The network dagrams in Figure 15.6 illustrate some of the logical pro- cedures adopted by CPM, In diagram (1), it is obvious that A must precede B, and B must precede C. In (2), D must precede both E and F, in (3), Gand H must precede |. In (4), J must precede K, and L must precede M. In (5), N must precede O and P, and Q must precede P; this necessitates using a connecting arrow (called a dummy) to maintain the logical sequence of events between N and P. Dummy activities have zero time; they are shown by broken arrows. Dummies may also be required to maintain specific activity identification between events, as shown in (6), where R must precede Sand T, and $ and T must precede Li, Events and activities should be labeled, and they are usually numbered for computer identification of the network There is another type of network diagram in which the nodes represent activities and the lines or arrows represent relationships between activities. These networks, called rvent-oriented networks, precedence diagrams, and circle diagrams are constructed in a manner similar to activity-oriented networks. Like these, the length of the arrows has no significance, since the arrows merely portray the logical precedence of one activity to another and point in the direction of increasing time. Circle diagrams, however, eliminate the need for dummy activities, identify each activity with a single reference number, and can be readily adapted to changes in logical relationships between activities. Figure 15.7 shows the elements of a circle network, corresponding. precisely to the situations presented in Figure 15.6 for an arrow network 15.4 DEVELOPING THE NETWORK MODEL The first step in developing a plan for a construction project is to break the project down into the separate operations or activities necessary for its completion. No specific order of precedence is necessary when developing this breakdown, but a systematic dissection and listing of project activities by trades, location, or plant requirements is often helpful. The degree of breakdown will vary for each project and will be influenced by the nature of work and class of labor involved, the location of the work on the site, and the broad general sequence of the project. When a list of all the activities in a project has been prepared the next step is to determine the essential relationship between these activities. This involves a precise statement of the relationships between the activities as ameans of formulating the construction technology and prescribing manage- ment options. A general ordering of activities within the project is not difficult, since their description often implies a relative location within the job; the specific ordering, however, is more difficult and requires very careful con- sideration. Although many activities may proceed concurrently, certain ones must be constrained to a given sequence or chain; for example, casting of concrete presupposes formwork erection and reinforcement in- stallation, and pipelaying presupposes pipe delivery. These are examples of technological and physical constraints applicable to activities, and are apparent as y in the project is subjected to the following questions soon as each ac! 1, What activities must precede this activity? 2. What activities must follow this activity? 3. What activities may be done concurrently with this activity? In this way each activity is examined and the necessary sequence of activities is determined. Every activity therefore has a definite event to mark its possible beginning; this event may be the start of the project itself or the completion of a preceding activity It should now be clear that the end of one activity signals the start of a related dependent activity. Consequently, in a diagram where each activity or operation is an entity, overlapping operations are prohibited. If they oceur they must be broken down into two or more activities representing those portions of the operation to be completed before later portions are commenced. The overlapping of work as shown on conventional bar chart construction programs is impossible with CPM, and hence networking techniques offer a much greater degree of control over all the operations on the site. In many practical cases, however, it may be desirable to commence an unrelated activity after a portion only of another has been completed. Although this situation can be readily handled by subdivision of the initiating activity into parts, as mentioned above, some computer programs enable users to relate the two activities directly thereby circumventing the strictness of the network logic. Excnte too ® ne GB) ban Fon excretion exeovnea FIGURE 15.5 Activity on arrow model.forma“), Gytav ond pte en) * ‘Second—tloor_masoxey (0) Excauate (8) Taree (Be) hearrect (68) corset FIGURE 15.6 Arrow network segmentsPlace fore @——$> oar” E)— eocre (re = =, nerar ; (a ‘steel oes Se = OC >+O Filan a © Lay oad eo Pace is conrete, Bek gy inserts Fist—toor Secand-oor tranny, CX mononey Dslver Firsfloor tomer cxpenty ° Q @ 7) (8b) Correct FIGURE 15.7 Elements of a circle network.Besides physical constraints there may be other types of constraints. Sufety constraints may necessitate the sequential separation of activities that could otherwise be concurrent: for example, graund floor concreting operations may be prohibited while steel framework is being assembled immediately overhead. Resource constraints can occur when it is essential to delay because resources for certain operations cannot be made available: for example, release of equipment required from another project may not be possible until a certain date, and consequently some activities must be delayed until the equipment will be available, whereas otherwise concurrent activities may proceed; or it may be essential for certain activities co be completed earlier than physically necessary in order to earn progress payments to finance otherwise concurrent activities. These decisions influence the sequence of operations and place con- straints on the project. Crew constraints may also occur: for example, specialist welding crews may be hard to obtain, andall the welding activities may have to be done in sequence with a small crew, whereas they could otherwise have been done concurrently; anather example is when a single operation may have to be divided into several activities te emphasize that different labor skills are required. Finally, there are management consirainés when, for example, the sequence of otherwise independent activities is controlled by a management decision, or when normally concurrent activities are ordered to be done ina certain sequence, simply because management arbitrarily wants them done that way. All these aspects must therefore be carefully studied by the planner when the project is broken down into its essential activities, and when considering the various chains of activities that must be maintained. To the extent that the project can be represented by a diagram, the diagram is representative of the project, and considerable skill is sometimes required in designing a diagram tosatisfy all the requirements imposed by physical, safety, crew, equipment, finance, and management constraints. A good approach to specific ordering is first to determine the obvious physical and safety constraints, then the crew and other resource constraints, and finally the management constraints, The physicai constraints initially lead to chains of activities, simply determined and coupled. The consideration of other constraints and the detailed determination of physical requirements usually lead to the branching and intermingling of the chains into networks. It is often helpful to tabulate the activities systematically in order tanote those that must precede each activity, those that must follow each activity, and those that may be carried out simultaneously, The network layout is then determined by trial and error, first satisfying some of the conditions and then refining the portions of the network that violate the remainder. Designing a network that satisfies all the constraints requires a great deal of skill. In some cases, managerial decisions are extremely difficult to formu- late in a diagram. However, it is reasonably simple to test a given network. Consequently, to determine improvements to the diagram, it is easier to start with a rough network (incorporating finer details successively) than toattempt a detailed diagram at the outset. For example, consider the simple construction of concrete footings, which involves earth excavation, reinforcement, formwork, and concreting. A preliminary listing of activities might be: Lay out foundations. Dig foundations. Place formwork. Place concrete. Obtain steel reinforcement. Cut and bend steel reinforcement. Place steel reinforcement. Obtain concrete. roO™mooss Examination of the list of activities shows that some grouping is obvious. Thus, considering physical constraints only, the following physical chains are developed. 1. From a consideration of the actual footings: A, B. C, G. D. 2, From a consideration of the steel reinforcement: E, F, G, D. 3. From aconsideration of the concrete only: H, D.When the project is seen from these different viewpoints, individual chains of activities emerge; but, on viewing the job as a whole, it is obvious that inter- relationships exist. For example, it is useless to pour concrete before the steel reinforcement is placed and the formwork isinstalled. Therefore, all the chains must merge betore pouring the concrete. And if steps are tobe taken toobtain the steel and the concrete immediately when work begins (this would be a management decision or constraint), then the chains all start at the same point or event with the laying out of the foundations. The development of a preliminary network for the project is possible at this stage because (1) a list of activities has been defined and (2) arough construc- tion logic has emerged. The actual representation and appearance of the network depend on the modeling form adapted and on the spatial locations of the symbols as drawn. As mentioned previously, there are two basic ways in which activities can be modeled: (1) when the activities are represented by arrows in an activity- oriented network and (2) when the activities are represented by nodes. In Figure 15.8 a preliminary network is developed, in both arrow and circle forms, from the above information15.5 EXAMPLE OF A ROCK-FILL DAM* This rock-fill dam, approximately 1000 ft long and 175 ft high, involved the winning, placing, and sluicing of 500,000 cu ydof rock in the main bank, with 38,000 cu yd of packed rock on the upstream face, supporting a reinforced concrete face slab (11,000 cu yd), The spillway, located at one end of the dam, required 18,000 cu yd of concrete and an additional 1250 cu yd would be needed for outlet works, and so on. A good quarry site was available at an average haul of half a mile, and it was estimated that about 85%of quarry rock would be suitable for use. The river had a reasonably regular behavior, with a definite flood season. It was specified that bank construction begin at the end of a flood season and that the rock-fill be completed to RL 1400 before the next floods; placing of rock-fill could then continue to RL 1475, leaving a suitable flood gap, and thereafter the embankment could be completed to final level (RL 1500). River diversion was to be handled in four stages: (1) through a temporary diversion culvert under the dam, which would ultimately be part of the outlet works (this could carry normal river flow and minor freshes); (2) after con- struction of the inlet tower and spillway and after the bank construction had reached RL 1475 (with flood gap), the stream could be taken into a tem- porary opening in the base of the inlet tower and then through the culvert; (3) on completion of the main bank and a reasonable proportion of the face slabs, the temporary opening in the inlet tower could be plugged and the reservoir permitted to fill; (4) the outlet pipeline from the inlet tower te the downstream valve house would be installed in the culvert. “This material is taken with acknowledgements from Antill and Woodhead,Chapter 9, Critical Path Methods in Construction Practice, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. New York, 1970.EXAMPLE OF A ROCK-FILL DAM Foundation chair wm ®O—O_O a) Concrete chain 7 FIGURE 15.8 Preliminary network diagram. (a) Initial sketch, arrow net- work. (b) First draft. (c) Initial sketch, circle network. (d) First draft,Because construction labor was in short supply, it was decided to attract workmen to the site by providing a long working week and hence higher wages. The construction time allowed was 20 months. A list of the major activities involved in the project and their durations is given ir Table 15.1 Many construction works require careful assessment of site hazards. The effects of such hazards, and the constraints that they produce on relevant activities, may be shown on network ciagrams by means of artificial “hazard This technique is particularly applicable to the constraints induced by river behavior in dam construction works, as this rock-fill dam project illustrates. Specified constraints, additional to those already stated, were (1) activity F must be completed before E2 begins; (2) G must follow £3, and H must follow B3; and ]2 cannot begin until E2 is Finished The flood season lasts for 6 months with a month's uncertainty as to starting and finishing dates. It was decided to assume a flood period of 31 weeks. Adopting a 6-day week for the project (312 working days per annum), it was assumed for estimating purposes that the flood season would cover 190 working days and the clear season 120. By the use of “hazard activities,” the influence of floods can be shown in the network diagram as constraints on the activities affected by flood conditions. The specified starting date for the bank construction controlled the project starting time. With a 6-day working week, the total construction time per- mitted was 520 working days. In Figure 15.9 the network diagram developed from the above constraints and data is shown. The constraints due to flood to flood hazards are indicated aiong the top, together with the hazard activity dummies and notes on the diagram; these affected all work except activities A, Br, B4,D, £2, E3.G, ]1, ]1, J4, |5, K2-and L(Hcould be done if the flood were not severe). For clarity in following separate chains of activities, the start of the project has been divided into three separate events, numbered 0, 1, and2; these are not connected by dummies to retain the logic.Table 15.1 ACTIVITY DEFINITION AND DURATION: DATA FOR ROCK-FILL DAM Time Activity (Days) A Preliminary works 50 Br River diversion, stage 1 60 Bz River diversion, stage 2 30 B3 River diversion, stage 3 (plug) 10 Ba River diversion, outlet pipeline 35 c Excavation, dam site 130 Excavation, spillway 150 E Excavation, quarry; and con- struction of bank: (405) EL Rock-fill to RL 1400 128 £2 Rock-fill to RL 1475 125 3 Rock-fill to RL 1500 155 F Drill and grout dam site 80 G Permanent roadworks 20 H Valve house embankment fill 15 i Concrete in spillway 150 I ‘Concrete face-slabs to dam 165 (Note; 25% may precede end of floods by working on sides of valley) B ‘Concrete in inlet tower 70 it Concrete in outlet valve house 60 15 ‘Concrete closure, inlet tower 24 Ki Metal work in inlet tower 20 k2 Metal work in valve house 20 L ‘Clean up and move out 25 Soune. Antill and Woodhead, Critial Path Methols in Construction Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1970.Se hee FIGURE 15.9 Example of a rock-fill dam network. (From Antill and Wood- hhead, Crsical Path Malhods in Constraction Prete, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1970.) It should be added, before leaving this example, that when major hazards exist on a construction site, a series of network diagrams may be drawn up (during the preliminary planning) to determine the advantages of one starting date in comparison with another. This will often provide additional insight into the effects of the hazards on the work and of the relative risks involved in the various alternatives investigated. On certain occasions it may prove economical overall todelay thestart of a project quite considerably, and then to adopt a crash program, in order to finish the job within the permitted time. Networking methods and a ctitical path analysis, a8 presented in the next chapter, are the only logical ways to investigate this aspect of construction planning. Furthermore, they can be employed to assess and compare the costs of risks that have to be tolerated. Networking methods have therefare gained considerable popularity as a method for project planning and control REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS. 15.1 Consider the Gas Station Project of Appendix L. Prepare a list of activities for the project. For each activity (where applicable) list the relevant construction techniques and equipment that could be used and the trades involved. Do you consider this a good approach to planning the project? If not, why not?15.2 Develop a milestone planning approach to the Gas Station Project that you think is appropriate for each of the following agents: (a) The construction contractor. (b) The owner. (c) The gas distributor. (d) The station manager's wife. 15.3. Prepare simple arrow notation network segments tor the tollowing: (a) Site access, clearing and foundation preparation —add in a net- work segment that considers services, hookup, and the erection of a temporary security zone for materials and equipment: (b) The delivery, installation hookup, and testing of gas tanks and pumps. (c) Frame erection and cladding, (d) Mechanical gear.154 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 Visit a local construction or building site and observe closely a particular ficld operation. Then prepare a detailed network model (in either arrow or circle nota:ion) as a means of fully describing the field activity to someone unfamiliar with the situation. Develop a network model for the location and erection of column formwork, steel cage insertion, concreting, curing, and formwork stripping. Then expand the network model detail to focus more specifically on the activities of the formwork, steel, and con- crete crews Visit a local contractor's office and determine if network methods are employed by the contractor er demanded in contracts. If network methods are used, determine the level of detail, number of activities, and modeling format used in the project network. Different network models can be developed for the same project that reflect the different interests of the agents involved in the construc tion process. Develop simple network,models for the Gas Station Model that reflect the following interests: (2) Simple portrayal of physical progress. {b) A progress payment control network based on physical progress and the various subcontracts that may be let based on trade classification. {c) The portrayal of the contractor's construction plan as reflected by the contract (4) The contractor's portrayal of the construction plan to his own agents To what extent should a project network model be resource, equip- ment, and crew oriented? Should the model detail try to be exhaustive and present road strip map for field agents or representatives or be presented in gross detail only so as to guide field agents and give them flexibility of action? Give reasons for your preference. How would you react if you were the responsible field agent? Redraw the rock-fill dam example network of Figure 15.9 in circle (precedence) network format. A148-unit apartment complex (similar to that discussed in Chapter 7) is to be built by 2 general prime contractor. (a) Using the construction cost breakdown illustrated in Figure 7.2 asa guide, list the various trades involved in the building project and the major activities that each trade would perform (b) If the prime contractor is considering the use of specialty subcontractors on the project, identify the major subcontractors that could be involved. (c) If the contractor wishes to perform those construction activities that enable him to control the quality finish of the project, which trade crews should he maintain on his work force strength?15.11 Inthe building project of Problem 15.10 identify the majorcontractual, physical, and construction milestones involved in the project How can these milestones be used: {a} To plan the overall duration of the project? {b) To schedule and manage the various subcontractors involved?