America, The Journal of American History 73:3
(December 1986), 589 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1902978)
8
G. R. Elton, as quoted in Illkka Nordberg, Regionalism and Revenue: The Moderate Basque
Nationalist Party, the PNV, and Politico-Economic Power in Basque Country of Spain 1980-1998,
University of Helsinki, http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/hum/histo/vk/nordberg/regional.pdf (April
18, 2014).
9
Chief Justice Reynato S. Puno (Ret) (2011, May), Why Change the Constitution? Speech
presented at the Centrist Democratic Forum on Decentralization among Local Leaders,
Cagayan de Oro City.
10
Jose T. Almonte, Is the Philippines declining? in Federico M. Macaranas, PhD , ed., In Pursuit
of the Philippine Competitive Edge: An Oral History of a Continuing Journey by 50 Wisdom-
Keepers (Makati: Asian Institute of Management Policy Center and Konrad Adenauer Stiftung,
2007), p. 24.


75

11
Francis Fukuyama, The End of History, The National Interest,
http://www.kropfpolisci.com/exceptionalism.fukuyama.pdf (April 19, 2014).
12
Amartya Sen, in Introduction to Politics of the Developing World (Boston, MA: Wadsworth
Cengage Learning, 2013), 24 (www.cengage.com).
13
ODonnell, Guillermo, and Philippe Schmitter. 1986. Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain
Democracies. In ODonnell et al., eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule, Part 4, pp. 1-78 as
cited by Scott Mainwaring in Transitions to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation:
Theoretical and Comparative Issues, The Helen Kellog Institute for International Studies,
November 1989.
14
Samuel P. Huntington, Democracys Third Wave,
http://www.ou.edu/uschina/gries/articles/IntPol/Huntington.91.Demo.3rd.pdf accessed May 22,
2014.
15
Michael Schuman, Is democracy necessary for economic development? Time, November 5,
2010. http://business.time.com/2010/11/05/is-democracy-necessary-for-economic-success/,
accessed May 13, 2014.
16
Rokeach, M (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free Press. Page. 5 cited in Does
Management Education Make Students Better Actors? A Longitudinal Study of Change in
Values and Self-Monitoring, Venkat R Krishnan (http://www.rkvenkat.org),
17
Ibid.
18
Ibid.
19
Ibid.
20
Schwartz, S H, and Bilsky, W (1987). Toward a universal psychological structure of human
values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (3), 550-562 cited in Ibid.
21
Chapter vi: understanding the Filipino value system by fr. vitaliano r. gorospe, S.J. cited in
http://www.crvp.org/book/Series03/III-7/chapter_vi.htm, (May 14, 2014)
22
Ibid.
23
Ibid.
24
Ibid.
25
Ibid.
26
Dr. Virgilio Enriquez as cited in an article entitled Indigenous Filipino Values: A Foundation for a
Culture of Non-Violence, Paper prepared for the forum: Towards A Culture of Non-Violence, by
Katrin de Guia, Ph.D., author of Kapwa: The Self in the Other, 2005, Anvil Publishing Inc., Pasig,
M.M.

ST
EDITION
76

27
Raj Mansukhani, Pakiramdam: A critical Analysis, http://www.crvp.org/book/Series03/IIID-
4/chapter-9.htm.
28
Michelle Antonette Elum Marasigan and Jim Ryan Manalang Yap, Accommodative and
Confrontative Communication in television news broadcasting during crisis reporting,
http://iskwiki.upd.edu.ph/images/f/f2/NEWs_VALUE_(Marasigan_&_Yap).pdf.
29
Enriquez, V. (1989). Indigenous psychology and national consciousness cited in Ibid.
30
Emerita S. Quito, The Ambivalence of Filipino Traits and Values accessed
http://www.crvp.org/book/Series03/III-7/chapter_v.htm.
31
Ibid.
32
Ibid.
33
Ibid.
34
Ibid.
35
Ibid.
36
Ibid.
37
Ibid.

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