IMMUNITY is the protection against infectious diseases, it can be

gained either actively or passively

Protection against diseases are provided by the bodys defense or the
IMMUNE SYSTEM
Humans have many mechanisms to protect ourselves against infectious
diseases
When we are healthy, physical, chemical, and cellular defenses
prevent pathogens from entering the body
Hydrochloric acid that is found in the stomach kills off
bacteria that is ingested with many food and drinks
Blood clotting is a defense mechanism that prevents the loss of blood
and prevents pathogens from entering the body through wounds in the
skin
If and when pathogens enter the body , white blood cells recognize
them as foreign cells and kills them off
The foreign cells are called ANTIGENS. White blood cells
are able to recognize these cells because they have
distinctive large molecules that cover their surface
There are two types of white blood cells: PHAGOCYTES and LYMPHOCYTES
Some lymphocytes produce ANTIBODIES, which are protein molecules
that act against specific antigens
Cell surface antigens are molecules on the surfaces of our cells
that are not found in other organisms, or even humans.
Responsible for determining whether or not to produce
antigens
The response of lymphocytes to the presence of a foreign antigen is
known as the IMMUNE RESPONSE
Cell surface antigens are used to recognize the foreign and non-
foreign cells
If a transfusion of, say blood type B to blood type A, is
made, then the blood type A will be recognize the type B as
a NON-SELF and create antigens. If it were type B to type
B, then it would recognize as SELF and not create antigens
There are two groups of white blood cells in the immune system:
Phagocytes and Lymphocytes
Produced throughout life in bone marrow where they remove dead cells
Types of phagocytes:
Neutrophils: short lived cells that are released in large numbers
during infections
Travel throughout the body, leaving the blood squeezing through
the wall of capillaries to patrol the tissues
These die after killing and digesting some pathogens
Macrophages: long lived cells that are larger than neutrophils
Play a crucial role in initiating immune responses, then cut up
pathogens to display antigens that can be recognized by
lymphocytes
Made in the bone marrow and travel in the blood MONOCYTES which
become monophages once they leave the blood and settle in the
organs
Histamines: the chemicals released by cells when pathogens
invade the body causing an infection
These attract passing neutrophils to the site. The neutrophils
destroy the pathogens by phagocytosis.
The stages of phagocytosis are:
Attraction
Recognition and Attachment
Endocytosis
Bacteria with a phagocytic vacuole
Fusion of lysosomes and phagocytic vacuole
Killing and Digestion
These are found in the liver, spleen, kidney, and lymph nodes
Plays an important role in immune response
Lymphocytes are smaller than phagocytes
Only mature lymphocytes can carry out immune responses
While the B cells mature, the gene codes change in a variety of ways
to code for different antibodies
they then divide into smaller identical cells called Clones
Antigen presentation- when the pathogens first invade the body, some
of them are taken up by macrophages in lymph nodes and elsewhere; the
macrophages expose the antigens from the pathogens on their surfaces.
Macrophages are also called Antigen Presenting Cells or APCs
Clonal selection- the stage where B cells that fit the antigens
interact with the macrophages are selected to respond.
Clonal expansion stage- when the small clone of cells divides
repeatedly by mitosis
B- Lymphocytes become
Plasma Cells & Memory Cells
Plasma Cells
Secret antibodies into the blood, lymph or onto the lining of
the lungs and the gut.
Memory Cells
After the fist infection, cells divide rapidly and develop into
plasma cells and more memory cells. The infection can be
destroyed and removed before any symptoms of disease can develop
These are the basis of immunological memory.
The first or primary response is slow because at this stage, there
are very few B cells that are specific to the antigen.
The secondary response is faster because there are many memory cells
which divide and differentiate into plasma cells.
Antibodies globular glycoproteins
Form immunoglobulins from grouping of plasma proteins.
Made of four polypeptide chains. Two long/heavy and two
short/light; these chains are held together by disulfide bonds.
Each molecule has two identical antigen binding sites
The antigen-binding sites form the variable region, which is
different on each molecule.
Some antibodies act as labels to identify antigens as
appropriate targets for phagocytes to destroy.
Antitoxins- block the toxins released by bacteria. Can cause
diphtheria and tetanus.
Mature T cells have specific surface receptors called T cell
receptors, which have a structure that is similar to antibodies
T cells are activated when they encounter their specific antigen on
another cell of the host
Two main types: T helper cells and Killer T cells
When the helper T cell is activated they release hormone-like
cytokines that make appropriate B cells start to divide, which then
turn into plasma cells and secrete antibodies
Some cytokines stimulate macrophages to help carry out phagocytosis
more vigorously
Killer T cells search for cells that have become invaded by pathogens
Recognize antigens then attach themselves to the surface of the
infected cells and secrete toxic substances (hydrogen peroxide) which
then kill the body cells and the pathogens inside
Memory T helper cells and memory killer T cells are created and
stored in the body, becoming active during the secondary response to
antigens
http://kidshealth.org/kid/htbw/ISmovie.html
Active immunity is when the body produces their own antibodies
Lymphocytes (B&T) are activated by antigens on the surface of
pathogens that invade the body
B & T cells are produced to give an effective defense
Two types
Natural active immunity occurs naturally in the body during an
infection
If the immune response is injected it is artificial active
immunity
Passive immunity is when a person doesnt produce their own
antibodies and receive their antibodies from another person who
contains the antigen.
Artificial Passive Immunity
Tetanus kills quickly before the body can naturally produce
antibodies
Those with the wound are injected with antitoxin that is
collected from blood donors who have recently been vaccinated
against tetanus
Natural Passive Immunity
While in the womb the mother passes her antibodies to the child
through the placenta
After the child is born the antibodies remain in the child for
months
Colostrum is also breast fed to the child within the first week
after the childs birth that contain antibodies
Vaccines are preparations used to stimulate an immune response
artificially either injected or given orally
Contain either:
A live microorganism
A dead microorganism
A harmless version (attenuated organism)
Harmless form of a toxin (toxoid)
Preparation of surface antigens
Vaccines try to mimic the bodys natural immunity
This works particularly well in live microorganism vaccines because
the microorganism produces slowly facing the immune system with large
doses of antigens, allowing it time to create antibodies
Vaccines that are less effective are those that dont mimic an
infection because they contain dead bacteria or viruses that dont
replicate inside the body
Some people have poor response or no response at all to vaccines
caused by
A defective immune system: body doesnt develop B & T clone cells
Or suffer from malnutrition: the body cant produce enough protein to
make antibodies or clones of B & T cells.
To prevent people who have no immunity from picking up diseases
vaccination is better through a large group of people at the same
time which is known as heard immunity
When children are born, vaccination occurs within a few months after
birth
The influenza virus mutates regularly to give off different antigens
The minor changes are called antigenic drifts
Serious changes in antigen structure is an antigenic shift
Plasmodium causes malaria and exists in three stages
An effective vaccine would need to contain antigens of all three
stages
The immune system would need to give an effective response in the
matter of hours
RTS is an experimental vaccine, reduces the risk of young children
being infected by half and reduces the chance of facing the most
serious part of the disease by a third
Trypanosoma is the agent that causes sleeping sickness
Contains thousands of antigens and changes them every four to five
days
Making it impossible for the body to respond effectively
Antigens can be known to hide from the immune system
Plasmodium enters red blood cells and uses the plasma to protect from
antibodies
Pathogens can invade macrophages and T cells to suppress the immune
system
Smallpox was a highly infectious disease caused by the variola virus
transmitted through direct contact and killed between 12-30% of its
victims
The Who started a program to rid smallpox world wide
The program had two aspects
Vaccination
Surveillance
If someone declared a case of the small pox that household and the
surrounding households were vaccinated for smallpox, known as ring
vaccination
Through ring vaccination The WHO declared the world free of small pox
in 1880
The variola virus was stable and didnt mutate
Vaccine was made from a harmless strain of a similar virus, effective
because it was a live vaccine
Vaccine was freeze dried and kept for months
Infected people were easily identified
Vaccine was easy to administer
Virus didnt linger in body after infection
Virus didnt infect people
Caused by a virus which is spread through airborne droplets
Rarely affects infants under 8 months
Passive immunity as antibodies that have crossed the placenta from
their mother
Vaccinations have the decreased the amount of children affected by
measles
The majority of cases in the US are brought from abroad
Measles in cities are caused by: overcrowded homes, insanitary
conditions, and high birth rate and usually affect malnourished and
Vitamin A deficient infants
Responsible for cases of childhood blindness and severe brain damage
Vaccination is the best prevention
Most countries achieve 80% coverage of measles vaccination