N1 EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE TEACHING.

PRESENT DAY TRENDS IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN

LANGUAGE. COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES.
First of all it is important to clarify the terminology we will need:
- Approach : a theory (certain model)
specific Method: set of procedures (a system that spells out how to teach a language).
They are compatible with !" approaches.
# Techni$ues: classroom de%ice or acti%ity. &ome of them are widely
used and found in many methods (imitation' repetition)
while others are specific of a gi%en method

The terms approach and method are often confused by different sources.
There is not a clearcut se$uence for F(T approaches because the different trends
appeared as a combination of pre%ious ones or o%erlapped and influenced one another.
F(T e%olution is closely related to the fields of (inguistic (language theories)'
)sycholody ( learning theories) and )hilosophy.
Before the be!""!" of the #$
th
%. the different e*isting methods!approaches
depended mainly on common sense or philosophical considerations but they didn+t ha%e
scientific foundations. ,owe%er &t the be!""!" of the #$
th
%. the spread of the first
)sychological theories of learning (-eha%iourism) and (inguistic theories of language
(&tructuralism) led to the appearance of the audio-lingual method and of the first functional-
notional syllabi.
I" the '!()#$
th
%. fields li.e )sychology (,umanistic )sychology / 0urran' 1ogers'
2ardiner-) and (inguistic (&ociolinguistic / 3igots.y' &chumann' 45&A6 )ragmatics /2rice'
-rown' (e%inson-) focused on social factors which led to the 0ommunicati%e Approach'
which is the longest sur%i%ing approach because of its eclectic character. 5t is the most used
nowadays than.s to its adaptability to the new trends.
PRE)1*
th
%
7e could find two types of approaches (none of them were scientific in the modern sense of
the word) depending on the way of focusing the language:
Focused on:
&+ ,-!") .-/e&0!" &"( ,"(er-t&"(!"+ )!"(,%t!1e
b+ &"&23-!") .2e&r"!" the r&''&t!%&2 r,2e-+ 4(e(,%t!1e.
0lassical 2ree. and Medie%al (atin periods were characteri8ed by an emphasis on teaching
people to use foreign languages. -oth of them were used as lingua francas. ,igher learning
was gi%en only in these languages' therefore educated elite became fluent spea.ers' readers
[Escribir texto] Pgina
and writers. 9uring this period' $uite probable' teachers or tutors used direct approaches and
aural-oral techni$ues and some manuscripts of some sort to con%ey the form and meaning of
the language. (:inducti%e)
(ater came the period of the 1enaissance (;
th
/ <
th
c) in which the in%ention of printing
press too. place and brought a shift-bac. to formal studies at schools (:inducti%e). At the
same time the use of %ernaculars started to rise. And since the =uropean %ernaculars had
increased in prestige and utility' during the <
th
c. the focus in language study shifted bac. to
utility rather than analysis> ?. 0omenius who' for the
st
time made e*plicit an inducti%e
approach (pag. ;).
-y the beginning of the @
th
due to the increase of interest in learning languages as an
intellectual acti%ity among the aristocracy and the well-off came bac. the systematic study of
the grammar' and the analytical grammar-translation approach became entrenched to teach
classical and modern languages (:deducti%e)
FIRST MODERN APPROACHES.)
These
st
methods were important because they populari8ed the study of foreign languages
among wide groups of society and some of the techni$ues proper of these methods are still
used nowadays. &ome of them arose as a reaction to the pre%ious one' mainly because they
had become not practical for the social moment6 but all of them ha%e been useful in some
way.
21AMMA1-T1AA&(AT5BA M=T,B9 / 9educti%e approach -@thc. which focused on
grammar rules and lists of %ocabulary. There is no oral interaction with the teacher who didn+t
ha%e to be able to spea. the language. The result of this approach is usually an inability on the
part of the student to use the language for communication. ,owe%er' nowadays we use some
of its techni$ues: fill-in-the-blan.s e*ercises' translation' loo.ing for synonyms and antonyms
or recogni8ing cognates.
951=0T M=T,B9- A reaction to the pre%ious one (belong to the 1eform Mo%ement' end of
the @
th
c.). 5nducti%e method. The target language is used as a medium of instruction (so the
teacher must be nati%e of ha%e nati%e-li.e proficiency) and grammar is learned inducti%ely.
1eading is wor.ed for pleasure and the target culture is also taught. (>some points $uite
important nowadays).
1=A95A2 A))1BA0,- A reaction to the impracticality of the pre%ious one and influenced
by structuralism. 1eading was considered the most useful s.ill to de%elop because not many
people tra%elled around @CD.
Bral practice was reduced so the teacher didn+t need to ha%e good oral proficiency. 1eading
and translation increased.
Then we can find the:
SCIENTIFICALLY)BASED APPROACHES.)
The first ones are those which were influenced by different psychological (-eha%iourism) and
linguistic theories (&tructuralism). &tructuralism ser%ed to produce
st
scientific models of
language' leading to F(T methods such as the situational or the audio-lingual method (this one
influenced by beha%iourism). -ut later the %o"!t!1e -%!e"%e remo%ed them in fa%our of
others which ta.e into account mental processes and' in more recent %ersions' social and
humanistic factors.
[Escribir texto] Pgina "
As well as at the beginning we need to re%ise the terminology:
&tructuralism E The contents to be taught could be systemati8ed and se$uenced
according to their characteristics of form. (Fsyllabi built ta.ing into
consideration
st
of all: %ocabulary and structures).
-eha%iourismE (earning a language means forming a set of habits. Ta.ing into account
obser%able beha%iour but not mental process. The learner is determined
by his en%ironment and he passi%ely adapts to the circumstances.
0ogniti%ism E Try to disco%er and model the mental processes during the learning-
process. =mphasi8e the acti%e mental processing on the part of the learner
to achie%e mental constructions.
-oth -eha%iourism and 0ogniti%ism considered .nowledge as gi%en and absolute.
The first two arose as a reaction to the 1eading Method and its lac. of emphasis on aural-oral
s.ills.
T,= &5TGAT5BAA( A))1BA0,. 9ominant in -ritain from the @;Ds to the HDs and it was
based on the -ritish structural linguistics of the "Ds and CDs.()almer I ,ornby).
5t ga%e emphasis on the representation and practice of language in situations.
5tems graded according their comple*ity and presented progressi%ely ta.ing into account the
situation of the use. 5t pretends a functional learning.

T,= AG95B-(5A2GA( M=T,B9. 9ominant in the G.&.A. from the ;Ds to the HDs
5t ta.es much from the 9irect method but adds features from structural linguistics and
beha%ioural psychology as the 9.m. was $uite slow and there was a need in the G.&. to teach
foreign languages intensi%ely to soldiers who fought abroad in the 77 55.

T,= 0B2A5T53= A))1BA0,. (anguage as a product of rule formation (not forming set of
habits). (anguage ac$uisition must be a procedure whereby people use their own thin.ing
process' or cognition' to disco%er the rules of the language they are ac$uiring.
5t ta.es into account learner+s innate characteristics and capacity to reflect upon the process.
(earners are much more responsible for their own learning.
An e*ample of this approach is The -!2e"t 5&3 in which teaching should be subordinated to
learning (teacher as facilitator).
T,= AFF=0T53=-,GMAA5&T50 A))1BA0,.- 5t was a reaction to the general lac. of
affecti%e considerations in the pre%ious ones. 5t was hea%ily influenced by humanistic
psychology (2ardner -multiple intelligences-' 1ogers) 5t has had a significant influence on the
communicati%e approach as enhance the importance of paying attention to class atmosphere
(maintaining the affecti%e barrier low' treatment of error)' the interaction and support among
learners' the teacher+s and student+s roles' etc.
9eri%ing from it arose The Co'',"!t3 L&",&e Le&r"!" as an application of
0ounselling (earning (0urrant' psychologist) where learners are firstly members of a
community who learn by means of interaction' and who must support other members of the
group and communicate their feelings without reser%ation.
Another one which included the humanistic ideas is De-,e-to/e(!&6 or the application of
the study of suggestion to pedagogy. 5t was de%eloped to help students eliminate the feeling
that they cannot be successful and' thus to help them o%ercome the barriers to learning.
[Escribir texto] Pgina C
0BM)1=A,=A&5BA--A&=9 A))1BA0,.- 5t was an outgrowth of research in
st
language ac$uisition' with strong influences from cogniti%e linguists' especially 0homs.y'
which led to assume that F(( is %ery similar to
st
language ac$uisition.
The best .nown de%elopment of this approach is N&t,r&2 A//ro&%h where Jrashen I Terrel
established a set of principles! hypothesis: ) &ubconscious ac$uisition is different from
language learning' ") (earning is only possible through the use of conscious process (monitor
hypothesis)' C) (earning doesn+t lead to ac$uisition. Ac$uisition ta.es place in a natural
order6 the teacher should try to follow this order' ;) (earner impro%es if the (" input is one
step beyond his current stage of linguistic competence' K) (earner+s an*iety has to be low
(affecti%e filter) to stimulate self esteem and moti%ation.
Another one is the Tot&2 Ph3-!%&2 Re-/o"-e ' a set of techni$ues proposed by Asher (pag. )
%ery similar to the ones enunciated by Jrashen. !0onection with topic nLM!
All these methods lead us to the:
0BMMGA50AT53= A))1BA0,.- (@HDs) (anguage is seen as a system for
communication. &tudents should be taught how to reali8e specific notions such as Nduration+
or Npossibility+ and language functions such as Nin%iting+ and Napologi8ing+. This approach is
manifest in the proposals for notional!functional syllabi de%eloped by 7il.ins and 3an =..
&ome of the main principles which underlay the creation of communicati%e language teaching
in the HDs are in pag.!".
The 0ommunicati%e Approach is often termed as eclectic because it uses ideas from all the
abo%e mentioned fields and theories. 5t has e%oluted during more than CD years and has been
officially adopted by many educational institutions and authorities.
All the methods that we ha%e seen are )roduct ApproachesE ma.ing sure that students
assimilate planned structures' functions' etc.
From now on we are going to see the most recent trends' those which are worried about how
the learning ta.es place -not what is ac$uired-' that is to say' )rocedural Approaches.
PRESENT)DAY TRENDS IN TFL
These can be subdi%ided into:
)1B0=9G1A( A))1BA0,=&:
T&-0)b&-e( 'o(e2- : organise learning depending on how a learner applies his communicati%e
competence to underta.e a tas.. A tas.-based programme of study can be organi8ed in two
.inds of tas.s: ) communication tas.s (the actual tas.s a person underta.es when
communicating' e.g. writing a letter)' ") related enabling tas.s that facilitate a learner+s
participation in the former (tas.s which e*plicitly focus upon the rules and con%entions of the
language system' the interpersonal .nowledge and meaning' e.g. fill-in-the-blan.s e*ercises).
Tas.s are presented in familiar conte*t' in a cyclical way from the most simple to the most
comple* ones and se$uenced.
Pro%e-- 'o(e2-: 5t deri%es from humanistic studies and focus on three types of processes:
communicating' learning and the classroom social acti%ity. The ways in which things are done
in the classroom (the maOor decisions that teachers and learners need to ma.e Oointly in an on-
going and negotiated way- Flearning in groups) and the means to communicate and the ways
through which communicating and learning can be achie%e (a ban. of classroom acti%ities in
a non-se$uenced way' Flearner interpretation of a new .nowledge' no syllabus).
[Escribir texto] Pgina ;
The strongest %ersion is the %o"te"t)b&-e( 2&",&e te&%h!"7 -ilingual schools-
communication in specific curricular areas ()lan for Fomenting Multilingualism presented by
?unta de Andalusia in April "DDK).
0BM)GT=1 A&&5&T=9 (AA2GA2= (=A1A5A2 (0A(().-
5t in%ol%es the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a foreign language. 0omputer
programs used in 0A(( use multi-media technology' which combines te*t' sound and %ideo
with interacti%ity between users and programs. 0A(( may ta.e the form of acti%ities which
parallel learning through other media but which use the facilities of the computer (reading a
te*t)' which are e*tensions or adaptations of print based or classroom based acti%ities
(helping and chec.ing compositions)' which are uni$ue to 0A((.
The
st
computer programs for language learning were created under the influence of
structuralist and cogniti%e approaches and were designed to pro%ide immediate positi%e or
negati%e feedbac. to learners on the formal accuracy of their responses (repeating drilling
e*ercises: Smart Start Ingls, Tell Me More...' tutorials' simulations' instructional games'
tests' and so on).
-esides' different local or indi%idual initiati%es are aimed at de%eloping the so called free
-oft5&re (programmes and resources which are shared on the 5nternet without any cost for
the user and with the possibility of contributing to their de%elopment). The Andalusian
go%ernment promotes the use of free software by using and financing the wor. on
G,&(&2!"e8.
Following cogniti%e!constructi%ist %iews' the ne*t generation of 0A(( programs tended to
shift agency to the learner (Elearners construct new .nowledge through e*ploration). &o' the
computer pro%ides tools and resources' but it is up to the learner to do something with these
in a simulated environment. This increase the interacti%e function of computer software and
hardware.
The two approaches ha%e strongly influenced the way in which computers are used in
language testing' gi%ing rise to the appearance of a new branch %o'/,ter &--!-te( 2&",&e
te-t!" .CALT+ (f.e. the 0omputeri8ed Bral )roficiency 5nstrument 0B)5' a multi-media'
computer administered oral proficiency test).
T,= G&= BF T,= 5AT=1A=T 5A FB1=5A2 (AA2GA2= T=A0,5A2.-
7ith sociocogniti%e (humanistic) approaches to 0A(( we mo%e from learners+ interaction
with computers to interaction with other humans va computer.
The mainstream approach has been one based on communication in the broadest sense of the
word for a long time' and with the ad%ent' two decades ago' of %o'/,ter "et5or0!" and
'o(er" te2e%o'',"!%&t!o"- te%h"o2o!e-' which allow the computer to be used as a
%ehicle for !"ter&%t!1e h,'&" %o'',"!%&t!o"6 this has been possible.
Net5or0)b&-e( 2&",&e te&%h!" (A-(T) is language teaching that in%ol%es the use of
computers connected to one another in either local or global networ.s. 5t focuses on human-
to-human (either on-one-to one or a many-to-many basis) communication all o%er the world
";h a day' from e%erywhere' so it multiplies their opportunities for communicati%e practice.
And as this act of communication is by written' it gi%es opportunities to plan their discourse
and to notice and reflect on language use in the messages they compose and read.
5t is also a field of teacher training and up-date.
As a conse$uence teachers ha%e incorporated %h&t programs. -ut the role of %o'/,ter
'e(!&te( %o'',"!%&t!o" (0M0) is still not clear as it is important to e*amine how this
technology affects learner-learner interaction and the e*tent to which it may differ or be
similar to face-to-face interaction. Thus far' research indicates that 0M0 elicits more learner
participation and creates a less stressful en%ironment for language learning.
[Escribir texto] Pgina K
5nternet lets the use of refere"%e -o,r%e- (corpora!dictionaries' online acti%ities' information)'
authentic materials (newspapers' radio broadcasts...) that correspond to their own personal
interests' etc. Teachers can use different programs' sites and acti%ities: Hot Pot&toe- or
Neoboo0' 5eb-!te- .b2o-+6 5eb9,e-t- or tre&-,reh,"t-.
5n Andalusia many schools ha%en been designated as ICT -%hoo2. They use G,&(&2!"e8
(sponsored by the Andalusian go%ernment) as operating system and free software. Bthers are
Bpen Bffice' Firefo*' ,ot )otatoes' ?0lic' &eneca.
THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH.)
1=35=75A2 T,= )15A05)(=&.-
.- The goal is to ha%e one+s learner become communicati%ely competent' being able to use
the language appropriate to a gi%en social conte*t . They need to .now the linguistic forms'
meanings' and functions6 and must be able to use choose the most appropriate ones depending
on the social conte*t and the roles of the interlocutors. They must also be able to manage the
process of negotiating meaning with their interlocutors.
".- The teacher is a facilitator of students+ learning (promotes communication)' an ad%isor
(monitoring their performance)' and a co-comunicator.
&tudents are communicators acti%ely engaged in negotiating meaning. They are more
responsible of their own learning.
C.-0haracteristics:
a)=%erything is done with a communicati%e intent.
b)Acti%ities that are truly communicati%e ha%e C features: information gap (one of them
.nows sth that the other doesn+t)' choice (of what and how he will say it)' and feed-bac. (true
communication is purposeful' if the listener does not ha%e an opportunity to pro%ide the
spea.er with feed-bac.' then the e*change is not really communicati%e.
c)Gse of authentic materials
d)Acti%ities are often carried out by students in small groups in order to ma*imi8e the time
allotted to each student for learning to negotiate the meaning.
;.-The teacher is the initiator of the acti%ities' but he does not always himself interact with the
students who interact a great deal with one another (in pairs' small groups and whole group)-
K.- They students must feel they are learning to do something useful. They must ha%e the
opportunity to e*press their indi%iduality to integrate the foreign language with their own
personality and thus to feel more emotionally secure with it and conse$uently wor. in a
cooperati%e way.
H.- (anguage is for communication. The learner needs .nowledge of forms' meaning' and
functions ta.ing into consideration the social situation in order to con%ey his intended
meaning appropriately.
0ulture is the e%eryday lifestyle of people who use the language nati%ely (Fnon%erbal
beha%iour).
<.- (anguage functions are emphasi8ed o%er forms and students wor. with language at
discourse le%el.
&tudents wor. on all four s.ills from the beginning.
P.- The student reali8es that the target language is a %ehicle of communication' not Oust an
obOect to be studied.
@.- The teacher e%aluates students+ accuracy and fluency through his role as ad%isor or co-
communicator or using a communicative test. The student who has the most control of the
structures and %ocabulary is not always the best communicator.
D.- =rrors of form are tolerated . &tudents can ha%e limited linguistic .nowledge but be
successful communicators.
[Escribir texto] Pgina H
1=35=75A2 T,= T=0,A5QG=& AA9 T,= MAT=15A(&.-
) Authentic materials.- To o%ercome the problem that students can+t transfer what they learn
in the classroom to the outside world and to e*pose students to natural language in a %ariety
of situations.
") &cramble sentences.- This type of e*ercise teaches students about the cohesion and
coherence properties of language.
C) (anguage games.- 2ames that are truly communicati%e ha%e the C features of
communication: information gap' choice' and feedbac..
;) )icture &trip &tory.-R
K) 1ole-plays.- They are %ery important because they gi%e students an opportunity to practice
communicating in different social conte*ts and in different social roles.
H) Total )hysical 1esponse (T)1) (Asher and Jrashen). The teacher gi%es instructions'
students do not ha%e to spea. but ha%e to carry out the teacher+s commands. 7hen they are
ready for it' they can gi%e commands to other students. 5t allows a pre-spea.ing phase' called
the silent period' where students are not forced to spea. until they are ready to do so.
This topic deals with -asic 0ompetences in that it discusses the importance of being
0ommunicati%e 0ompetent ((inguistic 0ompetence)' understanding other cultures (&ocio-
cultural competence)' new technologies ( 50T 0ompetence)' leading student to learn in an
autonomous way (Autonomy and )ersonal..) and getting them ready to learn to learn.


[Escribir texto] Pgina <