MONOLITHIC DOME CONSTRUCTION

A Seminar report submitted to Bangalore University in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of first semester


MASTER OF ENGINEERING CIVIL
Major: Structural Engineering
By
Naveen R.
I Semester
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
Dr. SADATH ALI KHAN ZAI

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING CIVIL
UNIVERSITY VISVESVARAYA COLLEGE ENGINERING
BANGALORE UNIVERSITY, JNANABHARATHI
BANGALORE - 560056



DECEMBER 2010

BANGALORE UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING CIVIL
JNANABHARATHI
BANGALORE -560056


CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Seminar work entitled Monolithic Dome Construction
submitted by Naveen R in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
the degree of Master of Engineering in Civil Major: Structural Engineering
during the year 2010-2011 is a bonafide research work carried out by him.




Dr. Sadath Ali Khan Zai Dr. V.Deveraj
Guide and Assistant Professor Professor and Chairman
Faculty of Engineering Civil Faculty of Engineering Civil
Bangalore University, Bangalore University,
Bangalore 560056 Bangalore-560056




Synopsis
Many memorable structures throughout history, have been built using the thin shell
hemispherical shape of the dome. These timetested monuments surpass many in beauty and
longevity. Continuing in the tradition of these magnificent edifices, Dome Technology engages
the latest engineering and architectural technologies to produce aesthetic, functional, and
economical schools, gymnasiums, water parks, community centers, and industrial facilities. At a
fraction of the cost of a conventional structure, each building benefits from unobstructed views,
seating efficiency, great acoustics, and space utilization. Modern insulated concrete dome
construction combines several materials to create a strong, efficient, weatherproof structure.
Compared to other types of structures for the same application. The Dome is rested upon Ring
Beam. Continuous reinforcing bars are embedded in the ring beam foundation. These rebar
dowels securely connect the dome to its footing. The ring beam creates a solid base on which to
construct the dome. The dome structure then itself is raised upon this beam laying the Airform
and reinforcement mesh and then covering it up with shotcrete.
This seminar attempts to provide a glimpse on the current trend in the construction of
Monolithic Dome





CONTENTS
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 1
.................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Type chapter title (level 3) .................................................................................................................................... 3
Type chapter title (level 1) ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Type chapter title (level 2) ......................................................................................................................................... 5
Type chapter title (level 3) .................................................................................................................................... 6




1. Introduction
Today, in this modern world, there are different types of structure they may be either a
steel structure or concrete structure or the combination of both steel and concrete or structure
made up of other material. Of these structures the Monolithic concrete dome is the latest and of
great demand of structure constructed. In 1976 Mr. David B South and his brother Barry and
Kandy South developed an effective method to develop Monolithic domes and in 1979 first
monolithic dome was constructed in Shelley Idaho. Right now there are number of monolithic
building in the world. There is an institute (chairman. David B.South) in the Italy, which are,
doing research work on various aspect of the domes they also provide design of the monolithic
domes. The largest monolithic dome in the world is the home of Faith Chapel Christian Center
in Birmingham, AL. It seizes the record at tall, and in diameter. Inside is a floor area of in two
levels. Domes have been popular in the construction of buildings since ancient times. This
particular design has the important characteristic of withstanding adverse climatic conditions
such as earthquakes, tornadoes, floods, hurricanes, or even tropical storms. Earlier domes were
used only in religious buildings, however its usage has now been seen in constructing residence
buildings as well. Houses with dome construction are usually found in regions which experience
heavy winds and extreme climatic conditions. The trend is speedily catching up in constructing
residential buildings and public structures such as schools and colleges.
A Monolithic Dome is a super-insulated, steel-reinforced concrete structure that can be
designed for virtually any use: office or business complex, school, church, synagogue or temple;
gymnasium or sports arena: theatre or amphitheatre, airplane hangar, factory, bulk storage
facility, house or apartment complex, military installations etc.
The monolithic word is made up of two words Monolithic= mono+lithic Mono means
single Lithic is derived from a Greek word Lithos which means A large single upright block of
stones. Domes are of roof shaped like the top half of ball.

1.1 History of Monolithic Domes

Throughout history, the dome has been the architectural form of choice wherever efficiency and
strength are required of a structure. From the simple igloo that shelters the Arctic hunter through
the ravages of a blinding storm, to the aweinspiring magnificence of the Sistine Chapel, the
dome has been used in every culture, on every continent, as one of man's most versatile
constructions. Today, modern construction techniques and materials reinforce the dome's
position as the most classically versatile of all structures. The insulated concrete dome is the
ideal solution wherever strength combined with low construction costs are called for. Compared
to other types of structures, the domes enclose more volume with the greatest floor area, and the
least amount of surface area and perimeter. Superbly energyefficient, firesafe, and with an
inherent strength that enables it to withstand whatever nature throws at it, hurricanes,
earthquakes, even tornadoes. It's no wonder that the modern concrete dome is experiencing a
surge of popularity throughout the world.


1.2 Necessity of Monolithic Concrete dome
The buildings such as houses, schools, churches, storage facilities, industrial and commercial
buildings and stadiums for athletic events such as football, hockey, basketball and baseball,
usually have some basic requirements such as the following:
1. Economy Structure should be economical to build and maintain.
2. Safety Buildings should resist elements such as fire, wind, seismic, vandalism and
deterioration.
3. Aesthetics and Comfort Requirements for a storage facility or a horse barn would be much
different than for a house or church.
1. Economy
Concrete is the most common building material used throughout the world, followed by
wood, steel and a number of miscellaneous materials. It has proven to be available and
economical in many locations. However, it takes a lot of energy to produce Portland
Cement used to produce concrete. So, if we use concrete, we should use a type of
building that requires a minimum amount of material, that in turn, requires the minimum
amount of energy for producing the material to build the building. If we build concrete
thin shell buildings, such as domes, a much smaller volume of building materials will be
utilized. This will result in a very efficient use of building materials and hence reduce
energy use and pollution. Maintenance and upkeep of a concrete building is generally
much less than that of a more conventional wood frame building. A dome, will always
use less material to cover the same space utilized by a square conventional building. Less
material means less cost, or higher quality materials for the same cost, or both.
Monolithic Domes provide great strength.
2. Safety
Buildings should be capable of providing safety from the elements without excessive
costs. Heat and air conditioning costs twice as much as energy used by most concrete
dome homes. If a fire attacked the outside of a Monolithic Dome, it might melt the foam,
but the concrete would still be there.Most reinforced concrete Monolithic Domes are
easily designed to withstand earthquakes and powerful winds. It becomes easier and more
economical to build a safe, reinforced concrete house that provides safety by utilizing a
Monolithic Dome building than any other type of structure. Concrete dome buildings
succeed in providing safety better than most other buildings.
3. Comfort and Aesthetics
Comfort is the homey, intimate term which implies the imparting of cheer, hope and
strength as well as the lessening of pain. It is very comfortable, meaning the temperature
is very consistent and the fuel consumption is economical. Buildings are built as
permitted by local building codes for the welfare and safety of the public, and we should
remember that building codes are not designed to prevent damage to buildings. That is


unrealistic given the magnitude of possible earthquakes and winds. Rather, the aim is for
buildings to resist catastrophic damage and thus prevent deaths and serious injuries.
1.1 Advantages of monolithic domes
Domes are energy efficient
In Monolithic Domes, the walls are a composite of a roofing membrane, foam insulation,
and steel-reinforced concrete. With the concrete inside and the insulation outside, the
concrete is protected from the outside elements. Concrete, which conducts and holds heat
easily, absorbs the differences in the interior temperature over the day. During the night,
the concrete radiates energy back into the interior. This flywheel action dramatically
reduces the temperature variations between the day and night.

Durability

The dome, when finished, is earthquake, tornado and hurricane resistance. Recently, a number of
monolithic domes constructed using MDI (Monolithic Dome Institute) techniques have survived
major disasters.
Climate control
The monolithic dome, for a number of reasons, is very energy efficient. The spherical sections of
the dome offer minimal surface area for the volume they contain, so there is less surface for heat
transfer with the outside air. The one piece construction of the monolithic dome also eliminates
many of the seams through which air can leak, though this is mitigated to some degree in
residential domes by the addition of multiple doors and windows. By placing the insulating foam
on the outside of the concrete shell, the concrete acts as a heat sink inside the building, reducing
interior temperature fluctuations far more than the traditional home's insulation inside of a brick
or stone veneer.
2. Monolithic dome construction





Fig 1. Typical Monolithic Dome

Current construction methods

A reinforced concrete foundation, or "ring beam", is constructed, defining the shape of the base of
the structure.
The fabric form, or air form, is attached to the foundation and inflated with an air blower. The air
form contains an airlock to allow workers to enter the form while it is inflated.
A layer of polyurethane foam is sprayed on the interior of the form. (Its purpose is to give rigidity
to the air form, secure the rebar in place, provide support for spraying in the concrete mixture,
and insulate the final structure.)
Rebar is attached to the outside layer of foam, using clips that are attached to the foam.
Concrete is sprayed over the rebar frame.
After the concrete has set, the blower is turned off.
The exposed surface of the air form may be left as is, or a surface treatment such as paint, tile,
etc., may be applied.
2.1 The Foundation
Building the monolithic dome with the placement of a circular concrete foundation topped by a
reinforced - concretes slab. This slab not only serves as the floor of the building, it also holds
down the inflated form to help prevent the dome from shifting due to internal loads or an earth
quake. The amount and size of reinforcing steel vary, depending on building size and usage, but
all the slabs require rebar in two directions and dowels that tie into the shell from the foundation.



Fig 2. Ring Beam Footing
Ring Beam Footing:
Continuous reinforcing bars are embedded in the ring beam foundation. These rebar dowels
securely connect the dome to its footing. The ring beam creates a solid base to construct the
dome on. Rebar is bent over so that the Airform can be slid over the rebar and attached to the
footing.
Vertical rebar is placed on the interior of the hoop rebar and wired immediately to the
hoop rebar, except as the rebar approaches the footing. As the rebar cage approaches the footing,
the vertical rebar out of the footing should be directly in the center of the dome shell for a short
distance above the footing. This short distance varies by size of the dome, but generally 10% of
the height is an effective distance. Here the vertical rebar acts to prevent moment connection
problems between the dome and the footing. It is important that hoop bars be securely tied to
each other at the lap. Much strength is added to the structure by hoop bars.









2.2 Monolithic Airform and its errection.
Fig 1.3 Monolithic airforms
Monolithic construction process demands an Airform. The Monolithic Airform is a balloonlike,
inflatable structure that determines the shape and size of a dome. Its made of PVC-coated
nylon or polyester fabric, available in several weights and colors. The Airform is a highly
engineered fabric structure that should be handled with great care. The rebar is bent over the
footing to avoid tearing the Airform during inflation. Therefore, the Airform should be placed at
the location of the Airlock before proceeding to unroll it. The errection process is detailed as
below:
a) Laying it Out
The Airform should be laid out over the foundation. The Airform will be attached on one side,
then its opposite. Then the quarter points, and their opposites and continued evenly all the way
around. The Airlock is then attached to the appropriate opening.Once the Airform is in place,
bolted down, and inspected, it can be inflated.
b) Attaching the Airform
Airforms can be attached a number of ways. The most common is a thin metal strap that is
screwed on the outside with concrete screw anchors as shown below




Fig 1.3a Attaching airform
c) Attaching Inflator Fans
After the Airform is attached, inflator fans are attached to the domes via air tubes that are welded
in place.

Fig 1.3b Inflator fans
d) Attaching Airlock
Once the air is turned on, the air lock is attached. The air lock serves as the entry point to the dome during
the construction process. The airlock has two doors, so that while entering the dome, pressure will not be
lost.




Fig 1.3c Attaching Airlock
e) Dome inflation
Dual fans are used, and often dual power sources, to decrease the chance of power loss. Keeping the air
pressure in a dome is the most important factor during dome construction. Inflator fans are started and the
Airform is inflated. Air pressure must be regulated. As the building inflates, the easiest way to adjust the
pressure is by opening the airlock doors. When the Airform first becomes tight, the inside air pressure
should be held at a minimum. Airform should then be checked for weak spots, holes, etc. Airform tie-
down should then be completely checked. Whenever possible, let the Airform stand at least 12 hours
before continuing construction. This gives it time to stretch.
2.3 REGULATING AIR PRESSURE
Regulating the air pressure is a very important part of the construction of the dome. It takes very
little pressure to inflate the Airform to its proper shape. Be sure to close the air flow if drying
occurs in the concrete phase of construction. As air pressure is increased on a bare Airform, the
chance of Airform breakage is also increased. In addition, if there is any over-inflation after the
initial concrete is applied, the Airform can stretch and crack the concrete. If pressure is increased
while hanging rebar, rebar hangers may be pulled out of the foam.
Uplift must be considered
Uplift is approximately 5 pounds per square foot of floor area per inch of water column. Footing
must be heavy enough to hold this weight down. This is another reason the floor and the footing
are often combined on smaller structures.
2.4 POLYURETHANE FOAM APPLICATION
The airform surface must be dry before applying polyurethane foam. Any moisture on the
surface before spraying will cause blistering. Also the foam will not adhere to a wet surface.
Give the Airform time to dry. Heat can be applied to the inside to eliminate moisture if needed.
The following are the steps involved in Foam Application


Step 1: PRIME
Treating the Airform with Monoform Primer is an absolute must! Monoform
creates a better bond between the Airform and the foam; it acts as a glue for the
foam. It can be applied with an airless paint gun over the entire interior Airform
surface. It can also be rolled on. A thin layer is all that is needed (300-400 sq. ft.
per gallon). The primer should be allowed to dry completely before applying
foam.

Step 2: Choosing a Foam and Application
Foam comes in several set times and is available for cold or warm weather. The
speed of foam used depends on the season and climate. Accurate ratio foam will
rise perpendicular to the surface being sprayed against. If the foam slides, it is
not setting fast enough. Use the fastest setting foam available for the season and
climate. The foam machine needs to be adjusted to spray one part Chemical A
and one part Chemical B (1:1 ratio). Off-ratio foam will result in too much of
one chemical on the Airform. Seal bottom of the interior surface of the Airform
with foam. Do not cover rebar in the keyway or spray foam in the keyway.
Spray the first layer, working up from the bottom. Spray foam evenly to 1/2-inch thickness on
entire interior Airform surface. The foam will dry to the touch in three to four seconds, but cross
linking literally takes hours. The foam will have lots of stretch and pull for a considerable
amount of time. After the gun is running well, and after the first pass, start at the top and work
down, especially on hot days. Heat generated by the foam rises, making a hotter work
environment.

Step 3: Test Thickness
Spray another 1/2- to 3/4-inch layer of foam, making the total thickness, at
this point, an inch and a quarter. Test the thickness of the foam by gently
probing with an ice pick. Too much probing may make holes in the foam
which can cause blistering. A lot of probing also increases the risk for
puncturing the Airform.





Step 4: Rebar Hangers
Rebar hanger placement requires extensive details; Rebar hangers are 2-inch
square thin steel base plates with a wire welded perpendicular in the center and
barbs protruding the opposite side from the wire. These barbs are pressed into
the initial 1.5 inches of foam before the additional layers of foam are applied.
Rebar hangers are part of the Airform package.

2.5 Rebar Placement in a Monolithic Dome


Fig 1.5 Hoop rebar attachment to rebar hangers
2.5.1 Necessity of Rebar
Its important to understand why we use rebar (reinforcing steel bar) in concrete. It is used to
absorb tension forces in concrete, since concrete has very poor strength as a tension material. But
the major rebar in a beam is the bottom where it will hold more. If the rebar were placed in the
top, it would not hold much. Rebar also helps move the temperature around in the concrete,
mitigating the stresses created by uneven temperatures and shrinkage in the concrete. In places
where this is the primary purpose for the rebar, its referred to as temperature steel. Rebar also
helps measure the thickness of the shotcrete as it is applied.
In a Monolithic Dome, rebar is placed to counteract the tension forces within the concrete.
Pressure can be or is applied to the dome from many sources: snow, wind, gravity, berming,
burying, walking on the dome, hanging lights, sound systems, towers, falling airplane engines,
attached structures, etc.
2.5.2 Types of Rebars used in the Construction of Monolithic Domes


a) Hoop Rebar
Rebar that actually does the most good to hold the dome up is hoop rebar that goes around the
dome. Hoop rebar performs somewhat like the hoops on a barrel. Hence, they should be located
as far toward the outside as is practical. As pressure is applied to the Monolithic Dome, the dome
will try to dimple immediately under the pressure. Adjacent to that area, the dome will try to
buckle outward, but will be prevented from doing so by the hoop bars. Therefore, hoop bars
should always be on the outside surface next to the urethane foam. Just as hoops on a wooden
barrel do no good on the inside of the barrel, hoops on a concrete dome need to be to the outside.
If they are on the inside, they can be more easily ripped out of the concrete when unbalanced
pressures are applied to the dome.
Obviously, rebar needs concrete surrounding it to glue it together. So hoop rebar should be about
5/8" to 1" from the outer surface of the concrete (bottom of the urethane). For a Monolithic
Dome, hoop rebar is placed first.
b) Vertical Rebar
The vertical layer of rebar is laid against the hoops. For Monolithic Domes requiring thicker
shells, rebar should still be placed to the outside.
2.5.3 Codes
Most Monolithic Domes built as homes require a minimum thickness of 2.5" of concrete. Codes
require rebar be placed not further apart than 5 times the thickness of the concrete. Hence, most
of the rebar in smaller domes up to 100 in diameter is placed at a minimum of 12" on center.
Lower portions of Monolithic Domes are generally thicker, so rebar can often be placed further
apart. Concrete, as it fills in around the rebar, becomes the glue that holds the rebar together and
transfers tension from the concrete to the rebar.
Code calls for rebar to have 5/8" of cover on the outside surface if the outside surface is
protected from the weather (i.e. painted, covered with urethane foam or a tarp, otherwise
protected from the elements). When a thickness of 2.5" of concrete is specified, the outside hoop
rebar should be 5/8" in from the outside surface of the concrete.
2.6 Rebar Hanger Placement and Final Foam Application
Attach one rebar hanger at the top center of the dome. To secure the center top hanger, a thin
layer of foam is sprayed over the hanger. If rebar hangers are not covered with enough foam,
they will not be secure enough to hold the rebar. The top center hanger is now used as a marking
guide. To mark placement of other hangers, tie a non-stretching string or wire to the top center
hanger. Attach a marker/chalk to opposite end of the string. Begin marking for hangers at the
domes base as noted below and work upward.


After the rebar hangers are placed, secure the hangers by completing the foam spraying job with
1/2 to 3/4 inch of foam at a perpendicular angle to prevent excess foam buildup on the hangers.
When foaming is complete, begin tying the rebar.
2.7 Shotcrete
Shotcrete is a mixed mortar of cement, sand, 3/8 minus aggregate, and water projected at high
velocity onto a surface. The force of the jet impacting on the surface compacts the material. A
relatively dry mixture is used so that the material supports itself minimizing sagging or
sloughing, even when used for vertical and overhead applications. The cement, sand, aggregate,
and water are mixed by suitable means, and then pumped through a hose by a specially designed
mortar pump. The high velocity impact is developed pneumatically by injecting compressed air
at the nozzle.
2.8 Basic Steps for Applying Shotcrete to a Monolithic Dome
Layer One
The shotcrete is started at the bottom of the dome. First, a thick, tapered layer of shotcrete should
be applied around the entire circumference of the dome, at the base, up to about one foot high.
This ensures the concrete on the footing is good concrete and not rebound shotcrete. A 1/2" to
1" layer is then sprayed on the surface from ground level up to about 6 high. From 6 high on up
to the top third of the dome, a 1/2" layer is applied. The top third of the dome is covered with
1/4" to 1/2" of shotcrete.
Layer Two
Second layer is usually applied on the second day. Up to a 1" layer is applied from ground level
to approximately 8. From 8 to the top, a 1/2" layer is then applied.
Layer Three
The third layer is an exact duplicate of the second layer, except that dome will support more
weight and the layers can go on thicker and higher.The concrete around the base of the dome will
be strong enough to support additional concrete if it is needed for extra thickness.
Layer Four
Layer four is a repeat of the third. The base should be worked for smoothness. Particular
attention should be given to the depth gauges.
Final Layer
The final layer should be relatively thin (about 1/4" to 1/2") to permit a smooth finish. Before
spraying this last layer, depth is checked. If adequate thickness is not reached by this time, it is
necessary to spray additional layers as needed.The finishing layer of concrete should be sprayed


from the top down. It seems easier to make a nice finish if the final concrete layer starts at the
top.
3. Problems with monolithic domes:
There are three main issues with monolithic domes:
1. Polyurethane foam, vinyl and concrete are not the most sustainable materials to build with.
Polyurethane foam is petroleum based, can't be recycled easily and produces toxic smoke when
it's burnt. The vinyl airform again is petroleum based and there are some questions over the
lifespan of the airform. At least the concrete is pretty permanent, even if it has a large initial co2
footprint.
2. If the vinyl membrane is damaged in any way water can seep into the insulation beneath which
will end up like a huge soggy sponge. Fire, vandalism even falling tree limbs are a worry for the
monolithic dome owner. Air-forms can be repaired or covered in aluminium to protect them but
it does increase the cost considerably.
3. Monolithic domes are virtually hermetically sealed, this makes them great for storing
materials that need a constant humidity, but when it comes human habitation; washing, cooking
and bathing all produce water vapour which has to be removed from the building by
dehumidifiers or forced air ventilation, as there isn't enough natural ventilation in this type of
dome structure. The only way to get air movement through a dome structure is to have a hole
covered with a cowl top dead centre of the dome.
3.1 Disadvantages
While the monolithic dome has numerous demonstrated engineering advantages, there are also
some disadvantages, both engineering and social.
3.1a Engineering
The techniques used in monolithic dome construction are very different from normal
construction methods, so only specially trained construction crews are suited for building
a dome using the modern techniques.
The curved surfaces inherent to monolithic dome construction often result in oddly
shaped rooms when divided up, which can result in wasted space in narrow corners.
There are issues of wasted floor space due to wall curvature and problems fitting
furniture. This effect can be minimized by constructing the dome on a stem wall, or by
using an airform of such shape as to allow for straight, vertical walls at ground level.
The monolithic dome's lack of seams may make it too well sealed; dehumidifiers are
required in all but the driest climates.
3.1b Social


Social disadvantages of monolithic domes are to a large degree shared by geodesic domes, due to
the similar shape and unorthodox construction. These disadvantages are:
The radically different appearance of the domes also decreases the appeal for their use as
private residencesthe standard circular base doesn't fit well on small lots found in many
areas, and the strange appearance and design may run afoul of neighborhood building
covenants. Depending on the situation, a large variety of variations available from the
standard circular shape can avoid some of these problems.
Building permits may be difficult to obtain if local officials are not familiar with the
monolithic dome.
Resale of a monolithic dome home may be difficult because of its unconventional
appearance.
4. Design example of Monolithic Dome
The concrete dome shall be designed in accordance with the latest edition of the I nternational
Building Code and design guidelines of the Monolithic Dome Institute. The dome shall be
designed for the following loads:
Live Load 40 P.S.F. (unless otherwise noted)
Collateral Load 10 P.S.F. (unless otherwise noted)
Wind Load 120 M.P.H.
Seismic Category D
Soil Bearing per local conditions
The loading combinations and unbalanced loadings considered shall conform to the requirements
of the International Building Code.
Tolerances: Tolerances will normally be within + or 3% of the radius of curvature except at
foundation which will be + or 1/2 % of building radius.
5. MATERIALS AND METHODS:
5.1 RING BEAM FOUNDATION:
Transit mixing per ASTM C 94. Ring wall and footing thickness determined by structural design
for height selected, superimposed loads, and allowable bearing pressure, but not less than 8". The
foundation will meet the following minimum standards:
Minimum 28 day compressive strength 3000 psi
Portland Cement: Shall conform to ASTM C 150, Type I or II with a minimum mix design
requirement of 5.0 sacks per CY.; or
Maximum course aggregate size = 1"
Air Entrainment 5% (+1.5%)
The reinforcing steel shall be ASTM A 615 grade 60.


No calcium chloride shall be added to the concrete.
Slump = 2" minimum 4" maximum at point of discharge.
5.2 SHOTCRETE:
This Section covers the mixing, placing, finishing and curing of shotcrete. Shotcrete shall be
composed of Portland Cement, sand, 3/8" minus aggregate and water as specified or approved.
The required proportions shall be assembled, well mixed, placed, finished and cured as
hereinafter specified. It shall be uniformly dense and sound.
5.2.1 Materials:
1. Portland Cement shall meet the requirements of Type I, II, III, IV or V as specified by Portland
Cement Association. Type used to be as required by job usually I or II.
2. Water: Water cement ratio should be held between .41 and .48 with .45 as target. Slump tests can
be taken (Slump test on shotcrete mixes are not reliable but only indicators.) Depending on
aggregate, slump may vary form 2" to 7".
3. Ad mixtures: Admixtures may be used, provided they do not impair the density of the shotcrete or
are corrosive to steel and concrete. All admixtures must be approved by the Engineer prior to
their use.
4. Fine aggregate shall meet the requirements set as previously specified in this section and shall
meet the following gradation requirement:
5.2.2 Sand: well graded sand may be used for shotcrete applications. Sand shall generally
consist of the following gradation:
Sieve Size % Passing by Weight
No.4 100 %
No.8 90 %
No.16 85 %
No.30 60 %
No.50 30 %
No.100 10 %
The fineness modulus shall fall between 2.70 and 3.00
5.3.3 Aggregate: A 3/8" minus aggregate should make up 10% to 30% of the mix design.
Aggregate may be left out of final finish coat for smoother surface.
5.3.4 Proportioning:


1. General: The mix shall under no circumstance be leaner than 752 lbs. of Portland Cement to each
cubic yard of concrete, (100 lbs. of cement may be substituted with 100 lbs. of fly ash.)
2. Shotcrete Strength: Shotcrete strengths of 28 days shall be no less than 4000 psi.
5.3.5 Testing of Shotcrete Samples:
1. Windsor Test Probe: The dome concrete shall be tested on a periodic basis with a Windsor Test
Probe. Tests should occur at 7, 14, and 28 days as directed by the Owners representative. The
dome contractor shall conduct the test with its equipment, and test shall be observed by the
Owners representative.
2. Special Inspections: Special inspections of the shotcrete shall be conducted as required by I.B.C.
Sec. 306(a).
3. Alternative Testing: Alternative Testing may be requested by the Owner. Cubes may be sawed, or
cores having a minimum diameter of 2 inches and a L/D of 1 or greater may be drilled from test
specimens prepared specially for testing purposes or from the structure under construction.
Results must be corrected to L/D=2 as described in ASTM C 42.
4. Shotcrete test specimens shall be shot on a plywood form in one continuous operation to the
required height of the block. The size of the blocks shall be such that 9 test cubes or cylinders can
be made from each block.
5. One shotcrete test specimen shall be made during each days operation. Four cubes or cylinders
shall be cut or cored from each shotcrete block seven days after its application. Two cubes or
cylinders shall be tested for the seven-day strength. The other two shall be tested at 28 days.
6. The remainder of the shotcrete blocks shall be cured and stored until after the 28 day test has been
made and until the Engineer has informed the Contractor in writing that no additional tests are
required. All shotcrete specimens shall be properly numbered and dated, and a record shall be
made by the Contractor as to the relative location of the work for which these samples were
prepared. All cubes or cylinders shall be dense and free from sand pockets.
7. The cost of cutting, coring and testing cubes by a recognized testing laboratory shall be borne by
the Owner.
5.4 Shotcrete Equipment:
1. Batching equipment shall be capable of proportioning the cement and aggregate to the degree of
accuracy required by these Specifications.
2. Mixing equipment shall be capable of thoroughly mixing the aggregate, sand and cement in
sufficient quality to maintain placing continuity, shall be self-cleaning and capable of discharging
all mixed material without any carry-over from one batch to another. The equipment shall be
inspected and cleaned at least once a day, more often if necessary, to prevent accumulations of
batched material.
5.5 Placing and Finishing:
1. General: Shotcrete shall be applied in a steady, uninterrupted flow.
2. Position of Pneumatic Nozzles: The nozzle shall, as much as possible, be held at an approximate
right angle to the surface and shall be kept at the proper distance from the surface dictated by
good practice standards for the type of application, type of nozzle and air pressures employed.
However, when encasing reinforcing steel, the procedure of the shooting at right angles may be
modified in order to better direct the material around the bars. Whenever shooting of shotcrete on,
around, through, and behind reinforcing steel is required, the nozzleman shall apply the material


at the wettest possible consistency and at least wet enough that minimal shotcrete buildup will
take place on reinforcing steel when shooting through this layer of steel.
3. Shotcreting More Than One Layer: Sufficient time shall be allowed for each layer of shotcrete to
set up so it may take the next layer without sagging. To insure proper filling of corners and
recesses the initial coats shall be applied as wet as possible but shall still be dry enough that
minimal sagging will occur.
4. Wall Construction: Every precaution shall be taken to remove rebound from the bottom areas and
corners of the wall as fast as it develops. The material shall be applied sufficiently wet so that a
proper flow of shotcrete into the corners may be expected.
5.6 Curing of Shotcrete:
Interior shall be kept closed to prevent water vapor loss. During hot dry weather the building
may be kept closed longer; up to 30 days as needed until concrete reaches 4000 psi.
5.7 SHELL REINFORCEMENT:
Reinforced design:
1. Meet or exceed ACI building code requirements for temperature and shrinkage steel.
2. Deformed Bars: ASTM A615, A616, or A617 grade 60 (60,000 psi yield strength).
3. Maximum spacing between the bars shall not exceed 18" or five times the shell thickness.
4. Annular or ring reinforcement shall have a maximum allowable stress of 24,000 psi. Accurately
place reinforcing as show on final approved drawings.
INSULATION:
In order to reduce the thermal gradient in concrete, polyurethane foam shall be installed over the
outside surface of the concrete dome meeting the following requirements:
1. Thickness: as required by engineering plans
2. Density: Minimum 1.9 or 2 lbs./cubic foot
3. K factor: .12
4. Permeability: 3.0 perms
5. Compressive strength:30 psi, 90% closed cells
6. Flamespread: less than 75,
7. Smoke development: Less than 450.
8. The surface shall be properly primed before application of the polyurethane.
SINGLE PLY FABRIC ROOF MEMBRANE:
Shall be PVC impregnated into a polyester scrim as manufactured by Ferarri, or approved equal.
Tongue tear: 270/250 psi minimum
Grab tensile: 1000/950 psi minimum
Strip tensile: 550/500 psi minimum
Flame Retardant: CFM Title 19 or NFPA 701
The fabric shall be 28 oz per square yard minimum weight.


6. Conclusion
1. Sustainability
Monolithic Domes have real strength. They can withstand the force of a tornado, hurricane
or earthquake. Their lifespan is measured in centuries. Hence they do not need to be
replaced.
2. Energy Efficiency
The Monolithic Dome is energy efficient. It will usually save fifty percent on heating and
cooling costs compared to a comparable conventional building.
3. Green Materials
Owing much to their design, Monolithic Domes require the smallest surface area and
employ the fewest materials to enclose space. A dome, will always use less material
(generally 50% to 75% less) to cover the same space utilized by a square
conventional building. Less material means less cost, or higher quality materials for the
same cost, or both.

9. REFERENCES

a) www.monolithic.com
b) The Dome Builder Handbook by John Prenis.
c) Urethane Foam by David B. South and David Vaughan.
d) Large Thin concrete Domes Using Air Supported Forms and Cable Nets A Thesis by
Robert J Hash.