Geologia Petrolera de Venezuela

Chapter 1
Petroleum Geology of Venezuela
General geology
The history of oil exploration
in Venezuela
Petroleum basins
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.0
100,000 m
200,000 m
300,000 m
400,000 m
500,000 m
600,000 m
700,000 m
900,000
La Vela
offshore
1,300,000 m
Gulf of Venezuela
La Vela
Coro
Tiguale
W.Mara
Mara
La Paz
er
Tocu y o
YARACUY
Valencia
Riv
CARABOBO
Barquisimeto
Lama
ZULIA
o
Ca
tat u
Lake
Maracaibo
er
R iv
Yucal - Placer
San Juan
de los Morros
San Carlos
Trujillo
Motatn
El Rosario
MIRANDA
ARAGUA
Lago Ceuta
Lamar
centro Tomoraro
Ro de Oro
Tu
Los Teques
Mene Grande
Alturitas
Caracas
Maracay
LARA
Bachaquero
Urdaneta
D.F.
San Felipe
Cabimas
Ta Juana
Lagunillas
Boscn
1,100,000 m
FALCON
Las Palmas
Hombre Pintado
Media
Maracaibo
La
Mene de Maurda
Concepcin Ambrosio
Sibucara
Gu a
1.43
sa
re
Ri
1,200,000 m
er
Caribbean Sea
Cumarebo
El Mamn
Ri
v
Fig
1,000,000 m
800,000 m
Jobal
Roblecito Valle
COJEDES
48
1.
PORTUGUESA
ig
Dakoa
Guavinita
Ruiz
Beln
Palacio
fig
Barinas
48
40
Mrida
1.45
1.
Tarra
Bella Vista
Fig
36
1.
Las Cruces
Copa Macoya
Saban
Ipire
Las Mercedes
Guanare
fig
Los Manueles
Tucupido
Punzn
TRUJILLO
1.
ig
Ri
Apure River
G u
rico R ive
r
1.48
r
ve
Fig
ur
er
TACHIRA
Sinco
MACHETE
aR
i
BARINAS
GUARICO
Silvestre
at
Silvn
MERIDA
900,000 m
San Fernando
de Apure
San Cristbal
La Alquitrana
APURE
800,000 m
La Victoria
Guafita
Arauca R i ver
Ri
auca ver
Ar
BOLIVAR
Legend
Oil field
State Boundaries
Gas field
Cross Section
Condensate field
State Capitol
Oil + Condensate field
River
700,000 m
0
0
20
40
20
Meta River
60 80 100 120 km
40
60
80 miles
COLOMBIA
600,000 m
100,000 m
200,000 m
Location map of oil fields in Venezuela.
300,000 m
400,000 m
500,000 m
600,000 m
700,000 m
800,000 m
900,000
00 m
700,000 m
800,000 m
1,000,000 m
1,100,000 m
1,200,000 m
1,300,000 m
1,400,000 m
1,300,000 m
Tobago
Caribbean Sea
Dragn
Patao
Margarita Island
Mejillones
La Asuncin
Ro Caribe
N. ESPARTA
1,200,000 m
Coche
Cubagua
SUCRE
Cuman
Caracas
Barcelona
ig
Dakoa
Guavinita
Las Mercedes
Ruiz
Beln
Palacio
Copa Macoya
Saban
Ipire
Bella Vista
Un
ar
e
Riv
e
Fig
PAO
1.50
HAMACA
Ori n
River
co
v
1.50
BELT
ZUATA
Ciudad
Bolvar
Fig
Aro iv
R
er
San Fernando
de Apure
Caroni
ua
1.48
rico R ive
r
Fig
ORINOCO
MACHETE
er
G u
Piln
Morichal
aR
i
Apure River
1,000,000 m
Bitor Area
Cerro
Negro
1.45
GUARICO
DELTA
Bombal
Uracoa
Tucupita
Jobo
Barso
ig
re iv
Tig R e
Greater Temblador
area Temblador
Fig
48
1.
ive r
Punzn
8
4
1.
Tajali
Maturin
El Furrial
Carito
a ip a
Santa BrbaraG u n
es
Tucupido
al
La Ceiba
Tacat
Greater Oficina
area
Greater Anaco
area
Loran
rn
Jobal
Roblecito Valle
Jusepn
Pirital
ANZOATEGUI
1,100,000 m
de
Yucal - Placer
Quiriquire
Orocual
Manresa
Quiamare
San Juan
de los Morros
Posa
MONAGAS
Pe
MIRANDA
ARAGUA
er
Riv
Tu
Los Teques
Gulf of Paria
iv
1.5
Maracay
Trinidad
Jua
San
R
Fig
D.F.
BO
Ri
er
900,000 m
AMACURO
Reclamation
Zone
BOLIVAR
Greater Anaco area
Greater Oficina area
Santa Rosa
La Florida
El Roble
Casca
Carisito
Maulpa
aR
Onado
ver
00 m
900,000 m
BOLIVAR
Aguasay
San Joaqun
Casma
Cantaura
San Roque
Santa Ana
El Toco
Acema
Mata
Acema - Casma
Mapiri
Kaki
Naroo
Boca
Guere
Oscurote
Nipa
Oritupano
Guara
Leona
Chimire
Budare
Elotes
Oficina
Dacin
Lobo
Adas
Trico
Oveja
700,000 m
800,000 m
Melones
900,000 m
Figure 1.1
68
64
60
Guajira Aruba
Peninsula
Paraguan Bonaire
Grenada
Caribbean
Sea
Peninsula
Gulf
Coro
of
Venezuela
La Tortuga
Tobago
Porlamar
nge
Paria
Maracaibo uis Ra ange
Araya
La Costa Range Cuman
C.
de
La
Costa
L
R
Trinidad
a
Caracas
Cariaco Carpano
Sanaragu
Barcelona
Valencia
B
Los Teques
Interior Range
Lake Barquisimeto
Interior Range
ipa
Maturn
Maracaibo es
uan
d Trujillo
(Central Branch) (Eastern Branch)
R. G igre
T
An
Tucupita
Rio
Guanare
n
a
el
zu
ne Mrida Barinas
e
Ciudad
Bolvar
V
o
ric
ua
o G sa
Ri
e
gu
rtu
Po
o
Ri
Apu
co
rino
San Rio O
Fernando
re
100- 250 m
0-100 m
Rio Meta
Puerto
Ayacucho
Mountain
Belts
a
an
ay if
u
s
G as
M
Foothill
Regions
Plains and
Coastal Plains
Colombia
100
0
50
200 km
Brazil
150
The Venezuelan physiographic provinces are:

1) The mountain belts:
Venezuelan Andes and the
Caribbean Mountain System
(Perij, San Luis; Baragua
and La Costa Range); 2) the
foothills; 3) the coastal plains;
4) the plains between the
Orinoco River and the mountain belts; 5) and the
Guayana Province or Massif
(after NB-18-ll map; MMH,
Brazil
72
1976).
Reclamation Zone
250 to > 5000 m
Rio Arauca
Sea
Level
3
11
Guyana
Rio
S. Cristbal
7
ic
nt n
tla a
A ce
O
Co
lom
11
bia
Pe
rij
Ra
ng
e
72
68
64
the chapter, and also a time chart with the

main geological ages indicated and a
geopolitical map with all Venezuelan cities
and places cited in the text (Fig. 1.0). Also,
we include a section called the History of
Oil Exploration in Venezuela for those who
may be interested in the history and growth
of Venezuelas most important industry. At
the end of the chapter, a list of references
consulted for the compilation of figures and
text is provided. We also include references
to other papers and books that should be
useful to those who wish to study the
geology of Venezuelan petroleum basins in
more detail.
60
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter on the
Petroleum Geology and Basins of Venezuela
is to give the reader a general overview of
the geology of the country. Our knowledge
has been greatly enhanced by the oil
industry and mining activities that have been
ongoing for almost a century. Without
entering into a detailed analysis of the
numerous and unsolved problems with the
geology, we have integrated the information
presented in many papers and books written
on Venezuelan geology. We have tried to
attribute the original contributions of all
authors, and have also presented summations based upon our own experience. We
have avoided specialized and detailed points
of view concerning stratigraphy, sedimentology and geotectonic evolution,
instead choosing to simplify the geology
because of our diverse readership and
limited writing space. For non-specialized
readers, we include a Glossary at the end of
Physiographic provinces
There are five main physiographic
provinces in Venezuela (Fig. 1.1):
1. Mountain ranges
a.Venezuelan Andes system
b. Caribbean mountain system (Perij
Range, San Luis and Baragua Ranges, La
Costa Mountain Range)
2. Foothill regions
3. Coastal plains
4. Mainland plains
5. Guayana Province.
Rocks of a wide age range (Precambrian
through Neogene) are found in the
mountain ranges of La Costa and the Andes.
Their formation history is closely associated
with the evolution of the northern margin of
the South American plate from the Eocene to
the present. The foothill regions (9430 km2)
are covered by Neogene molassic sediments
whose main physiographic features are
terraces formed during glaciation/deglaciation processes.
GENERAL GEOLOGY
PRECAMBRIAN
Figure 1.2
Cenozoic Orogenic
Belt
Caribbean Sea
Caribbean Frontal
Thrust
300 km
us
Santa
hm
Marta
Upper
Ist
a
Paleozoic
m
a
n
Orogenic
Pa
Belt
Caracas
Valencia
Lower Paleozoic
Orogenic
Belt
Mrida
San
Cristbal Apure Fault
Venezuela
Weste
rn Ran
ge
East
ern R
ange
Pacific Ocean
Bogot
62
Paleozoic and Cenozoic

Basins as a Precambrian
Basement
Trinidad
o
pin n
Es rabe
G
Ciudad
Bolvar
ult
Fa
ira
tam
Al
Cuchivero
Imataca
Province
Province
Guayana Shield
Pastora
Province
Roraima
Province
Reclamation
Zone
78
Cuchivero
Province
Brazil
Colombia
Cenozoic Orogenic Belt
Imataca Province
Late Paleozoic Orogenic Belt
Pastora Province
Early Paleozoic Orogenic Belt
Cuchivero Province
Paleozoic and Cenozoic Basins

of the Precambrian Basement
Roraima Province
Eastern Basin of the Precambrian Basement,

Imataca Province Possible Extension
Boundaries of the
Cordilleran Systems
Overthrusting
Northern South Americas

distribution of allochthonous
terranes in which
Precambrian rocks are
present. These terranes
were sequentially sutured to
the South American
continent during the
Ordovician-Silurian and later
during Late Mesozoic
through Recent.
The coastal plains (117,220 km2) are

concentrated in four broad regions: 1) north
of Falcn State (Fig.1.0), 2) Barcelona
coastline (Anzotegui State), 3) Orinoco
River delta (Delta Amacuro State), and 4)
north of Sucre State. The mainland plains
(260,000 km2), with an extensive drainage
network, encompass the land between the
northern mountain ranges and the Guayana
Province; they are the result of the
sedimentary filling of the Eastern and
Barinas-Apure Basins.
In the south is the Guayana Province
(also called Guayana Massif, Guayana
Shield, or Guayana Cratn in the
geological literature) with 425,000 km2 of
Precambrian-age terranes, with some
Pleistocene plains built by the Orinoco River
and some of its tributaries.
Precambrian terranes
The Venezuelan Precambrian terranes
outcrop in the main mountain ranges of the
country and in the Guayana Province.
Because of the tectonic history of the northern South American plate, both allochthonous and autochthonous Precambrian rocks
are found. Figure 1.2 shows the distribution
of these terranes; those located north of the
Orinoco River were overridden by Paleozoicage crustal fragments that were accreted, or
added, to the South American plate.
The autochthonous terranes are located
in the Guayana Province, and also form part
of the basement of the Paleozoic to Cenozoic
sedimentary basins south of the Apure Fault.
There are four provinces of Precambrian
rocks in the Guayana Province: Imataca,
Pastora, Cuchivero and Roraima (Fig. 1.2).
It has not been possible to discriminate
different provinces (with respect to age) in
the basement of the oil basins to the north of
Guayana Province; this is because there are
few wells that have reached the basement in
these basins and the available descriptive
information is scarce.
The accretion of allochthonous terranes
on the South America plate began during the
Early Paleozoic (Caledonian Orogeny: 570 to
385 Ma); part of these rocks outcrop near
Mrida and San Cristbal in western
Venezuela. Later, during the Hercinian
Orogeny (385 to 245 Ma), occurred the
suturation, or welding of the allochthonous
blocks. These included Precambrian rocks,
among which only the granitic rocks of the
Sierra Nevada in the Santa Marta Massif
(Colombia) have been dated (Fig. 1.2). The
last collision began during the Cretaceous;
this allochthon includes rocks of
Precambrian age near the city of Caracas
(Federal District) and south of Valencia
(Carabobo State).
Distribution
Figure 1.3
78
100
62
300 km
200
Cenozoic
Orogenic Belt
Panam
Isthmus
Caribbean
Frontal Thrust
Santa
Upper Marta
Caracas
Paleozoic
Orogenic
Belt
El Bal
Early Paleozoic
Orogenic Belt
78
nge
rn R
a
Weste
rn Ra
nge
Caparo
ult
re Fa
Apu
Bogot
East
e
Pacific Ocean
Caribbean Sea
no
pi en
lt
Es rab Fau
G
a
ir
Venezuela
Reclamation
Zone
Lower
Paleozoic
Basin
Colombia
ta
Al
Guayana Shield
4
62
Cenozoic Orogenic Belt
Lower Paleozoic Basin
Upper Paleozoic Orogenic Belt
Guayana Shield
Lower Paleozoic Orogenic Belt
Boundaries of the
Cordilleran Systems
Brazil
Overthrusting
Northern South Americas

distribution of allochthonous
terranes in which Paleozoic
rocks are present. These
terranes were sequentially
sutured during the
Ordovician and Silurian, then
during the Carboniferous and
finally during Late Mesozoic
through Recent.
Paleozoic terranes
The rocks of Paleozoic age in Venezuela
are found in several regions, geologically
grouped as allochthonous or autochthonous
terranes of South America. The autochthonous terranes are found in the
subsurface of the Barinas-Apure and Eastern
Basins (Fig. 1.21), south of the Apure Fault
(Fig. 1.3). These rocks are typical red beds
from Gondwana (South America and Africa
before its rupture) and Laurentia (North
America and Greenland before its rupture);
they are preserved only in the deep
structural depressions of these Venezuelan
basins. The allochthonous terranes are
distinguished by the age in which they were
tectonically accreted to the north of the
South American plate; there are those
accreted during the Early Paleozoic, others
during the Late Paleozoic and the latest
during the Mesozoic.
Figure 1.3 shows the distribution of

allochthonous terranes that were welded to
the Lower Paleozoic autochthons during
OrdovicianSilurian time. Those rocks
accreted during the Lower Paleozoic are
now considered part of the basement from
the point of view of later Caribbean tectonic
history. They include that part of the
orogenic belt north of the Apure Fault, the
actual Andes and Maracaibo Basin.
In the Andes, rocks of the Lower
Paleozoic allochthonous terranes include
granitic and shelf/slope sedimentary rocks
(OrdovicianSilurian). Ordovician metasedimentary rocks are found in the subsurface
basement of the Maracaibo Basin and in the
Andes. Devonian-age allochthonous terranes,
welded to South America during the Late
Paleozoic, outcrop in the Perij Mountains.
Part of the accretionary history of the
Upper Paleozoic onto the Lower Paleozoic
includes granitic rocks, formed as a result of
subduction below the northern border of
South America. These include rocks of the El
Bal region (Permian age) and those found
in the subsurface of Eastern, Barinas-Apure
and Maracaibo Basins (Carboniferous age).
The accreted belt included sedimentary
sequences of Carboniferous and Permian
ages; these rocks now outcrop in the Perij
and Andes Mountains.
The last of these allochthonous terranes
is the Caribbean Mountain System that
extends from Guajira Peninsula (Western
North Venezuela) to Paria Peninsula (Eastern
North Venezuela), including the subsurface
basement of the Gulf of Venezuela and the
La Costa Mountain Range. In this terrane
Paleozoic rocks of Devonian to Permian
ages are found.
GENERAL GEOLOGY
PA L E O Z O I C A N D M E S O Z O I C
Figure 1.4
Age
Perij and Guajira
Andes
Gurico and Cojedes
La Costa Range
Ipire
Pueblo Nuevo
Las Brisas (Zenda)
Macuro
Seco Cojoro/COCINAS
La Quinta
Conglomerates
El Totumo
Macoita
Jurassic
La Quinta
La G
Tinacoa Volcanics
Guacamayas
?
Triassic
Correlation chart of the most
Mesozoic terranes
important Triassic-Jurassic
units in Venezuela.
Triassic-Jurassic
The Triassic is not present in Venezuela

or, at least, no evidence of its presence has
been found and documented. The oldest
part of the Jurassic system (208 to 181 Ma) is
represented by Volcnicas de la Ge (Perij)
and Volcnicas de Guacamayas (El Bal),
which predated the red bed sedimentation
of the La Quinta Formation and the whole
expansion process related to the Gulf of
Mexico or Proto-Caribe opening. They are
the lateral equivalents of the Volcnicas de
El Totumo (Perij) (Fig. 1.4),
Figure 1.5
Guajira
73
63
Paraguan
12
Pe
rij
Caribbean Sea
12
Coro
Maracaibo
El Pilar Fault
Ur
Caracas
ica 4
Fa
ul
Espino
t
Graben
In Venezuela, the Pangean continent

(the supercontinent comprising America,
Europe and Africa) rifting produced several
main structural features that later influenced
the evolution of the Venezuelan sedimentary
basins. Inside continental Venezuela, the
Proto-Caribe
opening
induced
the
development of northeast-oriented extension valleys or grabens (Fig. 1.5). Among
these valleys are the Apure-Mantecal,
Espino, Andes-Perij and Maracaibo grabens.
It has been postulated that the Jurassic rocks
in the deepest parts of the Interior Mountain
Range of Eastern Venezuela were involved
in this deformation, as deduced by the trend
of the main grabens, such as Apure-Mantecal
and Espino. However, this theory has not yet
been proven.
All these grabens were filled during
the Jurassic by red bed (continental)
sediments, diverse volcanics, and occasional
shallow-marine clastics and limestones.
Their preserved sequences outcrop in many
places: the Guajira and Paraguan Peninsulas
(Cojoro and Cocinas Groups; Pueblo Nuevo
Formation), and the widespread La Quinta
Formation of Western Venezuela. They also
occur in the subsurface of Eastern Venezuela
Basin (Ipire Formation).
Trinidad
Maturn
Andes
3
8
Santander
Massif
73
Colombia
Apure-Mantecal
Graben
100
200
300 km
63
Distribution of Jurassic rocks: 1) in Perij Range; 2) as part of the economic

basement of Maracaibo Basin; 3) in the Andes; 4) in Barinas-Apure and Eastern
Venezuela Basins (Apure-Mantecal and Espino Graben). It is believed that they are
involved in deep thrusting within Eastern Venezuelas Interior Range (after Bartok,
1993; Passalacqua et. al., 1995; and Lugo and Mann, 1995).
Cretaceous
Figure 1.6
Early Cretaceous. The major sedimentary facies distribution and stratigraphy

of Early Cretaceous rocks (146 to 95 Ma) are
shown in Figs. 1.6 and 1.7.
In Western Venezuela, the sedimentation
was initially controlled by the Jurassic grabenfault systems. This is evidenced by the
variable thicknesses of Rio Negro Formation
clastics, which range from more than 2 km
near the south of Machiques Trough, to only
a few meters thick in some places of the
North-Andean flank. Later the subsidence
stabilised and there was an extensive
transgression of an open sea over the Western
Venezuelan shelf causing the carbonate
sedimentation of the Cogollo Group. The
lateral clastic equivalent of these carbonates
in the Cratn or Guayana Province margins is
the Aguardiente Formation. In Central Venezuela, there are some remains of an older
(?)
S
Chimana U
C
El Cantil
R
E
Barranqun
COGOLLO
TEMBLADOR
Through
U
Th riban
rou te
gh
Ro Negro
Machiques
Peas Altas
Aguardiente
Canoa
Guayana
Shield
200 km
Exposed Igneous and Metamorphic

Basement (Guayana Shield).
Shelf Environment
Carbonates
Continental-Fluvial Environment
Sandy Clastics
Hemipelagic/Pelagic
Limestones and Shales
Coastal and Transitional Environment

Sandy-Shale Clastics
Sediment Supply
Direction
Distribution of dominant sedimentary facies during the Neocomian-Albian (Early

Cretaceous) north of the Guayana Shield. Representative stratigraphical units of this
facies association are indicated.
Figure 1.7
Perij and
Lake Maracaibo
Age
Andes and Barinas-Apure
Northern Gurico
Eastern
Interior Range
La Grita (Capacho)
Albian
Aptian
Querecual(*)
(Cutacual, "Valle Grande")
Maraca
C
Aguardiente
O
G
Lisure
O Guimaros
Pich
Apn L Tib
Apn
L
Machiques
O
Ro Negro
Tib
Chimana
"Punceres"
(Exotic
Blocks)
"Gucharo"
El Cantil
"El Mapurite"
Garca
Taguarumo
"Basal Clastics"
Picuda
Barremian
Barranqun
Ro Negro
Neocomian
Morro Blanco
?
Macaira Limestone
?
Venados
"Ro Solo"
?
Carbonate Reservoir
Sand / Seal Pairs
Sand / Sandstone Reservoir
Seal
Source Rock
(*)
The Querecual Formation

extends to the Late
Cretaceous
Correlation chart of the most important Early Cretaceous units of Venezuela. Informal units are within quotation marks.
See Yoris, 1985, 1988, 1992, on Sucre Group.
GENERAL GEOLOGY
MESOZOIC
(also Early Cretaceous) carbonate shelf,

which is discontinuous along the
deformation (mountain) front to the north of
Gurico State (Macaira Limestone).
Figure 1.8
Maracaibo
Socuy
Caracas
La Luna
Mucaria
Navay
Infante
Gu
ay
ac
n
Capacho
Barcelona
Maturn
GUAYUTA
TEMBLADOR
Escandalosa
Guayana Shield
0
200 km
Igneous-Metamorphic Basement
(Guayana Craton)
Shelf Carbonates
Continental-Fluvial
Sandy Clastics
Bathyal (Pelagic) and Shelf Shaly

Limestone, Chert and Siliceous
Mudstone
Coastal and Transitional Sandy

and Shaly Clastics
Bathyal and Abyssal Hemipelagic/

Pelagic Shales and Limestones
Dominant sedimentary facies

distribution during the
Cenomanian-Campanian
(Late Cretaceous) at the
northern edge of the
Guayana Shield North. Typical
units of these sets of facies
are indicated.
In Eastern Venezuela, the sedimentary

history resembles that of a passive Atlantic
type margin. These rocks belong to the Sucre
Group, which at the base are sandy clastics
and some shelf limestones of the Barranqun
Formation (whose thickness is more uniform
than its Western Venezuela equivalent). Later,
extensive and well defined carbonate-clastic
shelf sedimentation was developed (El Cantil
and Chimana Formations). The main
difference with the Early Cretaceous of
Western Venezuela is that in the Interior
Range of Eastern Venezuela, the lower
contact with older sequences is unknown
and the thicknesses of the Early Cretaceous
units are greater. For example, the
Barranqun Formation is more than 1 km
thick everywhere, with massive, carbonate
shelf sedimentation in its middle part (Morro
Blanco Member of Barremian age114 to 118
Ma) in the northernmost outcrops.
The thickness of both El Cantil and Chimana

Formations is several times the thickness of
their lateral equivalent in Western Venezuela,
the Cogollo Group.
Late Cretaceous. The distribution of
paleoenvironments and stratigraphic units
during the Late Cretaceous is shown in Figs.
1.8 and 1.9. Figure 1.10 condenses the
correlation chart for these units for all of
Venezuela.
A diachronic and extensive marine
invasion began at the end of the Albian,
moving from east to west and invading the
south of Venezuela, which had been
emerged and undergoing erosion since Late
Jurassic and possibly Paleozoic times. This
marine invasion coincides with the
worldwide transgressive pulse of the Late
Cretaceous, recorded in America and Europe
through the sedimentation of organic-rich
limestones, shales and cherts; these rocks are
recognized in Venezuela as the QuerecualSan Antonio (Guayuta Group), Mucaria,
Navay and La Luna Formations. The
maximum transgression and lack of oxygen
is believed to have occurred between the
Turonian and the Campanian (72 to 91 Ma).
The La Luna, Navay and Querecual
Formations are the source rocks for the oil
basins of Venezuela, and were deposited
during the late Albian to the Turonian (95 to
88 Ma). The La Luna Formation ranges
between 50 and 300 m thick in Western
Venezuela, while the Navay Formation is
close to 600 m thick in the South-Andean
Flank and thickens to the northeast.
In Western Venezuela, the lateral facies
variations of these source rocks consist of
pelagic and phosphatic limestones, dark
shales and shelly limestones that grade to
sandy clastics and glauconitic facies in the
southeastern flank of the Andes in Tachira
State. In North-Central Venezuela, these
facies occur in the Mucaria Formation and
Guayuta Group .
Figure 1.9
on e
ati c
m van
r
d
fo A
?
De nt
o
Fr
Marine Sediments (Undifferentiated)
Mito Juan
?
Coln
San Juan
Cujisal
?
Positive areas that include
Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks
Ro de Oro
Burgita
Guayana
Shield
Igneous-Metamorphic
Basement
Sandy Clastics
Clay-Silt Clasts
Sedimentary Supply
Direction
Positive Areas
Shallow Marine
Carbonates
Postulated
Depocenter Axis
Thrust Front
Sedimentary facies distribution during the Maastrichtian (Late Cretaceous) at the

northern edge of the Guayana Shield. Typical units of these sets of facies are
indicated. Notice that the axis of the Western Venezuela depocenter is subparallel
to the deformation front, as a consequence of the plate collision between Nazca
and South American plates.
The Guayuta Group is thickest in NorthEastern Venezuela, being more than 1 km thick
in its type area (Anzotegui State). In the
Eastern Basin, this unit changes laterally to the
south, losing its source rock character by giving
way to sedimentation from shallower
environments, from shelf to coastline and even
continental, which are defined in the
subsurface as the Canoa and Tigre Formations
(Temblador Group).
The Late Cretaceous in Venezuela ends in
the Maastrichtian, with units that are regressive
relative to the deeper environments of the
source rock.
In Perij and the Maracaibo Basin,
the La Luna Formation grades vertically to
glauconitic limestones (Socuy Member), and
dark shales with thin sandstones defined as
the Colon and Mito Juan Formations. In
the North-Andean Flank, the glauconiticphosphatic Tres Esquinas Member is present,
which is the possible diachronic equivalent of
the Socuy Member, underlying the dark shales
of the Coln Formation.
In the South-Andean Flank, the upper
contact with the source rock is gradational to
erosive with the basal sandstones of Burgita
Formation.
Figure 1.10
Perij and
Lake Maracaibo
Age
Mito Juan
Maastrichtian
Coln
North-Andean
Flank
Mito Juan
South-Andean
Flank
Coln
Burgita
Tres Esquinas
Socuy
Santonian
La Luna
Navay
Campanian
Quevedo
La Morita
Coniacian
La Luna
Guayacn / Caliza "O"
Southern Flank
Eastern Basin
Infante
G
U
A
(Mucaria, San Antonio
Y "Ro Chvez" , Querecual,
"Querecual
of the North " )
U
T
A
(Regional hiatus
at the base?)
?
Capacho
Sand / Seal Pairs
Reservoir (Sandy)
Seal
?
"Exotic Blocks "
?
Canoa
Querecual
T
A
continue through the Paleocene; Canoa and Querecual Formations start by the end of Late Albian.
Y
U
Source Rock
Correlation chart of the most important Late Cretaceous units of Venezuela. Gurico and Vidoo Formations
TEMBLADOR
GROUP
Reservoir (Carbonate)
Vidoo
San Juan
San Antonio U
Escandalosa
Seboruco
Eastern
Interior Range
Tigre
Guayacn
Turonian
Cenomanian
North of
Gurico
Gurico
GENERAL GEOLOGY
CENOZOIC
Figure 1.11
Lesser Antilles
Arc
Caribbean Plate
Early Paleocene *
La Victoria
Middle Paleocene *
Early Eocene*
Trujillo
Maracaibo
P
Guasare/Marcelina ag
e
en
am
M
Cl arin Trujillo
as e
tic
Pauj
s
ne
Li
s
ic
st
Shallow
Clastics
Western
Range of
Colombia
Collision
Peas Blancas
a
Cl
South American
Block
Orocu/Mirador
B
Humocaro
Ba
Faralln
Plate
Andean Block
deep
Fore
Gobernador
Misoa
Barcelona
Roblecito
llo
-B
SM
Morn
EL
Shallow
Clastics
Matatere
a
Sh
Central
American Arc
on
b
ar
MaracaiboSta. Marta
Block
es
at
Gurico
Guayana Shield
(*) Deformation Front Position
50 km
Orocue/Mirador = Barco-Los Cuervos-Mirador-Carbonera Fms. Event (Paleocene-Eocene)

Gurico = Garrapata-Gurico Fms. Event (Paleocene)
Gobernador = Gobernador-Masparrito Fms. Event (Eocene)
Trujillo = Trujillo Fm. Event (Paleocene-Eocene)
Humocaro
= Humocaro-Quebrada Arriba Fms. Event (Eocene)
Misoa = Misoa-Cas-Pauj Fms. Event (Eocene)
La Victoria
= La Victoria-Santa Rita-Jarillal Fms. Event (Eocene)
= Direction of sediment supply
= Thrust front
ESE migration of the

Caribbean deformation front
and associated episutural
sedimentation during
Paleocene-Eocene times.
The Andean-South American
boundary was located at
the present position of the
Santa Marta-Bucaramanga
(SM-B) and Bocono
(B) fault systems.
= Exposed areas
In North-Central Venezuela, the lateral

equivalents of the Mucaria Formation grade
vertically to the hemipelagic and turbidite
sequences of the lower Guarico Formation.
To the east, the bathyal sandstones of the San
Juan Formation overlie the black cherts and
sandstones of the San Antonio Formation.
Then, in turn, the San Juan Formation grades
vertically to the dark shales of the Vidoo
Formation (late Maastrichtian60 to 65 Ma).
Cenozoic terrains
Paleogene
Paleocene-Eocene of Western Venezuela.

During late Cretaceous (Fig. 1.9) to early
Paleocene, Western Venezuela was affected
by the collision between the Nazca Plate
(Pacific Ocean) and Western Colombia. There
is evidence that the sedimentation of the
Orocu Group (and probably Guasare and
Marcelina Formations) was controlled by the
deformation fronts of this collision (Fig. 1.11).
These fronts generated successively younger

depocenters to the east of the actual Perij
Mountain range.
Figure 1.11 summarizes the sedimentation and gradual evolution of the
deformation front as the Caribbean plate
passed north of the South American plate
during the Paleocene-Eocene. For simplicity,
several formations are summarized by one
name only (e.g., Misoa refers to the
sedimentation of lateral equivalents and/or
closely related units, such as the Misoa, Cas
and Pauj Formations). Each event carries
the most distinctive formation or group name.
To the northeast of the South American
plate, the oblique collision of the Lesser
Antilles arc generated a series of sheets, or
nappes, trending towards the south and
southeast. These control the turbidite
sedimentation of formations such as Trujillo
and Morn.
1 10
Figure 1.12
Volcanic
Arc
Caribbean
Plate
Late Eocene
200 Km
Oca
Fault System
Frontal Thrust
Maximum
Subsidence Area
?
South American Plate
Advance of Allochthonous Terranes
?
Shallow Clastic Sediments
Foredeep Sediments
Positive Areas
Pull-Apart Basin
Thrust Front
Generation of pull-apart basins at the boundary between the Caribbean and South
American plates; the maximum subsidence areas were located north of Falcn State
at this time (Late Eocene) (after Macellari, 1995).
Figure 1.13
Lesser
Antilles
eV
olc
an
ic
c
Ar
Ac
tiv
V
Caribbean Plate
Extinct Volcanic Arc
X
XPampatar-Punta Carnero
Oceanic
Sedi
me
Caribbean Deformation
Limit
Peas Blancas
? Foredeep
ntat
io n
(U n
d iff
Vid
o
o-
Car
Barcelona
n ti
ate
d)
ata
Tinajitas
Caratas
50 Km
ere
Sl
op
Roblecito
Atlantic
Ocean
Maturn
Clastic Shelf
Positive Area
?
?
Paleocene-Eocene
Shallow Sandy Clastics
Lime-Clay Clastics Predominate over the

Sandy Clastics (Slope Environment)
Turbidites
Positive Areas
Limestones
Direction of Sediment Supply

Thrust Front
Regional geologic framework for the sedimentation at the northern flank of the
Eastern Basin during the Paleocene-Eocene.
1 11
On the other hand, during the

Paleocene, to the north and west of
Maracaibo Basin, the Guasare Formation
was deposited in shallower environments
further away from the deformation fronts,
and afterwards the Marcelina Formation in
coastal-marsh environments.
During the Eocene, a complex sedimentary setting existed in the Maracaibo
Basin. Distinct deltaic/estuarine, coastal/fluvial
and marine systems developed, depending on
their geographic position with respect to the
different deformation fronts, such as in Perij
or later on in Lara to the east. Formations such
as Barco-Los Cuervos and Mirador-Carbonera
(deposited between the Paleocene and Middle
Eocene65-40 Ma) represent two similar
sedimentary pulses of fluvial-deltaic origin in
the western part of Maracaibo Basin. In the
central part of the basin, the Guasare, Trujillo,
Misoa, Cas and Pauj Formations were more
marine lateral equivalents of the Barco-Los
Cuervos and Mirador-Carbonera, with a
relative, gradual deepening of environments
to the northeast. In the Barbacoas region, east
of Trujillo State, the average depth of the
Eocene sea was shallow enough to deposit
the transitional and coastal-marine sediments
of Gobernador-Masparrito and HumocaroQuebrada Arriba Formations. Meanwhile, in
Falcn State just north of the south-verging
deformation fronts, the La Victoria-Santa Rita
and Jarillal Formations were deposited. This
sedimentation was associated with extensional basin subsidence related to along-strike
faulting (i.e., a pull- apart basin) (Fig. 1.12).
Paleocene - Eocene of North - Central
Venezuela. Part of the accretion due to the
Lesser Antilles is probably represented by the
sediments of the Gurico Formation, plus the
limestone and other older units in the
olistostromes. During the Paleogene and
Neogene, this fold and thrust belt migrated to
the south and east of the nothern margin of
GENERAL GEOLOGY
CENOZOIC
Figure 1.14
Western Venezuela: Perij, Lake

Maracaibo, North-Andean Flank
Age
Carbonera
E
o
c
e
n
e
Pauj
Western Venezuela:
Trujillo, Lara and South-Andean
Flank and Barinas-Apure
Carbonera Mene Grande

Pauj
Guasare
Barco
?
Coln/Mito
Juan
Colon/mito Juan
Maastricht
Los Cuervos
Barco
O
R
O
C
U
E
T
r
u
j
i
l
l
o
H
u
m
o
c
a
r
o
M
o
r
a
n
V
a
l
l
e
Roblecito
La Pascua/ Los Jabillos

?
Peas
Blancas
Tinajitas
?
H
o
n
d
o
Gurico
Coln
Sand/Seal Pairs
Eroded/Unconformable
Formation extends into the

Campanian; the Carbonera,
Pauj, La Pascua, Roblecito
and Los Jabillos Formations
extend into the Oligocene.
The Gurico Formation may
reach down to the top of the
Maastrichtian wherever the
Vidoo
San Juan
Eroded Interval
Venezuela. The Coln
Caratas
?
(?) Garrapata
Reservoir (Sandy)
Paleocene-Eocene of
Seal
Correlation chart for the
absent.
Eastern Venezuela
Jarillal
Garrapata Formation is
North-Central
Venezuela
Santa Rita
Marcelina
O
R
O
C
U
E
La Victoria
(Misoa/Qda. Arriba/Gobernador)
Los Cuervos
P
a
l
e
o
c
e
n
e
Masparrito
(Misoa/Mirador)
Cerro Misin
?
Pagey
Cas
(Mirador/La Sierra)
Falcn
the South American plate. Those rocks

originally sedimented in the trough just in
front of the belt (the foredeep) were later
uplifted, eroded and re-sedimented into
the trough.
While the Caribbean plate moved to the
east between the South American and North
American plates, the influence of the fold
and thrust belts also moved, but to the
south, producing the new foredeep of the
Roblecito Formation, with a probable age
between the Late Eocene and Oligocene (?)
(39-23 Ma). South of the new foredeep, the
lithosphere bent due to the new load,
causing the influx of the clastics that
produced the La Pascua Formation.
Paleocene-Eocene of Eastern Venezuela.
During the Paleocene and Early Eocene, the
sedimentation was not influenced by the
Caribbean deformation fronts. The Vidoo
(hemipelagic marls, siltstones and clays) and
Caratas (sandstones) Formations accumulated on a passive continental margin slope.
It is possible that the influence of the

oblique collision of the Caribbean plate on
Eastern Venezuela began in the Middle
Eocenethe first evidence may be in the
sandy-glauconitic and foraminiferal-rich
carbonates deposited on the foredeep
margins located north of Venezuela (Peas
Blancas and Punta Carnero Formations and
Tinajitas Member of Caratas Formation). On
Margarita Island, the sandy and carbonaterich turbidites of the Pampatar (sandy rich)
and Punta Carnero (carbonate rich)
Formations represent a separate sedimentation from the Gurico and Roblecito, both
in time and space, and are probably related
to accretion near Barbados.
Figure 1.13 summarizes conceptually
the relationship between stratigraphic units
and deformation fronts. Figure 1.14 summarizes the Paleocene-Eocene stratigraphic
nomenclature, emphasizing the potential
character of each unit as a seal or reservoir.
1 12
Figure 1.15
Positive
Area
?
San Luis / Patiecitos
da
a Sala
a/Agu
Pecay
Guacharaca
Castillo
Casupal
El Paraso
Churuguara
Positive Area
?
Positive
Area
Carbonera
ito
Roblec
El Bal
Arc
La Pascua
?
?
Co
Len
lo
Guafita
bi
Guayana
Shield
rea
eA
v
i
t
i
s
Igneous-Metamorphic
Po
50 km
Basement
Shallow Sandy
Clastics
Limestones
Depocenter Axis
Sandy and Pelitic

Clastics of Shallow and
Deep Environmen(Turbidites)
Positive Areas
Extensional Basin
Direction of
Sediment Supply
Pelitic Clastics of
Shallow Marine
Environment
Thrust Front
Sedimentary regional framework in Western Venezuela (Maracaibo, Falcn, BarinasApure Basins and Gurico Sub-Basin) during the Oligocene. The main depocenters
are located in Tchira (Len Formation), Falcn (Pecaya and Agua Salada Formations)
and Gurico (Roblecito Formation).
Figure 1.16
Caribbean Plate
Main
Depocenter
Oligocene-Miocene
La Vela Cove
La Pascua-Roblecito
(Central-North)
Urumaco
Trough
Oca Fault
System
Basin"Foreland"
Incipient
Capiricual-Carapita
(Eastern)
Frontal Thrust Advance

Shallow Clastic
Sediments
Positive Areas
Plate Movement
Vectors
200 km
Extensional
Trough
Thrust Front
Maximum development of the Falcn State pull-apart and generation of extensive positive
areas in Maracaibo Basin and northern Falcn. Toward the south and east, the foreland
basin evolved, developing "troughs" like those of the La Pascua-Roblecito Formations (Late
Eocene-Oligocene) and Carapita-Capiricual (Early-Middle Miocene) (after Macellari, 1995).
1 13
Oligocene of Western and North-Central

Venezuela. Since the Oligocene, the
sedimentary accumulation in Maracaibo
Basin was preserved mainly on its flanks. To
the west are the sandy clastics of the
Carbonera and Ceibote Formations (El
Fausto Group), to the south and east are the
fine clastics of the Len Formation (Fig.
1.15), and to the center is the Icotea
Formation (assigned by several authors to
the Oligocene). The Icotea is only found in
structurally controlled depressions, and its
characteristic lithology consists of siltstones
and claystones, with minor proportions of
sandstones.
The Falcn Basin reached its maximum
development and deepening during the
Oligocene. The sedimentation in the Falcn
region resulted from a different tectonic
setting than that of the Maracaibo Basin,
Barinas-Apure and Eastern Basins. Figure
1.16 shows the extensional basins associated
with major strike-slip faulting, especially in
the north of Falcn State. These gradually
evolved to the east, while the Caribbean
plate moved in the same direction.
In the north of central Venezuela, the
trough containing the Roblecito Formation
migrated to the east and southeast, favoring
the advance of La Pascua sandstones to the
south. These were followed and overlaid by
clastics from the foredeep.
Oligocene of Eastern Venezuela. During
the latest Eocene and Oligocene, the
sedimentation in the Interior Mountain
Range is represented by the Los Jabillos
(diverse sandy clastics), Areo (fine marine
and glauconitic clastics) and part of the
Naricual (shallow marine and coastal-fluvial
pelitic and sandy clastics) Formations.
Figure 1.18
GENERAL GEOLOGY
CENOZOIC
sediment source for the Naricual Formation

and its equivalents (e.g., Quebradn
Formation) is shownon the north side is a
fold-and-thrust belt source, and on the south
side is a Cratn Interior source. Something
similar occurs with the La Pascua and
Roblecito Formation equivalents, called the
Merecure Formation in the subsurface of the
southern flank of the Maturn Basin.
Following the diachronism principle, it is
assigned a younger age (Miocene), similar to
the surface Merecure Group.
Figure 1.18 summarizes the Oligocene
stratigraphic nomenclature, characterizing the
units as potential seals or reservoirs.
Figure 1.17
Extinct Island Arc
X
A
ve
Isl
an
dA
rc
Caribbean Plate
Limit of the
Caribbean Deformation
cti
Roblecito
Areo(?)
Areo(?)
Barcelona
Clastic Shelf/Transitional
Environment/Deltas
?
La Pascua
Slope
Naricual/Quebradn
Los Jabillos
Merecure/"Naricual"
Chaguaramas
?
Oligocene
Merecure
50 km
Shallow Sandy Clastics
Positive Areas
Silt-clay Clastics Predominate over

the Sand Fraction (Slope Environment)
Direction of Sediment
Supply
Thrust Front
Regional geologic framework for the sedimentation at the north flank of the Eastern
Basin of Venezuela during the Oligocene. There is a strong difference between the
Naricual in the subsurface and as defined in its type region: the "Merecure Formation"
name has been used for subsurface equivalents of the Merecure Group formations
(Los Jabillos, Areo and Naricual Formations) that crop out in the Interior Range.
Figure 1.17 summarizes conceptually

the relationship between the stratigraphic
units and deformation fronts. The double
Neogene and Quaternary
In Venezuela, the Neogene is

characterized by important mountainbuilding episodes, which are a direct
consequence of the Caribbean and South
American plate interactions. Figures 1.15 and
1.16 show in a general way the beginning of
the Andean uplift, and the structures
generated by the eastern movement of the
Caribbean plate between the North
American and South American plates during
the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene.
Figure 1.18
O
l
i
g
o
c
e
n
e
Western Venezuela, Trujillo,

Lara, South-Andean Flank
and Barinas-Apure
Western Venezuela
Perij
Lake Maracaibo, North-Andean Flank
Palmar
Ceibote
Palmar/Parngula
PALMAR/PARANGULA
?
G
u
Len
Western Venezuela
Falcn Basin
North-Central
Eastern Venezuela
Venezuela
Naricual
Naricual
(Churuguara/Castillo/Pecaya/
San Luis/Agua Salada)
?
Quebradn
Areo
f
Icotea
Carbonera
Age
i
Carbonera
?
Pauj/Mene Grande
Late Eoc.
Guardulio
El Paraso
M
E
R
E
C
U
R
E
Roblecito
a
Arauca
Pagey(?)
Eroded/Unconformable Contact
Sand/Seal Pairs
Sandy Reservoir
Seal
La Pascua
?
Los Jabillos
Caratas/
Roblecito ?
Eroded Interval
Correlation chart of the most important Late Eocene through Oligocene units of Venezuela. Pauj, Mene Grande and Pagey Formations
extend into Middle Eocene; El Fausto Group and Churuguara, Castillo, Pecaya, San Luis, Agua Salada and Quebradn Formations extend
into the Miocene.
1 14
During this time, extensional (Falcn Basin)

and foreland basins were created. In
Western Venezuela, the Barinas-Apure
foreland basin was influenced by the
formation of the Colombian and Venezuelan
Andes. The Eastern Venezuela basins
resulted from the oblique collision between
the Caribbean plate and the northwestern
margin of the South American plate. In the
Pliocene (Figs. 1.19 and 1.20), the uplifting
of Northern Venezuela produced the
present-day distribution of petroleum basins
(Fig. 1.21) and generated the La Costa and
Venezuelan Andes mountain ranges
(dividing the Maracaibo and Barinas-Apure
Basins). Figure 1.22 summarizes the

Neogene and Pleistocene stratigraphic units,
showing their potentiality as source rocks,
seals or reservoirs.
In Western Venezuela, the Andean uplift
produced significant thicknesses of molasse
sediments (Guayabo Group, and La Villa, La
Puerta and El Milagro FormationsFig. 1.22).
In places, both the North-Andean and SouthAndean flanks have molasse sediments that
reach more than 5 km thick (15,000 ft). In the
Perij Mountain range, the El Fausto Group is
the molasse-equivalent unit, and is related to
the mountains of the deformation front on
the west side of Maracaibo Basin.
El Pilar Fault
Coro
Capadare
PPee
rriijj
Ra
ng
e
Oca Fault
Lake
Maracaibo
GUAYABO
Mrida
Mrida
Co
lo
bi
bi
m
lo
El
Ba
l
uccaa
YYu
Roo
Quebradn
Quiamare
Quiamare
Ar
c
Carapita
Carapita
La La
Pica
Pica
Capiricual
Capiricual
Quiamare
Quiamare
Oficina-Freites
Merecure
Chaguaramas
Merecure
??
Guayana Shield
R
a -augl ul
nagr
P
ar
Guayana Shield
Quiriquire
Quiriquire
Las
Piedras
Las Piedras
La Costa Range
La Rosa
Lagunillas La
La Puerta
Puerta
Lagunillas
Co
Isl
an
d
Agua Salada
Urumaco
Urumaco
Caujarao
Caujarao
Socorro
Socorro
ss
de
n
n
A
Ar
cc
Caribbean Plate
?
?
BBaa
rrb
Pr a d
ism os
Figure 1.19
00
100
50
50
200
200km
km
Igneous-Metamorphic
Basement
Basement
150
150
Continental Environment Conglomerates

Continental Environment Conglomerates
and
SandyClastics
Clastics
and Sandy
Deltaic-Fluvial Environment, Sand
and Pelitic Clastics
Deltaic-Fluvial Environment, Sand

and pelitic Clastics
Open-Marine
and Foredeep Environment,
Fluvial
and Coastal
Environment
Sandy Clastics
Fluvial and Coastal
Environment
Sandy
Clastics
Shallow Environment Carbonates
Shallow Environment Carbonates
Positive Zones
Pelitic Clastics
Open-Marine and Foredeep Environment,
Pelitic Clastics
Sediments Supply
Positive Zones Thrust Front
Regional geologic framework for the sedimentation in all Venezuela (Maracaibo, Falcn, Barinas-Apure and Eastern basins) during the
Miocene-Pliocene. The largest accumulations of continental sediments occur on the flanks of the Andes and La Costa Range. The most
important reservoirs of Venezuela were deposited during this epoch: La Rosa, Lagunillas, Isnot (Guayabo Group), Carapita, Oficina,
Chaguaramas and Merecure Formations.
1 15
GENERAL GEOLOGY
CENOZOIC
Figure 1.20
Pliocene/Recent
Caribbean Plate
North
of Ven
ezuela
Curaza
Deep
o Prom
inence
Oca Fault
San Sebastin
Maximum
Fault
Subsidence Areas
o
jill e
Truang
R
Maracaibo
Basin
Falcn
Basin
Bocon
Fault
South-American
Plate
de
An
200 km
Positive Areas
Shallow Clastic
Sediments
Thrust Front
Plate Movement
Vectors
Northern Venezuela regional
The La Rosa and Lagunillas Formations

predate the distal environments of the Perij
and Andes molasses. The La Rosa Formation,
with its basal sandstones (Santa Brbara
Member), is of major petroleum importance.
Its characteristic middle shale interval has
lateral sandy variations that are important reservoirs in the eastern coast of Lake.
Maracaibo. Its thickness varies from 70 to
1100 m (230 to 3600 ft) because the unit was
deposited over an irregular erosional surface
filling of the foreland basins

and uplifting due to the
deformation of extensive
areas associated with the
Bocono, San Sebastin and
Oca fault systems.
Extensional basins persist
north of Falcn State (after
Macellari, 1995.)
Figure 1.21
68
Peri
j R
ang
e
Falcn
Maracaibo Basin
Caribbean Sea
60
Maracaibo
Basin
Trujillo
s
de
An
n
ela Barinas
zu
ne
Ve
Barinas-Apure
S. Cristbal
Basin
Cuman La Costa Range

Barcelona
Maturn
Eastern
Maturn
Basin
Sub-basin
Gurico
Sub-basin
.L
a
100
0
50
200 km
150
72
11
Porlamar
Caracas
La Costa Range
B
E.
bi
m
lo
Co
7
68
o Belt
Orinoc
San
Fernando
co
no
Ori
e
Riv
64
Trinidad
At
O lan
ce tic
an
Ciudad Bolvar
a
an
ay if
Gu ass
M
60
Reclamation
Zone
Coro
11
64
Margarita
Basin
Guyana
72
and is fault-controlled. The La Rosa

Formation is believed to be Early to Middle
Miocene age (20 to 15 Ma).
The Lagunillas Formation overlays
the La Rosa and consists of transitional
shallow, coastal, and continental sediments
that reach more than 1000 m (3280 ft) thick
in the center of Maracaibo Basin.
It is a very important reservoir in the eastern
coast fields, where it has been divided into
five members, all of which have oil
potential. It is equivalent in age (Middle to
Late Miocene15 to 6 Ma) to the La Puerta
Formation and part of Guayabo and El
Fausto Groups.
In the Barinas-Apure Basin, the
Parangula and Ro Yuca Formations
(continental sediments) are the distal
equivalents of the Guayabo Group.
In the Falcn region, open sea
environments can be found, ranging from
deep-marine turbidites (e.g., Pecaya Formation) to shallow clastics (e.g., Cerro Pelado
Formation) and carbonates (e.g., San Luis
Formation). The final filling of the Falcn
Basin during the Pliocene was with the
conglomeratic-marine clastics of La Vela
Formation and the continental Coro
Conglomerate (Pliocene-Pleistocene).
In North-Central Venezuela, the main
environments of deposition are fluvial and
continental, resulting in the upper Quebradon and Quiamare Formations. They
increase in thickness considerably to the east
and south.
Venezuelan petroliferous basins on the basis of its Sedimentary Provinces (after

Prez de Meja et. al., 1980). E. B. L. = El Bal Lineament, Eastern and BarinasApure basins limit.
1 16
Figure 1.22
Age
Perij and
Lake Maracaibo
Andes
El Milagro
Terrazas
Pleistocene
Barinas-Apure
Maturn
(N) Sub-Basin (S)

Mesa
Betijoque
La Villa,
Los Ranchos,
Lagunillas
Isnot
Middle
Miocene
EL FAUSTO/
La Rosa
Ro Yuca
G
U
A
Y
A
B
O
Las Piedras
Las Piedras/
Quiriquire
AGUA SALADA
Castillo/Agua Clara
Pedregoso/San Luis
?
Freites
Chaguaramas
Sand/Seal Pairs
Reservoir (Sandy)
Seal
Uchirito/
Capiricual
Oficina
Carapita
Merecure
Guacharaca
Quiamare
La Pica
Socorro
Cerro Pelado
Parngula
Palmar
Interior
Range
LA PUERTA/Codore/
La Vela/Urumaco/
Caujarao
Carapita
LA PUERTA (*)
Early
Miocene
Gurico
Sub-Basin
San Gregorio/Coro
Pliocene
Late
Miocene
Falcn
Guanapa
Source Rock
Figure 1.23
Correlation chart of the

most important units in the
Venezuelan Neogene. (N)
and (S) indicate northern
and southern flanks of the
Maturn Sub-Basin.
The El Fausto Group,
and the Palmar, Guaharaca,
Chaguaramas and Merecure
Formations extend into
Late Oligocene.
1 17
To the south of the Gurico Mountain

front, in the Gurico and Maturn Sub-Basins
(including the eastern Interior Mountain
Range), transitional deltaic to shallowmarine environments are represented by the
Merecure and Oficina Formations (Gurico
and western Anzotegui States). They are
both of great importance as petroleum
reservoirs. These units change gradationally
to the east to deeper-water environments
represented by the Capiricual and Carapita
Formations. The Carapita Formation is a
distinctive turbidite unit and is also of great
petroleum importance.
To the south, in the Oficina fields and
the Orinoco Belt, are found the diachronical
younger equivalents of the Neogene cycle.
The basal unit, usually discordant over the
Temblador Group, is the sandy Merecure
Formation, and overlying it is the deltaic
Oficina Formation. The Miocene equivalents
of these units in the Gurico SubBasinOrinoco Belt have been named the
Chaguaramas Formation.
(*)
Group
To the northeast, the Maturn Sub-Basin

is filled with shallower facies, such as the
Uchirito and Quiamare Formations in its
northern flank. The Quiamare Formation
represents a great variety of environments:
lagoon, fluvial channels and alluvial fans,
reaching several kilometers in thickness in
Eastern Anzotegui. On the southern flank,
the Freites Formation shales overlie the
Oficina Formation. These shales are
eventually overlain by the deltaic La Pica
Formation and the molassic Morichito, Las
Piedras and Quiriquire Formations (Pliocene
age). The sedimentary cycle ends with the
Mesa Formation of Pleistocene age.
THE HISTORY OF OIL EXPLORATION IN VENEZUELA
The beginning
Before the 1800s, only brief references
were made to Venezuelan hydrocarbons in
the literature. The first mention of hydrocarbons was made by Fernandez de Oviedo
in 1535, where he wrote of oil seepages off
the western shore of Cubagua Island. In 1540,
he referred to the presence of bitumen on the
Gulf of Venezuela shores (Martnez, 1976).
Nothing more is found in the literature until
the early 1800s.
Crew - month
500
Nationalization
O.P.E.P. Foundation
End of concessions
Massive
concessions
World War II
600
Great Depression
700
World War I
Figure 1.23
400
Surface geology
300
Seismic (2-D + 3-D)

Gravimetry (+magnetometry
from 1936)
200
100
0
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
Exploratory activity in
Venezuela. Surface methods.
(Source: Martnez, 1976 and
1994; M.E.M., 1985 to 1995;
J. Mndez Z., 1976 and R.
Varela, 1987, in Mndez Z.,
1989; M.M.H.,1962 to 1984).
1800 to 1900
In 1814, Alexander von Humboldt
reported asphalt deposits along Venezuelas
northern shoreline (Martnez, 1976).
Geologist Herman Karsten (1851) published
a description of oil seepage sites located
between Betijoque and Escuque, towns in
Trujillo State, southeast of Lake Maracaibo
(Urbani, 1991).
Oil seeps along La Alquitrana Creek in
Tchira State lured local investors into applying for an exploitation concession under the
name of Cien Minas de Asfalto. It was
granted to them in 1878 (Martnez, 1976).
Compaa Minera Petrolia del Tchira
exploited this concession by open mining
until 1883, when the first well which

produced oil, Eureka-1, was completed.
Eureka-1 had a production of 1.5 bbl (194
liters) per day (Mndez, 1978). Previously
Salvador-1, the first well drilled in Venezuela,
had been abandoned as dry by this company
after reaching a final depth of 53 m. These
wells were drilled with a percussion rig, the
first oil drilling rig in the country.
1901 to 1920
Well locations were chosen by surface
geology and direct hydrocarbon observation
during the first decades of this century.
Bababui-1, a 188-m (617-ft) deep well,
discovered the Guanaco oil field in 1913.
Mene Grande, near Lake Maracaibos eastern
shoreline, was the first giant find in
Venezuela (Fig. 1.25). The discovery well
was Zumaque-1, a 135-m (443-ft) well,
drilled after a recommendation by geologist
Ralph Arnold. Arnold and a team of about 50
colleagues systematically explored more than
50 million hectares assigned to General
Asphalt (later Caribbean Petroleum) all over
Venezuela. Of these, 512,000 hectares were
selected for exploitation. Totumo, discovered
in 1913, was the first producer from the
basement, and La Rosa Field, found by the
well Santa Brbara-1 drilled in 1917, was the
first of a giant later recognized as the Bolvar
Coastal Field (BCF). BCF covers an extensive
land and offshore region on the eastern coast
of Lake Maracaibo. The maximum depth
reached by an exploratory well by 1917 was
1,400 m (4,600 ft).
1921 to 1940
From 1920 onward, surface exploration
activity increased (Fig. 1.23). Efforts were
concentrated on Zulia and Falcn States in
western Venezuela, and northern Anzotegui
and Monagas States in Eastern Venezuela.
1 18
Pioneering gravimetric surveys started in 1924

and contributed to the identification of
regional highs, mainly of igneousmetamorphic basement close to the surface.
As a result of the surface exploration effort
and subsequent exploratory drilling during
the 1920s, several important discoveries
occurred: La Paz in 1923, and La Concepcin
in 1925, in Zulia State; Quiriquire in 1928, in
Monagas State (a giant oilfield in a Pliocene
alluvial fan), and Pedernales (Delta Amacuro)
in 1933, in an anticline produced by mud
diapirism. Other relevant discoveries during
this period were the Bachaquero area (now
within BCF, Zulia) in 1930, and Cumarebo
Field (Falcn State) in 1931.
Figure 1.24
End of
concessions
World War II
Great Depression
World War I
200
Massive
concessions
5
Nationalization
Evaluation of
the Orinoco
Belt
3
100
2
Maximum depths reached

km
Number of exploratory wells

per year
300
0
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
Exploration drilling in Venezuela. (Source: Martnez, 1976 and 1994;

M.E.M., 1985 to 1995; Mndez Z., 1976 and Varela, 1987, Mndez Z.,
1989; M.M.H.,1962 to 1984).
The year 1933 heralded the beginning of

the use of seismic as a surface tool for
exploration (Fig. 1.23), and results were
quickly seen. Large discoveries occurred in
Eastern Venezuela: in 1936, Temblador, the
first field discovered in southern Monagas; in
1937, the first field of the Greater Oficina
Area was discovered in Anzotegui State; and
Jusepn Field was found in northern Monagas
in 1938.
1 19
Surface geology continued to render

benefits in Monagas: Santa Ana, the first field
of the Greater Anaco Area, was found in
1936; and El Roble and San Joaqun were
found in 1939. Subsurface geology methods,
using regional knowledge, data from core
and ditch samples obtained during drilling,
and electrical well logging as of 1929, gave
very significant results. Some of the
discoveries include Orocual Field (Monagas)
in 1933, and the Eocene Misoa Formation oil
sands of the LL-370 Area (Lagunillas, BCF,
Lake Maracaibo) discovered in 1938. The
maximum exploratory drilling depth reached
by 1940 was 3,400 m (11,150 ft) (Fig. 1.24).
1941 to 1950
The exploratory activity during this
decade was affected by World War II and the
post-war world, with large oil needs
prompting an increase in exploratory drilling
(Fig. 1.24). Surface exploration, however,
diminished, since most of the field personnel
went to war. It was not until the end of
WWII that surface activities showed a strong
upward rebound, reaching levels never
before seen in Venezuela (Fig. 1.23). With an
increase in exploratory drilling after the war,
reserves and production doubled during the
decade (Fig. 1.26), and 63 fields were found.
This compares to the 41 fields found from
1880 to 1940. The three most relevant
discoveries were the Las Mercedes Field
(Gurico State) in 1941, commercial oil in
the Cretaceous of La Paz Field (Zulia State)
in 1944, and the giant accumulation of extraheavy crude in Boscn (also in Zulia State),
in 1946.
Figure 1.25
Mene Grande
C.C. Bolvar
Los Barrosos2
La Paz
La Concepcin
Quiriquire
Bachaquero
Pedernales
La Canoa1
Oficina
Jusepn
Las Mercedes
La Paz and Mara (K)
Boscn
La Paz and Mara
(Basement)
Urdaneta
Lama, Centro
Orocual,
Lamar,
JoboMorichal
Onado
Sur del Lago
Cerro Negro
Patao
Ro Caribe
Loran, cocuina
Guafita
Incorporation of
El Furrial
200
1.500
1.000
100
Millions of barrels
Millions of cubic meters per year
300
.500
Note: From 1914 to 1954
a total of 3.0 billion cubic
meters were incorporated into the
reserves through revisions, new
discoveries and extensions.
0
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
0
2000
Year
Reserves from exploratory

drilling in Venezuela.
(Increments and revisions not
included). (Sources: Martnez,
A.R., 1976, 1987 and 1994;
M.E.M., 1985 to 1995;
M.M.H., 1962 to 1984).
Exploratory drilling added more fields to

the Greater Areas of Oficina, Anaco and Las
Mercedes. The new Hydrocarbons Law of
1943 provided for the duration of all existing
concessions to be extended 40 more years, a
positive move for the oil industry, although
the states share in exploitation benefits was
increased by way of taxes. In addition,
abundant new concessions were granted
during 1944 and 1945, which also had a
significant positive effect on exploration.
From 1945 on, exploratory evaluation
intensified and all technology on hand was
applied. Gravimetry and seismic surveys
were carried out in areas offshore of Lake
Maracaibo, and aerial magnetics and other
advanced techniques under development
were tested in Venezuela. These technologies contributed to a significant increase
in the regional knowledge of the Venezuelan
sedimentary basins. Exploration drilling rigs
reached depths of approximately 5,200 m
(17,000 ft), as can be seen in Fig. 1.24.
1951 to 1960
The oil from the Middle East, less
expensive and of good quality, affected the
intensity of Venezuelan exploration, and
surface activity was reduced by more than
half (Fig. 1.23). However, drilling activity
maintained a high level during the decade.
New concessions granted in 1956 and 1957
kept the interest in Venezuelan oil high
throughout the rest of this decade.
Discoveries continued in the Greater Oficina
Area and, to a lesser extent, in Gurico.
During 1957 and 1958, the Lake Maracaibo
region yielded large Tertiary finds in its
central and central-eastern areas, including
Ceuta, Centro, Lama, Lamar and Lago Fields.
The first Venezuelan continental platform
find was Posa-112A, an offshore field in the
Gulf of Paria. The maximum exploratory
drilling depth reached during this period
was 5,348 m (17,541 ft).
1961 to 1976
The no more concessions policy
adopted by the Venezuelan State greatly
affected the operating strategies of the
concession holders during this prenationalization period. A drastic reduction in
surface exploration activities is shown in Fig.
1.23. By 1968, exploratory drilling reached
the lowest level of activity since 1940.
Exploratory wells were restricted to already
identified areas, with their objectives being
new reservoirs above, below or near known
oil reservoirs. This type of exploration
yielded discoveries such as the deep
Cretaceous in Central Lake and Urdaneta
Fields. Frontier drilling and surface
exploration activities by the concessionaires
ceased completely.
1 20
The Corporacin Venezolana del

Petrleo (CVP), the Venezuelan State oil
company, was founded in 1960 and started
operations the following year. This company
became the leader in exploration on land
and offshore Venezuela. It acquired 80,000
km of seismic and drilled nearly 200
exploratory wells during this period
(Velarde, 1991). CVP started exploration of
the La Vela area, offshore Falcn State, in
1972, and the evaluation of southern Lake
Maracaibo in 1971 by means of service
contracts. After a bidding process, service
contracts were signed the same year.
70
10
60
Massive
concessions
End of concessions
O.P.E.P. Foundation
50
40
30
BSTB
Cumulative production and reserves

at year end (Bm3)
Figure 1.26
20
10
Reserves
0
1910
Production
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
Production and reserves in

Venezuela. (Sources:
Martnez, A.R., 1994;
M.E.M., 1985 to 1995;
M.M.H., 1962 to 1984).
1 21
A significant discovery during the

period, besides findings in the abovementioned La Vela and southern Lake areas,
was Onado Field (1971) in Monagas State.
The exploratory drilling record was 5,813 m
(19,067 ft) in 1976.
CVP and the Ministerio de Minas e

Hidrocarburos started evaluating the Orinoco
Belt by seismic surveys and drilling. By then,
about 60 wells had been drilled by the
concessionaires in the so-called Tar Belt, and
most of them had been abandoned without
testing. The La Canoa 1, a 1,176-m (3857-ft)
deep exploratory well, tested 6 m3 (40 bbl)
per day of 7API gravity before being
abandoned (Martnez, 1987). This well,
located in southern Anzotegui, is
considered to be the discovery well of the
Faja del Orinoco.
1976 (nationalization)
to the present
By 1978, state-owned Petrleos de
Venezuela, S.A., a holding in charge of the
nationalized oil industry, assigned the Orinoco
Belt to its existing operating affiliates:
Corpoven, Lagoven, Maraven and Meneven.
They each proceeded to evaluate their
assigned portion. The campaign was finished
five years later (Fig. 1.24) after 669 wells were
drilled, and 15,000 km of Vibroseis seismic
lines and 54,000 km2 of aerial magnetics were
acquired (Martnez, 1987).
Since the nationalization, surface exploration is based almost exclusively on geophysics, remote sensing and geochemistry. It
steadily increased until the 1980s (Fig. 1.23),
when it reached its maximum level for the
last 15 years. This activity was directed
toward frontier and traditional areas. 3-D
seismic has been used since the 1980s as an
additional tool for both exploration and
reservoir description.
Figure 1.27
Number of discoveries
Total number of exploratory wells
0.50
0.48
0.46
0.44
0.42
0.40
0.38
1950
1960
1970
Year
1980
1990
2000
Cumulative exploratory
success since 1950, showing
an almost 47% success rate
with no downward trend
(from M.E.M., 1985 to 1995;
M.M.H., 1962 to 1984).
Exploratory objectives have become

deeper and more remote, as the most
significant recent finds show (Fig. 1.25).
These include Patao and other giant gas
fields offshore north of Paria Peninsula (1979
to 1982); Ro Caribe condensate accumulation also in the same region (1981); Morro
heavy oil in the Gulf of Paria (1980), and
Loran and Cocuina, gas accumulations east
of Delta Amacuro (1983) (Fig. 1.0). Northern
Monagas and Anzotegui, both in Eastern
Venezuela, contain the largest discoveries
since 1986 along the El Furrial Trend:
Tertiary and Cretaceous reservoirs that are
more than 4,000 m deep. Western
Venezuelas Guafita and Victoria findings
near the Colombian border are also quite
significant. An exploratory drilling depth
record of 6,640 m (21,780 ft) was set in 1993.
What now?
The future points to more discoveries in
the above frontier areas, as well as
exploration and re-exploration in traditional
areas near existing facilities. New, high-risk
objectives will become the standard of dayto-day exploration activities; exploration for
bypassed hydrocarbons already has high
priority. Modern drilling technology will
allow deeper and more precise subsurface
evaluation. Improved knowledge of
Venezuelan basins, supported by new
geological and geochemical criteria, and
new seismic acquisition and processing
technologies, will open new frontiers and
substantiate
re-exploration.
Modern
petrophysical well logging technologies,
some of which are described in other
chapters of this book, already permit
measuring and interpreting a large variety of
rock and fluid properties. Their proper use
will further enable us to accurately assess
the subsurface. Venezuela still has a wealth
of hydrocarbons to be discovered. Figure
1.27 displays graphically the exploratory
success during the last 45 years, showing an
almost 47% success rate with no downward
trend, and Fig. 1.26 shows nearly 1 billion
barrels of oil added during the period. This
is the result of integrating all technologies,
from exploration through enhanced oil
recovery. Venezuelan oil provinces have not
yet disclosed all their secrets; only by using
modern exploration technologies will they
be revealed.
1 22
Fossiliferous massive limestones,

nodular, marly and often calcareous
shales.
Ro
Negro
<180
White coarse-grained sandstones.
Lake Maracaibo composite stratigraphic column (from Parnaud et al.,

1995, Gonzlez de Juana et al., 1980, and Roger et al., 1989).
Seal
Source
Reser.
Form.
Thick.
(ft)
1300-1500
500-900
150-200
1100-1200
Age
Miocene
Los Ranchos
160-400
150278
295-330
335520
Cuiba
EL FAUSTO
Macoa
Mirador
600 106-300
Oligocene-Miocene
Peroc
Carbonaceous shales and

siltstones.
Sandy shales; the sand and
silt content increase to the top.
Dense, laminated limestone,

dark gray to black,
carbonaceous to butiminous,
calcareous shales.
Calcareous sandstones,
glauconitic, sandy and
coquinoid limestones with
some shales.
Hard bluish-gray limestone

and few intervals of sandy
and calcareous shales.
Thick beds of sandy

limestone.
**** <100
*C b
** C t t
Sandstones and conglomerates.

*** C l Mit J
**** R N
Composite stratigraphic column of the Maracaibo

Basin to North Andes flank (after Gonzlez de
Juana et al., 1980).
1 23
Productive interval.
Porosity 7.120%.
Average permeability 149 md.
100 - 300
Glauconitic sandstones and sandy

limestones, with sandy laminated mud
intercalations, and some shelly limestone
layers.
***
Carbonaceous sandstones,
siltstones and shales.
70-120
Crystalline limestones with Ostrea Sp.,

with shale and marl intercalations.
Tib
Guim.
500-600m
Pich
55-180
Lisure
Apn
Cretaceous
120
Maraca
**
Coarse-grained sandstone to
conglomerate.
Shaly intervals.
100-130
100-300
Socuy
Fossiliferous limestones and calcareous

sandstones.
Dark and massive microfossiliferous
shales, with some thin sandstones and
limestone layers.
Fetid calcareous limestones and shales,
elliptical concretions.
Claystones and variegated

siltstones. Thin sandstones
and lignites (scarce).
250-650
900
120445
La
Coln/
LunaMito
Juan
are
as
Gu
Early-Middle Eocene Eoc.
Intercalation of sandstones, siltstones

and some limestone layers in the lower
part.
"C Sand"
1000-1600
Misoa
"B Sand"
Siltstones, hard shales/mudstones and

sandstones.
Los Cuervos
50180
Icotea
Marine shales with iron-rich concretions;

variable amounts of interstratified
sandstones.
Paleocene
dle
Mid
Sta.
Brbara
Claystones with some

siltstones and sandstones.
Barco
Upper
250
La Rosa
Tertiary
er
Lo
Sandstones and gray shales

with lesser amounts of
siltstones and conglomerates.
Variegated claystones, red to

purple, sandstones and
lignites.
La Luna
na
gu
La
Lithological Description
Maraca
Shales, claystone, weakly consolidated

sandstones, and some interstratified
lignites.

Cretaceous
y
log
ho
Lit
Figure 1.30
COGOLLO
Lisure
Seal
Reservoir
Source Rock
Graphic
Lithology
Thickness
(m)
Member
Bachaquero
300-900
Formation
,
,,
,
,
Lagunillas
Age
Figures 1.28 and 1.29
Apn
PETROLEUM BASINS
MARACAIBO
Figure 1.30
W
Perij
Range
L
Los a Vill
Ran a
cho
s
Post-Miocene
El Fau
"B"
"B"
Misoa
Misoa
"C"
Paleocene
Trujillo
Range
Pauj
La Puerta
Lagunillas
La Rosa
Miocene
sto
Bachaquero Fault
"C"
Eocene
lo
1.8 Km
il
Truj
Cretaceous
Basement
Ju
ra
ss
ic
Two way time ( sec)
Lagunillas
Lama
Icotea High
Urdaeta
10 km
5
6
Shaly (Seal)
Carbonate
Sandy / Conglomeratic
Source Rock
Maracaibo Basin
The Maracaibo Basin (Fig. 1.21) is the
most important petroliferous basin of Venezuela. The main source rock is the La Luna
Formation (Figs. 1.28 and 1.29) of Late Cretaceous age; its facies extend along all of
Western Venezuela and Colombia. There are
some other source rocks of secondary importance in the Cogollo (Machiques Member of the
Apn Formation) and Orocu (Los Cuervos
Formation) Groups. The oil was generated,
migrated and accumulated in several phases,
the Andean uplift being the most important
one. These points will be elaborated later.
East-West Maracaibo
Basin section (after
Parnaud et al., 1995).
Figure 1.31
200
150
100
70
60
50
40
Tr
L
J
E M L
K
E
30
Cenozoic
Mesozoic
L
Paleo.
Eocene
Tertiary
Olig.
20
10
(Ma)
Geological time
Q scale
Petroleum
system events
Miocene PP
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation,migration,
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Sand/Seal Pairs
The main clastic reservoirs are the Ro

Negro and Aguardiente Formations (Cretaceous), Orocu Group (Paleocene), MiradorMisoa (Eocene), Lagunillas and La Rosa
Formations (Miocene) (see the stratigraphic
columns in Figs. 1.28Perij/Lake Maracaibo
and 1.29North-Andean Flank). The
outstanding carbonate reservoirs belong to the
Cogollo Group (Early Cretaceous). The most
important regional seals are the Coln (Late
Cretaceous) and Pauj (Eocene) Formations.
Note: The sequence of
events in the petroleum
events system is as
follows: the sedimentary
record is indicated in the
row named "Formations;"
in this case there is sediment preservation between the Early Cretaceous and the Late Paleocene, followed by a 5
to 6 Ma hiatus; then
there are sediments
preserved between the
Early Eocene and the Eocene-Oligocene limit.
The source rock is generated at the end of the
Early and part of the Late
Cretaceous. The seal is
deposited at the end of
the Late Cretaceous and
Eocene times. Reservoir
rocks are deposited
during the Late Cretaceous and Eocene. The
source rock in this
system (La Luna Formation) is buried during

Late Cretaceous, and
partially unloaded between the Late Paleocene
and Early Eocene; burial
continues during the rest
of the Eocene. Stratigraphic and structural
traps are formed between the Late Cretaceous, Paleocene and
Late Eocene. The generation, migration and
accumulation from the
source rock for this system takes place during
Late Eocene, and the
preservation of the traps
takes place since the
Oligocene. So the critical
moment, or the time
when there is the maximum probability for oil
entrapment and preservation, is the EoceneOligocene limit.
"Phase 1" petroleum system, Maracaibo Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
1 24
Figure 1.32
Falcn
Basin
llo
Pe
rij
ji
Tru
Co
Gulf of Venezuela
Ra
ng
e
lo
m
bi
a
Oca Fault
ng
Ra
e
8
Oil Field, Eocene Reservoir

La Luna Source Rock Matured or OverMatured during the Phase 1 (38 My)
de
Lake
Maracaibo
La Luna System Limit (Phase 1)
lan
e
zu
e0
n
Ve
Maracaibo Basin Limit
An
km
50
Defined petroleum system in the Maracaibo Basin, La Luna Formation source rock,
Phase 1 (38 Ma) (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Figure 1.33
200
Tr
L
150
Mesozoic
J
E M L
E
100
70
60
K
L
Paleo.
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Olig.
Eocene
20
10
Miocene
(Ma)
Geologic time
Q scale
Petroleum
system events
PP
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation,migration,
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
"Phase 2" petroleum system; Maracaibo Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
1 25
Locally, the Machiques Member (Apn

Formation) is a good seal, as well as the
thick interstratified shale intervals of the
reservoirs toward the center of Lake
Maracaibo, such as Misoa, Lagunillas and La
Rosa (Fig. 1.30Lake Maracaibo EW
section). Other good seals include the shaly
Len Formation and some thick intervals of
the molasse (Guayabo and El Fausto Groups;
Andes and Perij, respectively).
The main oil fields are located on the
Eastern Coast of Lake Maracaibo and the
main production comes from Tertiary
reservoirs; for example, Cabimas, Ta Juana,
Lagunillas, Bachaquero, Mene Grande and
Motatn. On the west coast there are fields
with production from the Cretaceous and
even Tertiary; for example, Urdaneta (Lake
Maracaibo) and several fields of the Perij
foothills, such as La Concepcin, Mara, La
Paz, Boscn and Alturitas. In the central part
of the lake, fields are located along the fault
systems of Lama-Icotea (Fig. 1.30), including
the Lago, Centro, Lama and Lamar Fields.
The oil gravity is quite diverse. In
general, the lighter types occur in the deep
Cretaceous reservoirs, becoming heavier as
depths get shallower. In the upper Tertiary
reservoirs of the lakes Eastern Coast, some
of the oils have gravities less than 13API.
Petroleum Systems
Figures 1.31 and 1.32 represent the

northeast Lake Maracaibo petroleum system
generated by the La Luna Formation source
rocks. Oil generation occurs in the northeast
part of the basin, with migration and
accumulation in the southwest during the
Late Eocene. The main traps occur along the
Icotea high, containing Cretaceous and
Eocene reservoirs. The highest probabilities
of accumulation, or critical moment, is
found close to the Oligocene-Eocene
boundary (Fig. 1.31).
PETROLEUM BASINS
MARACAIBO
Gulf of Venezuela
e
Pe
rij
Ra
ng
ult
a Fa
Icote
Or
lin
oc
Lake
Maracaibo
aF
ati
Gr
pL
Fault
Matured and Over-Matured
Source Rock Area (Fm. La Luna)
during Phase 2 (Present Time)
r
de
an
nt ssif
a
M
r
de
an
nt ssif
a
M
Sa
Petroleum System
La Luna, Phase 2
it
an
An
el
u
ez
n
Ve
Condensate or Gas
Producing Field
Petroleum System Limit of the
Orocu Group
Sa
Oil Field/
Condensate/Gas
km
de
ou
im
Oil Field
50
Lake
on Maracaibo
orm
Gas
window
Icote
a Fa
ult
lom
Co
Ra
ij
Pe
r
rce
Ma
ng
Ra
ang
Oil
window
Falcn
Basin
illo
R
jillo
Tru
ng
e
bia
j
Tru
Col
om
bia
Gulf of Venezuela
Matured or Over-Matured Orocu

Group Limit at the Present Time
Oil Seeps of Continental or
Mixed Origin
Faults
50
km
Defined petroleum system at the Maracaibo Basin, Orocu

Defined petroleum system in the Maracaibo Basin, La Luna Formation
source rock, at the present time (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Group source rock, at the present time (after Talukdar and

Marcano, 1994).
Another system results from the

Cretaceous source rock (mainly La Luna
Formation), but in this case it is widespread
across the hydrographic basin of Lake
Maracaibo (Fig. 1.33), reaching over-maturity
conditions in some areas. Generation,
migration and accumulation occurred during
the Andean uplift, filling reservoirs
throughout almost the entire sedimentary
column. The critical moment is considered
to be the present. This system is the most
important for the Tertiary hydrocarbon
accumulation, especially in the structures
of the following areas or fields: Western
region and Eastern Coast of Maracaibo
Lake, Urdaneta and Lama-Icotea (Fig. 1.34).
The third system is related to the

Orocu Group, southwest Lake Maracaibo.
This generation seems to be responsible for
the oil fields to the northeast of Santander
Massif, close to the Colombia-Venezuela
border. Generation, migration and accumulation occurred at the climax of Andean
uplifting (Pliocene), which produced the
complete separation of Maracaibo and
Barinas-Apure oil basins.
1 26
Figure 1.36
NW
SE
Maracaibo Basin
Perij
Range
Mrida Andes
Lama-Icotea
Structure
Perij
Fault
Macoa
Alturitas
Urdaneta
Fault
South-Andean
Flank
North-Andean
Flank
Bocon Fault
Lama-Icotea
System Fault
Barinas-Apure
Basin
4 km
20 km
Neogene
Late Cretaceous
Jurassic
Paleogene
Early Cretaceous
Igneous-Metamorphic Basement
NW-SE structural cross section through the Maracaibo Basin, from the Mrida Andes to the Perij Range.
Figure 1.37
200
100
150
70
60
Mesozoic
J
Tr
L E M L
K
E
Paleo.
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Eocene
Olig.
20
10
Q
Miocene PP
(Ma)
Geological
time scale
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation, migration,
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
"Phase 3" petroleum system; Maracaibo Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Mirador
Mirador Formation
Formation
Los
Los Cuervos
Cuervos Formation
Formation
Middle Eocene (Bartoniense) unconformity between the Mirador and Los Cuervos
Formations (Rubio de San Antonio Road, Tchira State). Courtesy of Franklin Yoris.
1 27
This large structural system reactivated

old structures, and also involved the
igneous-metamorphic basement (Fig. 1.36).
The critical moment is at the present, and
the main reservoir is the Paleogene clastic
sequence (Fig. 1.37).
PETROLEUM BASINS
BARINAS-APURE BASIN
300500
Seal
Reservoir
Source
Lithology
550 1400
Thickness
(m)
Form./Mbr.
Pagey/Guafita/Len
330-450
Guanarito
Sandstone proportion increases in the

middle part of the formation; the unit is
called "Guaranito Member".
Ferriferous sandstones, carbonaceous,

dark gray (often calcareous) fossiliferous
Bioclastic and sandy limestones, often glauconitic; calcareous glauconitic sandstones.
Often calcareous, massive sandstones, with

some shale and siltstone intercalations.
Dark gray shales.
Sandstones calcareous.
*Aguardiente
Composite stratigraphic column of the South Andean flank, Barinas-Apure
Basin (after Gonzlez de Juana et al., 1980, and Kiser, 1989).
50-300
Micaceous, sometimes glauconitic and

calcareous sandstone. Lower middle is
regionally shalier.
Siliceous mudstone, quartzose sandstones

and cherty limestone.
Shales and dark limestones.
Bioclastic and sandy limestones, permeable massive sandstones and black shales.
Calcareous sandstones and sandy

limestones.
Ro Negro <300
Very permeable massive sandstones.
Fine to coarse-grained, pale gray to brown,

sandstones sometimes calcareous. Shales
and siltstones also included.
350-420
180-210
150-180
Burgita
te
rdien
Agua
Dark gray to bluish orbitoidal limestones.
150-427
Productive interval
Ferriferous sandstones, carbonaceous,

dark gray (often calcareous) fossiliferous
150-500
Dark shales and siltstones varying laterally

to sandstones, siltstones and limestones.
Its deepest facies is considered a good
source rock.
EscandalosaLa Morita
Siliceous mudstones, quartzitic sandstones

and cherty limestone. Abundant phosphatic
beds with fish remains. They constitute the
shallow shelf equivalents of the deeper and
farther La Luna Formation environments.
Gobernador
Cretaceous
Barco
Sandier sequence as compared with the

underlying Navay Formation. Basal sandstones suggest erosive contact; variable
proportions of shale, limestone and
sandstone.
Quevedo
Coarse-grained conglomerates, finegrained sandstones, siltstones and

variegated claystones.
Pagey
Masparrito
The Oroce Group includes Barco Formation

(lower) and Los Cuervos Formation (upper),
with regional thickness varying from 0 to
838 m in the South-Andean flank. Barco
Formation is mainly sandstone while Los
Cuervos Formation is finer grained and
carbonaceous.
Quevedo
Sandy clastics.
La Morita
"R"
Carbonaceous siltstone and few sandstones.
Navay
2000-3000
335-520
150 - 427
"P"
la
gu
rn
Pa
Middle Eocene-Oligocene
MioPliocene
Age
Seal
,
,
,
,
,

,
,

,
,

,

,

,

,
160-400
295330
150-278
Los Cuervos
350-420
150 - 180
180 - 210
OROCUE
Burgita
Campanian
Maastricht.
Coniacian-Santonian
Navay
Escandalosa
Cenomanian-Turonian
Conglomerates, sandstones and claystones

in diverse proportions.
Generally, these molassic sediments are
attributed principally to alluvial fan
environments that flanked the Andean
Range.
Sandstones with a slight shaly/silty interval

near the top. Time equivalents in the Barinas
Basin are: (sandy/calcareous) Gobernador,
(shaly) Pagey and (sandy) El Cobre
Formations.
"S"
Alb.
Lithological
Description
Pelitic and minor sandy sequence.

Dissappears toward the Barinas Basin due
to erosion prior to the sedimentation of the
Parngula Formation.
"O"
Reserv.
Source
Form.
Thick.
(m)
Stage
GUAYABO/Parngula/Ro Yuca
Len/Guafita/
Carbonera
Mirador
Age
Paleocene
Late
Cretaceous
Graphic
Lithology
,,
,
,,
Early Eocene
to Middle
Eocene-Oligocene
Tertiary
Miocene-Pliocene
Series
White coarse-grained sandstones;

conglomerates.
Composite stratigraphic column for the northern part of
Barinas-Apure Basin (after Parnaud et al., 1995).
1 28
Figure 1.40
NW
SE
Two way time (sec)
RoYuca
Pagey
Gobernador
Navay
Parngula
Guardulio
Guafita
3.5 km
Aguardiente
Escandalosa
Paleozoic
0
10 km
Shale (Seal)
Carbonate
Sandy / Conglomeratic
Source Rock
Sand / Seal Pairs
Barinas-Apure Basin
The Barinas-Apure Basin (Fig. 1.21) is
located to the SSE of the Andean Mountain
Range. The main source rock is the Navay
Formation (Figs. 1.38 and 1.39), of Late
Cretaceous age and a lateral facies
equivalent of La Luna Formation. Secondary
source rocks have been found in the Orocu
Group (Los Cuervos Formation), but only in
the deepest depocenters, associated with the
great molassic thicknesses caused by the
Andean uplift.
NW-SE cross section of the

Barinas-Apure Basin (after
Parnaud et al., 1995).
Figure 1.41
The main clastic reservoirs are the

following formations: Escandalosa and
Burgita (Cretaceous), Orocu Group
(Paleocene), Mirador-Guafita (Arauca
Member) (Eocene-Oligocene) (Figs. 1.38 and
1.39). The most relevant carbonate reservoirs
are the limestones with secondary porosity
in the Guayacn Member (Limestone),
Escandalosa Formation. Regional-scale seals
are the shale intervals of Burgita (Late
Cretaceous), Pagey (Eocene) and Guafita
(Guardulio Member) Formations (Fig. 1.40).
Note: Compound names are given to the petroleum

systems, referring to the source rock and the main
200
150
100
70
60
50
Mesozoic
Tr
E M L
40
30
20
10
0 (Ma)
Cenozoic
Tertiary
K
E
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
Geological time
Q scale
Miocene PP
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
?
?
?
the hydrocarbon in the reservoir and the source rock,

it is annotated with (!). If the system is hypothetical,
Seal
with only geochemical evidence about the
Reservoir
hydrocarbons origin, it is annotated with (.). Finally,
Burial
Trap formation
Generation, migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the La Luna-Burgita (!) petroleum system of the Barinas-Apure
Basin, during the Caribbean terranes emplacement over the Mrida High.
1 29
reservoir names (for example: La Luna-Burgita). If

the system is well known by the correlation between
if the petroleum system is totally speculative, with

only geological or geophysical evidence, it is
annotated with (?).
PETROLEUM BASINS
BARINAS-APURE BASIN
The main oil fields are to the south of

Barinas city, the most important being the
San Silvestre, Sinco, La Victoria and Guafita.
La Victoria and Guafita are close to the
Colombia-Venezuela border.
Figure 1.42
200
150
100
70
60
Mesozoic
Tr
E M L
40
30
20
10
Cenozoic
Tertiary
K
E
50
Paleo.
Eocene
Oligo. Miocene
Q
PP
(Ma)
Geological time
scale
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Navay-Gobernador (!) petroleum system, in the Barinas-Apure
Basin north of the Mrida Arc, during the Andean uplift.
Oil gravities between 22 and 28API

have been reported in Barinas oil fields. In
Guafita and La Victoria oil fields (Apure),
oil gravities between 30 and 36 API have
been found.
Petroleum systems
Two events account for the generation,

migration and accumulation of hydrocarbons
(Figs. 1.41 and 1.42). The first event is related
to the La Luna-Burgita system caused by
petroleum generation in Maracaibo Basin
and its migration to the SSE. In this case there
are two seals, both of them of Cretaceous
age. The upper seal is the basal shale of
Burgita Formation, and the lower seal is the
shale of La Morita Member (Navay
Formation). The main reservoirs belong to
Cretaceous formations such as Aguardiente,
Escandalosa (Limestone or Guayacn
Member) and Burgita (basal sandstones).
The second event is related to the
depocenter of the South-Andean flank, with
a present-time critical moment. The source
rock is still of Cretaceous age and the
reservoir includes Eocene-age formations
such as Gobernador and Pagey. The
Guardulio Member (Guafita Formation) is
the most important regional seal. In this
second event, it is possible that remigration
of the oil trapped during the Eocene pulse of
La Luna-Burgita system occurred.
La Luna Formation. Picture of an outcrop in the Cuite River (Apure State). Courtesy
of Franklin Yoris.
1 30
Figure 1.43
Dabajuro Platform
WSW
A
Urumaco Trough
Caujarao
Socorro
ENE
Lines Displacement
A'
Coro
o
Codo
Urumac
Codore
re
C
auja
Socorro
rao
Cerro P
Location
elado
Agua
?
C
Und
ulf Coro
Igneous-Metamorphic Map
?
aG
iffere lara
zuel
ntiat
Basement
A'
ene
ed B
V
Dabajuro
40 km
asem
ent
A
Venezuela
Lines Displacement
La Puerta
Eoce
Creta Paleoce ne
ne
ceous
La Quinta
co
Uruma o
Socorr
La Puerta
?
Eocene
NE-SW geological/structural
cross section through
the Falcn Basin (after
Macellari, 1995).
Falcn Basin
The Falcn Basin (see Fig. 1.21) is
located to the east of Maracaibo Basin, and
is separated by the Trujillo Range. The
source rock has been identified as the shales
of the Agua Clara Formation (Fig. 1.43);
however, shales of source rock potential
have also been identified in the deltaicmarine sediments of Guacharaca and Agua
Salada Formations.
The main clastic reservoirs include the
following formations: Agua Clara (La Vela
Cove and Western Falcn), Socorro
(Cumarebo Oil Field) and La Puerta Group
(Western Falcn) (Fig. 1.43).
Figure 1.44
200
150
100
Mesozoic
Tr
J
K
E
L E M L
70
60
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
L
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
20
10
0 (Ma)
Geological time
Q scale
Miocene PP
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Agua Clara petroleum system (!), in the Falcn Basin.
1 31
The oil fields of Falcn Basin are, from

west to east: Mene Grande de Mauroa,
Media, Hombre Pintado, Las Palmas,
Tiguaje, Mamn, La Vela and Cumarebo.
Petroleum Systems
Figure 1.44 shows the Falcn Basin

petroleum system. Because of the regional
geothermal gradient increase, the main
source rock (Oligocene) generated
hydrocarbons long before the structural
configuration of the entrapment mechanism
was established during the OligoceneMiocene transition. The reservoirs are
concentrated in Oligo-Miocene stratigraphic
units, with their structural configuration
being formed between the Late Miocene and
Pliocene. This time lag between the
generation of hydrocarbons and trap
formation led to the loss of large quantities
of hydrocarbons.
PETROLEUM BASINS
FALCON AND EASTERN BASINS
Figure 1.45
Caucagua-El Tinaco
Belt
Coastal
Range Belt
Caribbean
Deformation Belt
La Victoria
Fault
San Sebastin
Fault
Los Roques
Island
20
40
Villa de Cura
Belt
Bonaire Basin
Orinoco
River
Tar
Belt
Late-Recent Miocene
Jurassic
Precambrian, Paleozoic and Mesozoic

Accretionary Crust
Middle Paleocene-Miocene
Early Paleozoic
Precambrian-Paleozoic Continental Crust
Cretaceous
Ocean Crust
Eastern Basin
The Eastern Venezuelan Basin (Fig.
1.21) is the second in importance. It is
limited by the La Costa Mountain Range to
the north, by the Orinoco River to the south,
by the Orinoco Delta platform to the east
and by the El Bal Lineament to the west. It
has been operationally subdivided in two
sub-basins, the Gurico and Maturn.
Clara petroleum system (!)

in the Falcn Basin (after
Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Figure 1.46
NW
SE
1080
1060
1040
1020
1000
980
960
940
920
Allochthonous
5000
Thrusting
Front
Altamira
Fault
km
Events chart for the Agua
1100
0
Gurico
Fault
Espino
Graben
Cretaceous-Eocene
Oligocene-Basal
Early Eocene- Middle
Gurico Sub-Basin
This subdivision includes Gurico and
part of the oil fields in northern Anzotegui
state. The sub-basins northern flank is
influenced by the deformation front in
which the Gurico Fault system is located
(Fig. 1.45). This deformation front overrides
and overloads Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks,
producing a complex tectonic setting (Fig.
1.46). To the south, the structure is less
complicatedthere are structural (extensional) depressions that preserved Jurassic
and Paleozoic rocks (Fig. 1.47) and regional
pinching-out of the Cretaceous-Tertiary
sequences to the south (Fig. 1.48). The main
traps are combination structural-stratigraphic
traps, especially in fields far from the
deformation front.
10000
15000
2km
NW-SE cross section on the basis of seismic interpretation and with well control in
the Guarumen mountain front (after Figueroa and Hernandez, 1990). CretaceousEocene-Oligocene rocks override the autochthonous basal (Early) Oligocene,
indicating a Miocene-Pliocene age for the last deformation.
1 32
Figure 1.47
NE
SW
DP = 170m
400
380
NZZ-88X
360
340
320
300
280
260
240
220
(Proj. 2.8 Km to SE)
0.0
1.0
Cretaceous
Base
Jurassic
Basalts
2.0
Early
Cambrian
G
u
r
CORPOVEN ico
3.0
Basement
NZZ-88X
P-C
MARAVEN
6
P-
50 Km
P.F.: 14730'
ui
eg
t
zo
An
Valle La Pascua
2 km
Seismic line in the NE-SW direction,

through the Jurassic Graben to the
The main source rock (Guayuta and

Temblador Groups) is currently presumed
to have been overridden by the Gurico
North Deformation Front (Fig. 1.48). Hydrocarbon generation is related to advance of
the nappe, rapidly bringing the source rock
to the gas window due to tectonic
overloading since at least the Late Eocene.
south of the Gurico Sub-Basin (modified from Daal et al., 1989). This section
shows how the Paleozoic sediments
were preserved (Cambrian as well as
Jurassic with basalt) in the deep parts
of the Espinto Graben. The final well
depth projected over the seismic line
was 14,730 ft (4.490 m).
This may be why the main hydrocarbon in

the fields near the Mountain Front is gas
rather than oil. Nevertheless, generation of
hydrocarbons has been postulated close to
the Late Miocene faults in the Central Gurico
region. The rocks contain marine organic
matter and appear to have migrated only a
short distance. This suggests that the
Temblador Group (Fig. 1.49) is an important
source rock for the oil in the Gurico State
fields. Paraffinic hydrocarbons may have
been generated from source rocks in
reservoir formations such as the Roblecito
and Oficina.
The main oil fields are, from west to
east: Palacio, La Mercedes, Yucal-El Placer,
Tucupido, El Jobal, Socorro and Macoya;
Yucal-El Placer is a gas field. To the south of
Gurico State, the Cretaceous and Tertiary
units gradually pinch-out (Fig. 1.48), creating
stratigraphic traps and asphalt seals in what
has been named the Orinoco Belt (Fig. 1.50).
Figure 1.48
Las Mercedes
Field
Palacio
Field
Mucaria,Garrapata, VILLA DE CURA

Gurico and others
N
Macapra River
Orinoco River
Recent
(Altagracia de Orituco, Gurico State) to the

0 m
Chaguaramas
1000
Roblecito
La P
ascu
a
Carrizal
1000
50
of the intersection of the cross section with the
2000
G-D-6 to CAMAZ-1, south of Camatagua.
Infante
100
Orinoco River, approximately 160 km south
Macapra River, and along the section from wells
Temblador
0
Structural cross sections from a point near the

southern limit of the Guatopo National Park
Quartzose
sandstone 3000
Ba
km
sem
en
These cross sections show the depth to the
(autochthon) Cretaceous top, below the thrusting

A
G-D-6
GRICO-6
B
CAMAZ-1
GXB-1
front that includes igneous-metamorphic rocks

(Villa de Cura Group) and Cretaceous-Tertiary
Chaguaramas N.M
....
....
sedimentary rocks such as Mucaria, Garrapata,

La P
Roblecito
ascu
a
....
...
- --. .---
1 33
10
20
30
km
40
50
Gurico, Roblecito, Peas Blancas, Naricual,
1000
m
Quebradn, Quiamare and Chaguaramas Forma-
2000
. ..
500
Cr
eta
tions (the last six concentrated in the thrusting
ce
front, in the so-called "Chacual Complex" (after

ou
Gonzlez de Juana et al., 1980).
PETROLEUM BASINS
GUARICO SUB-BASIN

,

,

,
,
,
,

,

,
,
,
Oficina
Seal
Reservoir
Graphic
Lithology
Source
Rock
Group
Formation
Figure 1.49
Coarse-grained sandstone.
5800'
Granular conglomerate.
Lignite, leaves.
5836'
Occasional shales.
Dolomitic limestones.
5900'
TEMBLADOR
Tigre
5925'
6000'
Shales with Lingula.
Ferrolithic levels.
Dolomitic limestones.
Exogyra.
6100'
6117'
Whitish and speckled

mudstones interval.
6200'
Speckled siltstones.
Canoa
Pebble conglomerates.
Whitish siltstones.
Speckled mudstones and
sandstones interval.
6300'
Pebble conglomerates.
6400'
Whitish weathered residual

rock.
6421'
Granite.
Basement
Lithological profile of the Tigre No. 1 well, Gurico State (after

Gonzlez de Juana et al., 1980).
The reservoirs are Neogene, and migration

probably occurred not only from north to
south, but from northeast to southeast.
The origin for the naphthenic-paraffinic oil
types is considered to be a Cretaceous
source rock, with tens of kilometers
migration, traveling along the Tertiary basal
discordance (Neogene-Cretaceous and
Neogene-Basement). The Orinoco Belt
extends to the east, delimiting the south
border for the whole Eastern Basin. Its
stratigraphy is shown in the geologic section
of Fig. 1.50.
The most important shale seals are found
in the same units as the reservoirs, e.g.
Roblecito, Chaguaramas and Oficina Formations. The traps are combinations of structural
(extensional faults) and stratigraphic
(channels) traps.
Petroleum Systems
The Gurico Sub-Basin is complex in its

petroleum system. Four such systems are
recognized: 1) Querecual-Oficina (!) (Fig.
1.51), 2) Temblador-La Pascua (!) (Fig. 1.52),
3) Querecual-Chaguaramas (!) (Fig. 1.53), and
4) Oficina (!) (Fig. 1.54). The source rock of
the Querecual-Oficina system is the
Querecual Formation, which occurs as blocks
and extremely faulted outcrops along the
whole Gurico Mountain Front. After
deposition (Late Cretaceous), it was first
overburdened and then involved in the
Caribbean tectonics during the Eocene and
Oligocene. Reservoir sedimentation (Oficina
and Merecure Formations) occurs during the
Late Oligocene and Miocene, and trap formation occurs during the structural formation of
the Eastern Basin during the Eocene. The
generation, migration and accumulation of
hydrocarbons have occurred continuously
since the beginning of the Oligocene, from
the deepest part of the thrusting front, to the
southern distal pinch-out of the Eastern Basin.
1 34
Figure 1.50
Aproximately 570 km
East
West
Hamaca-Cerro Negro
Machete-Zuata
Western Province
Eastern Province
Aprox. 6000'
Chaguaramas
Roblecito
Las Piedras
Freites
Oficina
Oficina
La Pascua
K
K
PK
PK
PK
PK
Carrizal
+
+
+
Altamira
+
+
+
+
Metamorphic Basement
(Precambrian (?) )
Hato Viejo
Sandy Reservoir
Shaly Seals
Paleozoic Basement (Sedimentary)
Sand-Seal Pairs
Carbonate Reservoir
Precambrian Basement (Igneous-Metamorphic)
Schematic structural configuration of the Orinoco Belt (after Audemard et al., 1985).
Figure 1.51
200
Tr
L
150
100
70
60
Mesozoic
K
J
E M L
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
L
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
20
10
0 (Ma)
Geological time
Q scale
Miocene PP
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Querecual-Oficina oil system (!), in the Oficina area, Gurico
Sub-Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
In the Oficina Formation, the Miocene

extensional fault systems are the main
trapping mechanisms for the Gurico and
Maturn (southern flank) Sub-Basins.
Specifically the Querecual-Oficina System
refers only to the area of the Oficina (near the
Gurico-Anzotegui southern border) in the
Gurico Sub-Basin, located to the south of
Gurico and Anzotegui states. Its critical
moment is present-time.
1 35
El Cantil Formation (Gucharo Member). Areal

view of the Las Puertas del Guarapiche,
Monagas State. Courtesy of Franklin Yoris.
PETROLEUM BASINS
GUARICO SUB-BASIN
Figure 1.52
200
Tr
L
150
100
70
60
50
Mesozoic
K
J
E M L
40
30
20
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
0 (Ma)
10
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Geological time
Q scale
Petroleum
system events
Miocene PP
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Temblador Group-La Pascua (!) petroleum system in central
Gurico (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Figure 1.53
200
150
100
70
60
50
Mesozoic
Tr
E M L
40
30
20
0 (Ma)
10
Cenozoic
K
Geological time
Q scale
Tertiary
L
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
Petroleum
system events
Miocene PP
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Querecual-Chaguaramas (!) petroleum system,

Orinoco River Belt (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Figure 1.54
200
Tr
L
150
100
70
60
50
E M L
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Mesozoic
J
K
L
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
20
0 (Ma)
10
Geological time
scale
Petroleum
Miocene PP
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
The Temblador-La Pascua System covers

the central area of Gurico State. The main
reservoirs are the Temblador Group proper
and the Roblecito and La Pascua Formations.
The burial of the source rock occurred from
the Eocene, with hydrocarbon generation
since the Oligocene. This produced a big
loss of hydrocarbons, because the structural
traps did not form until the end of Miocene.
The probable critical moment is around the
Miocene-Pliocene limit.
The Querecual-Chaguaramas System is
a consequence of the previously discussed
system. The traps, which are essentially
stratigraphic and asphaltic seals, occur along
the southern border of the Eastern Basin,
creating the Orinoco Belt. The QuerecualChaguaramas System is applicable to the
whole of the Orinoco Belt, including the
southern border of the Maturn Sub-Basin,
where the reservoir rocks are the lateral
equivalents of the Chaguaramas Formation
in Gurico Sub-Basin. The critical moment is
believed to be present-time.
In the Oficina System, hydrocarbons are
believed to have been generated from
Miocene source rocks (coals, carbonaceous
siltstones) in the Oficina Formation proper.
The sandstones of the same formation are
the reservoirs, but some of the oil may have
escaped to the underlying Merecure
Formation, with extensional-faulting traps
formed during Late Miocene. The source
rock overburden can be related to the thick
Pliocene (molasse) sequences, associated
with the uplifting of the Interior Mountain
Range and the resulting lithospheric flexure
that generates extensional faulting. The
critical moment is present-time.
Burial
Trap formation
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Oficina (!) petroleum system, Oficina area, Gurico Sub-Basin
(after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
1 36
Figure 1.55
SE
NW
Interior Range
Araya
Sub-Basin
Margarita - Los Testigos
Platform
El Pilar
Fault
Margarita
Island
Maturn
Sub-Basin
Turimiquire
Morichito
Basin
Caribbean
Plate
Orinoco
River
Pirital
Block
Maturn
South American
Plate
Vertical and horizontal scale

10
km
0
km
Pleistocene
Cretaceous
Oceanic Crust
Late Oligocene - Pliocene
Jurassic
Accretionary Crust
Paleocene - Early Oligocene
Early Paleozoic
Continental Crust
20
Dextral
Transcurrent
Component
Conceptual NW-SE geological cross section from Margarita-Los Testigos shelf to the Orinoco River. The north flank of the Maturn SubBasin is associated with the thrusting fronts of large cortical blocks, emplaced to the south due to the collision between the Caribbean and
South American plates.
Figure 1.56
Middle
Miocene
Paleogene
to Late
Cretaceous
Late Jurassic
Lit
ta l
or
Las Piedras (Litoral)
al
er
r
Ca
Late
Miocene
Mesa (Continental)
Pliocene
Basin
(Piggy-Back)
Pirital High
U
Pleistocene
Foredeep
Basin
ap
it a
o
pap
Cha oral)
La Pica (Marine)
it
L
(
a"
apit
Car
per Deep water
"Up
shales and turbidites
Quiriquire (Continental)
l
Continenta
Mo
nti
rich
ne
ito
nta
l
Co
Undifferentiated Cretaceous Allochthon
"Middle Carapita "

SANTA ANITA and
M ERE
TEMBLADOR
Paleozoic
Shallow Water
Sandstones and
Limestones
Pir
ital
CUR
2
km
Fau
lt
EG
rou
ps
"Lower Ca
rapita "
Deep water
shales and turbidites
Crystalline Basement
La Quinta
Formation
Structural cross section showing the tectono-stratigraphic units in the Maturn SubBasins northern flank. The figure also illustrates the complex tectonic and
sedimentary units that constitute the vertical and lateral equivalents of the Carapita
Formation in the subsurface; coeval foredeep environment sediments were
deposited in the south, while north of the Pirital High, a piggy-back basin was
developed, with shallow and continental environments (after Roure et al., 1994). The
Santa Anita Group includes the formations San Juan, Vidoo and Caratas.
1 37
Maturn Sub-Basin
The Maturn Sub-Basin (Fig. 1.55) is the
main Eastern Basin petroliferous unit. The
structural deformation and pinch-out of
stratigraphic units to the south define two
operational domains: north and south of the
Pirital Thrust (Figs. 1.55 and 1.56).
The stratigraphy of the eastern Interior
Range is representative of sedimentation on
the northern flank of the main Maturn SubBasin (Fig. 1.57). A thick and complex
sedimentary sequence ranges from the
Lower Cretaceous to Pleistocene. On the
southern flank, a simpler stratigraphy occurs,
similar to that of the Gurico Sub-Basin in
the subsurface. The Temblador Group (Fig.
1.49) represents the Cretaceous, and the
overlying Tertiary is mainly OligocenePleistocene, with alternating fluvial-deltaic
and shallow marine environments eventually
overlain by continental sediments (Fig. 1.50).
,,
,
,
PETROLEUM BASINS
M AT U R I N S U B - B A S I N
Carapita
San Juan
?
70
Sandstones and shales.

T = 0-650 m.
Cretaceous
Late
San Antonio
M
Siliceous limestones, sandstones and black cherts.

T = 250-500 m.
80
90
Querecual M
El Cantil
100
Early
110
. .
ana . .
Chim
8
?
. .
. .
Gucharo
. .
(Upper.)
Gucharo(Low.)
?
7
Garca
6
Barranqun 53 4 .
2 .
.
.
?
1 = Mbr. Tinajitas
2 = Capas Ro Solo
3 = Venados
4 = Morro Blanco
5 = Picuda
6 = Taguarumo
130 7= Mapurite
8 = Punceres
120
Pelagic black limestones.

T= 650-750 m.
Limestones, sandstones and
shales, the glauconitic content
is high in some places.
T= 270-535 m.
Bioclastic limestones and argillaceous limestones; the sandy
contents increase to the top.
T = 700-1000 m.
Sandstones. T = 157 m.
Shales and limestones.
T = 186 m.
Sandstones, limestones and
carbonaceous siltstones.
T = 1400-2400 m.
Member
6500'
6595'
Shales with
thin sandy
beds, probably
turbiditic.
7000'
7190'
7500'
Sandstones
with many
shale
interbeddings
(sandy
turbiditic
facies).
8000'
Carbonate reservoir
8075'
Seal rock
Mainly shales
with some thin
sandy beds
(probably
turbiditic).
Sandy reservoir
Sand/seal pairs
Transgressive
advance
Regressive
progradation
Dark shales increasing its

sandy contents to the south.
T = 700-200 m.
6000'
Sandstones
with regular
shale
interbedding
(sandy
turbiditic
facies).
Chapapotal
60
Thick sandstones interbedded

with dark shales; the Tinajitas
Member is calcareous and
glauconitic.
T = 700-200 m.
V
i
d
o
Las Piedras
La Pica
5458'
5500'
5800'
Middle
Early
50
Late
Paleocene
Caratas
Early
Paleogene
Eocene
Areo
?
Los Jabillos
?
40
Lithological
Description
5635'
30
Electric
Log
Sandstones interbedded with

calcareous siltstones and coals.
T = 2000 m.
Shales, siltstones, and glauconitic sandstones. T = 300m
Naricual
20
Uchirito
Formation
Quiriquire,etc.
?
Quiamare
10
Sandstones and claystones.

T = 275 m.
Conglomerates, sandstones
and often calcareous shale/
claystones.
T = 3000-4600 m.
Calcareous conglomerates.
Black calcareous shales, interbedded turbiditic sandstones;
conglomerates at the top.
T = 1000-2000 m.
Midd. Late
Early
Neogene
Miocene
Oligocene
Late Early Late
Lithostratigraphic
gy
lo
Units
ho
S Lit
N
Mesa ?
Las Piedras,
Pleistocene
Plio- Late
cene Early
Seal
Ma
Source
Series
Reserv.
General source rock
8500'
T = Thickness
Integrated stratigraphic column (time scale) for
Electrical log from Well Q-297, in
the Interior Range (Maturn Sub-Basin northern
Cahipo block of the Quiriquire
flank) (after Yoris, 1992).
Field, State of Monagas. This is

typical
Member
of
the
of
the
Chapapotal
Carapita
Formation (after Gonzlez de

Juana et al., 1980). The turbidite
regime of the sand-seal pairs of
the Carapita Formation is the
same throughout all the region
(approximately 80 km to the
west of the Quiriquire oil field),
and in the El Furrial Field, 40 km
to the southeast (after Yoris,
1989, 1982).
The main source rock in the Interior

Range is the Guayuta Group, especially the
Querecual Formation. Its thickness is double
that of its Western Venezuela lateral
equivalent (La Luna Formation) and it has
similar characteristics as source rock. The
lateral transition of the Cretaceous from the
northern flank of the sub-basin to the
southern Temblador Group is not known in
the subsurface because of the considerable
thickness of the Neogene sequence. Nevertheless, it is believed that the Cretaceous
source rock is still of good quality in the
Greater Oficina Area, which generated part of
the oil present in these fields.
The main source rock for the North
Monagas region was probably Cretaceous
(Guayuta Group), although the possibility of
younger source rocks is not discarded.
Younger source rocks would need organic
matter of continental affinity (e.g., the
Naricual Formation is coaly/carbonaceous).
The most important reservoirs are of
Tertiary age; in North Monagas fields they
consist of Carapita, Naricual, Los Jabillos and
Caratas Formations (Fig. 1.57). Late Cretaceous sandstones (San Juan Formation) are
also good reservoirs, and the youngest MioPliocene reservoirs belong to La Pica and the
molassic Las Piedras-Quiriquire Formations
(Fig. 1.56). Structural traps, such as those in
El Furrial Field (Fig. 1.58) are of prime importance for hydrocarbon accumulations.
Major regional seals for the CretaceousTertiary sequence in the northern flank of the
sub-basin are the Vidoo, Areo and Carapita
Formations (Fig. 1.57). The Areo and Carapita
also have lenticular reservoirs, such as the
turbiditic lobes of the Carapita Formation
(Chapapotal Member; see Fig. 1.59).
To the south of the sub-basin, in the
Oficina fields of Anzotegui and Monagas
states, the main reservoirs are Merecure and
Oficina Formations. Regional shale seals
belong to the same units, and the overlying
Freites Formation is also an important
regional seal.
1 38
Figure 1.59
El Furrial
1400
1500
3
Seconds
Carapita
Mere
cure
Creta
ceous
1 km
Structural interpretation from El Furrial Field (after Pernaud et al., 1995). In this section,
the trap is made of a structural high associated with the development of a thrust with
vergence to the south.
Figure 1.60
200
150
100
70
60
Mesozoic
TR
J
L E M L
K
E
Paleo.
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Eocene
Olig.
20
0 (Ma)
10
Geological
time scale
Petroleum
system events
Miocene PP
From west to east the main oil fields in

the north of Monagas state are: Oficina Major
Area, Quiamare, Jusepn, El Furrial, Orocual,
Boquern, Quiriquire and Pedernales.
In the south the sub-basin also includes
the Orinoco Belt. It has Neogene reservoirs
and Cretaceous source rock, with distal
migration occurring along and across the
Cretaceous-Neogene and Basement-Neogene
discordances.
Oil gravities are quite varied. In El
Furrial and nearby fields medium-type oils
are common; Quiamare-La Ceiba produced
oils with average 41API; in the Oficina
fields, light, medium and heavy oils are
found; and in the Orinoco Belt the oil is
always heavy. In general, heavy oils are
found at the basin margins with the
youngest and shallowest reservoirs; this is
the case for the Orinoco Belt in the southern
flank and the Quiriquire, Manresa and
Guanoco fields in the northern flank. The
last two fields contain extra-heavy oils.
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for Guayuta-Oficina (!) petroleum system, Maturn Sub-Basin.

The kitchen is located below the Pirital Block (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Figure 1.61
200
Tr
L
150
100
Mesozoic
J
E M L
70
60
40
30
20
10
Cenozoic
Tertiary
K
E
50
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
0 (Ma)
Geological time
Q scale
Miocene PP
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Guayuta-Carapita (!) petroleum system for the Maturn
Sub-Basin. The kitchen is located both in the autochthonous and in the Furrial
(allochthonous) blocks (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
1 39
Petroleum Systems
The main petroleum systems of Maturn

Sub-Basin are: 1) Guayuta-Oficina (!) (Fig.
1.60), and 2) Guayuta-Carapita (!) (Fig. 1.61).
The first one is related to the oil fields of the
southern flank, and includes the Late
Cretaceous Querecual and San Antonio
Formations (Guayuta Group) as the main
source rocks, overloaded (stratigraphically
and tectonically) until the present day. The
main reservoirs include Oligo-Miocene units
such as Merecure, Oficina and Freites
Formations. The principal seals are the
Oficina and Freites Formations, and trap
formation began during the Oligocene deformation and continues to the present.
The generation, migration and accumulation
of hydrocarbons is reaching the critical
moment at the present. Generation began in
the Late Paleocene when the Caribbean
nappes overthrusted the South American
plate, far to the west and northwest of their
actual position.
PETROLEUM BASINS
M AT U R I N S U B - B A S I N
Figure 1.62
Caribbean Sea
El Pilar Fault
N
San
Fran
cisco
Fault
Inmature
Mature
Pi
rit
al
Very mature
Th
ru
sti
Maturn
ng
ront
ion F
mat
r
Defo
Orinoco River
Ciudad Bolvar
The second system, the GuayutaCarapita (!), is related to the northern flank of
the Maturn Sub-Basin. It is characterized by
heterogeneous reservoirs and seals, with a
younger hydrocarbon generation than the
Guayuta-Oficina system. The generationmigration and the trap formation are Late
Oligocene to Present, with critical moment at
the present time. Important seals are Vidoo,
Areo and Carapita Formations, with minor
seal capacity in the molassic units such as
Morichito, Las Piedras and Quiriquire
Formations. San Juan, Caratas, Los Jabillos,
Merecure (subsurface Naricual), Carapita,
La Pica, Las Piedras and Quiriquire Formations are important reservoirs.
The kitchen for the Maturn Sub-Basin
source rock is summarized in Fig. 1.62,
showing that the source rock is in a gas
window below the deformation front, and its
maturity zone (oil window) is actually
feeding the sub-basins southern flank.
20
km
Hydrocarbons kitchen for the Interior Range and Maturn

Sub-Basin (after Parnaud et al., 1995).
AUTHORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
This chapter was written by F.Yoris and M.Ostos (E.I.G.LITOS C.A.)

with the collaboration of the personnel of LITOS C.A. and of L.Zamora.
The History of Exploration of Venezuela was written by L.Zamora.
1 40
The following definitions are either quoted directly or

paraphrased from Bates and Jackson (1987), and are
presented here as a reference for the chapters in this book
that discuss geological concepts. If the reader wants more
information about these terms, the mentioned reference or
specialized books are recommended.
Allochthonous: Formed or produced elsewhere than in its
present place. Here, this term is used to designate
portions of Earths crust, separated from their original
basement and tectonically transported long distances, and
being finally emplaced as allochthonous terranes.
Asthenosphere: see Lithosphere.
Authochthonous: Formed or produced in the place where
now found. Here, this term is used for the Earths crustal
portions that are rooted on their original basement.
Bathyal: Pertaining to the ocean environment or depth
zone between 200 and 2000 meters.
Chert: Microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline sedimentary
rock consisting dominantly of quartz crystals less than 30
microns in diameter. It may contain amorphous silica or
impurities such as calcite, iron oxide, and the remains of
siliceous and other organisms.
Clastic sediments: Sediments formed by particles derived
from the erosion/weathering of preexisting rocks or other
sediments, being transported by wind or water. The clastic
fractions are: clay ( < 1/256 mm diameter), silt (1/256 to
1/16 mm), sand (1/16 to 2 mm) and gravel ( > 2 mm).
Rocks dominated by silt and clay fractions are shales and
(siliceous) mudstones, by sand are sandstones, and by
gravel are conglomerates.
Conglomerate: see Clastic sediments.
Diachronism: The transgression, across time planes or
biozones, by a rock unit whose age differs from place to
place.
Economic basement: In the oil industry, the oldest rocks
in a given place that do not contain hydrocarbons (ex:
sedimentary Jurassic rocks in the Venezuelan oil basins, or
igneous and metamorphic rocks with no porosity and
permeability).
Gondwana: The Late Paleozoic continent of the Southern
Hemisphere. The term originates from the Gondwana
System of India, which is Carboniferous to Jurassic age
and includes glacially derived and coal sediments.
Graben: Elongated portion of the Earths crust, relatively
depressed in comparison with surrounding areas and
bounded by faults on its long sides.
1 41
Half-graben: A depressed block bounded on one side by

a listric fault. This name is used for some of the relic
portions of Western Venezuela Jurassic grabens in which
the La Quinta Formation outcrops in the Andes.
Hemipelagic sediments: Typical sediments of the
continental margin and abyssal plain. More than 25% of
the fraction coarser than 5 microns must be either
terrigenous, volcanogenic, and/or neritic.
Laurasia: The Northern Hemisphere equivalent of
Gondwana in the Southern Hemisphere, and from which
the Northern Hemisphere continents were derived.
Laurentia: A name that is widely and confusingly used for
granites and orogenies of Precambrian age in the
Canadian Shield.
Limestone: A sedimentary rock made up of more than 50%
calcium carbonate (calcite); also a carbonate sedimentary
rock containing more than 95% calcite and less than 5%
dolomite.
Lithosphere: The solid portion of the Earth, including the
crust and part of the upper mantle. Its rigid behavior
contrasts with the underlying asthenosphere, which is
capable of flow via convection cells while maintaining
its solid constitution.
Molasse: An extensive, post-orogenic sedimentary
formation resulting from the wearing down of elevated
mountain ranges, during or immediately after orogeny. It
is usually very thick.
Nappe: A sheetlike, allochthonous rock unit, which has
moved on a predominantly horizontal surface. The
mechanism of transport is usually thrust faulting.
Neritic sediments: Those sediments deposited in a marine
environment between low tide level and the shelf break.
Olistolite: see Olistostrome.
Olistostrome: Stratigraphic intervals made up of chaotic,
lithologically diverse blocks (Olistolites, sometimes up to
several kilometers long), accumulated by sliding and
slumping of unconsolidated sediment.
Orogenesis: Literally, the process of formation of
mountains. In modern usage, orogenic mountain chains
are considered the collision boundaries between tectonic
plates.
Pangea: A supercontinent that existed 200 to 300 million
years ago and included most of the existing continental
crust. From this supercontinent the present continents
were derived by fragmentation and displacement via
plate tectonics.
GLOSSARY
Tectonic plate: A rigid portion of the Earths lithosphere with

seismic activity along its borders. Over geologic time, it has
been postulated that the Earths tectonic plates moved over
the asthenosphere via convection cell mechanisms.
Terrain: A tract or region of the Earths surface considered
as a physical feature, an ecological environment, or some
planned activity of man. Here, the usage is physical
(geological).
Terrane: A fault-bounded body of rock of regional extent.
A terrane is generally considered to be a discrete
allochthonous fragment of oceanic or continental material
added to a craton at an active margin by accretion.
Thrust front: Regions of the lithosphere associated with
nappe emplacement; normally they form mountain ranges
near collisional plate limits. Ex: in Venezuela, the Interior
Mountain Range (Serrana del Interior) is considered a
thrust front associated with the nappe emplacement
caused by the collision between the Caribbean and South
American Plates. Thrust fronts are also associated with
fold and thrust belts.
Transgression: The spread or extension of
the sea over land areas. A transgressive
sedimentary sequence is that in which the
Numeric
paleodepth of its sediments steadily
Eonotheme
Eratheme
System and Sub-system
Series
Age
(Period and Sub-period)
(Eon)
(Era)
(Epoch)
(Ma)
increase as they decrease in age.
Holocene
Quaternary
1.64
Pleistocene
Trough: An elongated crustal depression,
Pilocene
23.3
Neogene
usually associated with a subduction-type
Cenozoic
Miocene
Tertiary
Oligocene, Eocene,
65
plate boundary or transformal limit (ex:
Paleogene
Paleocene
Upper (Late)
Marianas Trough, in the Pacific Ocean).
Cretaceous
Lower (Early)
145.8
Upper (Late)
Troughs (also: foredeeps) can be found
Medium (Middle)
Jurassic
208
Mesozoic
Lower (Early)
parallel to the trend of fold and thrust
Upper (Late)
Medium (Middle)
Triassic
245
Lower (Early)
belts due to the lithospheric plate flexure
Upper (Late)
Permian
Lower (Early)
290
produced by its weight.
Carboniferous
362.5
Turbidite: Sediment body deposited from
Upper (Late)
Medium (Middle)
408.5
Devonian
turbidity currents.
Lower (Early)
Paleozoic
Turbidity currents: Density currents
Silurian
439
Upper (Late)
caused by different amounts of matter in
Ordovician
Medium (Middle)
Lower (Early)
suspension. They commonly occur along
510
Cambrian
the continental slopes and delta fronts,
570
where the discharge of sediments can be
very high.
2500
Archaic
Vergence: The direction of movement of
lithospheric masses involved in thrusting;
also the direction of overturning or of
Main units of the Chronostratigraphic (Geochronological) Global Standard Scale:
inclination of a fold.
Ages are in millions of years (Ma) corresponding to those of Harland et al (1990)
ic
zo
er
o
ot
Pr
Precambrian
Fanerozoic
Pelagic sediments: Marine sediments formed mainly from

open ocean-suspended particles. These particles can be
either nektonic or planktonic. The term pelagic also refers
to the water of the ocean as an environment.
Pull-apart basin: An extensional basin formed between
two strike-slip faults.
Regression: A retreat or contraction of the sea from land
areas, with a potential increase in subaerially exposed
areas. A regressive sedimentary sequence is identified
when its sediments paleodepth steadily decreases as they
decrease in age.
Sandstone: see Clastic sediments.
Shale: see Clastic sediments.
Siltstone: see Clastic sediments.
Subsidence: The downward settling of the Earths surface
with little or no horizontal motion. In a sedimentary basin,
an increase in subsidence results in a higher capacity to
receive sediment. If the basin is trough-shaped, the basin
axis reflects the deepest subsidence points.
Salvador (1994 : 86) modified.
1 42
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Chapter 1

Petroleum Geology of Venezuela

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA

Oil + Condensate field

Location map of oil fields in Venezuela.

Greater Anaco area

Greater Oficina area

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA

The Venezuelan physiographic provinces are:

250 to > 5000 m

the chapter, and also a time chart with the

Paleozoic and Cenozoic

Cenozoic Orogenic Belt

Late Paleozoic Orogenic Belt

Early Paleozoic Orogenic Belt

Paleozoic and Cenozoic Basins

Eastern Basin of the Precambrian Basement,

Northern South Americas

The coastal plains (117,220 km2) are

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA

Cenozoic Orogenic Belt

Lower Paleozoic Basin

Upper Paleozoic Orogenic Belt

Lower Paleozoic Orogenic Belt

Northern South Americas

Figure 1.3 shows the distribution of

Perij and Guajira

Gurico and Cojedes

Correlation chart of the most

The Triassic is not present in Venezuela

In Venezuela, the Pangean continent

Distribution of Jurassic rocks: 1) in Perij Range; 2) as part of the economic

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA

Early Cretaceous. The major sedimentary facies distribution and stratigraphy

Exposed Igneous and Metamorphic

Coastal and Transitional Environment

Distribution of dominant sedimentary facies during the Neocomian-Albian (Early

Andes and Barinas-Apure

Sand / Seal Pairs

Sand / Sandstone Reservoir

The Querecual Formation

(also Early Cretaceous) carbonate shelf,

Bathyal (Pelagic) and Shelf Shaly

Coastal and Transitional Sandy

Bathyal and Abyssal Hemipelagic/

Dominant sedimentary facies

In Eastern Venezuela, the sedimentary

The thickness of both El Cantil and Chimana

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA

Marine Sediments (Undifferentiated)

Sedimentary facies distribution during the Maastrichtian (Late Cretaceous) at the

Sand / Seal Pairs

Orocue/Mirador = Barco-Los Cuervos-Mirador-Carbonera Fms. Event (Paleocene-Eocene)

Gobernador = Gobernador-Masparrito Fms. Event (Eocene)

Trujillo = Trujillo Fm. Event (Paleocene-Eocene)

= Humocaro-Quebrada Arriba Fms. Event (Eocene)

Misoa = Misoa-Cas-Pauj Fms. Event (Eocene)

= La Victoria-Santa Rita-Jarillal Fms. Event (Eocene)

= Direction of sediment supply

ESE migration of the

In North-Central Venezuela, the lateral

Paleocene-Eocene of Western Venezuela.

These fronts generated successively younger