Chemical Engineering May 2013

May
2013
www.che.com
PAGE 17
Direct Fired
Heaters
Shell-and-Tube
Heat Exchangers
Focus on
Mixing
Compressors:
Pursuing Lowest
Cost of Ownership
Facts at Your
Fingertips:
Control Valves
Combustible
Dust Safety
Inline
Viscosity
Measurements
PAGE 34
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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013 1
MAY 2013 VOLUME 120, NO. 5
COVER STORY
17 Cover Story Petroleum Refining Outlook
Petroleum from shale and oil sands offers opportunities for North
American refiners, but the shifting crude diet also presents challenges
NEWS
11 Chementator A waste-free monomer recovery process is licensed;
Gas-phase option for NOx abatement; A step closer to commercializa-
tion for a new green solvent; Bioengineers make an ideal
hydrogel for antimicrobial applications; Detecting bioparticles;
Dandelion rubber; Biodegradable anti-scalant; and more
22 Newsfront Combustible Dust Safety
While understanding combustible dust regulations can be difficult,
experts stress the importance of compliance
ENGINEERING
32a Facts at Your Fingertips Control Valve Performance
This reference summarizes important aspects of control valve perfor-
mance, including parameters for both static and dynamic responses
33 Technology Profile Gas-Phase Polypropylene Production
This one-page profile describes the technology and some
economic considerations for the titled process
34 Feature Report Inline Viscosity Measurements
Process viscometers can help keep process control and
product quality in check
39 Feature Report Correcting Improper Performance
of Direct-Fired Heaters
A practical, step-by-step approach for finding the root cause
and troubleshooting burner problems
47 Engineering Practice Specifying Shell-and-Tube
Heat Exchangers
Understand what heat-exchanger design specialists need to know
and remember, you know your process best
www.che.com
17
22
34
39
2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
54 Engineering Practice Compressors: Pursuing
Lowest Cost of Ownership
Proper specification, purchase, mechanical-run and shop-performance
testing, installation, operation and maintenance are all important
EQUIPMENT & SERVICES
28 Focus on Mixing
A laboratory mixer that supplies data for scaleup; This drum mixer fits
on a laboratory bench; If the port is too small, consider this folding im-
peller; Blending can also be performed by this screw feeder; A robust
agitator that comes in many sizes; A blender for mixing hot, sticky mate-
rials; This mixer is also an energy-efficient dryer; and more
31 New Products Monitor cell growth with this sensor; Position this safety
light curtain anywhere; Get touchscreen navigation with this viscometer;
This dust-collection system has a low profile; and more
32I-1 AchemAsia Show Preview This event is expected to have more than
400 exhibitors from over 20 countries, and draw about 12,000 visitors.
As in previous years, AchemAsia 2013 includes a congress program cov-
ering areas such as chemical separation technology, alternatives to pe-
troleum, environmental protection, industrial water treatment and more.
A sampling of the equipment and services to be at the show is given in
this preview
COMMENTARY
5 Editors Page Recognizing Excellence Excellence and inspiration are
found at many levels, from the recipient of prestigious awards to the co-
worker who is doing a great job
70 The Fractionation Column
Small-company safety Small companies that do not have all the resources
of their large counterparts can turn to consultants and creative ideas to help
implement safe practices. The author shares his experiences
*ONLY ON CHE.COM
Look for New Products;
Latest News; and more
31
DEPARTMENTS
6 Letters
8 Bookshelf
72 Reader Service
74 Whos Who
75 Economic Indicators
ADVERTISERS
61 Gulf Coast Section
71 Product Showcase/Classified
73 Advertiser Index
COMING IN JUNE
Look for: Feature Reports on Automation Standards; and Measuring Volume;
Engineering Practice articles on Process Development; Vapor Depressuriza-
tion; and Gas Seals for Compressors; a Focus on Explosion Protection;
News articles on Air-Pollution Control; and Sonochemistry; and more
Cover: David Whitcher
54
28
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Editors Page
A
s it has done for more than 85 years, the Society of Chemical Indus-
try (SCI; London, U.K.; www.soci.org), America International Group
awarded the SCI Chemical Industry Medal to an individual whose
leadership, commitment and contributions have been responsible for sub-
stantial progress and performance in the chemical industry. This years
recipient, Andrew Liveris, received the medal in March at a dinner in his
honor at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York.
Liveris is the chairman and CEO of The Dow Chemical Company
(Dow; Midland, Mich.; www.dow.com). His impressive 37-yr career with
Dow has spanned roles in manufacturing, engineering, sales, market-
ing, business and general management. His career has also spanned
the globe, with beginnings in Australia and formative roles in Asia that
included 14 years in Hong Kong, general manager for the companys
operations in Thailand, and president of all Asia-Pacific operations. Liv-
eris was named CEO of Dow in 2004, and was elected as chairman of
the Board in 2006.
Liveris also served as co-chair of President Obamas Advanced Engi-
neering Partnership in the U.S., and is the author of Make It in America,
a book released in 2011. The book presents a set of practical policy solu-
tions and business strategies that outline the Dow vision for an advanced
manufacturing economy. The Chemical Industry Medal was presented to
Liveris in recognition of his leadership skills, public policy advocacy and
many contributions to applied chemistry that have contributed to the
progress of the industry.
Readers of this magazine may be particularly interested to know that
Liveris graduated with a bachelors degree in chemical engineering. He is
a chartered engineer and a fellow of The Institute of Chemical Engineers,
as well as a fellow of the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences
and Engineering.
Awards, such as the Chemical Industry Medal, recognize achievements
that excel above others. This year, Chemical Engineerings Kirkpatrick
Award will be honoring those who have developed the most-notewor-
thy new chemical-engineering technology to recently become commer-
cial. More will be written about the Kirkpatrick Chemical Engineering
Achievement Award in these pages in the coming months.
It is inspiring to learn of those who have made great strides in their
careers, thereby advancing the chemical processing industries, and to
know that their accomplishments have been recognized and honored
with awards. While only a few will achieve such prestigious honors,
there are many individuals in our daily lives who deserve, but may
rarely receive, accolades for their contributions. These are the people
whose accomplishments may not seem necessarily huge on the grand
scale of things, but whose contributions keep our work flowing each
day. We often dont even notice those who are consistently doing a good
job, as we typically focus on problem areas and not those areas that are
running smoothly.
We would do well to notice what and who keeps the
wheels turning in our own organizations and circle of
co-workers, and acknowledge those who deserve recog-
nition by giving credit where credit is due. We can find
everyday excellence and inspiration closer to home than
we may think in the next office or next cubicle, or
across the table in a meeting if we just look for it.
Dorothy Lozowski, Executive Editor

Recognizing excellence
Winner of Eight Jesse H. Neal
Awards for Editorial Excellence
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Jenike & Johanson, Inc.
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MixTech, Inc.
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IIT Madras, India
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Fluor Corp.
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Loughborough University, U.K.
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Lessons learned
Your Editors Page in todays Chemical Engineering
[March 2013, p.5] intrigued me because I too served
as a TA in a physical chemistry lab but long before
1980 and we did not have the luxury of a Fourier-
transform infrared spectrometer. But you certainly
have the experience to comment on the following:
The earth, according to Weils law at an average tem-
perature of 15C, radiates heat at 10 m, which Planck
teaches is a 330 m band centered around 10 m. The
principal CO
2
absorption bands are at 14.99 and 4.26 m.
But spectroscopic studies indicate that atmospheric
transmittance of infrared radiation is about 80% from 8
to 12 m. That is the so called longwave window where
the earth is said to vent off excess energy.
It appears that the importance of CO
2
as a greenhouse
gas may be overstated. . .
Gerald McDonald
In your article in the March issue, you indicated that
both CO
2
and water vapor have similar IR absorption
bands. I am curious, as perhaps are other readers, as
to their relative percentages of the atmosphere. Since
their IR absorptions are similar, would their percent-
age numbers be a factor in their contribution to any
warming effect? Thanks for any insight you can shed
on this.
Rick Smith, P.E.
Applied Thermal Engineering, Inc.
Your Editors Page piece in the March 2013 maga-
zine was / is good. If I were your editor, I would have
moved the last two paragraphs to the top, thus lead-
ing with Words like myth, hoax . . .. I see this as
grabbing the reader more effectively. Indeed, we need
all the grab we can get on a critical issue like this.
Nicholas Sheble
Engineering writer / Technical editor
Editors response:
A good article that addresses queries of the first two
letters is Infrared radiation and planetary tempera-
ture, Raymond T. Pierrehumbert, Physics Today, Jan-
uary 2011, pp. 3338. This author points out that CO
2

accounts for about a third of the greenhouse gas effect.
Postscripts, corrections
April, Nano-engineering infuses growing coatings
market, on pp. 1722, requires a clarification. On
page 22, the article discusses the liquid repellent
coating from Ultratech International Inc. The highly
textured coating reduces the surface energy such that
liquids are prevented from wetting the surface. Liq-
uids are not actually prevented from contacting the
surface, as the article states.
April, in Focus on Seals & Gaskets, on p. 30, the cor-
rect company name and location for the second item
is A.W. Chesterton Co., Woburn, Mass. Revised ver-
sions of both articles can be found at www.che.com.
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Fundamentals of Automatic Process Control. By Utpal
Chaudhuri and Uttam Chaudhuri. CRC Press Inc., Taylor &
Francis Group. 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, #300, Boca Raton,
FL 33487. Web: crcpress.com. 2012. 303 pages. $139.95.
Reviewed by Douglas White,
Emerson Process Management,
Houston, Tex.
P
rofessors Uttam Ray Chaudhuri from Calcutta
University (Kolkata, India; www.caluniv.ac.in) and
Uptal Ray Chaudhuri from Jadavpur University
(Kolkata, India; www.jadavpur.edu) have authored a
preparatory textbook on automatic process control. The
target audience for the book seems to be students in an
introductory process-control course.
After an opening introduction, the book offers an open-
loop-system dynamic analysis using Laplace analysis and
continuous time differential equations. This analysis is
followed by material on closed-loop-control dynamic analy-
sis and PID (proportional-integral-derivative) tuning. The
book includes a chapter on advanced single-loop regula-
tory control techniques, such as cascade, feed-forward,
adaptive and fuzzy logic, among others, as well as a chap-
ter on computer control.
The book comes with a CD
containing a software simu-
lation package that permits
experimentation with the dif-
ferent techniques. The book also
includes a comprehensive guide
to the simulation system along
with suggested exercises.
A particularly strong point of the book is an extensive
set of worked examples in each chapter. The book also
includes an appendix containing problems and worked
solutions in process control from previous versions of the
Indian Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE).
Some suggestions for the next version of the book in-
clude the following. The preface states that cost of con-
trolling instruments at a plant is about 4060% of the
initial investment of the plant. Automation costs for large
continuous-process plants in the chemical process indus-
tries (CPI) actually are typically 35% of the total capital
investment. Also, the photographic reproductions in the
book are of low quality and difficult to interpret.
While practitioners may have differing opinions on
the proper approach to PID tuning, there are much
more widely accepted and newer methodologies than the
Ziegler-Nichols and Cohen-Coon techniques presented
Bookshelf
in the book. In the reviewers opinion, since virtually all
process-plant control systems execute digitally, students
should have an introduction to discrete time dynamic
analysis. Very few loops in the plant are fully standalone,
and some introduction to interacting and multivariable
analysis should also be part of the curriculum.
Fundamentals of Renewable En-
ergy Processes. 3rd ed. By Aldo da
Rosa. Elsevier Science and Technology,
30 Corporate Drive, Burlington, MA
01803. Web: elsevier.com. 2012. 908
pages. $120.00.
Practical Guide to Structures,
Properties and Applications of
Styrenic Polymers. By Norbert
Neissner and Daniel Wagner. Smithers
Rapra Publishing, Shawbury, Shrews-
bury, Shropshire, SY4 4NR, U.K. Web:
smithersrapra.com. 2013. 156 pages.
$90.00.
Introduction to Chemical Comput-
ing. 2nd ed. By Bruce Finlayson. John
Wiley & Sons Inc. 111 River Street,
Hoboken, NJ 07030. Web: wiley.com.
2012. 402 pages. $59.95.
Hydrogen Storage Technology:
Materials and Applications. By
Lennie Klebanoff. CRC Press Inc.,
6000 Broken Sound Parkway, #300,
Boca Raton, FL 33487. Web: crcpress.
com. 2012. 520 pages. $159.95.
The Elements of Polymer Science
and Engineering. 3rd ed. By Al-
fred Rudin and Philip Choi. Elsevier
Science and Technology, 30 Corpo-
rate Drive, Burlington, MA 01803.
Web: elsevier.com. 2012. 584 pages.
$119.00.
Practical Process Research and
Development: A Guide for Organic
Chemists. 2nd ed. By Neal Ander-
son. Elsevier Science and Technology,
30 Corporate Drive, Burlington, MA
01803. Web: elsevier.com. 2012. 488
pages. $125.00.
Advances in Fluorine-Containing
Polymers. Edited by Dennis W. Smith,
Jr. and others. Oxford University
Press. 2001 Evans Road, Cary, NC
37513. Web: oup.com. 2012. 224 pages.
$150.00.
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T
he first commercial application of a newly
developed process for the treatment of ox-
ides of nitrogen (NOx) waste gas has been
established at a milling operation in Los
Angeles, Calif. Developed by Pacific Rim De-
sign and Development (PRDD; Reno, Nev.;
http://prdd.net), along with DuPont (Wilm-
ington, Del.; www.dupont.com), the process
uses gas-phase chlorine dioxide to react
with both NO and NO
2
to form nitric and
hydrochloric acids.
Because of the low solubility of NO,
traditional liquid-phase scrubbers need
to employ multiple stages to convert the
NO to NO
2
and then to react the NO
2
.
Carrying out the reactions in the gas
phase allows high removal efficiencies
with short residence times, says Robert
Richardson, president of PRDD. The re-
action speeds make it possible to elimi-
nate a stage from the process and reduce
equipment costs.
The major innovation of the technique is
the proprietary method for mixing the ClO
2
,
which is generated onsite via several pos-
sible routes, with the waste gas. The ClO
2

reacts with NO to form NO
2
and with NO
2

to form nitric and hydrochloric acids. The
mixed acid waste can be used for neutraliz-
ing high-pH solutions, Richardson notes.
The gas-phase scrubbing technique can
work with existing air-pollution control pro-
cesses as either a pre- or post-treat option.
The lighter equipment loads mean that such
a process could be mounted on the roof or
in the rafters of a building, rather than re-
quiring ground space. Richardson says the
method can be used in chemical milling,
etching, aluminum brightening and pickling
applications, among others.
Gas-phase option for NOx abatement
L
ast month, Air Products (Allentown, Pa.;
www.airproducts.com) announced that
it has licensed its proprietary adsorption-
based, monomer recovery process to custom
process equipment supplier Cryo Technolo-
gies (Allentown, Pa.; www.cryotechnologies.
com). The hybrid Air Products technology
combines a partial condensation unit with
a pressure-swing adsorption (PSA) process
to recover unreacted ethylene and propyl-
ene coming from the degassing step at a
polyolefin production plant. The recovery
technology reduces production costs by $10
per metric ton (m.t.) by recovering valuable
olefins, solvents and nitrogen and leaving no
waste. The process can achieve essentially
100% recovery of unreacted hydrocarbons,
so no flaring is required, says Jeffrey Knopf,
Air Products licensing and technology trans-
fer manager. Also, the recovery process re-
captures high-purity nitrogen gas that was
originally used in the degassing step and
that can be re-used for further degassing.
After compressing the unreacted mono-
mer-laden nitrogen gas stream to 200 to
300 psi, the compressed stream is cooled
in a partial condensation unit, condensing
the majority of the unreacted hydrocarbons.
The remaining hydrocarbons flow with
the nitrogen gas into the PSA unit, where
more hydrocarbons are removed, leaving a
nitrogen gas stream with 50 to 1,000 ppm
hydrocarbons by weight, the company says.
Hydrocarbons recovered from the PSA are
recycled in a low-pressure tailgas stream to
the feed compressor.
Air Products monomer recovery technol-
ogy was originally developed with a grant
from the U.S. Dept. of Energys Industrial
Technologies Program, and was installed
in three commercial polyolefin facilities in
the mid-2000s by Air Products before the
company placed its focus elsewhere, Knopf
explains. Now, Cryo Technologies will offer
the technology to polyolefin makers around
the world.
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number
on p. 72, or use the website designation.
Edited by Gerald Ondrey May 2013
Heap-leaching for REs
Studies conducted by Texas
Rare Earth Resources Corp.
(Sierra Blanca, Tex.; www.trer.
com) indicate that heap leach-
ing with 15% (~150 g/L) sul-
furic acid has the potential to
dissolve minerals containing
rare-earth (RE) elements from
host rock at an RE mineral site
near El Paso, Texas. Research
conducted by the heavy RE
exploration company on the
minerology, geochemistry and
kinetics of direct-acid leaching
demonstrated that this tech-
nique is effective at recovering
more than 80% of targeted
heavy RE elements from
host rock. If further technical
results and economic assess-
ments prove favorable, the
company says that combining
open-pit mining and heap
leaching could signifcantly
reduce capital and operating
costs for a heavy rare-earth
facility. Texas Rare Earth is in-
vestigating different host-rock
particle sizes, as well as acid
strengths to further optimize
the extraction method.
Anti-scalant
BWA Water Additives Ltd.
(Manchester, U.K.; www.
wateradditives.com) intro-
duced a biodegradable anti-
scalant product for reverse
osmosis (RO) membranes
that prevents common inor-
ganic deposits from forming

To water wash scrubber
To water wash scrubber
Feed
CW
Water
wash
scrubber
Water discharge
Propylene
product
Nitrogen
PSA
Temperature-swing
adsorption dryer
Mechanical
refrigeration
unit
Mechanical
refrigeration
unit
(Continues on p. 12)
A waste-free monomer
recovery process is licensed
CHEMENTATOR
on RO membrane surfaces.
The specially designed
polycarboxylic acid material
maintains the scale-inhibition
performance of alternatives
and can break down by 55%
in 35 days, says Nozi Hamidi,
BWAs VP of marketing. The
product, tradenamed Flocon
855, is free of phosphorous
and nitrogen, and is suited
to areas where regulatory
restrictions on phosphorous-
and nitrogen-containing
waste apply, such as the
Great Lakes region of the
U.S. and the North Sea.
Detecting bioparticles
Bioengineers at the National
University of Singapore (NUS;
www.nus.edu.sg) have de-
veloped a microfuidic device
for the rapid separation and
detection of non-spherical
bioparticles, such as patho-
genic bacteria and malaria-
infected red blood cells. The
shape-sensitive technique
is signifcant because most
separation techniques are de-
signed for spherical particles.
The device has been shown
to complete a diagnosis in
less than an hour, compared
to the traditional detection,
based on bacterial culture,
which needs 2448 h before
bacteria are detected.
The microfuidic device
uses an I-shaped pillar array,
which induces rotational mo-
tion of the non-spherical par-
ticles. This, in turn, increases
the effective hydrodynamic
size of the bioparticles, allow-
ing sufficient separation. The
design achieves 100% sepa-
ration of red blood cells from
blood samples, and has also
been tested successfully on
rod-shaped Escherichia coli,
says NUS.
Dandelion rubber
Last month, the biotech com-
panies Kultevat (Carlsbad,
Calif.; www.kultevat.com)
and KeyGene (Wagenin-
gen, the Netherlands; www.
keygene.com) entered into
collaboration for production
of rubber based on the Rus-
sian dandelion, Taraxacum
koksaghyz. This plant has
demonstrated potential as
(Continues on p. 14)
T
he Circa Group (Melbourne, Australia;
www.circagroup.com.au) and the Green
Chemistry Center of Excellence at the
University of York (U.K.; www.york.ac.uk)
have signed an agreement to develop and
commercialize a novel green solvent
called Cyrene. Cyrene is a polar aprotic
solvent a solvent that lacks an acidic hy-
drogen and has a high dielectric constant
and a high dipole moment targeted at
pharmaceutical and chemical manufactur-
ers, to help them avoid using petrochemi-
cal based solvents.
Circa is now supplying samples from its
third-stage pilot plant, and is finalizing a
project to upgrade to about 5 kg/d, which is
planned to come onstream within the next
six months, in preparation for large-scale
production, says the company.
Cyrene has been produced from levo-
glucosenone (LGN), a platform chemical
that can be the basis for many products.
Circa has produced LNG using its Fura-
cell process that recycles cellulose waste.
Circas chief scientist Warwick Raverty
says the process differs from existing pro-
cesses used to convert biomass into liquid
products in that the Furacell technology
produces a single product that is easy
to isolate and purify. Conventional ther-
mochemical processing of biomass can also
produce a liquid product, but the liquid is
an extremely complex mixture of hundreds
of organic chemicals that no one so far has
managed to separate and purify on a com-
mercial scale, he says.
In the Furacell process, cellulose in the
form of wood or straw is heated to about
450C in a vacuum in the presence of a
catalyst consisting of water, phosphate
and an inexpensive organic solvent. The
process takes place in a specially designed
reactor, allowing continuous addition of
small amounts of wood or straw in a vac-
uum. The product, LGN, is a molecule with
a rigid shape that can be converted chemi-
cally into anti-cancer drugs, anti-HIV
drugs, plant growth promoters, herbicides,
insecticides and environmentally benign
solvents, says Raverty.
A step closer to commercialization for a new green solvent
(Continued from p. 11)
Bioengineers make an ideal hydrogel
for antimicrobial applications
A
lthough several antimicrobial hydrogels
have been developed in recent years,
they all have one or more drawbacks, such
as possible toxicity, insufficient stability
and biodegradability, and high costs. These
and other drawbacks have been overcome
with a synthetic hydrogel being developed
by researchers from the Institute of Bioen-
gineering and Nanotechnology (Singapore;
www.ibn.a-star.edu.sg) and IBM Almaden
Research Center (San Jose, Calif.; www.
ibm.com).
The new hydrogel evolved from the IBM
nanomedicine polymer program, with the
mission of improving human health, based
on materials developed for semiconductor
technologies. The researchers looked for a
long-lasting substance that should destroy
specific types of bacteria but leave healthy
skin and cells intact, and be applicable to
medical facility surfaces, and surgical and
diagnostic instruments.
The researchers developed macromol-
ecules that combine the properties of water
solubility, a positive charge and biodegrad-
ability. When mixed with water and heated
to normal body temperature, the polymers
self-assemble, swelling into a synthetic gel
that is easy to handle. When applied to con-
taminated surfaces, the hydrogels positive
charge attracts and ruptures negatively
charged microbial membranes.
The new gel is formed from stereocompl-
exation of biodegradable poly(L-lactide)-b-
poly(ethylene glycol)-b-polyL-lactide) and
a charged biodegradable polycarbonate tri-
block polymer. The stereocomplexes exist
as soluble micelles at room temperature
in aqueous solution, but upon heating to
about 37C, form gel-like materials with
distinctive fiber/ribbon structures. This
change in the materials properties was ac-
companied by a significant increase in an-
timicrobial activity.
The ability of the gels to disperse biofilms
was tested against Staphylococcus aureus,
methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), Es-
cherichia coli, and Candida albicans. After
gel exposure, more than 60% of film bio-
mass was removed, and nearly 80% of bac-
terial cells were killed with a single treat-
ment, the researchers say.
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Innovative Solutions
T
wo new coating products for sand
proppants used in hydraulic frac-
turing operations in the oil and gas
industry overcome the challenges of
traditional phenolic coatings, which
can leach environmentally hazard-
ous chemicals. The coatings, developed
by Preferred Sands LLC (Radnor, Pa.;
www.preferredsands.com), are based on
a specialized polyurethane developed
over the past three years with partner
The Dow Chemical Company (Midland,
Mich.; www.dow.com).
In hydraulic fracturing, sand used as
a proppant increases the contact area
between particles, which effectively
strengthens them against the crush-
ing pressures inside the fractures. Also,
coated proppants keep particle fines from
the sand grains in place when water and
oil or gas flows back up the well.
Proppant coatings based on phenolic
resins leach phenol, formaldehyde and
others, explains Michael ONeill,
CEO of Preferred Sands LLC.
Further, current proppant coat-
ings require activator compounds
to help curing once the proppants
are injected into the well, with
the intention that they will cure
fully inside the fractures of the de-
posit. But if the fractures close before
the coatings cure, then they lose their
ability to bond, says Bob McDaniel, of
Preferred Sands.
The companys new coatings have the
ability to adhere to other particles, in-
dependent of temperature, and without
the need for activator compounds, Mc-
Daniel says. The phenolics require that
a good deal of chemistry happen down-
hole, and that is the toughest environ-
ment to make coatings work well. The
Preferred Sands formulation requires
the closure stress of the fractures to
fully cure, which allows the coated sand
to penetrate fractures in the deposit
before curing. This feature allows the
coated proppant to maintain 100% of
its ability to prevent sand from flowing
back into the well when extraction be-
gins, says ONeill. This is a new type of
chemistry that hasnt been used for this
purpose before, said McDaniel.
The companys coating-application
method requires lower temperatures
than that for phenolics, and does not
produce volatile organic compounds
(VOCs). These features allow for a lower-
cost process, because you dont need as
much energy and dont need scrubbers,
says ONeill.
Improved coating for hydraulic fracturing proppants
R
esearchers from the group of Atsushi
Fukuoka at the Catalysis Research Cen-
ter of Hokkaido University (Sapporo; www.
cat.hokudai.ac.jp), and Showa Denko K.K.
(SDK; Tokyo, both Japan; www.sdk.co.jp)
have developed a new catalyst that effi-
ciently decomposes biomass into sugars. The
activated-carbon-based catalyst achieves
high yields of both C6 and C5 sugars in a
single reaction step.
To perform the saccharization, the re-
searchers use alkaline-treated activated car-
bon (K26). The catalyst is then ball-milled
together with cellulose or biomass, such as
bagasse, in aqueous 0.012% HCl solution, and
heated to 453K. After 20 min, 80% of the cel-
lulose is depolymerized to glucose, and more
than 90% of the xylose is released as xylan.
Studies have shown that the active sites
of the carbon are weakly acidic functional
groups, in which vicinal carboxylic and phe-
nolic groups synergistically work for the hy-
drolysis reaction. The milling serves to im-
prove the contact between the solid catalyst
and solid biomass, and the researchers have
shown that the new catalyst is durable. The
scientists believe the simple process and in-
expensive, readily available catalyst has po-
tential for utilizing wood-based cellulose for
biofuels (such as bioethanol), biodegradable
plastics (such as polylactic acid) and the ar-
tificial sweetener, xylitol.
T
he research groups of Keiichi Fujishige at
Tohoku University (Sendai, www.che.to-
hoku.ac.jp/~erec) and Daicel Corp. (Osaka,
both Japan; www.daicel.com) have developed
a process for making 1,3-propanediol (1,3-
PDO) from glycerin, a byproduct of biodiesel-
fuel production. The researchers improved a
catalyst developed by Fujishige to be applied
to a rather simple reaction process. They are
expecting that their catalytic synthesis is scal-
able and the stable production of 1,3-PDO will
contribute to the effective utilization of byprod-
uct glycerin and might open a new market.
In 2010, Fujishige developed a catalyst for
the hydrogenolysis of glycerol to 1,3-PDO,
whereby a powder-type IrReOx/SiO2 cata-
lyst is dispersed in the reaction solution. At
that time, the selectivity achieved for 1,3-
PDO was 60%. Fujishige also demonstrated
that the reaction mechanism formed 1,3-PDO
via a 2,3-dihydroxypropoxide intermediate.
Now, Daicel and Fujishige have developed
a pellet-type catalyst using an optimized sil-
ica-gel support, which enables the reaction to
take place in a simple fixed-bed reactor. The
stability of the catalyst has been improved,
and leaching of metal has been suppressed.
In a continuous fixed-bed bench-scale plant
operating in Daicels R&D laboratory
in Himeji since August 2012 Daicel has
achieved similar selectivity as that found at
the university, and also confirmed that the
catalyst system maintains its activity and se-
lectivity after more than 300 h of continuous
operation. The researchers believe this pro-
cess is scalable as an industrial route to 1,3-
PDO, and that the propanol a byproduct of
the reaction can be marketed as a solvent.
Making 1,3-PDO from glycerin
CHEMENTATOR
a domesticated crop for the
U.S. and Europe; the origin
of the species is the south-
eastern part of Kazakhstan.
Kultevat and KeyGene will
invest in the development
and commercial introduction
of new dandelion varieties
that are enriched for latex in
their roots and are suitable
for large-scale production of
natural rubber. KeyGene will
be responsible for developing
new varieties using state-of-
the-art molecular breeding
technologies while Kultevat
will develop appropriate pro-
duction practices and large-
scale latex extraction and
rubber production in North
America. KeyGene will use
the newly developed varieties
and its production technolo-
gies for production of rubber
in other global locations. The
collaborators believe the im-
proved dandelions will solve
the worlds need for sufficient
amounts of high-quality natu-
ral rubber within a period of 5
to 10 years.
CO
2
-free H
2
production?
Researchers from KITs
Karlsruhe Liquid-metal Labo-
ratory (KALLA; www.kit.edu)
and the Institute for Advanced
Sustainability (IASS; Potsdam,
both Germany; www.iass-
potsdam.de) have recently
started a project to investigate
a process to thermally crack
methane into hydrogen and
carbon. Part of IASS Earth,
Energy and Environment (E3)
Cluster, the project aims to
produce H
2
without any CO
2

emissions.
At KALLA, construction
has begun on a liquid-metal
bubble-column reactor. The
column will be flled with liq-
uid metal and heated up to
1,000C. As CH
4
is fed through
a porous disc at the bottom,
bubbles will rise upwards,
decomposing CH
4
into H
2
and
carbon, which deposits on
the walls of the bubble to be
released at the top.
A similar approach was
described by researchers at
Argonne National Laboratory
(Argonne, Ill.; www.anl.gov)
about ten years ago, but the
process has not been devel-
oped further, says KIT.
(Continued from p. 12)
One-pot synthesis of sugars from biomass
Sensors with a transmitter built in
L
ast month, Krohne Messtechnik GmbH
(Duisburg, Germany; www.krohne.com)
launched SmartSens, the first family of two-
wire, loop-powered analytical sensors with
integrated transmitter technology. Prior
to this, analytical sensors have required
an external proprietary transmitter onsite
to deliver the sensor signals to the process
control system. Krohne has miniaturized
the transmitter and fitted it into the sensor
head, thereby eliminating sources of error
caused by false installation, cabling or con-
figuration of the transmitter.
The first sensors available are for pH, ORP
(oxidation-reduction potential) and conduc-
tivity, with other process parameters to follow.
These sensors can be connected directly to
the process-control system, and feature direct
communication via 420-mA HART. The com-
pany claims to be the worlds first provider to
offer a direct connection from the sensor to
the process control system via a standardized
fieldbus. The digital sensors also have advan-
tages over traditional analog sensors in that
they can store calibration data (generated
offline) and simply be plugged into the pro-
cess, onsite. For offline calibration, the sen-
sor can be connected directly to a PC running
the same PACTware (FDT/DTM) as applied
in the asset-management system, using a
USB interface cable for bi-directional HART
7 communication and power supply.
N
aomi Shibasaki-Kitagawa at Tohoku University
(Sendai, Japan; www.che.tohoku.ac.jp/~rpel/) has de-
veloped a continuous reactor for making biodiesel fuel
from low-quality waste, such as cooking oil. Her produc-
tion process uses an expanded-bed reactor packed with
an anion-exchange resin that has both catalytic and ad-
sorption capabilities.
The waste oil and methanol, with a 3-to-1 mole ratio,
are continuously fed to the reactor, where the main
components of the feedstock (triglicerides) are trans-
esterified by the resins catalytic ability. Byproduct
glycerin, as well as impurities in the feedstock (free
fatty acids, water and dark brown pigment) are simul-
taneously removed from the product by adsorption
onto the resin. Product eluded from the reactor nearly
meet without further purification biodiesel qual-
ity standards (EN14214 in Europe and ASTM D6751
in North America).
Shibasaki-Kitagawa has demonstrated the process in
a fully automatic, flow-type pilot plant with a capacity
of 50 L/d. This process simplifies the conversion of waste
cooking oil into biodiesel because it does not require up-
stream processing to remove the impurities (free fatty
acid and water), nor the downstream processing to re-
move the catalyst and byproducts (glycerin and soap).
Togni reagent is reclassified
A
team of researchers from Novasep (Pompey, France;
www.novasep.com) has discovered and characterized
the explosive properties of the so-called Togni reagent
II and intermediates at the Novasep Leverkusen site
in Germany. Invented by professor Antonio Togni at the
Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry, ETH Zrich (Switzer-
land; www.eth.ch) Togni reagent II [1-(trifluoromethyl)-
1,2-benzoidoxol-3(1H)-one, 1] is a versatile reagent for
the electrophilic introduction of trifluoromethyl groups,
and is used in pharmaceutical manufacturing and
widely used in universities, says Novasep.
At its kilolab, Novasep performed a Koenin test
a steel-sleeve test used to evaluate the safety of
a compound during transport that showed the re-
agent to be highly explosive. Another critical property
of the reagent clarified by the researchers is its fast
combustion when ignited. The combustion factor was
measured as BZ6, the same classification as black pow-
der (gun powder). This discovery has led to a revised
classification for handling and transporting the Tongi
reagent II, which must now be approved by national
authorities, says Novasep.
The findings were published last month in the March
issue of Organic Process Research and Development.
Novaseps Leverkusen plant has German government
authorization to handle energetic materials and oper-
ate hazardous reactions from laboratory to thousands
-of-tons scale.
This biodiesel process requires
no pre- or post-treatment
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OUR INDUSTRY EXPERTS COVER
DOZENS OF TOPICS INCLUDING:
Global Energy Outlook
Regulatory Issues
Process, Design and Operations
EH & S
Equipment Maintenance
Equipment Reliability
Instrumentation
Controls
Automation
And more
I
ncreasing production of crude oil
from shale deposits in the U.S. and
oil sands in Canada offers North
American petroleum refiners op-
portunities to access cost-advantaged
feedstock. However, shifting product
demand and hurdles in transporta-
tion logistics, along with technical is-
sues associated with the properties of
the crude from those areas, present
challenges as refiners optimize their
product mix. Crude oil from shale
was among the many refining-related
trends and issues discussed at the re-
cent annual meeting of the American
Fuel and Petrochemical Manufactur-
ers (AFPM; Washington, D.C.; www.
afpm.org) in San Antonio, Tex.
At a press conference to open the
meeting, AFPM president Charles
Drevna emphasized the potential
presented by increased development
of hydrocarbons from shale deposits.
Theres tremendous opportunity for
the nation right now, not just for re-
finers, he said. Were at the prover-
bial fork in the road, where decisions
have to be made for the future. These
decisions will determine the course of
the manufacturing renaissance in the
U.S. Pointing out the importance of
policy decisions in the near future, he
said, Theres a window of opportunity
now, but it wont last forever.
Tight-oil tidal wave
Hydraulic fracturing of shale deposits
has been widely associated with natu-
ral gas production in the recent past,
but a large price differential between
gas and crude oil has driven producers
in the oil-and-gas industry to apply
horizontal drilling, hydraulic fractur-
ing and other modern extraction tech-
nologies to areas containing so-called
tight oil, referring to crude oil that
resides in low-permeability geologic
formations, such as shale deposits.
A number of speakers discussed
the increasing tight-oil production
at the AFPM meeting, including Mi-
chael Wojciechowski, an economist
with Wood Mackenzie (Edinburgh,
U.K.; www.woodmac.com), who called
the increase a tight-oil tidal wave
(Figure 1).
Praveen Gunneseelan, of Vantage
Point Advisors (Houston; www.van-
tageptllc.com) says that production of
tight oil in the U.S. is projected to grow
from the current 1.5 million barrels
per day (bbl/d) to between 2.8 and 4.2
million bbl/d by 2025, before declining
to 2 million bbl/d by 2040 (Figure 2).
Further, tight oil production will ac-
count for between 20 and 40% of total
U.S. oil production through 2040 and
will comprise a significant portion of
the crude slate for U.S. petroleum re-
fineries. The majority of this surge in
tight-oil crude will be refined domesti-
cally, Guneseelan says.
The International Energy Agency
(Paris; www.iea.org) says that crude
oil from shale could allow the U.S. to
produce as much as 11 million bbl/d
overall by 2020, which would push the
U.S. past Saudi Arabia as the worlds
largest oil producer.
The major production areas for
tight oil, and those where much of the
production growth will occur, are the
Williston Basin in North Dakota and
Montana, which contains the Bak-
ken formation, and the Western Gulf
Cover Story
FIGURE 1. Tight oil in the U.S. represents the largest share of the increased petro-
leum production, and of non-OPEC production increases Source: Wood Mackenzie

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Petroleum from shale and oil sands
offers opportunities for North American refiners,
but the shifting crude diet also presents challenges,
as refiners look to match product output with demand
PETROLEUM
REFINING
OUTLOOK
Cover Story
Basin in Texas, which contains the
Eagle Ford formation. According to
the U.S. Energy Information Adminis-
tration (EIA; Washington, D.C.; www.
eia.gov), annual production of crude
oil from the Bakken formation already
more than doubled between 2010 and
2012. Other areas that are attract-
ing significant investment for tight
oil production include Niobrara shale
in Colorado and Wyoming, the Utica
shale, especially in parts of Ohio, the
Permian Basin in West Texas and the
Monterrey shale in California.
The new technologies for extracting
oil and gas from shale have radically
changed the oil-and-gas supply picture
in the U.S., says Daniel Lippe, founder
of Petral Consulting Co. (Houston;
www.petral.com). U.S. petroleum re-
finers stand to benefit, because of the
steady supplies that will be available
to them via pipelines, rather than re-
lying on imports shipped by sea.
Despite the opportunities, however,
tight-oil crudes present unique tech-
nological challenges to petroleum re-
finers. Unlike most crudes, tight-oil
crudes tend to be light, sweet crudes
with high paraffin content and low
acidity, according to a presentation
from Bruce Wright, a senior techni-
cal engineer from Baker Hughes Inc.
(Houston; www.bakerhughes.com).
The significant molecular weight
distribution of paraffin in tight oil is
a major potential problem for down-
stream processing, he says, because
of the potential for fouling due to wax
deposition. Tight-oil crudes also gener-
ally have a minimal asphaltine phase,
and varying amounts of filterable sol-
ids, hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans.
Aside from paraffin wax deposits, tight
oils can also create difficulties with
corrosion, bacteria growth and desta-
bilized asphaltenes, Wright points out.
Pipeline infrastructure
Aside from technology concerns, tak-
ing full advantage of tight oil requires
corresponding transportation-logistics
infrastructure, several speakers at the
AFPM meeting indicated. Currently,
existing pipeline infrastructure for
transporting petroleum is not suffi-
cient to handle the surging volumes
of crude oil from shale deposits in the
U.S., particularly from Bakken and
Eagle Ford. This situation is placing
the shale oil at a discount compared to
other benchmark crudes.
Because of the dramatic growth in
tight-oil production from Bakken and
Eagle Ford shale plays, there have been
pipeline pinchpoints that push people
toward non-traditional modes of trans-
port for crude, such as rail and barge,
says Wood Mackenzies Wojciechowski.
The market needs more relief
valves to ease bottlenecks at pipeline
hubs, Wojciechowski comments. The
question is becoming, how much do-
mestic tight-oil crude can be absorbed
[by refineries] before starting to erode
its value.
A wave of pipeline investment has
ensued to address the logistics chal-
lenges. A host of new pipelines have
either been recently completed or are
under development, including several
projects to transport crude oils to and
from the major petroleum supply hub
of Cushing, Okla. For example, phase
2 of the TransCanada Keystone pipe-
line, completed in 2011, delivers crude
oil from Hardisty, Canada and the
Williston Basin to Cushing, while the
Enbridge/Enterprise Seaway expan-
sion was completed earlier this year
to expand an existing pipeline that
brings crude oil from the Cushing hub
to the U.S. Gulf Coast. Other pipelines
to further increase take-away capac-
ity from Cushing are planned to begin
service in late 2013 (TransCanada
Gulf Coast Project) and early 2014
(Seaway Twin), according to the EIA.
Declining gasoline demand
The market for petroleum-derived
products is also shifting. A number
of factors, including increased CAFE
(corporate average fuel economy) stan-
dards for automobiles in the U.S., man-
dates for including ethanol in gasoline
as well as other factors have combined
to create the conditions for a projected
decline in gasoline demand in the U.S.
Some estimates, including those from
the EIA, project a decline in gasoline
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s

o
f

b
b
l
/
d
Conventional L48 Tight Oil Gulf of Mexico Alaska NGLs
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
1
2
2
0
1
3
2
0
1
4
2
0
1
5
2
0
1
6
2
0
1
7
2
0
1
8
2
0
1
9
2
0
2
0
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
1
2
2
0
1
3
2
0
1
4
2
0
1
5
2
0
1
6
2
0
1
7
2
0
1
8
2
0
1
9
2
0
2
0
Total US Liquids Supply Forecast Q4 2012 US Tight Oil Forecast Q4 2012
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
Bakken Niobrara
Eagle Ford Bone Springs/Wolfcamp
Other established tight plays Emerging/new tight plays
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s

o
f

b
b
l
/
d
FIGURE 2. The largest fraction of the tight oil increase in the coming years will be from the Bakken and Eagle Ford formations
Wood Mackenzie
demand at an annual rate of about 1%.
At the same time, diesel fuel demand
will grow by about the same rate.
For petroleum refiners, this shift
means closer attention must be paid
to the amounts of gasoline and diesel
they produce, relative to the crude
they are processing. As Vantage
Points Guneseelan says in a discus-
sion of his presentation at AFPM, As
diesel crack spreads are expected to be
superior to gasoline and U.S. diesel de-
mand is expected to increase as gaso-
line demand shrinks, U.S. refiners that
choose to process increasing amounts
of tight oil will need to consider the po-
tential impact on the gasoline-diesel
ratio and optimize their facilities and
operations appropriately to align with
market demand.
John Boepple, a principal at Nex-
ant, Inc. (San Francisco, Calif.; www.
nexant.com) says, Maximizing diesel
production will be important for refin-
ers using tight oils in their crude feed-
stock diet.
To navigate the gasoline-to-diesel
demand shift, as well as increased
price volatility and low natural-gas
costs, Daniel Thomas, from UOP (Des
Plaines, Ill.; www.uop.com) emphasized
the importance of flexibility and agil-
ity of refineries to be able to take ad-
vantage of price differences of gasoline
and diesel. At AFPM, he discussed the
approach of converting hydrotreater
units into mild hydrocracking opera-
tions to achieve the flexibility to opti-
mize overall product mix. He discussed
examples of refineries that have taken
that approach using UOP technology.
Low-sulfur fuels
Worldwide, fuel-quality standards
are tightening, and sulfur content of
fuels has been steadily declining. It is
likely that eventually, sulfur content
in fuels will settle around 10 ppm for
most of the world. The need to further
reduce sulfur in transportation fuels
is driving the need for additional
hydrotreating capacity to produce
ultralow-sulfur diesel and gasoline.
Hydrotreating refers to the removal
of heteroatoms (effectively sulfur and
nitrogen) and the saturation of olefins
and aromatic compounds.
Jean-Luc Nocca, CEO at Axens S.A.
(Rueil-malmaison, France; www.axens.
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net) points to technologies that add hy-
drogen and remove sulfur compounds,
such as thiols, thiophenes and organic
sulfides, as growing in importance.
Several new announcements made at
the AFPM have relevance for produc-
tion of low-sulfur fuels with hydrodes-
ulfurization catalysts. Axens recently
announced that its Impulse brand of
hydrotreating catalysts is now being
manufactured at full scale. Impulse is
a series of a cobalt-modified, molybde-
num-based catalysts for hydrotreat-
ment of refined product streams.
The Impulse catalysts are designed
to minimize the occurrence of inactive
Mo- and Co-containing compounds at
the catalyst surface, making more Mo
atoms available for incorporation into
mixed cobalt-molybdenum active sites,
which have the highest catalyst activ-
ity, Axens says. Also the companys
Impulse technology forms smaller-
sized MoS
2
slabs, which increases the
number of mixed active sites without
increasing the total number of atoms.
With the new Impulse catalysts, Axens
also narrowed the distribution of pore
sizes in the catalyst support material,
fostering maximum activity towards
refractory species, the company says.
In pilot- and full-scale tests of ul-
tralow-sulfur diesel fuel, Axens says
it confirmed an increase in hydrodes-
ulfurization activity with the Impulse
technology compared to its previous
catalyst product.
Haldor-Topse A/S (Lyngby, Den-
mark; www.topsoe.com) discussed a
recent offering to its hydrotreating
catalyst product line that is designed
to improve the companys existing hy-
drotreating catalyst technology. Hy-
Brim catalyst is produced using a pro-
prietary preparation step that leads
to optimal interactions between the
active metal structures and the cata-
lyst carrier, the company says, leading
to higher activities.
Criterion Catalysts and Technolo-
gies (Houston; www.criterioncatalyst.
com) announced the first commercial
application of a product desinged to
prevent poisoning of hydrotreating
catalysts by arsenic, a potent poison
for hydrotreating catalysts. The prod-
uct, MaxTrap[As]syn, traps the arse-
nic that can be present sometimes
in high levels in some crude oils,
such as those from the Athabasca re-
gion in Canada.
Max Ovchinikov, a senior research
chemist at Criterion, says that the de-
position of only 0.1 wt.% arsenic on a
hydrodesulfurization and hydrodeni-
trogenation catalyst reduces catalyst
activities by as much as 50%. His-
torically, arsenic poisoning has been
treated as a part of natural catalyst
deactivation, Ovchinikov noted. For
the past nine years, his company has
introduced a series of arsenic guard
catalysts, and its MaxTrap[As]syn is
the latest offering. The catalyst ex-
hibits a 70% better volumetric arsenic
uptake capacity compared to its prede-
cessor, Ovchinikov says. The improve-
Cover Story
For more information, contact us at
processplants@mustangeng.com, call 713-215-8000
or visit www.mustangeng.com/process.
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ment is due to an improved catalyst
manufacturing process that enhances
the kinetics of arsenic capture, he ex-
plains. The first commercial applica-
tion was established in Q1 of 2013.
New developments
At the AFPM meeting, a number of
companies announced new advance-
ments in other areas.
For example, zeolite technology
firm Rive Technology Inc. (Monmouth
Junction, N.J.; www.rivetechnology.
com), announced the second com-
mercial use of its Molecular Highway
technology for fluid catalytic crack-
ing (FCC) catalysts. Deployed com-
mercially at the Alon Refinery in Big
Spring, Tex., Molecular Highway cat-
alyst generated a $2.50/bbl increase
in value, according to a presentation
by Larry Dight, vice president of re-
search and development at Rive.
Rive first introduced the technology
in 2011 (Chem. Eng., May 2011, pp.
1722), when it was used at the Coun-
tryMark refinery in Mount Vernon,
Ind. Molecular Highway technology
is brought to market in collaboration
with W.R. Grace and Co. (Columbia,
Md.; www.grace.com), which formu-
lates and manufactures the catalyst.
Weve had six commercial-scale man-
ufacturing runs so far, says David
Aldous, CEO of Rive. This technol-
ogy offers a rare chance for refiners to
realize gains in profitability without
large capital expenditures and with-
out higher operating costs, he says.
Using surfactant micelles, Rive is
able to create a zeolite structure with
larger, mesoporous openings inter-
spersed along with the microporous
zeolite structures. The larger open-
ings allow improved mass transfer of
hydrocarbon molecules into and out
of the catalyst material, says Andrew
Dougherty, Rives vice president for
sales and marketing. By getting gaso-
line- and diesel-range molecules out of
the zeolite quickly, we are able to pre-
vent secondary cracking, Dougherty
explains, resulting in less dry gas and
less coke formation (Figure 3).
Also at the meeting, Auterra Inc.
(Malta, N.Y.; www.auterrainc.com) an-
nounced that it has successfully com-
pleted pilot-scale testing of FlexDS, its
oxydesulfurization technology for up-
grading and decontaminating heavy
and sour crude oil and oil distillates.
Theres an environmental paradox
with desulfurization, where the more
sulfur you try to remove, the more
energy you use and the more carbon
dioxide you generate, says Eric Bur-
nett, president and CEO of Auterra.
The catalytic FlexDS technology uses
a proprietary molecule whose struc-
ture allows selective reactions with
sulfur and nitrogen in hydrocarbon
streams, while reducing energy costs,
Burnett explains, so petroleum pro-
ducers can field-upgrade their heavy
sour oil while improving their econom-
ics. FlexDS can be used for off-loading
hydrogen demand for heavy cuts and
distillates in existing refineries.
Following the completion of pilot-
scale tests, we are looking to conduct
field tests of the technology in early
2014 with a partner in the Canadian
oil sands, says Burnett.
Scott Jenkins
AUMA Riester GmbH & Co. KG
P.O. Box 1362 79373 Muellheim, Germany
Tel. +49 7631 809-0 riester@auma.com
AUMA Actuators Inc.
100 Southpointe Blvd. Canonsburg, PA 15317, USA
Tel. +1 724-743-AUMA (2862) mailbox@auma-usa.com
Defining the limit as standard
Actuators for the
oil and gas industry
AUMA offer a comprehensive range of
explosion-proof actuator and gearbox types
combined with suitable actuator controls for
the oil and gas industry.

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integration

Reliable corrosion protection

Suitable for all conventional eldbus
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Approved worldwide
www.auma.com
Channel gasoline & diesel out of the zeolite

Rive Technology can control the
amount and size of the mesopores
Small pores in conventional Y zeolite
are not optimal for cracking
Rive Zeolite
UnRived Zeolite
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way in
Easy
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Y Zeolite
FIGURE 3. The frst commercial results for Rive Technology's Molecular Highways
technology, where networks of larger-sized pores are integrated into the zeolite struc-
ture, were announced at the AFPM meeting in March
Newsfront
T
he U.S. Occupational Safety and
Health Admin. (OSHA; Wash-
ington, D.C.; www.osha.gov) has
flagged combustible dusts as one
of its top issues since the Imperial
Sugar Mill explosion in Port Went-
worth, Georgia, that killed 14 em-
ployees and injured many others in
February 2008. Combustible dust is,
in fact, one of OSHAs National Em-
phasis Programs (NEPs).
The situation today
Despite the attention, however, OSHA
does not yet actually have its own
standard pertaining to combustible
dust (see sidebar, Combustible Dust
101). Instead, the agency cites com-
bustible dust hazards including
fire deflagration, explosion and re-
lated hazards under its General
Duty Clause (5(a)(1)). General Duty
Clause citations related to combus-
tible dust may be issued for deflagra-
tion, explosion or other fire hazards
that may be caused by combustible
dust within a dust collection system
or other containers, such as bins or
mixers. Compliance officers may rely
upon National Fire Protection Agency
(NFPA; Quincy, Mass.; www.nfpa.org)
standards for evidence of recognition
of the hazard, as well as consult rel-
evant NFPA standards for evidence of
feasible means of abatement. OSHA
inspectors can also cite hazards not
addressed in consensus standards
under the General Duty Clause. This
includes the statement that employ-
ers must furnish each employee with a
place of employment that is free from
recognized hazards that are causing,
or are likely to cause, death or serious
physical harm.
According to the Status Report on
the Combustible Dust NEP, 11% of
combustible-dust-related violations
pertain to the General Duty Clause.
Citations can also be issued for
deflagration, explosion or other fire
hazards that may be caused by com-
bustible dust within a dust collection
system or other containers, such as
mixers and bins. In addition, citations
can be issued for conditions such as
improper deflagration venting, duct-
work-related problems, make-up air
system and improper work practices.
What this means, in a nutshell, is
that although there is currently no
OSHA standard for combustible dusts,
based upon a National Emphasis Pro-
gram established by OSHA and Con-
gress, OSHA can fine facilities that
arent in compliance with relevant
NFPA standards during routine in-
spections or inspections under the
NEP, which generally occur in facilities
that have accidents, fatalities or com-
plaints related to combustible dust or
in industries with a higher potential
for combustible dust explosions and
fires. (And, you can bet many chemical
processors are in this category.)
Confused? You arent alone. Sup-
pliers of dust collection equipment
and systems say the uncertainty
surrounding combustible dust com-
pliance is the biggest challenge the
chemical or any other combus-
Newsfront
While understanding
combustible dust
regulations can be
difficult, experts stress
the importance of
compliance
FIGURE 1. Reputable air-pollution-con-
trol experts can recommend appropriate
systems like United Air Specialists SFC
cartridge dust collector, which can be
equipped and installed to safely handle
hazardous dusts
COMBUSTIBLE DUST 101
W
hat is a combustible dust? Ac-
cording to both OSHA (CPL 03-
00-008) and NFPA 654, a com-
bustible dust is a combustible particulate
solid that presents a fire or deflagration
hazard when suspended in air or some
other oxidizing medium over a range
of concentrations, regardless of particle
size or shape.
The most common categories of com-
bustible dust include organic dusts, such
as sugar, flour, paper, soap and dried
blood; wood dusts, including sawdust;
metal dusts, such as aluminum and mag-
nesium; plastic dusts and carbon dusts.
When it comes to knowing how to
handle these dusts, there are four main
standards for a variety of industries and
several consensus standards related to
equipment that apply.
The four main combustible dust stan-
dards are as follows:
Standard for the Prevention of Fires
and Dust Explosions in Agricultural
and Food Processing Facilities (NFPA
61-2008)
Standard for Combustible Metals,
Metal Powders and Metal Dusts (NFPA
484-2009)
and Dust Explosions from the Manu-
facturing, Processing and Handling of
Combustible Particulate Solids (NFPA
654-2006)
and Dust Explosions in Wood Pro-
cessing and Woodworking Facilities
(NFPA 664-2007)
Additional Combustible dust consensus
standards are as follows:
Explosion Protection by Deflagration
Venting (NFPA 68-2007)
Explosion Prevention Systems (NFPA
69-2008)
Classification of combustible Dusts
and Hazardous (Classified) Locations
(NFPA 49902008)
COMBUSTIBLE
DUST SAFETY
United Air Specialists
SEVEN SEAS
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JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY COMBUSTION, CUSTOMER-FOCUSED LIKE NO OTHER.
Newsfront
tible-dust-producing industry
faces. There really are no clear-cut
guidelines, says Jamie Scott, vice
president of Air Handling Systems
(Woodbridge, Conn.; www.airhand.
com). And this makes awareness and
understanding the two biggest obsta-
cles to compliance when it comes to
combustible dust. Its a double-edged
sword, because although some proces-
sors dont know exactly how to be in
compliance due to a lack of an OSHA
standard, they still can be cited dur-
ing random or NEP inspections with-
out even realizing theyre doing any-
thing wrong.
In an effort to avoid these citations,
many chemical processors now are
beginning to upgrade their dust col-
lection equipment, but that also pres-
ents challenges. There are so many
different aspects of a system in terms
of capturing, conveying and collecting
the material in a safe and effective
way. These steps include proper hood
design, duct layouts, equipment
selection, blower sizing, safety
considerations for the workers
and the combustible dust or explo-
sion hazards of the collected mate-
rial, says Travis Haynam, director of
business development and technical
sales with United Air Specialists, Inc.
(Cincinnati, Ohio; www.uasinc.com).
Every one of these aspects is critical
and if one is not done correctly, the sys-
tem may not meet the performance re-
quirements or customer expectations.
Compounding that problem is the
issue that dust collection is what is
considered by many to be a non-value-
added expenditure. Everyone knows
they need to make their process safer
and that knowledge is pushing pro-
cessors to upgrade their dust collec-
tion equipment, but if they are barely
making a profit at the moment, they
dont want to spend money on some-
thing that is not going to make them
money, says Matt Caulfield, Cana-
dian sales director and Northeast
regional manager with Camfil APC
(Jonesboro, Ark.; www.farrapc.com).
But they must [invest in upgrades]
because they also dont want to get
shut downor worse.
Taking action
The first step in overcoming the con-
fusion and getting the right equip-
ment with the lowest possible capital
FIGURE 2. The GPC
Cyclonic Dust Collector
offers cyclonic action that is
initiated by a sloped spiral inlet and vor-
tex reversal is accomplished by the use of
a solid ground plate. The unique design
provides a high-efficiency, compact unit
that is available in horizontal or vertical
confgurations
Aerodyne
ducting design and equipment type
can be discussed. Keep in mind that
different dusts require different solu-
tions when selecting and configuring
equipment. And, of course, combusti-
ble dusts require adequate means of
protection, such as explosion venting
or suppression systems.
Unfortunately theres not a one-size-
fits-all solution. Each material, each
process and each facility has different
dust-collection and dust-safety needs
and requirements, explains Caulfield.
Other issues to keep in mind
However, experts warn that even a
properly selected, sized and installed
dust-collection system is not enough.
Other steps are needed to achieve
complete compliance, and to protect
employees and assets.
Housekeeping is the first line of de-
fense in fighting the dust battle, no
matter the type of dust. Fugitive dust
is often a problem because it collects
on hung or dropped ceilings, flat duct-
ing and flat hanging lights, says Scott.
Anywhere that dust can accumulate
out of sight is a problem because if
there is a fire or explosion in a facility,
the initial explosion shakes the build-
ing, which releases the dust sitting on
these surfaces and, as the flames from
the initial fire tear through the facil-
ity, this released fuel (the fugitive, dis-
persed dust) can be ignited, creating
additional explosions. For this reason,
it is imperative to collect dust at its
source and keep up with housekeep-
ing to prevent it from accumulating
on these surfaces.
While dust collection equipment is
often viewed as a necessary evil, Dan-
iel Novicky, sales engineer at Aerodyne
Environmental, Inc. (Chagrin Falls,
Ohio; www.dustcollectorhq.com), says
there are ways to minimize the expense
associated with it. Look for equipment
that limits downtime, reduces the fre-
quency of maintenance and the cost
of working on that equipment, as well
as well-made equipment that does not
need frequent replacement.
Worker training is also very impor-
tant. OSHA interviews your employ-
ees, says Scott. They want to know
if the workers are aware of, trained
about and know how to handle issues.
So training your employees on haz-
ardous dust handling goes a long way
toward avoiding OSHA citations and
loss related to explosions.
Joy LePree
Newsfront
1 9 7 1 P l y m o u t h D u s t e r
C r e a t i n g V a l u e .
C a r v e r P u m p C o m p a n y
2 4 1 5 P a r k A v e n u e
M u s c a t i n e , I A 5 2 7 6 1
5 6 3 . 2 6 3 . 3 4 1 0
F a x : 5 6 3 . 2 6 2 . 0 5 1 0
w w w . c a r v e r p u m p . c o m
D o y o u h a v e f l o w s u p t o
9 , 0 0 0 G P M ( 2 , 0 0 0
m 3 / h r ) , h e a d s u p t o
7 2 0 f t ( 2 2 0 M ) , s p e e d s
u p t o 3 , 5 0 0 R P M , a n d
t e m p e r a t u r e s u p t o 6 0 0 F
( 3 1 5 C ) ? T h e n y o u n e e d C a r v e r P u m p
A P I M a x u m S e r i e s m u s c l e !
S p e c i f i c a l l y d e s i g n e d t o m e e t t h e n e e d s o f t h e
H y d r o c a r b o n P r o c e s s i n g I n d u s t r y , t h e A P I M a x u m
S e r i e s i s f u l l y c o m p l i a n t w i t h A P I 6 1 0 S p e c i f i c a t i o n s .
M a n u f a c t u r e d i n 3 5 s i z e s , s t a n d a r d m a t e r i a l s o f
c o n s t r u c t i o n i n c l u d e S - 4 , S - 6 , C - 6 a n d D - 1 , w i t h
o t h e r s a v a i l a b l e u p o n r e q u e s t . S t a n d a r d f e a t u r e s
i n c l u d e a 6 8 2 M e c h a n i c a l S e a l c o m p a t i b l e s e a l
c h a m b e r a n d t h e a b i l i t y t o o p e r a t e u p t o 4 0 0 F
w i t h o u t e x t e r n a l c o o l i n g . O p t i o n s i n c l u d e a v a r i e t y
o f m e c h a n i c a l s e a l s , l u b r i c a t i o n / c o o l i n g a r r a n g e -
m e n t s , a u x i l i a r y p r o t e c t i o n d e v i c e s a n d c e r t i f i e d
t e s t i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s . W h a t e v e r y o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s ,
l e t u s b u i l d t h e m u s c l e y o u n e e d !
A P I M a x u m
A P I M a x C E P M D u s t e r 0 4 0 1 1 3 v 4 _ L a y o u t 1 4 / 1 / 1 3 4 : 0 6 P M P a g e 1
FIGURE 4. Camfl APCs Integrated
Safety Monitoring Filter (iSMF) requires
no additional foor space and prevents
collected dust from re-entering the work-
space should there be a leak in the pri-
mary fltering system
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A laboratory mixer that supplies
data for scaleup
The L5 Series laboratory mixers
(photo) are suitable for R&D, qual-
ity analysis and standard laboratory
work. The mixers have a capacity
range from 1 mL up to 12 L, and are
able to mix inline with flowrates up
to 20 L/min. Each machine is con-
structed with wetted parts in grade
316L stainless steel. The L5M-A lab-
oratory mixer features touchscreen
control with digital tachometer, pro-
grammable integral timer and am-
perage display, which is invalu-
able in scaling up production,
where validation and reproduc-
ibility are crucial, says the company.
Silverson Machines Inc., East
Longmeadow, Mass.
www.silverson.com
This drum mixer ts
on a laboratory bench
The new Ploughshare Type N
5 laboratory mixer (photo)
features a drum with a
volume of 5 L. The mixer
was conceived as a com-
pact, table-top model, and
comes completely assembled,
tested and thus ready for use. The
control unit is an integral part of the
housing. The speed of the mixer shaft
is infinitely adjustable. The detachable
front plate can be rotated for filling and
emptying the mixing vessel through
the same neck, which also facilitates
cleaning. A range of optional accesso-
ries is available, including a feeding
hopper or spray lid for dosing liquid
products. Gebr. Ldige Maschinen-
bau GmbH, Paderborn, Germany
www.loedige.de
If the port is too small,
consider this folding impeller
This new high-performance folding
impeller is suitable for new and ret-
rofit installations where tank entry
is not practical or too expensive.
The Folding Blade Hyflo 218 Impel-
lers (photo) feature a hydrofoil-style,
four-blade design that folds for easy
installation, and opens with centrifu-
gal force, locking in place when fully
opened. Available in sizes up to 210-
in. dia., these
folding impel-
lers enable greater
flexibility in tank designs, and
the blade-locking mechanism can be
accessed from outside the tank for re-
moving the mixer, if necessary. Retro-
fit applications include side entry for
large storage tanks, or top entry when
the tank service has changed and a
new mixer is required. Sharpe
Mixers, Seattle, Wash.
www.sharpemixers.com
Blending can also be performed
by this screw feeder
This new Screw Feeder (photo) is de-
signed to efficiently measure ingre-
dients and consistently deliver ma-
terial to the process. Available with
either volumetric or gravimetric con-
trols, the feeder features an optional
integral agitator, which enables the
feeder to effectively operate as a dry
material mixer. The unit can blend
multiple dry materials, combine thick,
wet mixes, and break up solid lumps.
The trough is available in 304 or 316
stainless steel, carbon steel, or special
alloy material, and can be customized
for specific applications. Hapman,
Kalimazoo, Mich.
www.hapman.com
A robust agitator that
comes in many sizes
The HT Turbine Agitator (photo) fea-
tures a unique design that results
in high strength, low wear, quiet op-
eration and minimal maintenance,
says the manufacturer. The device
has output speeds of 5 to 350 rpm; a
compact, right-angle gear drive; and
tapered roller bearings with service
rated to over 100,000 hours (L-10)
life. Thirteen standard drive sizes are
available, from 1 to 1,000 hp. A wide
variety of mountings, shaft seals and
impellers are available. Chemineer,
Inc., Dayton, Ohio
www.chemineer.com
A blender for mixing hot,
sticky materials
The new high-temperature, high-
intensity continuous blender, Model
HM-165-AR (photo), mixes asphalt,
paints, resins adhesives and other
Note : For more information, circle the 3-digit number
FOCUS ON
Mixing
Silverson
Machines
Ldige
Maschinenbau
Sharpe Mixers
Hapman
Chemineer
abrasive, sticky or tacky compounds,
slurries, emulsions and pastes that
require heat to maintain consistency.
The units horizontal, cylindrical vessel
with a single agitator is supported by
externally mounted flange-block bear-
ings. It can blend at rates up to 2,000
ft
3
/h without sacrificing retention time
for homogeneous blending or coating,
says the manufacturer. Homogeneous
blends can be achieved in 1560 s resi-
dence time, depending on the material
characteristics. Munson Machinery
Company, Inc., Utica, N.Y.
www.munsonmachinery.com
A static mixer for adjusting
bitumen viscosity and density
This company has introduced a static
mixer for bitumen processing that
mixes multiple diluents to the correct
viscosity and density, which allows
pumping over a wide range of flow-
rates. The Model 290 Variable Flow
Static Mixer (photo) is combined with
the companys wafer-style static mixer
to achieve a low coefficient of variation
(CoV) of injected diluents. Capable of
achieving a uniform concentration of
injected materials within a short down-
stream distance, while meeting the
maximum pressure-loss criteria, this
mixer reduces consumption of the bitu-
men diluents, says the company. Accom-
modating flowrates at up to a 20-to-1
turndown ratio, the mixer is made from
316L stainless steel and is available in
sizes from 2- to 60-in. dia. Westfall
Manufacturing Co., Bristol, R.I.
www.westfallmfg.com
This mixer is also
an energy-efcient dryer
The Pegasus Mixer features a double-
shaft paddle mechanism that gently
throws powders, granules and granu-
lates into the air during mixing. The
fluidized zone created allows the mul-
tifunctional processing unit to mix
ingredients extremely gently, quickly
and energy-efficiently, says the com-
pany. The new drying functionality
built into the mixer also takes ad-
vantage of this fluidized zone, and
prevents agglomeration during the
drying process. Dinnissen B.V.,
Sevenum, the Netherlands
www.dinnissen.nl
Mix solids of modest bulk
density with this ribbon blender
The 42B Model Ribbon Blenders
(photo) are used for blending of pow-
ders or other solid raw materials with
a bulk density of 35 lb/ft
3
or lower. The
blender features stainless-steel wet-
ted parts (polished to 60-grit finish);
Munson Machinery
Westfall Manufacturing
THE WORLDS FIRST IMPACT & TORQUE GUN
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a solid-shaft double-ribbon agitator
designed for center discharge; a knife-
gate discharge valve; clamps to elimi-
nate dusting and fume migration;
safety limit switches to prevent opera-
tion when covers are raised; and more.
Units are available from 0.5 to 1,000
ft
3
of working capacity. Charles
Ross & Son Co., Hauppauge, N.Y.
www.mixers.com
Side mixers with xed-angle and
swivel congurations
The Cutlass side-entry mixers now
include the BSE-R fixed-angle and
BSE-R swivel models. The mixers
design features an easy-to-remove,
cartridge-style mechanical seal that al-
lows more room to access and maintain
bearings and seals. The shaft is preci-
sion-machined to reduce vibration and
to increase bearing life. Vibration and
temperature sensors can be mounted
on pads cast into the housing to moni-
tor the unit while in operation. The
drive is protected by a rigid belt cover
with quick-release captive fasteners
and a polycarbonate viewing window
for checking the belt. When coupled
with a Lancer Advanced Pitch Propel-
ler, the Cutlass can yield energy savings
of 30% or more for elimination of basic
sediment and water in crude-oil tanks,
says the company. Philadelphia Mix-
ing Solutions, Ltd., Palmyra, Pa.
www.philamixers.com
A micro static mixer improves
bromination reactions
This company has released an applica-
tion note that describes a continuous
flow methodology for electrophilic bro-
mination that offers excellent control
of both temperature and mixing using
a proprietary mixer chip. Using the
static mixer chip on a FlowSyn flow-
chemistry system controls both mixing
and temperature, which makes bromi-
nation become a titration and the reac-
tion can be performed under elevated
temperatures. The chip-based bromi-
nation can be scaled to 28 g/h, says the
company. The FlowSyn is a compact,
integrated continuous flow-reactor sys-
tem designed for easy, safe and efficient
operation. The FlowSyn range includes
models for performing single or mul-
tiple homogeneous or heterogeneous
reactions, either manually or automati-
cally. Uniqsis Ltd., Shepreth, U.K.
www.uniqsis.com
Gerald Ondrey
Chemical
MineARC Chemical Safe Havens offer a safe, effcient and cost effective muster point alternative
in cases of emergency, such as a fres, explosions or hazardous chemical releases.
Fully custom engineered to site requirements
Solid steel structure with optional blast resistance
Self sustaining for up to 100hrs
Fully transportable by crane or fork-lift
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Charles Ross & Son
Monitor cell growth
with this sensor
The OUSBT66 sensor (photo) is
designed for cell-density mea-
surements using near-infrared
(NIR) absorbance technology.
The non-intrusive, hygienic sen-
sor can monitor cell growth in life
science processes, fermentation
biomass measurement and algae
biofuel applications. The sensor
allows rapid and accurate mea-
surement of cell growth activity
in cultures and can be used for
realtime, in-situ cell-production
optimization and to identify
the end-of-log-growth phase
and the achievement of sta-
tionary growth. The body of
the OUSBT66 sensor is con-
structed of 316L stainless
steel and uses proven optical sen-
sor technology, the company says.
Using an LED light source, the
sensor filters the light to 880 nm,
the detection of which is corre-
lated to the density of cells in the
process. Endress + Hauser, Green-
wood, Ind.
www.us.endress.com
Position this safety light
curtain anywhere
The deTec4 Core safety light curtain
(photo) is a guard-only safety light
curtain with this companys QuickFix
and Flexfix brackets that can be po-
sitioned in any location on machinery
housing without causing blind zones.
The product is designed for hazard-
ous point protection and single-sided
access protection, and can be used in
machine-building and storage and
conveyer applications. With a unique,
built-in automatic range detection of
10 m, the deTec4 Core is able to au-
tomatically determine distance to
the sender, which eliminates manual
setup of the sensing distance, the com-
pany says. The deTec4 Core is avail-
able in heights from 300 to 2,100 mm,
with 14- and 30-mm resolutions.
SICK Inc., Minneapolis, Minn.
www.sickusa.com
Get touchscreen navigation
with this viscometer
The DV2T viscometer (photo) is now
available with touchscreen technology,
which creates an advanced user expe-
rience, the company says. The 5-in.,
full-color display guides users through
test creation and data gathering for
fast and easy viscosity measurements.
The DV2T also offers powerful new
programming capabilities and re-
sults analysis, including data analy-
sis and quality-control limits with
alarms. Program generator software
can create multi-step test protocols.
Brookfield Engineering Laboratories,
Middleboro, Mass.
www.brookfieldengineering.com
This valve handles
very high pressures
This companys CV Series valves
(photo) are capable of continuous op-
eration at pressures up to 20,000 psi.
The valve is available as either an on-
off position model or a three-way, four-
position model. In addition to high
pressures, the patented valve design
can be used in high-temperature appli-
cations and with corrosive fluids. The
CV Series valves are pneumatically
operated via a set of small, low-voltage
pilot valves. The CV valves maintain
a constant internal fluid volume and
do not trap any fluid within the valve
body when switched, the company
says. Vindum Engineering Inc., San
Ramon, Calif.
www.vindum.com
These gas-sampling lters
allow particle-free samples
All-metal inertial gas-sampling (IGS)
filters (photo) from this company allow
the collection of particle-free samples
from virtually any gas stream. Even
heavily contaminated gas streams
and extreme-temperature samples
can be handled by the durable filters,
the company says. Typical applica-
tions include gas sampling in stack
testing, utility coal pulverizers, lime
or cement kilns, fluid catalytic crack-
ers, coking-oven offgas atmospheres
and general emissions-control moni-
toring. The IGS filters feature a cross-
flow design that keeps most particles
in the gas stream greatly reducing
obstruction of the filter element. The
companys porous-metal filter media
is durable and can be used in highly
corrosive environments. Mott Corp.,
Farmington, Conn.
www.mottcorp.com
Endress + Hauser
Brookfield Engineering
Laboratories
Vindum Engineering
Mott
SICK
New Products
This dust-collection system
has a low prole
Two dust collector hoppers, called the
Low Pro (photo) and the Low Boy, are
designed for use where space con-
straints require a low-profile dust-
collection system. The Low Pro hop-
per is best suited to the collection of
dust and fumes from cutting, blasting,
welding and thermal spray operations,
the company says, while the Low Boy
hopper is designed for use in applica-
tions with heavier dust loads involv-
ing a variety of dry dusts. Depending
on the model, the low-profile hoppers
can reduce overall collector height by
as much as 36 in., the company says.
The Low Pro hopper comes with either
a 55-gal drum or a half-size drum, and
has a drum-lid mechanism that read-
ily latches open and shut to expedite
emptying or change-out. The Low Boy
consists of a clamp-on angled hopper
and low-profile bin. Camfil APC,
Jonesboro, Ark.
www.camfilapc.com
Use this hose reel
in harsh environments
The 9000 Series industrial manual or
power rewind hose reel is designed for
harsh environments in chemical pro-
cessing, food processing and bottling
applications. The reels handle hoses
with inner diameters of between 2
and 3 in., and have a gear-driven
crank rewind or a chain-and-sprocket
drive. The unit can be powered by an
electric, hydraulic or compressed-air
motor. It has a standard 90-deg, ball-
bearing swivel joint and 3-in. female
pipe threads. The 9000 Series operates
at pressures up to 300 psi and is able
to withstand temperatures from 20 to
225F. The product can also be custom-
ized to fit other special requirements.
Hannay Reels, Westerlo, N.Y.
www.hannay.com
This thickness gage offers
more transducer choices
The EHC-09A thickness gage offers
a number of features, including field-
upgradable options for more trans-
ducer choices, the capability to ignore
coatings and a live A-scan. It is said to
be the only entry-level thickness gage
available with this capability. The de-
vice has three probes, a default, as well
as others for thicker materials, and
smaller-diameter, thinner materials.
Danatronics Corp., Danvers, Mass.
www.danatronic.com
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Department Editor: Scott Jenkins
M
inimizing process variability is an
important component of a plants prof-
itability. The performance of control
valves within process control loops has a
signicant impact on maintaining consistent
processes. This refresher outlines some of the
important aspects of control valve perfor-
mance, including parameters of both the
static response and the dynamic response.
Static response
A valves static response refers to mea-
surements that are made with data points
recorded when the device is at rest. Key
static-response parameters for control valves
include travel gain, dead band and resolu-
tion (Figure 1).
Travel gain (G
x
). This term represents the
change in position of the valve closure
member divided by the change in input
signal. Both quantities are expressed as
a percentage of the full valve span. The
closure member is part of the valve trim (the
combination of ow-control elements inside
a valve). Travel gain measures how well the
valve system positions its closure member
compared to the input signal it receives.
Without signal characterization in the valve
system, the travel gain should be 1.0. [1]
Dead band. This term can be dened as
the range through which an input signal
may be varied, with reversal of direction,
without initiating a response (an observable
change in output signal). With respect to
control valve performance, if the process
controller attempts to reverse the position of
the control valve, the valve will not begin
to move until after the controller output has
reversed an amount greater than the dead
band. A large dead band will negatively
impact control performance.
Resolution. This term can be dened as the
minimum amount of change in valve shaft
position when an input is applied. Resolu-
tion will cause the control valve to move
in discrete steps in response to small, step
input changes in the same direction. This
occurs as the valve travel sticks (when the
starting friction on the valve shaft is greater
than the friction when the shaft is in motion).
Similar to dead band, a larger resolution
will negatively impact control performance.
Dynamic response
Dynamic response for a control valve is the
time-dependent response resulting from a
time-varying input signal.
Dead time. This term refers to the time after
the initiation of an input change and before
the start of the resulting observable response.
Step response time. This term represents
the interval of time between initiation of an
input-signal step change and the moment
that the dynamic response reaches 86.5%
of its full, steady-state value [1]. The step
response time includes the dead time before
the dynamic response.
Overshoot. This term is the amount by which
a step response exceeds its nal, steady-state
value. Overshoot is usually expressed as a
percentage of the full change in steady-state
value. Figure 2 shows the dead time, step
response time and over-
shoot for a control valve
response to a step input
change. In this case,
stem position in percent
of travel is used as the
control valve output.
Step-change size. The
dynamic response of
a control valve varies
depending upon the
size of the input step
change. Four ranges
of step sizes to help
understand the static-
and dynamic- response
metrics are dened by
ANSI/ISA standards:
Small input steps (Re-
gion 1) that result in no
measurable movement
of the closure member
within the specied
wait time
Input step changes
that are large enough
to result in some
control-valve response
with each input signal
change, but the re-
sponse does not satisfy
the requirements of
the specied time and
linearity (Region 2)
Step changes that are
large enough to result
in ow coefcient
changes, which sat-
isfy both the specied
maximum response
time and the specied
maximum linearity
(Region 3)
Input steps larger than
in Region 3 where the specied magnitude-
response linearity is satised but the speci-
ed response time is exceeded (Region 4)
Region 1 is directly related to dead band
and resolution. Region 2 is a highly nonlinear
region that causes performance problems and
should be minimized. Region 3 is the range of
input movements that are important to control
performance [1].
Process gain
Process gain is the ratio of the change in
a given process variable to the change in
controller output that caused the change.
To achieve effective process control, the pro-
cess gain should ideally fall within a certain
range, and should be consistent throughout
the operating range of the valve. When the
process gain is too high, valve non-lineari-
ties are amplied by the process gain and
process control performance deteriorates.
When the process gain is too low, the
range of control is reduced. Changes in the
process gain over the range of operation
result in poorly performing regions in the
closed-loop controller response.
Two control-valve features impact process
gain: the size of the valve trim and the inher-
ent ow characteristic of the valve. If the
valve trim is oversized, the process gain will
be higher than it would be for an appropri-
ately sized valve. The valves ow character-
istic refers to the curve relating percentage of
ow to percentage of valve travel. Inherent
ow characteristic applies when constant
pressure drop is maintained across the valve.
Typically linear, quick opening or equal per-
centage, this will impact both the magnitude
and the consistency of the process gain over
the operating range [1]. Good control-valve
performance depends on proper valve sizing
and trim characteristics.
References
1. Beall, James, Improving Control Valve Perfor-
mance, Chem. Eng., Oct. 2010, pp. 4145.
2. Emerson Entech, Control Valve Dynamic Speci-
cation, Version 3.0, November 1998.
3. Hoop, Emily, Control Valves: An Evolution in
Design, Chem. Eng., August 2012, pp. 4851.
4. Ruel, M., A simple method to determine control
valve performance and its impacts on control
loop performance, Top Control Inc., Swanton,
Vt., white paper, 2001.
5. International Society of Automation (ISA) and
American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
ANSI-ISA-TR75-25-02-2000, Control Valve Re-
sponse Measurement from Step Inputs, 2000.
6. Neles-Jamesbury Inc., The Valve Book, Neles-
Jamesbury, Worchester, Mass., 1990.
7. Skousen, Philip L., Valve Handbook, McGraw
Hill, New York, 1998.
Editors note: Portions of this page were adapted
from the article in Ref. 1.
Control Valve
Performance
Input
a < resolution b
c dead band < d
c
d
Time
Dynamics are not shown
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
a
b
Output
I
n
p
u
t
,

s
t
e
m

%
35
0 10
Travel gain = 0.91
Time to steady state, T
ss
= 18.3 s
Time, s
Final steady-state
average values
input = 37.84, stem = 37.65
Initial overshoot to 38.11 = 23%
Stem
Input
86.5% of response, T
86
= 2.06 s
Dead time T
d
=1.6 s
Initial steady state average values, input and stem = 35.67
20 30
36
37
38
39
FIGURE 1. Dead band and resolution, illustrated here, are
key static-response parameters for control valves
FIGURE 2. This graph shows the response of a control valve
to a step input (reprinted with permission from EnTech Con-
trol Valve Dynamic Specifcation V3.0)
DO YOU HAVE
WHAT IT TAKES?
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COMPANY AWARDS
Unit Operations Awards
Innovative Energy Use Award
Best Process Plant Facility
Improvement Award
The Safety Investment Award
Community Service Award
Early Adopter Award
Process Control and Automation Award
INDIVIDUAL AWARDS
Jack of all trades Award
Next Generation Award
(fewer than 15 years experience)
Plant Manager of the Year
PRESENTED BY:
2013 Chemical Engineering &
ChemInnovations Awards
Nominations are now being accepted
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be announced during the 2013 Chemical
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SUBMISSION DEADLINE -
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AchemAsia 2013
W
ith more than 400
exhibitors from over
20 countries, Ache-
mAsia 2013 is the
most international trade fair for
the chemical process industries
(CPI) in Asia. Held every three
years since 1989, the event is ex-
pected to draw upwards of 12,000
visitors, says organizer Dechema
e.V. (Frankfurt am Main, Germany;
www.dechema.de). Held in the CNCC
China National Convention Center,
Beijing, the exhibition program cov-
ers the complete CPI spectrum, from
laboratory and analytical techniques
to plant construction, and spans the
sectors from food and pharmaceuticals
to petrochemicals. A special focus this
year is on the environment and water
treatment.
As in previous years, AchemAsia
2013 includes the accompanying con-
gress program, with papers presented
in areas such as plant equipment and
construction, process analysis and
chemical separation technology, alter-
natives to petroleum, environmental
protection and industrial water treat-
ment. This year, the congress will take
the form of themed satellite symposia
co-organized with partners. Readers
of Chemical Engineering magazine
will be interested in these satellite
symposia. The Separation Technol-
ogy Symposia, for example, runs May
1516, and is hosted by Dechema, the
Chemical Industry and Engineering
Society of China (CIESC) and China
National Chemical Information Cen-
ter (CNCIC). Topics covered over these
two days include distillation, new
types of separation technology, mem-
brane separation, and filtration and
cyclone separation.
This mobile phone can be used
in hazardous zones
The Advantage 1.0 (photo) is said to
be the worlds first ATEX and IEC-Ex
Zone 1/21 mobile phone with 3G tech-
nology. The device is a very robust,
dust- and water-proof industry mobile
phone, according to IP 67. It with-
stands drops from 2 m, weighs only
180 g, and can be used at temperatures
between 20 and 60C. The device has
a 2-megapixel camera and LED flash
that allows users to take pictures in
Ex Zone 1/21. For lone-worker appli-
cations, the phone features a motion
sensor, a very accurate GPS function-
ality and an S.O.S. button. Stand C12
i.safe Mobile GmbH, Lauda-Knig-
shofen, Germany
www.isafe-mobile.com
Plastic makes these centrifugal
pumps resist corrosives
Since 1962, this company has been
manufacturing horizontal and verti-
cal centrifugal pumps to handle cor-
rosive and abrasive fluids. The pumps
are made of various thermoplastics
(PP, PVDF, PE-UHMW, PFA, PTFE)
or stainless steel (AISI 316, 316L,
904L and Hastelloy). The pumps can
be equipped with mechanical seals or
magnetic drives, and are machined
in thick parts of plastic to make
them robust. Most recently, the
company has introduced the first cen-
trifugal pump with thick parts made of
PEEK (polyether etherketone), which
offers temperature resistance of over
200C and chemical resistance to sol-
vents, acids, bases and more. On dis-
play at the stand is a NP 80-50-200
pump (photo) made of PVDF, with
ATEX explosion-proof standards. This
horizontal non-metallic pump is ISO
2858 standard. Stand G36 Someflu,
Bagnolet, France
www.someflucom
Bellows-sealed valves for
really hazardous chemicals
For 40 years, this company has de-
veloped and manufactured bellows-
sealed globe valves (photo) for haz-
ardous applications in the chemical,
petrochemical and nuclear industries.
The companys complete range of
manual, actuated on-off and control
bellows-sealed globe valves is now
EuroChlor approved, according to the
new GEST 06/318 specifications used
on liquid chlorine. The company has
experience in processes involving chlo-
rine and anhydrous HCl (chlor-alkali,
MDI, TDI, VCM/PVC, EDC), as well as
anhydrous HF (HF alkylation, fluoro-
chemicals, polysilicones and semicon-
ductor gases). Stand G22 descote
s.a.s., Feyzin, France
www.descote.com
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013 32I-1
Note : For more information, circle the 3-digit number
Show
Preview
Someflu
i.safe
Mobile
descote
32I-2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
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Mag-drive pumps for
challenging environments
This companys magnetic-drive
pumps now exceed driving
power of 515 kW, with flowrates
of 3,500 m
3
/h, delivery heads of
160 m and system pressures
from PN 16 to 400. They can op-
erate at temperatures of 450C
without external cooling and can
handle viscosities of over 3,000
cP-s. An API 685 pump (photo)
includes such features as: a double-
wall isolation shell to provide second-
ary containment; protecting rub rings
to avoid damage to the isolation shell
coming from the rotating inner and
outer magnetic ring; a 300-lb center-
line supported casing; confined control
compression gaskets; renewable wear
rings; anti-friction bearings designed
for 50,000 h; and non-sparking laby-
rinth rings. Stand E8 Ningbo Klaus
Union, Ningbo, China
www.clausunion.com

A power tool for
opening and closing valves
The EasiDrive portable valve actuator
(photo) effortlessly opens and closes
valves in petroleum refineries, power
plants, paper mills and chemical pro-
cessing plants. Generating a torque
of up to 2,000 Nm, this tool enables
a single operator to efficiently drive
multiple valves with a single tool,
while reducing fatigue and risk of in-
jury. EasiDrive II features a variable
output torque, controlled by a choice
of preset Filter Regulator Lubricator
(FRL) packs. These FRL packs manage
the output available to drive the valve,
preventing human error that can lead
to improper use of the system, while
also ensuring that the proper torque
is applied at all times. The EasiDrive
system can be powered by air, elec-
tricity or battery. Stand S23 Smith
Flow Control Ltd., Beijing, China
www.smithflowcontrol.com
A selection of pumps
for handling viscous uids
This company is launching the new
extrex EA, a localized extrusion pump
suitable for most extrusion applica-
tions, delivering a differential pressure
of up to 200 bars. The pumps are as-
sembled in the companys new facility
in Shanghai, and integrate key com-
ponents, such as gears and bearings
made in the companys European facil-
ities. Other popular pumps will also be
exhibited, including the cinox and ther-
minox self-priming, corrosion-resistant,
heatable stainless-steel gear pumps.
The company is also exhibiting models
from its sister companies, including the
Almatec E-Series plastic air-operated
double-diaphragm (AODD) pump,
which features a housing of polyethyl-
ene (PE) with an abrasion resistance
1.6 times higher than steel. It is also
available in polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE), as well as conductive PE and
PTFE for explosion-proof conditions.
Stand H7 Maag Pump Systems,
Oberglatt, Switzerland
www.maag.com
If your plant is not performing,
consider this engineering service
Launched in 2012, Process Care Solu-
tion (photo, p. 32I-4) is a service that
provides a team of experienced engi-
neers and other experts with knowl-
Ningbo Klaus Union
Smith
Flow Control
What Bear discovered:

SBS Steel Belt Systems designs and
builds continuous conveyors for a
wide range of applications, equipped
with steel belts from Berndorf Band.
Having been pioneers in the
development of pastillating units,
SBS now provides turnkey solutions
along with cooling conveyors for the
solidication of liquid sulphur into
pastilles.
Rolldrop
and Accudrop
are
registered trademarks of SBS Steel
Belt Systems.
Detailed information at
www.steelbeltsystems.com
Endless steel belt systems for the
chemical & petrochemical industry
Partner of
SBS Steel Belt Systems s.r.l.
I-21040 Venegono Inferiore, Italy
Phone: (+39)0331/864841
Fax: (+39)0331/864959
info@steelbeltsystems.it
V
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edge and expertise in process engineering and project
management, to rapidly provide solutions to problems that
arise in day-to-day management of industrial plants. In ad-
dition to the team, the company has the tools needed for as-
sessing a situation, including ultrasonic flow, temperature,
energy, thickness and so on. Among the issues Process Care
Solutions deals with are: audits and diagnostics, malfunc-
tions, design calculations of equipment, optimization and
reliability of processes, energy optimization; and qualifica-
tion, validation and training. Stand G26 INEVO Tech-
nologies, Caluire et Cuire, France
www.inevo.fr
Thermal treatment of residues
with heat recovery
Regardless of whether one is producing acrylic acid, butane-
diol, tetrahydrofuran or other chemicals, residues will arise
that need to be disposed of. This company delivers turnkey
thermal utilization plants (photo, p. 32I-5) for these and
other production facilities that ensure not only the residues
are disposed of in a safe and environmentally sound man-
ner, but also that recovers the waste heat for the production
of power. The heat from the combustion process is recovered
and used to produce steam, which can be used for process
steam or transformed into electricity via a steam turbine.
The company operates globally in the field of plant construc-
tion, energy recovery and environmental technology. With
more than 160 years of experience, the company is a market
leader for waste-heat recovery systems in iron and steel met-
allurgy, non-ferrous metallurgy, environmental and chemical
technologies. Stand G18 Oschatz GmbH, Essen, Germany
www.oschatz.com
Metering pumps that exceed
API 675 performance standards
The Hydro-Cell Metering Solutions line is comprised of
six metering pumps (photo, p. 32I-5) ranging in capacity
from 0.32 to 894.6 gal/h (1.21 to 3,386.4 L/h), with pressure
ratings from 50 to 2,599 psi (3.4172 bars). These pumps
use variable frequency-drive electronic-flow adjustment to
maintain greater accuracy throughout the turndown range,
thereby meeting or exceeding API 675 performance stan-
dards by providing steady-state accuracy of 1% or better,
linearity of 3% or better and repeatability of 3% or bet-
ARCA
Flow Group
worldwide:
Competence in valves, pumps & cryogenics
Subsidiaries and partners in Switzerland, the Netherlands,
India, P.R. China, Korea and Mexico!
ECOTROL
control valve
Advantages,
that should not be kept quiet!
High reliability guaranteed by
precision manufacturing processes
and quality control
Emission control and leakage
conforming to the highest international
standards
Tubeless, integrated mounting of
positioners acc. to VDI 3847
Minimal life cycle cost
A range of awarded patents
Take advantage of the most technically
innovative control valve in a generation,
up to DN 400 (16")!
ARCA Regler GmbH, D-47913 Tnisvorst
Phone +49-2156-7709-0, Fax -55, sale@arca-valve.com
www.arca-valve.com
The State
of the Art
solution!
Request
Technical
Information or
a Quotation:
T
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e

Q
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t

W
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eijing
13.16. M
ay 2013
B
ooth E18
INEVO Technologies
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013 32I-5
ter, says the company. Five of the six
models feature multiple diaphragm
designs that virtually eliminate pulsa-
tions. A single Hydra-Cell pump can
often achieve the same capacity as an
ordinary triplex metering-pump ar-
rangement, taking up less floor space
and lowering both investment and
maintenance costs, says the company.
Stand O31 Wanner Pumps Ltd.,
Kowloon, Hong Kong
www.wannerpumps.com
Equipment to blend, ll and ship
powders and granulates
This company designs and manufactur-
ers IBCs (intermediate bulk containers)
and process equipment for the trans-
port, handling and storage of powders
and granulates, such as blenders, dis-
charging stations, valves, lift columns,
filling stations (photo), transfer, dosing
and weighing units, and more. IBCs
are integrated into the production line
as process units, in addition to systems
for filling, discharging, dosing, transfer-
ring, handling and mixing at all stages
of manufacturing. Hall H39, BSI PM
Engineering, Bobigny, France
www.ccpm-lmi.com
MVR technology optimizes en-
ergy use of evaporation plants
The operating costs of direct, steam-
heated evaporators can significantly
be reduced by revamping with me-
chanical vapor recompressors (MVRs),
according to this company. For ex-
ample, a four-effect, directly steam-
heated evaporation plant, designed for
30 ton/h of water evaporation initially
had a heating steam requirement of 8
ton/h of live steam. By revamping and
heating with MVR, the energy demand
could be reduced to 760 kW an op-
erating-cost savings of approximately
1.3 million/yr (based on prices of ap-
prox. 30/ton of steam and 0.1/kWh
and about 8,000 h/yr operation). With
an investment of less than 1.5 mil-
lion, a return on sales after only 14
Vacuum Systems
Process-integrated solutions for
many types of vacuum system.
More than 80 years of ex-
perience in the development,
design, and construction of
steam ejectors and hybrid
vacuum systems.
Thousands of references in
numerous industrial sectors all
over the world.
engineering for a better world
GEA Process Engineering
GEA Wiegand GmbH
Phone: +49 7243 705-0
Internet: www.gea-wiegand.com
AchemAsia
Beijing, P. R. China
13-16 May 2013
German Pavilion, A18
G
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Oschatz
BSI PM Engineering
Wanner Pumps
GEA Wiegand
32I-6 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
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months is expected, says the company.
This technology could be of interest for
existing, as well for new evaporation
plants. At its stand in the German Pa-
vilion, the company will have a dem-
onstration of MVR technology (photo,
p. 32I-5). Stand A18 GEA Wiegand
GmbH, Ettlingen, Germany
www.gea-wiegand.com
Filtration plants and systems
for the CPI
This engineering company is present-
ing its range of filters and filtration
plants for the chemical, food, biotech-
nology and environmental industries.
For example, the Hi-Bar range of con-
tinuous pressure filters is said to offer
new solutions for filtration, washing
and dewatering of fine-grained sus-
pensions. Working pressures range up
to 15 bars (absolute). Hi-Bar plants
are available with horizontal pressure
vessels for large units, and as Oyster
Filters (photo) with vertically opening
vessels for smaller, challeng-
ing applications in the chem-
ical, pharmaceutical and
food industries. Other types
of available filters include
drum filters, with filter sizes
of 0.5 to 125 m
2
; the Dyno Fil-
ter, a dynamic crossflow filter
for ultra- and microfiltration
that enables thickening of
suspensions to unmatched
high concentration and si-
multaneous washing; and
the Boozer disc filters, which
are mainly used in raw-materials sec-
tors, such as alumina refineries, coal
and iron-ore processing. Stand F6
Bokela GmbH, Karlsruhe, Germany
www.bokela.com
CPI equipment fabricated
in France
Over the last 60 years, this manufac-
turer has been fabricating stainless-
steel and nickel-alloy heat exchangers,
reactors, distillation columns (photo,
p. 32I-7), evaporators, separators, con-
densers, and pressure and storage ves-
sels. The company provides process-
engineering solutions for operators in
the chemical, petrochemical, pharma-
ceutical, cosmetics, and food-and-bev-
erage industries as well as the nuclear-
energy sector. The companys team of
engineers and technicians oversee the
entire manufacturing process, from
OHL Gutermuth Industrial Valves GmbH
Helmershuser Strae 9+12 63674 Altenstadt / Germany
Phone +49.60 47. 80 06-0 Fax +49.60 47.80 06-29
www.ohl-gutermuth.de og@ohl-gutermuth.de
B
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sin
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6
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Others simply sell you a product
we offer a solution.
Customized
Valve Design
MADE IN GERMANY
O
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G
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A

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.
PETROCHEMICAL
OIL & GAS
Bokela
initial design to fabrication, testing
and finishing. Stand G26b M. Labbe,
Tournan-en-brie, France
www.labbe-france.fr
Packing hot-melt PSAs and other
tacky products
Eliminate costly silicon paper using
this companys co-extrusion machines
for packing hot-melt pressure-sensitive
adhesives (PSAs) and other tacky prod-
ucts. The hot melt is extruded through
a nozzle, wrapped with a compatible
protector, then pinched to form pillows
and cooled. Pillows can be made with
weights of 301,000 g. Capacities range
from 250 to 2,000 kg/h. Stand H31
JPB Industry, Olonne sur Mer, France
www.jpbindustry.com
Column internals for
efcient separations
For separation columns, this multidis-
ciplinary engineering company offers
a high-performance random packing
called Cascade Mini Ring, which is also
available with a special surface treat-
ment; and a high-performing struc-
tured packing MC Pack (photo), which
has a specialized configuration. Liquid
distributors are available for achieving
high separation efficiencies. These prod-
ucts are most suited for aqueous liquid
applications, as well as those with high
surface tension and low liquid load,
says the company. Stand N2 Matsui
Machine Ltd., Osaka, Japan
www.matsuimachine.co.jp
Concentration and evaporation
plants for acids, alkalis and salts
This engineering company has expe-
rience with more than 200 evapora-
tors and crystallization plants, such
as caustic soda concentration in the
chlor-alkali industry and various salts-
crystallization processes in the CPI.
The company also has broad experi-
ence in the recovery of acids containing
different types of impurities espe-
cially sulfuric acid from the production
of titanium oxide or the bleed acid
from copper refining. Among the pro-
cess technologies offered are: sulfuric
acid recovery, phosphoric acid purifi-
cation, evaporation of acids, bases and
organic and inorganic process liquors,
and crystallization of inorganic salts.
Hall O40 Chematur Ecoplanning
Oy, Pori, Finland
www.chematur.se
Monitor water quality with both
UV and VIS absorbance
The new version of this companys on-
line water analyzer UV500 is dedicated
to process monitoring in the chemical
industry. This analyzer is based on a
2,048-pixel, high-resolution spectro-
graph (0.29 nm) that covers both ul-
traviolet (UV) and visible (VIS) wave-
lengths. A 10.4-in. color touchscreen
displays absorbance graphs with zoom
capabilities. Measurements may be
based on direct UV-VIS absorbance or
on colorimetric methods. Stand G28
Tethys Instruments, Meylan, France
www.tethys-instruments.com
This Taiwan supplier delivers
equipment to the mainland
Established in 1985, this company of-
fers a variety of pumps, filtration sys-
tems, heat exchangers (plate and spi-
ral) and condensers. Chemical pumps
with magnetic drives are available in
both stainless steel and thermoplas-
tics (PP, PVDF and ETFE). Gear, air-
driven and metering pumps are also
supplied. Stand H44 Kung Hai En-
terprise Corp., Kaohsiung, Taiwan
www.khai.com.tw
Gerald Ondrey
HAVER & BOECKER
THE SERVICE DIVISION
FILLING VISIONS
SERVICE VISIONS
n worldwide reliable punctual
n service contracts, teleservice,
e-commerce, spare parts
deliveries
n training and instruction
n plant inspections
n modernisation and plant
optimisation
HAVER & BOECKER, Germany
Phone: +49 2522 30-0
Fax: +49 2522 30-403
E-mail: service@haverboecker.com
www.haverboecker.com M

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M 9 6 3 - E 4 _ C h e m i c a l _ E n g i n e e r i n g _ T K D , 6 8 x 2 7 3 1 8 . 0 9 . 1 2 1 5
M. Labbe
Tethys
Instruments
Matsui
Machine
Pompetravaini-NSB, the mark of distinction.
SB API Liquid Ring Compressor, the taste of the big heart in the plant.
Pompetravaini-NSB ag Reinacherstrasse, 129 CH-4053 Basel - Swizterland
Ph. +41 61 338 18 18 Fax +41 61 338 18 00 info@nsbgas.com www.pompetravaini-nsb.com
Pompetravaini Group sales@pompetravaini.it www.pompetravaini.it
Our commitment is always to stay ahead
ChemEngineering_206,4x279,4_sogg_T4.indd 1 31/01/13 10:43
Polypropylene Production
via Gas-Phase Process
P
olypropylene (PP) is one of the worlds most widely used poly-
mers, second only to polyethylene in terms of global demand. The
global market for polypropylene is over 60 million metric tons per
year, and it is utilized in a broad and diverse range of end-uses from
injection-molding applications to lms and sheets, as well as synthetic
rafa and other bers, among others. Traditionally, the most representa-
tive types of propylene polymerization are the following: hydrocarbon
slurry or suspension, bulk (or bulk slurry), gas phase and hybrid (uses
bulk- and gas-phase polymerization reactors).
The Unipol PP process, a leading gas-phase process technology, was
recently offered for sale by Dow Chemical Co. (Midland, Mich.; www.
dow.com). The company is looking to focus on high-margin areas, and is
seeking buyers for its polypropylene licensing and catalyst business.
The process
PP is a thermoplastic material formed by the polymerization of propyl-
ene, resulting in a macromolecule that contains from 10,000 to 20,000
monomer units. The production of a polypropylene homopolymer via a
gas-phase process similar to Dow Unipol is depicted in the diagram (Fig-
ure 1). The process shown is capable of producting homopolymer and
random copolymer PP. For impact copolymer production, a secondary
reaction loop is required. In this process, gaseous propylene contacts a
solid catalyst in a uidized-bed reactor. The process can be separated
into three different areas: purication and reaction; resin degassing and
pelletizing; and vent recovery.
Purication and reaction. Fresh polymer grade (PG) propylene is sent
to xed-bed dryers to remove water and other polar impurities. The
puried propylene, a recycle stream from the vent recovery system and
comonomers (in case of copolymer production) are then fed continu-
ously to the reactor. A gas compressor circulates reaction gas upward
through the reactor, providing the agitation required for uidization,
backmixing and heat removal. No mechanical stirrers or agitators are
required in the process reactor. The overhead gas from the reactor
passes through a cooler for reaction heat removal. Catalyst is continu-
ously fed to the reactor.
Resin degassing and pelletizing. Resulting granular polypropylene is
removed from the reactor by the discharge tanks and sent to a purge
bin where residual hydrocarbons are stripped with nitrogen from the
resin and are sent to the vent recovery system. The resin from purge bin
is combined with additives and then ows to the pelletizing unit. The
pellets are dried, cooled and sent to product blending and storage.
Vent recovery. The vent gas is processed to separate hydrocarbons and
nitrogen purge gas, which is returned to the process. The condensed
components are separated into a propylene stream, which is returned to
the reaction system, and a propane stream.
Economic performance
An economic evaluation of the process was conducted for two distinct
integration scenarios:
The integrated scenario is based on the construction of a plant linked
to a propylene supplier. In this case, storage for propylene is not re-
quired. However, the estimated investment for the integrated scenario
includes storage for PP equivalent to 20 days of plant operation
The non-integrated scenario is based on the construction of a grass-
roots PP processing unit. Thus, a time period of 20 days of operation
was considered for storage of both products and raw materials
The economic evaluation was based on data from the third quarter of
2011 and a plant nominal capacity of 400,000 ton/yr erected on the
U.S. Gulf Coast (only the process equipment is represented in the simpli-
ed owsheet).
The level of integration with nearby facilities signicantly impacts
the total xed investment required for the construction of a PP plant, as
represented in the graph (Figure 2).
More than that, the elevated market prices for propylene in the U.S.
make it unprotable to operate a stand-alone PP unit. However, PP units
that are integrated upstream with a propylene production plant may pur-
chase propylene at prices below the market average, reaching EBITDA
(earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization) margins
of above 20%.
Edited by Scott Jenkins
Editors Note: The content for this column is supplied by Intratec Solutions LLC
(Houston; www.intratec.us) and edited by Chemical Engineering. The analyses
and models presented herein are prepared on the basis of publicly available and
non-confidential information. The information and analysis are the opinions of
Intratec and do not represent the point of view of any third parties. More informa-
tion about the methodology for preparing this type of analysis can be found, along
with terms of use, at www.intratec.us/che.
Integrated scenario
350,000
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
Indirect
expenses
Project
contingency
Direct
expenses
$
,

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s
a
n
d
s
Total fixed investment costs
Non-integrated scenario
1. Fixed-bed dryer
2. Polymerization reactor
3. Gas compression and cooling
4. Discharge and blowdown tanks
5. Purge bin
6. Horizontal ribbon blender
7. Extruder and pelletizer
8. Centrifugal dryer
9. P-P splitter
CW Cooling water
ST Steam
Polypropylene
pellets
Propane
purge
8
7
6
5
2
4
PG propylene
Catalyst and
additives
1
CW
3
Additives ST
9
CW
By Intratec Solutions
FIGURE 2. Elevated propylene prices make it unproftable to operate a
standalone PP unit
FIGURE 1. Homopolymer PP production process similar to Dow Unipol
I
nline viscosity measurements can
give continuous, realtime read-
ings of a fluids viscosity during
processing and consequently, can
provide a means to automate the vis-
cosity control of process fluids. While
it is difficult to control all factors in
the process that can affect a fluids
viscosity (such as temperature, air
bubbles, shear history, turbulence
and so on), if these factors are kept
relatively constant, then good control
can be achieved. This article presents
the applications for inline viscos-
ity measurement and the means by
which they are achieved. Lets first
discuss the subject of viscosity.
The basics
Viscosity is a property that is often con-
sidered by process engineers, but sel-
dom completely understood. It is gen-
erally not a subject that is covered in
much detail in many engineering cur-
ricula. Most engineers know what vis-
cosity is, but may have trouble explain-
ing it or even understanding the full
implications of the measured number.
Scientifically, viscosity is the property
of a fluid that causes it to resist flow.
For materials that flow, either while
being processed (for pumping, spray-
ing or coating) or in an end-use (like
shampoo, detergent or paint), it is im-
portant to think about the materials
flow characteristics or viscosity. En-
gineers and quality-control personnel
need ways to measure viscosity so that
they can quantify whether a material
will flow the way it needs to for the
process or for the application.
Plant personnel may have an indica-
tion of the viscosity or consistency of
a material by looking at it, rubbing it
between their fingers, or having it drip
off a stick or shovel. This type of prac-
tical measurement of a materials
characteristic was eventually devel-
oped into a somewhat more scientific
approach by using cups with holes in
the bottom and a stopwatch to measure
how much time it would take to drain
the fluid. The cups (for example efflux
cups) are relatively inexpensive and
easy to use. This type of test uses the
force of gravity to drain the fluid out
of the cup. The shearing action on the
fluid takes place at the orifice on the
bottom of the cup. As the level in the
cup goes down, the shear rate at the
orifice decreases because the weight of
the fluid remaining in the cup is lower.
This type of measurement is referred
to as kinematic viscosity. This method
was one of the earliest quality control
(QC) tests that checked viscosity in a
quantifiable way.
But the cup method could not al-
ways discriminate successfully be-
tween materials that proved accept-
able and those that were marginal or
even poor performers because of the
varying shear rate. Understanding a
defined shear rate and how it can
affect the viscosity of the fluid is im-
portant. Imagine that the fluid you
want to test is sandwiched between
two plates separated by a known dis-
tance. Keeping the bottom plate sta-
tionary and moving the top plate at
a defined velocity, shear rate is the
ratio of the moving plate velocity, V,
to the distance separating the plates,
X. The use of a rotational viscome-
ter running at different speeds can
simulate, in part, what is happening
to the fluid during processing. This
analytical procedure for simulating
the shearing action with an instru-
ment is the key to predicting flow
behavior.
Rotational viscometers (Figure 1)
are widely accepted tools for the mea-
surement of viscosity across most in-
dustries. The spindle of a rotational
viscometer, when inserted into the
liquid, rotates at various fixed speeds,
thereby shearing the material contin-
uously at defined shear rates. Simul-
taneously, the viscometer measures
the amount of torque resistance expe-
rienced by the spindle at each speed
of rotation. This torque measurement
is quantified as a shear stress, which
acts across the surface area of the im-
mersed portion of the spindle. These
two key concepts torque resistance
and shearing action are combined
in an equation that defines apparent
or dynamic viscosity as the ratio of
shear stress to shear rate.
The unit of measurement used to
quantify rotational viscosity is the
centipoise (cP) in the western hemi-
sphere, and the milliPascal second
(mPa-s) in other countries, although
there is some degree of overlap in
useage. The good news is that the two
units are interchangeable because
1 cP equals 1 mPa-s. There is a way
to correlate viscosity measurements
made with dynamic and kinematic
methods for materials that are New-
tonian, using the following equation:
Dynamic viscosity = kinematic vis-
cosity density (for more on the fun-
damentals of viscosity, see Viscosity:
The Basics, Chem. Eng., August 2009,
pp. 3439).
Feature Report
Feature Report
Steve Cicchese
Brookfield Engineering Laboratories
Process viscometers can help keep
process control and product quality in check
Inline Viscosity
Measurements
FIGURE 1. A Couette-
style viscometer with
defned shear rate
measurements is
typically used when
measurements that
can be compared to
laboratory-type
measurements
are needed
Process measurements
Automatic control of process fluid vis-
cosity ensures consistent product all
the time, reduces product hold times,
and can eliminate human errors and
expensive sample testing (Figures
2 and 3). Also, it provides for a com-
plete record of how the process varied
over a span of time, instead of at just
one point in time. In a plant environ-
ment, there are many ways that vis-
cosity can be measured, such as by
a rotational viscometer, a vibrating
element and by a falling object. Un-
derstanding whether a true, defined
shear-rate measurement is needed,
or if you are really just looking for
set-point control, is beneficial when
choosing the right type of instrument
for your application.
Process measurements are made
inline or in a flow loop. A bench-top ro-
tational viscometer can be used for off-
line or near-line measurements, where
a sample of the process fluid is drawn
and tested under controlled conditions
(using the same bath temperature,
shear history, shear rate and so on).
Inline viscometers are immersed in
the process stream and measure con-
tinuously under process conditions.
Installation can be in a side-stream,
in the main flow stream or in a tank.
It is important to consider how clean-
ing and maintenance of these devices
might occur, if necessary, when decid-
ing on the installation.
It is also important to make sure
that a representative sample of the
fluid will be measured. Possible con-
cerns about stratification, mixing and
turbulence should be considered. The
instrument will measure the product
with which it makes contact, so mak-
ing sure the fluid that the instrument
sees is the material that you want
it to measure, is a primary consid-
eration. The demands of laboratory
versus process environments are dif-
ferent, so it is unlikely that the same
equipment can be used for both styles
of measurement or that the exact
same measured value will be gener-
ated. However, if done properly, the
results of both laboratory and inline
measurements will follow the same
trend, making inline measurement
useful for ensuring consistent pro-
duction quality.
Choosing an instrument for in-
line measurement. When evaluat-
ing an instrument for inline viscosity
control, there are several parameters
that must be considered to provide
the proper installation. The answers
to these questions will eliminate some
types of viscometers, and aid in defin-
ing the specifications of the final in-
strument. These questions include
the following:
What are the minimum, maxi-
mum and average pressure and
temperature requirements for the
application?
What is the expected viscosity range,
and control set-points desired?
What are the minimum, maxi-
mum and typical flowrates in the
process?
What is the area electrical classifi-
cation (NEMA 4; NEMA 7; ATEX,
for example)?
What are the necessary materials of
construction, and recommended seal
and elastomer materials? (This can
often be determined based on what
the plant is using for other process
equipment in the area, such as
pumps.)
Where will the instrument be
mounted? This will determine the
style of instrument to be used. Ex-
amples include a tank/flange mount
(Figure 4); a flow-through housing
(Figure 1); a probe style for barrels
(Figure 5); and mounting from the
top of an open tank
For process control measurements,
the critical factors are stability, re-
peatability and sensitivity to changes
in viscosity. A stable, repeatable read-
ing from an instrument that is sen-
sitive to change in the process will
allow the engineer to properly control
the process.
Applications
Most products are formulated to flow,
spray or coat in a controlled manner.
Monitoring viscosity at critical shear
points ensures that the product will
act the same way every time for the
user. This is the most tangible indi-
cator of quality. With the increase
in standardization initiatives, such
as ISO 9000 and process analytical
technology (PAT), there is an increas-
ing use of viscometers to establish
and document the desired properties
of products. To a much larger extent,
the use of viscometers for quality con-
trol, and in particular, the use of in-
line viscometers, wherever possible,
to automate the process of controlling
desired fluid properties is on the rise.
Quality, consistency and customer ac-
ceptance require testing and control of
key parameters, of which viscosity is
certainly an important one.
Some typical operations where pro-
cess viscosity control can be important
include the following:
Determining the endpoint. For
applications involving chemical re-
actions, viscosity of a product is con-
tinuously monitored in-tank and the
process is either stopped, or the next
steps are taken once a specific viscos-
ity limit is reached.
In addition to determining the end-
point of chemical reactions, this ap-
proach is also used to determine the
endpoint of blending operations, such
as the blending of multiple ingredi-
ents in a batch process. One example is
synthetic-fiber manufacturing. Latex,
spandex and other synthetic materials
are used to manufacture fibers, which
are stretchable, rugged and used in
many applications such as clothing.
The manufacturing process is carried
out in a reactor, where both tempera-
ture control and tight viscosity control
are required over the steps and addi-
tions made during the process.
Upper limit
Manual set point
Lower limit
Reject point
Time
V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
t
Upper limit
Automatic set point
Lower limit
Time
V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
t
FIGURE 2. With manual control, upper

and lower control limits can often be ex-
ceeded, allowing for out-of-specifcation
product
FIGURE 3.
Better product
and process
control can be
obtained with
inline measure-
ments
Feature Report
Carrying properties in oil and gas.
In many oil and natural-gas production
applications, viscosity is monitored and
controlled to make sure that the fluids
have the proper rheological properties
to carry solids. For example, hydraulic
fracturing fluid must have the proper
viscosity under various shear condi-
tions to carry the proppant downhole,
and deposit it at the required location.
For drilling fluids, the viscosity must
be correct to carry the cuttings away
from the drill bit and out of the hole, as
well as to lubricate the bit.
Field engineers in oil-and-gas drill-
ing operations can experience operat-
ing problems if the viscosity specifica-
tions of fluids pumped downhole are
incorrect. This complicates testing
procedures, increases the risk of costly
errors and wastes time. Consequently,
it is necessary to ensure fast, accurate
viscosity measurement, data collec-
tion and analysis of fluid samples be-
fore they are pumped downhole.
The inline couette viscometer (Fig-
ure 1) gives field engineers reliable vis-
cosity measurement, onsite at the well.
This simplifies complicated test pro-
cedures, minimizes human error and
ensures quality control without delay.
The instrument output allows for con-
stant monitoring and reporting of fluid
viscosity or for use in ECD (equivalent
circulating density) calculations by oil-
rig engineers.
Oil-delivery systems, such as for
burners. In this application, the vis-
cosity of a fluid is controlled
so that when it is pumped
through a spray nozzle,
proper atomization of the
material occurs. Proper
atomization through spray
nozzles, which requires con-
tinuous and accurate viscosity
measurement and control, en-
sures the best combustion efficiency
in oil-delivery systems. To burn fuel
oil at the high-volume flowrates de-
manded of modern boiler units, the
FIGURE 4. This
vibrating-probe
style viscometer
can be mounted to
a fange on the side
of a tank, for example.
Vibrating-probe style
viscometers are typi-
cally used for trending
viscosity changes, rather
than obtaining absolute
viscosity values
FIGURE 5.
This vibrating-
probe style viscom-
eter can be mounted on
the top of a tank, for example
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oil must be atomized (dispersed into
the furnace as a fine mist). This as-
sures high-speed vaporization and
ignition. Most burners atomize oil by
shearing the oil into small droplets.
Burner manufacturers recommend
that the oil be supplied to the burn-
ers at a specific viscosity to main-
tain consistent atomization. Failure
to maintain proper atomization re-
sults in the following: poor fuel burn-
ing due to carbon and soot buildup;
higher fuel consumption and costs;
increased stack emissions and possi-
ble fines from government agencies.
The inline process viscometer mon-
itors and controls viscosity and tem-
perature in pressurized oil-delivery
systems. Repeatable viscosity mea-
surements are necessary to maximize
the efficient atomization and delivery
of a variety of paraffin-based oils,
asphaltic-based oils, as well as heat-
ing fuels and waste oils. The process
viscometer can include additional de-
sign considerations, which may also
be of interest to other spray-type ap-
plications, such as spray-drying oper-
ations. Some of these considerations
are the following:
Bypass loop for viscometer installa-
tion for fail-safe operation
Use of viscosity feedback to control
the heat rate to the oil-feedline heat
exchanger
Output from the viscometer may go
to a single-loop controller that in-
stantly responds to inline viscosity
changes
Quality control. To ensure consis-
tent quality of many different prod-
ucts, it is important that the viscosity
be constantly measured and controlled
during the production process. In-
line measurement ensures consistent
quality control in realtime. It saves on
laboratory testing times, and reduces
hold-up of product in tanks waiting
for evaluation. Examples of quality-
control and quality-assurance appli-
cations include shampoos, detergents
and yogurts to name a few. In these
cases, too thin a product might ap-
pear to be of poor quality (such as a
runny yogurt, or a shampoo that pours
like water, without any body). Here it
is a matter of consumer perception
where specifications of final products
are written by companies based upon
consumer test groups, and the product
must fall within these specifications
in order to be shipped.
Other quality-related applications
where viscosity is important are in
coatings, such as paint applications. A
few more examples follow.
Roll-coating thickness control.
When dealing in any large-volume
coating and printing applications
where millions of products are being
printed per day, the payback on the
cost of inline control can be very
short when measured against costs of
wasted ink, varnishes, or coatings from
too high a viscosity or from wasted
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Collins plastic control valves are
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designed for use with corrosive
media and/or corrosive atmos-
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Collins valves feature all-plastic
construction with bodies in PVDF,
PP, PVC and Halar in various body
styles from 1/2" - 2" with Globe,
Angle or Corner configurations and
many trim sizes and materials.
Valves may be furnished without
positioner for ON-OFF applications.
Call for more information on our
plastic control valves.
FIGURE 6. This vibrational viscometer is commonly
used in printing and coating applications
Feature Report
product if the viscosity (and hence the
color) are too light.
In printing applications, constant
maintenance of proper ink viscosity
ensures the quality of the printing,
which reduces rejects and waste, while
also keeping ink costs to a minimum.
To assure the uniform application of
inks on a variety of substrates (boxes,
newspapers, cartons) it is necessary
to control viscosity. Continuous moni-
toring and control of the ink reservoir
viscosity using an inline viscometer
(Figure 6) can provide viscosity mea-
surement and control at multiple sta-
tions and save money by using less
ink. Similar controls are needed in the
coating of, and the printing on soda
and other beverage cans.
Dip-coating thickness control. The
thickness or consistency of a fluid is
controlled to provide a dependable and
uniformly coated item when dipped,
then removed, from a coating tank. In
this application, the thickness or con-
sistency of a fluid is controlled so that
when something is dipped in it and
pulled out, it is uniformly and consis-
tently coated.
Dipping applications are designed in
automated systems whereby an item
is brought over a tank or pan, dipped
into the bath, removed and allowed
to drip dry before proceeding through
the process. The main problem with
the open tank or pan is with the evap-
oration of fluids to the environment.
Viscosity control is used for addition
of water, solvents or other modifiers
as needed to control viscosity to a set
point. In pharmaceutical capsule man-
ufacturing, for example, if the fluid is
too thin, the capsule will break during
filling, or dissolve too soon when swal-
lowed, which would release medicine
in the throat instead of the stomach. If
it is too thick, then there is raw mate-
rial waste on millions of capsules that
will raise product costs, and it may not
dissolve properly when swallowed.
For food batter applications, too thin
a batter will mean improper coating
and product quality. Too thick a batter
will mean bad product quality, longer
cook and dry times, and raw mate-
rial waste. You can easily imagine a
chicken nugget with too much batter.
This can be from too viscous a batter
during the coating process.
Edited by Dorothy Lozowski
800.348.8370 | aggreko.com/northamerica
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Author
Steve Cicchese is the gen-
eral manager of process sales
and marketing for Brookfield
Engineering Laboratories
(11 Commerce Blvd., Mid-
dleboro, MA, 02346; Email:
s_cicchese@brookfieldengi
neering.com; Phone: 508-946-
6200) where he has worked
for the past 12 years. Prior to
that, he spent 15 years with
Bird/Baker Process, a manu-
facturer of liquid-solid separation equipment.
Cicchese holds a B.S.Ch.E. from Northeastern
University, an MBA from Babson College and a
certificate in business administration from Har-
vard University. He is a member of the AIChE
and Society of Petroleum Engineers, and has
written numerous articles on process viscosity
measurement in various industries, including
food, printing, asphalt and oil and gas.
Feature Report
O
ccasionally, direct fired heaters
that have operated satisfac-
torily for long periods of time
subsequent to startup develop
operating problems that do not allow
for operation at design conditions, as
specified in the manufacturers API
data sheets for the heater.
Performance that may be guaran-
teed, or otherwise specified by the
supplier would include the type and
characteristics of the feedstock pro-
cessed, the heater duty, inlet and out-
let temperatures and pressures, heat
flux, tube-metal temperature and
any other process conditions that are
measurable by instrumentation pro-
vided with the heater or calculable
through the use of the heater instru-
mentation data.
In many cases, operators cannot
identify the cause of an operating
problem by simply comparing the
specified data and faulty data obtain-
able from the heater instrumentation.
For example, although the measured
tube-metal temperatures demon-
strate no significant increases, an un-
expected pressure drop may occur in
heater passes because of internal
fouling, mainly caused by coke for-
mation. In many cases, operators are
unable to achieve the design heater
duty and overall thermal efficiency,
while the cause of faulty performance
is unknown to them. Most of these
cases may be due to faulty burner
performance. Such performance could
be caused by heating surface burner-
flame impingement, improper excess
air-fuel ratios, damaged burner tiles
or tiles of improper diameter, improper
burner spacing and other causes.
For example, continuous flame im-
pingement with heater tubes in places
where no tube-skin thermocouple is in-
stalled can be the cause of unexpected
coke buildup, as shown in Figure 1. In
cases such as this, the main question is:
Why has the operator ignored the prob-
lem for such a long period of time so
that it has eventually led to disastrous
coke buildup and heater shutdown?
For the most part, human factors,
such as inadequate training, improper
scheduling of visual inspections and
the lack of troubleshooting skills are
to be blamed. While many firms do be-
lieve that the first two reasons are the
most important, one should not forget
the significance of effective trouble-
shooting procedures, too.
In many cases, recognizing the
problem and observing indications
of it are not enough, because without
proper knowledge and understanding
of the troubleshooting sequence, any
attempts to solve the problem will
fail. For example, in one of our expe-
rienced case histories, despite many
trial-and-error efforts, operators were
unable to tune improper flame shapes
(Figure 2) because of two reasons.
First, they couldnt diagnose the root
cause of the problem according to its
symptoms (that is, a lack of knowledge
for performing root-cause analysis);
and second, they didnt know how to
treat the problem following a logical,
stepwise procedure (in other words, a
lack of knowledge for taking correc-
tive action).
Such situations are not unfamiliar
for fired heater operators and field en-
gineers, because these problems hap-
pen frequently in many petroleum re-
fineries or petrochemical plants.
A proper root-cause analysis of
burner performance problems and
a proper troubleshooting algorithm
can be a great help to operators for
overcoming problems. In this article
we have proposed a simple root-
cause analysis and also a computer-
ized troubleshooting algorithm that
sequentially directs the heater op-
erator from one burner problem to
another, indicating how each of the
Feature Report
Feature Report
Babak Maghbooli and Afshin Bakhtiari
Tarahan Naftoon Arya Engineering Co.
Hamidreza Najafi
Farayand Sabz Engineering Co.
A practical, step-by-step approach for finding the
root cause and troubleshooting burner problems
Correcting Improper
Performance of
Direct Fired Heaters
FIGURE 1. Faulty burner performance
and continuous fame impingement have
caused excessive tube-metal tempera-
tures and coke buildup in heater tubes
FIGURE 2. Faulty burner performance
and improper fame-shape problems
could not be solved by operators for a
long period of operation time due to lack
of troubleshooting knowledge
improper performances for a given
cause is to be corrected, and con-
tinues in this vein until all possible
causes for improper burner perfor-
mance are corrected.
Typical problems & root causes
Based on our field experience and the
valuable information found in Refer-
ences 13, typical fired-heater-burner
problems can be classified into the fol-
lowing eight main categories:
1. Unsteady flame pattern
2. Undesirable flame height
3. Undesirable flame color
4. Flame liftoff or blowoff
5. Flame flashback
6. Flame impingement
7. Mechanical problems & damages
8. Burner extinguished
Each of these categorized problems
can be divided into many subcategories.
In order to analyze each category and
its subcategories in the most concise
and efficient way, a root-cause-analysis
table has been proposed (Table 1).
Troubleshooting actions
Understanding the root causes of
burner operating problems is the
TABLE 1. TYPICAL FIRED-BURNER PROBLEMS AND ROOT CAUSES
Root Cause
I
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Problem
category Problem subcategory
Unsteady flame
pattern
Erratic flame
Pulsating flame
Loose or hazy flame
Cloudy flame
Non-definitive shape
Undesirable flame
height
Long flame
Short flame
Fame lift off
Flame flashback
Undesirable fuel
gas flame color
Luminous blue
Yellow
Dark orange or brown
Undesirable fuel oil
flame color
Luminous yellow
Dark orange or light brown
Flame impingement
Mechanical
damages or
problems
Burner tip damages
Burner tile damages
Pilot ignition problem
Improper air entrance
Burner goes out
Feature Report
Feature Report

Measure combustion air, in case of low
combustion air, increase excess air amount.
Is your problem solved?
See also: How to adjust draft
and excess air? (Reference 1)
Is burner tip
damaged?
Is burner tile
damaged?
Go to Point T
in Figure 8
Go to Point BT
in Figure 9
Specify your problem
I- Erratic flame pattern
II- Pulsating flame
III- Loose or hazy flame pattern

Measure fired heaters draft and excess air,
in case of low excess air and low draft,
adjust damper and registers.
Measure combustion air, in case
of low draft, increase draft amount.
See also:How to adjust draft
and excess air?(Reference 1)
Measure combustion air, in case of low combustion air,
increase excess air amount.
Caution: Reduce fuel flow before increasing air flow,
danger of explosion or flame flashback exists.
See also: How to adjust draft and excess air?
(Reference 1)
No
No
No No No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes I III
A-1
II
Seek
engineering
consultancy
Seek
engineering
consultancy
End troubleshooting
procedure
Check burners fuel pressure,
in case of low pressure,
adjust fuel pressure if possible.

No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
I- Cloudy flame
II- Non definitive flame shape
Check burner fuel pressure, in case
of high pressure, adjust fuel pressure
if possible.
Measure fired heaters draft and
excess air, in case of improper
excess air or draft, adjust damper
and registers.
and excess air?
(Reference 1)
Specify your fuel type:
1- Gaseous fuel
2- Fuel oil or
Combination firing
Low air-to-fuel ratio.
Adjust fuel pressure
and air flow by adjusting
damper and
burner registers.
See also: How to adjust
draft and excess air?
(Reference 1)
Too much atomizing steam,
adjust steam pressure in
accordance to fuel oil pressure.
Low air-to-fuel ratio. Adjust fuel
pressure and air flow by
adjusting damper and
burner registers.
I
1 2
II
A-2
Go to Point T
in Figure 8
Is burner tip
damaged?
Seek
engineering
consultancy
Seek
engineering
consultancy
End troubleshooting
procedure
FIGURE 3. Troubleshooting
algorithm for unsteady fame
pattern (Part 1)
algorithm for unsteady fame
pattern (Part 2)

Check burners fuel pressure, in case of high pressure
(over fire), adjust fuel pressure if possible.
Check burner fuel pressure, in case of low pressure
(low fire), adjust fuel pressure if possible.
II I
B
Specify your flame height:
I- Long flame
II- Short flame
Inspect primary air registers, in case of low primary air,
increase primary air amount.
(Reference 1)
Inspect primary air registers, in case of too much primary
air, decrease primary air amount.
See also:How to adjust draft and excess air?
(Reference 1)
Is burner tip
damaged?
Is burner tip
damaged?
Inspect diameter of the
burner tip nozzles. Is
drilling diameter narrow?
drilling diameter wide?
Seek engineering
consultancy.
End troubleshooting
procedure.
Go to Point T in Figure 8
Go to Point DT in Figure 8
No
No
No No
No
No
No No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

II

I- Flame lift off
II- Flame flashback
I II
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
C
The burners are designed to work with limited range of fuel
compositions, too much fuel switching during operation can
cause flame misbehaviors such as flashback or lift off. If
your facility switches fuel composition frequently, solve this
problem in the first step. Then follow other steps.
Fuel speed is more than flame speed. Check fuel pressure,
reduce fuel pressure if possible.
Measure fired-heaters draft and excess air, in case
of too much draft, adjust damper and registers.
(Reference 1)
drilling diameter narrow?
Seek engineering
consultancy
Go to Point DT
in Figure 8
The burners are designed to work with limited range of
fuel compositions, too much fuel switching during operation
can cause flame misbehaviors, such as flashback or lift
off. If your facility switches fuel composition frequently,
solve this problem in the first step. Then follow other steps.
Flame speed is more than fuel and air mixture speed.
Check fuel pressure, increase fuel pressure if possible.
Measure fired-heaters draft and excess air, in case
of low draft, adjust damper and registers.
(Reference 1)
drilling diameter wide?
End troubleshooting
procedure
FIGURE 5. Troubleshooting algorithm
for undesirable fame height
algorithm for fame lift off and
fashback
Feature Report
Feature Report
primary step of burner troubleshoot-
ing. Now what matters the most is
the proper sequence of troubleshoot-
ing actions, which are provided by a
set of comprehensive algorithms pre-
sented here.
These troubleshooting algorithms
are based on the logic depicted in Fig-
ures 3 to 12, and have been success-
fully used to both recognize what a
burner problem might be, indicate the
cause of the problem and correct the
burner defect, so as to achieve the de-
sired heater performance.
A practical example
Lets assume that an operator tries
to solve a burner firing problem like
the one depicted in Figure 1. As it can
be seen, the firebox of the specified
fired heater (which is a crude charge
heater) has suffered from long-term
flame impingement to tubes and

No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Check burner tips. Are they damaged?
Low excess air or low draft can cause non-suitable flame shapes. Measure fired
heaters draft and excess air. In case of low excess air or low draft, adjust damper
and registers.
Is your problem solved? See also: How to adjust draft and excess air? (Reference 1)
Check burner tips. Are they installed according to the burner installation manual?
If not, correct burner tip installation angles.
Check nozzles of burner tips.
Are the drilling angles correct?
Go to Point DA
in Figure 8
In case of fuel oil burning, poor atomization can cause flame
impingement. Correct poor atomization problems.
Is your problem solved? See also: How to solve poor
atomization problems. (Section PA in Figure 11)
Go to Point T
in Figure 8
D
Seek
engineering
consultancy
End troubleshooting
procedure

No
No
No
Done
Done
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
DT
E-1
I
III IV
T DA
P
II
Please specify
your mechanical
problem:
Burner tip problems
Please specify burner tip
problem:
I- Burner tip plugged
II- Improper drilling angel
III- Damaged burner tip
IV- Unsuitable drilling diameter
If you are using fuel oil, do you
experience poor atomization
problems? If so, solve poor
atomization problems first.
Adjust atomizing steam ratio
to fuel oil properly.
See Also: How to solve
atomization problems?
(Point PA in Figure 11)
Analyze fuel for content
of impurities dissolved in
fuel stream. If content of
Impurities is high, schedule
regular burner cleaning
program and seek
engineering consultancy
to solve your fuel problem.
If you experience regular
refractory and burner tile
damage, broken tiles or
refractory pieces can plug
burner tips.
Solve this problem.
See also:
How to solve damaged
tile problems?
(Point BT in Figure 9)
Contact burner designer and
ask for after-sale services.
The burner design must be
revised under engineering
supervision.
Replace burner tip with spare one, if damage is
caused by incorrect mechanical installation
practice, follow correct installation procedures.
If damage is caused by continued burner-tip
plugging, solve the root cause of tip plugging in
order to avoid further damage.
See also:
How to solve burner plugging problems?
(Point P)
Revise drilling diameters
according to the burner general
arrangement maps and burner
data sheets.
Seek
engineering
consultancy
Seek
engineering
consultancy
End troubleshooting
procedure
algorithm for fame impingement
FIGURE 8.
Troubleshooting
algorithm for
mechanical
problems and
damages (Part 1)
needs immediate corrective action to
prevent further tube damage and pos-
sible internal coke buildup.
By taking a look at Table 1, one
can find the root causes of flame im-
pingement problems, which are as
follows:
1. Improper amount of air or draft
2. Burner tip problems (either dam-
aged or plugged)
3. Poor installation or maintenance
practices
4. Improper fuel oil atomization
5. Excessive firing.
Except for Point 5 (excessive firing)
in some cases, all the other causes can
be treated by stepwise troubleshooting
procedure outlined in Figures 312. As
for the excessive firing, if it happens
only in few burners or in combination
firing cases, the operator can easily
tune fuel pressure and control exces-
sive firing rate; but if it is due to heater
overdesign operating conditions, the
solution would not be that easy.
Occasionally, some refineries try to
process as much crude oil as the equip-
ment can withstand during operation.
This means pushing the equipment to
its overdesign limits. For fired heaters,
this limit is often 20% over normal op-
erating conditions. In many cases this
means excessive firing. It is impracti-
cal to ask the operator to reduce the
firing rate in order to tune flame pat-
terns, while the vapor quality of out-
let stream and its temperature limit
are vital to downstream separation
processes. In such cases engineering
precautions must be given to the re-
finery management team. If the fur-
nace design parameters show limita-
tions for satisfactory operation within
demanded new heat release amounts,
solutions like building parallel fired
heaters must be taken into account.
In order to solve flame impingement
problems, the operator can start with
the troubleshooting procedure given
in Figure 7. This procedure starts with
the simplest solution, which is tuning
excess air and draft amounts. Low ex-
cess air or low draft can cause unde-
sired flame patterns, which can lead
to flame impingement. It should be
noted that excess air and draft are in-
terrelated and should be tuned simul-
taneously to achieve proper results,
therefore the operator is asked to use
the procedures described extensively
in Ref. 1 to tune draft and excess air to
proper amounts.
If the problem still exists, the op-
erator is asked to check burner-tip in-
stallation practices and their drilling
angles according to burner tip gen-
eral drawings and data sheets. Some-
times after overhaul or maintenance
services, burners are assembled in a
rush in order to startup fired heat-
ers as soon as possible. This rush
can lead to poor assembly or instal-
lation practices. Such shortcomings
could be solved according to guidance
given in the specified troubleshoot-

No
No
No No
No No No No
No No
Done
I
II III
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes Yes
Yes Yes Yes
Yes Yes
E-3
Done
E-2
BT
Please specify your
mechanical problem:
I- Burner tile damages
II- Pilot ignition problems
III- Improper air entrance
In case of improper
flame pattern, long
time flame impinge-
ment to tiles, can
cause tile damage.
Solve flame pattern
problems.
Is your problem
solved?
See Also: How to
solve unsteady flame
pattern problems?
(Point A-1 in Figure 3)
If you experience
refractory damages
and downfalls, falling
parts of the refractory
can damage burner
tiles. Seek engineering
consultancy and ask
inspection engineer
to find the cause
and solve the problem.
Is your problem
solved?
Improper dry out or
improper material
selection can cause
burner tile damages
during startup after
overhaul or shortly
after overhaul. Seek
engineering
consultancy and ask
your inspection
engineer to find
cause and solve it.
Do you
experience
rapid temper-
ature change
in fire box?
Thermal shock
caused burner
tile damage,
revise operating
conditions and
avoid thermal
shocks.
If pilot ignites by means
of automatic electrical
ignition system, first
become sure that
system works properly.
If any electrical
problem exists,
eliminate it in first step.
Is your problem
solved?
Analyze fuel
composition. In case
of Improper fuel
composition (according
to design conditions)
or high content of
impurities, pilot tip
can plug frequently.
Clean tips and revise
fuel composition.
Is your problem
solved?
In case of fuel oil firing,
oil spoilage can plug
pilot tips. This happens
when burner suffers
from problems caused
by poor atomization.
Correct atomization
problems in first step.
See Also: How to solve
atomization problems?
(Point PA in Figure 11)
If you experience
regular refractory and
burner tile damage,
broken tiles or
refractory pieces
can plug pilot tips.
Solve this problem.
Is your problem
solved?
See Also: How to
solve damaged tile
problems? (Point BT)
The fuel
ring of pilot
is choked,
clean fuel
ring and try
to ignite
pilot again.
Is your
problem
solved?
Inspect burner plenum, in case
of excessive noise, mechanical
damage or improper installation
practice is possible. Inspect
plenum for mechanical damages.
Check burner air blades, damper
or registers, in case of finding any
visual damage, such as broken
blades, deformed registers and
others. Repair it immediately.
Go to Point E-3
Seek
engineering
consultancy
Seek
engineering
consultancy
End troubleshooting
procedure
FIGURE 9. Troubleshooting algorithm for mechanical problems and damages (Part 2)
Feature Report
Feature Report
No
No
No
No
No
No
1 2
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Done
Done
Yes
F-2
PA
Specify flame color:
1-Luminus yellow
2- Dark orange or light brown
Do you see sparks
in the flame?
Lack of combustion air. Increase
combustion air amount by opening
registers and main damper and
adjust excess air and draft
according to proper instructions.
See also: How to adjust
draft and excess air?
(Reference 1)
Too much atomizing steam is used,
balance atomizing steam to fuel oil ratio.
Examine your fuel oil, possibly high
content of ash and impurities in fuel oil.
Seek engineering consultancy to solve
your fuel problem.
Measure fired-heater excess air, in
case of too much excess air or draft,
See Also: How to adjust draft
Poor atomization problems exist.
Too much fuel oil is used, balance
atomizing steam to fuel oil ratio.
Poor atomization, because of
plugged oil guns. Check oil guns,
if they are plugged clean them.
Poor atomization, because of
improper fuel-oil temperature. Seek
engineering consultancy to solve
your fuel temperature problem.
Seek
engineering
consultancy
End troubleshooting
procedure

1 2
3
I
II
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
F-1
Specify your fuel type
I- Gaseous fuel
II- Fuel oil or combination firing
Specify flame color
1-Luminus blue
2- Yellow
3- Dark orange or brown
Go to Point F-2
in Figure 11
Measure fired-heater excess air,
in case of too much excess air or
draft, adjust damper and registers.
See Also: How to adjust draft
Measure fired-heater excess air,
in case of low excess air or draft,
Lack of combustion air. Increase
combustion air amount by opening
registers and main damper
immediately. After stabilizing
condition, adjust draft and
excess air.
Go to Point T
in Figure 8
Seek
engineering
consultancy
Seek
engineering
consultancy
End troubleshooting
procedure
Is burner tip
damaged?
FIGURE 10. Troubleshooting algorithm
for undesirable fame color (Part 1)
FIGURE 11.
Troubleshooting
algorithm for
undesirable fame
color (part 2)
Feature Report
ing algorithms. If the problem is still
not solved, operators can check the
burner tips for damages, either by
mechanical or thermal means. If this
is the case, proper guidance is given
in Figure 8. In case of fuel oil or com-
bination firing, poor atomization can
be the cause of flame impingement,
and proper corrective actions are
given in Figure 11.
Following this procedure will usu-
ally eliminate flame impingement
problems. For the situation shown in
Figure 1, tuning the amount of draft
and excess air solved the problem
totally. In exceptional cases where a
problem cannot be eliminated by fol-
lowing the steps described in this
paper, professional engineering con-
sultancy must be sought.
Computerized algorithm
A computer program (computer wiz-
ard) was developed based on logic de-
scribed in Figures 3 to 12. By using
this program in industrial environ-
ments, like petroleum refineries and
petrochemical plants, operators have
been able to identify and correct the
burner operating problems faster and
more efficiently. There were fewer
complaints about faulty burner op-
erations, and, as result, less mainte-
nance operations were needed.
It should not be forgotten that the
main cost-saving benefits of this pro-
gram are the following:
Less fuel consumption due to proper
levels of excess air and draft
Less damage due to overheated
tubes
The possibility of increasing through-
put and decreased downtime for de-
coking operations
Edited by Gerald Ondrey
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to thank the help and contribu-
tion of Mr. Alan Cross. He gave us the motivation
for preparing and submitting our experiences in
the current article.
References
1. American Petroleum Institute, Burners for
Fired Heaters in General Refinery Services,
Publication No. 535, API, Washington, D.C.,
July 1995.
2. Witte R.H., and Barrington E.A., Trou-
bleshooting, Chapter 17 in Baukal C.E.,
Schwartz R.E., eds., The John Zink Com-
bustion Handbook 1st ed., CRC Press, New
York, N.Y., 2001.
3. Patel S., Typical Fired Heater Problems and
Root Causes, Hydrocarbon Process., 86 (3),
pp. 6869, March 2007.
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
G
Measure fired-heater draft and excess air. In case
of low excess air or low draft or high excess air
and high draft, adjust damper and registers.
(Reference 1)
Are burner tips
plugged?
Go to Point P
in Figure 8
Does the operator inspect
burners frequently?
Prepare a suitable burner
inspection time schedule for
each shift or ask the operator
to follow regular inspection
due to inspection work order.
Seek
engineering
consultancy
End troubleshooting
procedure
Authors
Babak Maghbooli works as
a member of the research and
development team of Tara-
han Naftoon Arya Engineer-
ing Co. (No.75, Radafzoon
Street, Tehran, Iran; Email:
maghbooli@xthermo.com).
With more than six years of
experience in the field of tun-
ing process fired heaters and
troubleshooting their prob-
lems, he has provided con-
sultancy services for more than five petroleum
refineries in the field of troubleshooting, main-
tenance and analyzing mechanical and thermal
behavior of fired heaters and boilers. He also
has practical and professional experience in the
field of process simulation and developing root-
cause analysis procedures for chemical process
problems. He is an advanced VBA programmer
and has developed many process simulation so-
lutions in MS-Excel for various consulting proj-
ects. Maghbooli holds a B.Sc.Ch.E. degree from
Arak University.
Hamidreza Najafi works
as the head of the research
and development team of
Farayand Sabz Engineer-
ing Co. (No.117, Somaye
Street, Tehran, Iran; Email:
hrnajafi@xthermo.com). He is
a professional object-oriented
programmer and his main
interest is developing simu-
lator packages for industrial
processes by means of mod-
ern programming techniques. With more than
12 years of experience, he has practical and
professional experience in the fields of thermal
radiation especially for design and simula-
tion of thermal cracking furnaces and process
fired heaters and also development of chemical
kinetics and thermodynamics framework for
simulator software. He has provided numerous
solutions for process problems in these fields for
various oil and petrochemical companies. Najafi
has a B.Sc.Ch.E. degree from Sharif University
of Technology and a M.Sc.Ch.E. degree from
Shiraz University.
Afshin Bakhtiari is founder
and CEO of Tarahan Naftoon
Arya Engineering Co. (same
address as Maghbooli; Email:
abakhti ari @naf toonarya.
com). With more than 12
years experience, he has pro-
vided numerous solutions for
process problems of different
petroleum and gas refineries.
His company has done more
than three consultancy proj-
ects for troubleshooting process fired heaters at
three different refineries and has also developed
simulator software for process fired heaters.
Bakhtiari holds B.Sc.Ch.E. and M.Sc.Ch.E. de-
grees from Tehran University. He has also served
for two years as the head of the project manage-
ment team of the National Iranian Gas Co.
FIGURE 12. Troubleshooting algorithm for burner goes out
Engineering Practice
S
hell-and-tube heat exchangers
are one of the most important
and commonly used process
equipment items in the chemi-
cal process industries (CPI). If you
are working on a project during either
the basic or the detailed engineering
phase, there is a good chance that you
will need to specify one or more shell-
and-tube exchangers and perhaps
many of them.
While the actual design will likely
be done by a specialist at an equip-
ment vendor or within your own com-
pany, you still need to fill out a process
datasheet for each heat exchanger and
in due course, review the vendors de-
tailed proposal. You know your process
best, and it is a bad idea to rely on the
vendor always to make the right deci-
sions. This article shows you the basics
of specifying and selecting shell-and-
tube heat exchangers: the process in-
formation and preliminary design deci-
sions needed to fill out the datasheet,
and how to check any corresponding
assumptions made by the vendor. Al-
though it does not go into detail on the
design procedure, the article is also a
good starting point if you intend to de-
sign the heat exchanger yourself.
Datasheet information
Though every company is likely to have
its own heat exchanger datasheet,
most of them look much like the
sample shown in Figure 2 (p. 49). To
complete the datasheet you will need
to know:
1. The composition and normal flow-
rate of the process fluid(s), and the
temperature change re-
quired. Refer to heat and
material balances.
2. Process fluid properties
density, viscosity and thermal con-
ductivity at the operating tem-
perature and pressure.
Which fluid on which side?
Next comes your first design deci-
sion: Which fluid goes on the shellside
and which on the tubeside (Figure 1)?
There is no straightforward answer,
but some considerations and rules of
thumb outlined in an online reference
(http://smartprocessdesign.com) and
incorporating the authors experience
are summarized here:
Corrosive fluids are best kept to the
tubeside. Since the tubeside has less
metal than the shellside, this will
minimize the use of expensive met-
als that may be needed to withstand
the fluids corrosive properties.
Fluids at extreme pressures and
temperatures are preferably kept to
the tubeside, because they are likely
to require a greater metal thickness,
or more expensive materials of con-
struction. The tubes, being smaller
in diameter than the shell, with-
stand higher pressures.
Fluids that need to be kept at a high
velocity, such as water or propylene
glycol for cooling, should be kept on
the tubeside.
Dirty fluids, or streams that are oth-
erwise likely to cause fouling, should
go on the tubeside. This is because
the tubes are easier to clean than
the shell. For instance, it is often pos-
sible to clean the tubes by water jet-
ting, having simply opened the head
of the exchanger, without needing to
remove the tube bundle. The shell
and the outside of the tube bundle,
on the other hand, are harder to
clean mechanically, and chemical
cleaning is often the only option.
The shellside offers a larger cross-
section for vapor flow, and hence
lower pressure drops. Process va-
pors to be condensed are therefore
normally placed on the shellside,
though the tubeside is generally
used for condensing steam.
The baffles on the shellside help to
ensure good mixing, which reduces
the effects of laminar flow and there-
fore tends to increase heat-transfer
coefficients. Hence you will get bet-
ter heat transfer if viscous fluids are
kept on the shellside I confirmed
this recently on a project involving a
very viscous polymer.
Twisted tubes, static mixers or tube
inserts increase turbulence and
thus heat-transfer coefficients on
the tubeside by reducing the effects
of laminar flow. Because these are
usually proprietary technologies,
however, your ability to check the
vendors performance claims may be
limited. If you think you would ben-
efit from one of these technologies,
work closely with the vendor and be
sure to evaluate all the options.
In heat exchanger designs that fea-
Asif Raza
Specifying Shell-and-
Tube Heat Exchangers
Shellside
fluid
Tubeside
fluid
FIGURE 1. Which fuid goes on the shellside and
which on the tubeside? There is no straightforward
answer, but the guidelines presented here will help
you decide
Understand what heat exchanger design
specialists need to know and remember,
you know your process best
ture gaskets or floating heads, the
shellside typically is not a suitable
location for fluids that are hazard-
ous, corrosive or especially valu-
able, because the risk of leaks is too
high. Such fluids should therefore
normally go on the tubeside. Ex-
changers featuring all-welded con-
struction can safely carry hazardous
fluids on the shellside, though you
should remember the difficulty of
cleaning the shellside.
Thermal expansion may be an issue
if one of the fluids undergoes a tem-
perature change of more than 150
200C (300400F). In this case you
would normally put the high-tem-
perature-change fluid on the shell-
side, which is better able to handle
large temperature changes in cer-
tain exchanger designs.
In summary, the fluids preferred on
the tubeside are the following:
Cooling water
The more-fouling, erosive or corro-
sive fluid
The less-viscous fluid
The fluid at higher pressure
The hotter fluid
The smaller volumetric flowrate.
Remember, however, that none of the
suggestions above is definitive. Use
them as a starting point, but if they
indicate a different fluid arrangement
from what has been used in the past
in your plant or industry, you may find
that there is a good reason. If two sug-
gestions conflict, or the performance
of your initial configuration looks un-
satisfactory because the predicted
pressure drop or heat-transfer per-
formance does not meet your require-
ments do not be afraid to reverse
the arrangement of the two fluids and
see whether that improves matters.
More key decisions
Allowable pressure drop. You will
have to understand the process thor-
oughly before you can attempt to
specify the pressure drop on each side
of the heat exchanger. As a rule of
thumb, start with 10 psi on both the
shellside and the tubeside. If there
is a pump upstream of the heat ex-
changer, there probably will be no con-
cern about pressure drop as long as
the pump can handle this. For gases, if
there is a compressor upstream, check
with your equipment-design
engineer that it can provide
the necessary pressure drop.
For cooling water, check for
constraints on the allowable
return pressure at the bat-
tery limit of the unit.
Sometimes the need to
optimize the heat exchanger
means that you will have to
take a higher pressure drop
than originally specified. A
higher pressure drop means
higher velocity, which in
turns gives a higher Reyn-
olds number and a higher
heat-transfer coefficient.
Give the heat exchanger
vendor an allowable pres-
sure drop as high as real-
istically possible to allow
flexibility in optimizing the
design. Once the designer
has confirmed the calcu-
lated pressure drop, pass
this value on to your rotary
equipment engineer, who
will need it for sizing pumps
and compressors.
Fouling factors. These are
very important in sizing the
heat exchanger. Do not ex-
pect the vendor to provide
you with fouling factors. A
higher fouling factor trans-
lates to a lower design heat-
transfer coefficient (U
d
) and
a larger required surface
area. Fouling factors can
often be taken from existing
plant data. If these are not available,
you will have to assume a value taken
from company guidelines or published
sources (Table 1). Make sure that your
customer whether internal or ex-
ternal is in agreement with your as-
sumed fouling factor. Designing with
a too-high fouling factor will result in
an oversized heat exchanger that will
cost you more and probably will not
work as intended.
Excess area. The difference between
the design heat-transfer coefficient
and the service heat-transfer coef-
ficient provides a safety factor, often
known as excess area because it is
equivalent to specifying a larger heat-
transfer area than necessary. The
excess area is usually a minimum of
10%, but can be up to 30%. Choose a
value from your plants or units de-
sign basis, or ask your customer.
Heating and cooling curve. If the
heat exchanger will be used to con-
dense or vaporize process fluids, the
vendor will require a corresponding
heating or cooling curve showing how
the vapor fraction varies with temper-
ature, and the corresponding thermal
properties of the liquid and vapor frac-
tions. A heating or cooling curve with
810 points can easily be generated
using simulation software.
Design temperature and pressure.
Calculate the design temperature and
pressure on both the shellside and the
tubeside by adding an appropriate
safety margin to the maximum values
48 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013 48 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013
TABLE 1. TYPICAL FOULING FACTORS
Fluid Typical foul-
ing factor
(ft
2
Fh/Btu)
Fuel oil 0.005
Steam (clean) 0.0005
Exhaust steam (oil bearing) 0.001
Refrigerant vapors (oil bearing) 0.002
Compressed air 0.002
Industrial organic heat-transfer
media
0.001
Refrigerant liquids 0.001
Hydraulic fluid 0.001
Molten heat-transfer salts 0.0005
Acid gas 0.001
Solvent vapors 0.001
MEA and DEA solutions 0.002
DEG and TEG solutions 0.002
Caustic solutions 0.002
Vegetable oils 0.003
Lean oil 0.002
Cooling water 0.001
Natural gas 0.001
Atmospheric tower overhead
vapors
0.001
Vacuum overhead vapors 0.002
Specifying appropriate fouling factors is im-
portant but not always easy. In the absence of
operating experience, pick figures from reliable
published sources.
Source: TEMA
1 Job No.
2 Customer Reference No.
3 Address Proposal No.
4 Plant Location Date Rev.
5 Service of Unit Item No.
6 Size Type (Hor/Vert) Connected in Parallel Series
7 Surf/Unit (Gross/Eff.) sq ft; Shells/Unit Surf/Shell (Gross/Eff.) sq ft
8
9 Fluid Allocation
10 Fluid Name
h / b l al t o T y t i t n a u Q d i u l F 1 1 r
12 Vapor
(In|Out)
| |
13 Liquid | |
14 Steam | |
15 Water | |
16 Noncondensable | |
17 Temperature F | |
18 Specific Gravity | |
19 Viscosity, Liquid | | P c
20 Molecular Weight, Vapor | |
21 Molecular Weight, Noncondensable | |
22 Specific Heat BTU / lb F | |
23 Thermal Conductivity BTU ft / hr sq ft F | |
24 Latent Heat BTU / lb @ F
25 Inlet Pressure psia
26 Velocity ft / sec
i s p c l a C / . w o l l A , p o r D e r u s s e r P 7 2 / /
28 Fouling Resistance (Min.) hr sq ft F / BTU
29 Heat Exchanged F
30 Transfer Rate, Service Clean BTU / hr sq ft F
31
32
33 Design / Test Pressure psig
34 Design Temp. Max/Min F
35 No. Passes per Shel
36 Corrosion Allowance in
37 Connections In
38 Size & Out
39 Rating Intermediate
40 Tube No. OD in;Thk (Min/Avg) in;Length ft;Pitch in
41 Tube Type Materia
42 Shell ID OD in Shell Cover (Integ.) (Remov.
45 90 60 30
)
e v o C l e n n a h C e n n o B r o l e n n a h C 3 4 r
44 Tubesheet-Stationary Tubesheet-Floating
o i t c e t o r P t n e m e g n i p m I e v o C d a e H g n i t a o l F 5 4 n
a e r A / m a i D ( t u C % s s o r C - s e l f f a B 6 4 ) Spacing: c/c Inlet in
47 Baffles-Long Seal Type
48 Supports-Tube p y T d n e B - U e
n i o J t e e h s e b u T - o t - e b u T n e m e g n a r r A l a e S s s a p y B 9 4 t
50 Expansion Joint Type
51 p v
2
-Inlet Nozzle Bundle Exit
52 Gaskets-Shell Side Tube Side
53 Floating Head
54 Code Requirements
55 Weight / Shell Filled with Water lb
56 Remarks
57
58
59
60
61
PERFORMANCE OF ONE UNIT
e d i S e b u T e d i S l l e h S
CONSTRUCTION OF ONE SHELL Sketch (Bundle/Nozzle Orientation)
BTU / hr LMTD (Corrected)
TEMA Class
Bundle
Shell Side Tube Side
Type
Bundle Entrance
/ /
/ /
FIGURE 2. A typical datasheet for a shell-and-tube heat exchanger lists all the information required for a detailed design
Source: TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc.; Tarrytown, N.Y.; www.tema.org).
expected in service. Consider the fol-
lowing guidelines:
1. To arrive at the design temperature,
add a margin of 30C (50F) to the
maximum allowable operating tem-
perature of the exchanger.
2. Similarly, the design pressure can be
calculated by adding an appropriate
margin to the maximum allowable
operating pressure.
3. If the process hazard analysis has
identified tube rupture as a hazard,
to avoid the need to design a pres-
sure relief valve for the tube rupture
case, the shellside design pressure
must be at least 77% of the tubeside
design pressure (the 10/13 rule).
For instance, if the tubeside design
pressure is 500 psig, the minimum
shellside design pressure should be
500 10/13 = 385 psig. The logic of
this is that ASME codes require the
shell to be hydraulically tested at
1.3 times its design pressure, so tube
rupture which is generally con-
sidered an unlikely event would
not pressurize the shell beyond its
test pressure.
4. When deciding the design tempera-
ture, consider routine operations
such as steaming of the heat ex-
changer during maintenance.
Design codes. Under ASME rules, if
the operating pressure is higher than
15 psig, then the heat exchanger is
considered a pressure vessel, and the
pressure-vessel design code ASME
section VIII, Div. 1 or 2 applies. Simi-
lar logic applies to different pressure
vessel codes used outside the U.S. and
Canada; make sure you use the code
appropriate to the country in which
the equipment will be used.
The Tubular Exchanger Manufactur-
ers Assn., Inc. (TEMA; Tarrytown, N.Y.;
Front-end
stationary head types
Shell types
Rear-end
head types
Channel and
removable cover
Channel integral with tube-
sheet and removable cover
Channel integral with tube-
sheet and removable cover
Special high pressure
closure
Removable
tube
bundle
only
Bonnet (integral cover)
One pass shell
Fixed tubesheet
like A stationary head
Fixed tubesheet
like B stationary head
Fixed tubesheet
like N stationary head
Outside packed
floating head
Floating head
with backing device
Pull through floating head
U-tube bundle
Externally sealed
floating tubesheet
Two pass shell
with longitudinal baffle
Split flow
Double split flow
Divided flow
Cross flow
Kettle type reboiler
A
B
C
N
D
X
J
H
G
F
E L
M
N
P
S
T
U
W
K
Source: TEMA
FIGURE 3. TEMA exchanger-type codes provide a shorthand for different basic designs and construction methods
www.tema.org) issues its own design
and manufacturing codes. There are
three categories: TEMA C, B and R. In
simple terms, TEMA C applies mostly
to water, oil and air at low or moderate
pressures and temperatures, and is the
most cost-effective standard in cases
where it is applicable. TEMA B is for
chemicals and petrochemicals at higher
temperatures and pressures. TEMA R,
for severe service involving high pres-
sures and temperatures, is widely used
in petroleum refineries, and is the most
expensive option. Inappropriate TEMA
ratings will significantly increase the
cost of a heat exchanger, so choose
carefully based on existing plant data
or suitable guidelines.
Keep in mind that you do not nec-
essarily have to design your heat
exchanger to TEMA standards. In
particular, TEMA B and R standards
enforce a minimum tube diameter
which could lead to too-low velocities
if the tubeside flowrate is small. The
resulting low heat-transfer coefficient
may require a large and expensive
heat exchanger. In such situations, it
may be best not to design your heat
exchanger to TEMA standards.
Heat exchanger type. It is very im-
portant to specify the correct type of
heat exchanger for the application
TABLE 2. TYPICAL DESIGN HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
Hot fluid Cold fluid U
d
(Btu/hFft
2
)
Water Water 250500
Aqueous solution Aqueous solution 250500
Light organics Light organics 4075
Medium organics Water 50125
Heavy organics Heavy organics 1040
Heavy organics Light organics 3060
Light organics Heavy organics 1040
If a vendors calculated heat-transfer coefficients are reasonably close to reliable
published values, the thermal design is probably correct. Do not expect an exact
match. Light organics are fuids with viscosities less than 0.5 cP. Medium organics
are 0.51 cP, and heavy organics are above 1 cP.
Source: Process Heat Transfer, Donald Q. Kern, McGraw-Hill Companies, 1950.
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S I NC E 1 9 5 8
(Figure 3, p.50), and in this case there
are no right or wrong answers. Here is
a list of criteria that will help you in
making a decision:
1. If the fluids are relatively clean and
the difference in temperature between
the shellside and the tubeside is not
very high (around 100C / 200F), then
consider a BEM (fixed tubesheet)
design. Typical applications are con-
densers; liquid-liquid, gas-gas, and
gas-liquid heating and cooling; and
vertical thermosyphons.
2. If the heat exchanger must accom-
modate a significant amount of ther-
mal expansion between shell and
tubes (more than 100C / 200F), con-
sider type BEU, in which the tubes
are free to expand. Keep in mind
that BEU exchanger tubes can only
be cleaned chemically, not mechani-
cally, so these exchangers are best
suited to clean service on both the
shellside and the tubeside.
3. For a chiller with refrigerant evapo-
rating on the shellside and cooling
a process fluid on the tubeside, con-
sider a heat exchanger of type BKU.
4. Similarly to Point 2 above, if the dif-
ference in operating temperature
between shellside and tubeside is
more than 100C (200F), consider a
design with hairpin tubes, a floating
head or a floating tubesheet (types
PW). These types are best suited to
dirty fluids, and may be either hori-
zontal or vertical.
5. If you encounter a temperature
cross that is, if the outlet temper-
ature of the hot fluid is below the
outlet temperature of the cold fluid
then you cannot use a single
BEM or BEU type heat exchanger.
Consider a BFS type with a two-
pass shell and a longitudinal baffle,
or two shells in series. Other types
of heat exchanger, such as spiral
and plate types, are fully counter-
current and so better suited to han-
dling temperature crosses.
Material of construction. Do not
trust the vendor to pick the right ma-
terial of construction for your service.
That is your job. That said, do not take
responsibility for the material of con-
struction unless you have agreed it
with the user or verified it with an ap-
propriate expert.
Tube-to-tubesheet joints. These de-
termine the integrity of your shell-
and-tube heat exchanger. The basic
guidelines are the following:
1. For a design pressure of less than
300 psig and a design temperature
below 180C (350F), use rolled and
expanded tube-to-tubesheet joints.
These are used primarily for water,
air and oil service.
2. For higher design pressures or tem-
peratures, use grooved, rolled and
expanded tube joints.
3. When dealing with light hydrocar-
bons or other flammable fluids, even
at low pressure and temperature,
consider seal welding.
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4. For hydrocarbons or flammable va-
pors at high pressures and tempera-
tures, consider additional welding
for strength.
Special instructions. This category
covers specifications including the
tube pitch, baffle type, minimum tube
diameter, tube length and orientation
of the heat exchanger. Use customer
specifications or guidance where
available, and ask vendors whether
these will have any implications. If no
specifications are available, use your
judgment. For instance, if your shell-
side fluid is very fouling, use a square
tube pitch to aid cleanability. Decrease
baffle spacing to increase turbulence,
and thus heat-transfer coefficient,
on the shellside. If you have a height
limitation, ask the vendor to limit the
tube length.
Reviewing vendor quotes
After you have received your quotes
it is time to review them and select a
vendor. Here are the most important
points to look for:
Basic process requirements: For
both fluids (shellside and tubeside),
the vendors specification should
match your specified flowrate, op-
erating temperature and pressure,
and properties such as density, vis-
cosity, and thermal conductivity.
Materials of construction, design
pressure and design temperature
as per your instructions.
Fluid velocity: Should generally be
in the range of 38 ft/s on both the
tubeside and the shellside. Lower
velocities will mean lower heat-
transfer coefficients and larger re-
quired surface areas.
Compare the calculated clean heat-
transfer coefficient (U
c
) and the de-
sign heat-transfer coefficient (U
d
)
with typical values from your com-
pany sources or published litera-
ture (Table 2, p. 51). Do not expect
close matches each application
is different, and heat-transfer co-
efficients depend on many factors.
If the U values proposed by the ven-
dor are very different from what
you would expect, however, then
the design may be at fault. In such
a situation, review the design with
the vendor.
Check the heat-transfer area. Dif-
ferent vendors will propose differ-
ent values based on varying ex-
changer geometry and calculated
heat-transfer coefficients. Pick a
geometry that meets your require-
ments best.
Check the heat duty and make sure
it matches your specified value.
Check the code requirements.
Check that the vendor has com-
plied with any special instructions
including tube diameter, tube pitch,
tube length, baffle type, baffle pitch,
and excess area.
Check the price and delivery
schedule for the heat exchanger.
Weigh all the options and select
a vendor.
Close coordination with the heat ex-
changer vendor and a solid under-
standing of the process requirements
are essential to heat exchanger de-
sign and selection. By understanding
different kinds of heat exchangers
and developing a solid understanding
of heat-transfer coefficients, fouling
factors and so on, you will be on the
right track to design and select the
most appropriate heat exchanger for
your process.
Edited by Charles Butcher
Author
Asif Raza (Mississauga, Ont.,
Canada; Phone: 905607
1335; Email: asifraza_us@
yahoo.com) is an equipment
design engineer at Praxair
Canada. His work involves
the design and specification
of major equipment, such as
cryogenic centrifugal pumps,
shell-and-tube heat exchang-
ers, vessels and vaporizers.
He has more than 15 years
of experience in process design. His interests
include sizing and specifying major equipment,
P&ID development, process simulation and se-
lection of control logic. Before joining Praxair he
was lead process engineer at Zeton Inc., where
his work involved design and fabrication of pilot
plants for research and development. Previously
he worked with companies including Bantrel
and SNC Lavalin. He holds a B.Tech degree in
chemical engineering from Amravati University,
India. Raza is a registered professional engineer
in the province of Ontario and is also a member
of Ontario Society of Professional Engineers.
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A
variety of technologies, methods
and best practices are available
to obtain the lowest total cost of
ownership for compressors used
in plants throughout the chemical pro-
cess industries (CPI). This article dis-
cusses several critical areas in which
concerted effort can help to reduce the
overall cost of ownership.
Specifying compressors
The ability to carry out proper shop-
based performance tests and mechani-
cal run tests that is, testing that is
carried out by the vendor, before the
unit is delivered to the CPI facility
can provide tremendous value for
users. Shop-based performance test-
ing is of particular necessity for any
CPI compressor, because it allows for
careful analysis of the compressor
under conditions that closely simulate
those of the actual installation, to help
detect potential malfunctions and
other problems before the compressor
has been delivered. This is important
because corrections and modifications
at the CPI plant site tend to be costly.
A solid compressor specification
outlines for the vendors what the com-
pressor package must have, and how
reliable the unit must be. Key aspects
to be addressed in the specification in-
clude the following:
Proper sizing. Before the start of any
compressor specification, the equip-
ment must be sized, at least in a pre-
liminary manner. For example, speci-
fying a single-stage compressor when
a multi-stage compressor is needed
will have inappropriate consequences
down the road. And, there is usually
more than one compressor type that
may be well suited for any given CPI
application. For example, many mod-
ern CPI applications can use either the
integrally geared centrifugal compres-
sor or the conventional-type centrifu-
gal compressor. Thus, the reliability
and efficiency of the various competing
compressor types should be evaluated
early in the specification process.
Know the operating scenario. The
first cost (that is, the initial purchase
price) is an important factor that
should always be considered during
compressor selection. However, on-
going costs related to operation and
maintenancemust also be evaluated to
assess the total cost of ownership.
The operating conditions (as de-
scribed in the compressor data sheet
and specification) should be divided
into two types those that charac-
terize normal operation, and those
that characterize operating conditions
that deviate from normal. The entire
anticipated range of operating condi-
tions should also be defined, either by
range limits or by alternative operat-
ing conditions.
A common example of off-design
conditions is the scenario in which
the compressor encounters deviations
in the molecular weight of the com-
pressed gas, as might be encountered
in a CPI plant during startup. Another
situation that could lead to off-design
conditions is the equipment holding
period when a part of a process is not
yet in operation. Such anticipated sce-
narios must be evaluated and noted
during the specification stage.
Unusual operating conditions
even insignificant items should also
be mentioned. Examples include the
presence of hydrogen sulfide or chlo-
ride in the gas, even if levels may be
in the ppm range. Keep in mind that
the compressor vendors knowledge of
your process will be limited. Keep the
following facts in mind during com-
pressor specification:
1. The compressor manufacturers spe-
cialize in compressor design and
manufacturing and they are not
focused on the intricacies of CPI
processes.
2. If engineers at the vendor company
have experienced a problem in an-
other customers process that is simi-
lar to the current job, he or she may
be able to share that experience (by
raising questions and seeking solu-
tions) during the development of your
specification. However, considering
vendor-staffing policies, the vendors
overall philosophy in that regard,
the fact that vendor engineers often
only know a small part of any process
(that is, the part of the process that is
related to their machine), and many
different processes (and process li-
censes) that exist for most CPI units,
the ability to rely on the vendor for
process-specific input tends to be the
exception rather than the rule.
As a result, it is important that the
compressor purchaser use its own deep
knowledge of the process in terms
of the potential scenarios that could
lead to unusual conditions or process
upsets that could impact compressor
operation during the life of the unit
during compressor specification. A
good example is the gas-temperature
runaway potential in hot-gas units.
The specification should set forth the
expected maximum temperatures, and
ask the vendor to verify the maximum
temperature the unit can handle.
Feature Report
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Amin Almasi
Rotating Machinery Consultant
Compressors:
Pursuing Lowest
Cost of Ownership
Proper specification, purchase, mechanical-run
and shop performance testing, installation,
operation and maintenance are all important
FIGURE 1. This centrifugal compres-
sor is an electric-motor-driven machine
that uses a gear unit for the speed match
Another example is the potential
of sudden dead-ending of a compres-
sor during switching of operations in
the batch-type reactors. Generally,
compressor operation in batch-type
processes requires careful attention,
and this potential impact of plant op-
eration should be brought forth during
the development of the specification.
Minimizing fouling. By accurately
noting the likely opportunities for
fouling, the compressor vendor may
be able to incorporate a relevant solu-
tion into the compressor offering (such
as a washing procedure and required
provisions, the establishment of ad-
ditional head margins or materials of
construction).
Incorporate startup and shutdown
conditions. Startup and shutdown
considerations also influence various
compressor components (and their
specifications), particularly seals and
thrust bearings. Regarding several
design parameters (for example, the
allowable speed), whatever is set forth
in the specification is often consid-
ered by vendors to be the target. For
some parameters, vendors will test
the approximate value given by the
purchaser, and then exceed it by some
margin to see if a deviation in perfor-
mance will result.
As a practical step, the maximum-
allowable parameter values should
be given by the compressor purchaser
after thorough research and evalua-
tion has been carried out of the most
recent technology options and modern,
reliable installations. These maxi-
mum allowable values for key param-
eters should be supplied consistently,
from vendor to vendor, to allow for an
apples-to-apples comparison among
competitive bids.
In general, high speeds in compres-
sors can increase the overall efficiency
of the unit. However, high operating
speeds can also raise the stresses on
the system and could decrease the re-
liability of the unit over the long run,
so a tradeoff must often be evaluated.
High operating speed may also lead
to bearing and seal problems, particu-
larly if the speed exceeds the speed of
similar compressors used in previous
applications)
Consider materials of construc-
tion. Stating the minimum material
requirements can help the vendor
during the machine design phase.
However, the specifications set forth
by the purchaser should not be so rig-
orous that they prohibit the vendor
from drawing from its vast experience
with many materials. Such a limita-
tion (imposed by the purchaser) may
lead to operating problems later. By
properly wording the specification, the
minimum material requirements can
be spelled out while still allowing the
vendors experience with the materi-
als to come into play.
A large number of unscheduled
shutdowns can be traced to issues that
the vendor is responsible for, such as
the compressor design, the material
selection, the component selection (for
instance, seal and bearings), excessive
fouling, degradation, corrosion, erosion
or similar. However, such problems are
often more accurately a reflection of a
lack of application knowledge and im-
proper material selection, which could
have been prevented if the purchaser
had communicated the specification
more thoroughly.
A good example is the use of auste-
nitic stainless steels. These premium
materials are often used for applica-
tions that require good corrosion re-
sistance. However, an austenitic stain-
less steel cannot be used if chlorides
may be present, because inter-granu-
lar corrosion and subsequent cracking
problems will result.
Packaging and assembly consid-
erations. The purchaser must also
make a number of decisions related to
the compressor package arrangement,
delivery conditions, and extent of pre-
fabrication and packaging. This part
of the process begins with the speci-
fication of a sole plate versus a base
plate. The first option (sole plate) is
often specified for packages that must
be delivered in pieces and assembled
onsite. The second option (base plate)
will result in skid-mounted compo-
nents; for this scenario, installation
is typically easier. This important
decision should be noted in
the specification.
For large compressor trains, the typ-
ical recommended arrangement is to
install the compressor (and gear unit,
if applicable) on a heavy-duty base
plate. Large electric-motor drivers
are usually supplied with sole plates.
Large steam turbines or gas turbine
drivers are most often installed on an
individual base-plate-mounted skid.
Control considerations. The control
panels that are required to integrate
compressor control and operation
into CPI facilities are typically quite
complex, because a great amount of
coordination is required to have them
conform to CPI plant panel standards.
Today, large CPI companies typically
prefer that vendors only supply the
sensors, and that the purchaser sup-
plies the control panel, the condition-
monitoring system and the control
units. Small companies prefer to leave
all items (control panels, condition
monitoring, and other items) in the
vendor scope.
Evaluating competing bids
A side-by-side comparison of compet-
ing bids should be made, considering
such important aspects as the energy
cost, the purchase cost and the reli-
ability issues using suitable economic
criteria. If data are available, the total
cost of ownership can be estimated by
evaluating competing bids.
However, it is absolutely necessary
to fix all items and clarify all issues
before placing the purchase order.
Until the vendor is certain that it has
the order, the purchaser will remain in
an advantageous trading posture.
The winning bidder will be the ven-
dor for the project once a contract has
been written and accepted. This is im-
portant because the clock is started
at this time and all future dates will
be referenced back to this date. This
is also the date from which delivery
is counted.
Practical notes on compressors
Variable-speed centrifugal compres-
sors (Figure 1) are the backbone of the
CPI compression industry. This type
of compressor should be considered as
the first option for most CPI general
applications.
Performance curves. Centrifugal
compressors exhibit a relatively flat
curve of head versus flow compared to
other compressors. Compared to the
steep curves of the axial compressors
and positive-displacement compres-
sors, the flat curves of most centrifugal
compressors offer better operation. For
instance, centrifugal compressors offer
a relatively low head rise for a given
flow change, compared to that of axial
or positive-displacement compressors.
The curve shape is a function of the
impeller geometry (mainly impeller-
blade angles), and the process condi-
tions. Radial impeller blades result in
a (theoretically) near-flat curve (that
is, close to a flat line).
An impeller with a more-backward
angle will create a higher reaction
(from the compressor wheel) and thus
will yield a steeper curve. In general,
centrifugal compressors are also more
reliable compared to other compres-
sors types.
On any performance curve, the op-
erational area of a dynamic compres-
sor (either centrifugal or axial com-
pressor) is bounded on the left by the
surge line, on the right by the choke
line (stonewall effect), on the top by
the maximum speed line, and on the
bottom by the minimum speed line.
The orientation of the inlet piping
and its influence on the compressor
performance is also an important con-
sideration during compressor specifi-
cation. There should be neither pre-
rotation, nor anti-rotation, in the flow
suction of the dynamic compressors.
The flow should be free from any ran-
dom distortion.
Centrifugal compressors are some-
what more forgiving in terms of flow
distortion in the inlet stream than
other compressors (such as axial com-
pressors); however, there are some lim-
its. Based on the compressor design,
gas velocities and process conditions,
a minimum length of straight pipe is
necessary ahead of any dynamic com-
pressor inlet. As a rough indication,
for the centrifugal compressors, this
straight pipe length should be around
four to six times the pipe diameter.
When the minimum straight length
of piping cannot be achieved, vaned
elbows or straighteners may be used
instead. However, these should only be
used in very special cases, as the last
solution because they may create ad-
ditional operational problems.
Performance testing
There are two different types of per-
formance tests available for dynamic
compressors (centrifugal
and axial compressors). A
Type-1 performance test is
carried out in the shop by
the vendor, prior to deliv-
ery of the unit, under con-
ditions that closely match
those anticipated in the
actual installation. Specifi-
cally, this test is conducted
using the same process gas
as will be found at the CPI
site [the same gas with
the molecular weight (MW) deviation
below 2%]. Generally, permissible de-
viations on pressures, temperatures,
compressor speed and capacity are
below 4-8%.
By comparison, the Type-2 perfor-
mance test is completely different.
The Type-2 test permits the use of a
substitute test gas and allows for ex-
tensive deviations between the shop
test conditions and the specified op-
erating conditions at CPI site. There
are only a few limits on some essential
gas dynamic parameters of the test
conditions compared to the specified
operating conditions. For a Type-2
test, the following limits are usually
considered:
The volume ratio and the flow coef-
ficient are maintained within 5%.
The machine Mach number is main-
tained within 0.1 deviation
The Reynolds number of the Type-2
test arrangement should be within
0.1 to 10 times of the Reynolds
number of the expected operating
condition
When using the Type-2 test, the test
speed, capacity, mass flow, pressures,
temperatures, compressor power, and
other operational details are often to-
tally different from the specified oper-
ating condition speed.
For the Type-2 test, an alternative
gas (generally an inert gas) should
be selected preferably, one that
does not lead to an excessive power
or a high discharge temperature and
is readily and cheaply available. The
substitute gases that are typically
used are air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
helium, or mixtures of these gases.
The safe operating-speed range, the
critical speeds, the maximum allow-
able pressures, the allowable temper-
atures and other machine limits are
considered when establishing suitable
test conditions.
As noted, the ASME-PTC-10 Type-2
test allows for considerable deviations
in the test conditions. For example,
a natural gas (MW=16) compressor
can be performance tested (Type-2
test) using CO
2
(MW=44) with around
half the inlet flow, approximately 20%
of the mass flow, around 50% of the
speed, approximately 6% of the ab-
sorbed power and much less pressures
(even less than 10%) compared to the
specified operating conditions.
The idea behind the Type-2 per-
formance test is to allow a test to be
performed by the vendor using differ-
ent gas and flow details (while still
maintaining the major fluid charac-
teristics within certain limits), and to
use available knowledge and formula-
tions of fluid mechanics to estimate
the compressor performance in the
specified operating conditions. The
flow patterns of a dynamic compressor
(centrifugal or axial compressor) are
mainly a function of the major fluid
characteristics, such as the volume
ratio, the flow coefficient, the machine
Mach number and Reynolds number.
Reynolds number. Fluid friction is
mainly affected by the machine Reyn-
olds number. In a Type-2 test, the
Reynolds number during the test may
deviate from that of the specified op-
erating condition; however, it should
stay within a range (for instance,
within 0.1 to 10 times of the Reynolds
number at the expected operating con-
dition) to keep the governing friction
model (and formulations) relevant.
Mach number. The machine Mach
number is a measure of the maximum
compressor capacity and is mainly as-
sociated with the stonewall effects
(That is, the operation of a compres-
FIGURE 2. Shown here is an example of a compact
lubrication skid for a shop test-stand facility
sor at the maximum capacity, which
is also known as operation at end of
the curve; this corresponds to the far
right-hand side of the normal opera-
tion point). The specific volume ratio
and machine Mach number are closely
related to the test speed. The molecu-
lar weight of the test gas is extremely
important because a significant dif-
ference between the test gas MW
and the actual gas MW can affect the
gas density and the calculated
compressor head.
As a rule of thumb, a deviation
greater than 3040% could be consid-
ered significant. Any significant dif-
ference in the molecular weights of
the specified gas and the test gas can
result in a test speed that is far from
the rated speed. For the most relevant
results, the test speed should be as
close as possible to the rated speed.
Ideally, a test speed at around 8095%
of the rated speed is always desir-
able (if other limits allow this speed
range). Too often, the above-men-
tioned desired speed range is difficult
to achieve for commonly used Type-2
test arrangements (particularly when
a close match to the gas MW cannot
be achieved).
Based on the Type-2 test theory,
the modifications (often called correc-
tions) to the test results are applied
based on the available gas dynamic
knowledge to estimate the compressor
performance in the specified operating
condition. All correction formulations
are available in the ASME-PTC-10 for
the estimation. In practical terms, this
means that the vendor carries out the
Type-2 test, and then applies the cor-
rection formulation found in ASME-
PTC-10 to find expected performance
in operating site conditions.
Balancing the tradeoffs
Some engineers do not trust the Type-2
method, because it allows for so many
deviations from actual conditions. As a
result, the ASME-PTC-10 Type-1 test
is always preferred. However, if the
ASME-PTC-10 Type-1 is not possible
(for example, if the actual process gas
cannot be supplied or used in the man-
ufacturers shop), then the only possi-
ble option is to carry out a Type-2 test
using modified test conditions (the
gas molecular weight, the speed, the
capacity, the power, the pressures, and
others) that are as close as possible to
the specified operating conditions.
The arrangement and details of
Type-2 tests should be fixed in the
compressor bidding stage and before
the machine order placement. Com-
pressor vendors always prefer the
simplest and cheapest arrangement
for the Type-2 test. Unfortunately, the
ASME-PTC-10 Type 2 code allows the
vendor to use the simplest arrange-
ment. In other words, the code gives
vendors freedom to use simple setups
and deviations, and vendors usually
opt for the cheapest setup.
Often the Type-2 test gas selections
and testing arrangements are dis-
cussed after the compressor order or
even near the test time. This delay can
usually cause considerable change-or-
der costs or can lead to an unsuitable
Type-2 test.
Ideally, the Type-2 test is most use-
ful if a suitable substitute gas (one
that closely approximates the actual
gas) is used and the test procedure
details (such as pressures, compressor
speed, capacity, power and others) are
properly matched within the specified
ASME-PTC-10 limits and as close as
practical to the actual operating con-
ditions. When this is done, the Type-2
test can yield very useful predictions
on the future compressor behavior,
such as potential performance prob-
lems, operations close to the surge
point, some types of aerodynamic ex-
citations, and other performance and
operational effects.
Establishing proper test con-
ditions. For performance testing
(whether Type-1 or Type-2 is used), the
following limits should be confirmed:
1. Head and the capacity: Zero neg-
ative tolerance (In other words, the
head and the capacity in the shop
test should be equal to or more than
expected ones)
2. Power: The consumed power should
not exceed 104% of the predicted
power. Often, when the CPI plant
efficiency is critical, lower limits for
the power tolerance for instance,
even 2% or 1.5% limits instead of
the 4% power tolerance could be
negotiated before the compressor
order
3. Surge: The stable operation should
be maintained near the calculated
surge (typically around 610%
above calculated surge flow).
Practical notes
Pressure and temperature transmit-
ters should be located within around
0.51 m of the compressor nozzles, at
least 10 pipe diameters from any valve,
tee, elbow or other obstruction. The
temperature-measurement accuracy
has one of the largest effects on com-
pressor power calculations because of
its direct influence on the calculated
enthalpy rise.
An incorrect flow measurement
could cause the compressor to appear
at the shop test with a head that is ei-
ther too low or too high because the
operating point could be indicated in-
correctly on the performance map. The
best way to determine if a flow mea-
surement is incorrect is to obtain sev-
eral data points to compare against
the entire curve.
Seal leakage is normally around
12% or even less in the normal opera-
tion (as a rough estimation), but this
can easily be calculated using proper
instruments.
The shop test uncertainty should
be calculated considering all test pa-
rameters. The required uncertainty
limits should be understood prior to
Handling equipment
Lifting, weighing, blending,
pallet transfer
Mobile or stationary
Manual or fully automatic
Loads up to 2500 kg handled
Hygienic stainless steel
GMP-compliant design
ATEX conformity
Mller GmbH - 79618 Rheinfelden (Germany)
Industrieweg 5 - Phone: +49(0) 7623/969-0 - Fax: +49(0) 7623/969-69
A company of the Mller group
info@mueller-gmbh.com - www.mueller-gmbh.com
F o r p e r f e c t
p r o d u c t i o n
m e t h o d s
C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g e 1 . 2 8 6 x 1 2 3 2 0 1 3
Mu?llerGmbH_Chemical Engineering_e_86x123_2013.qxd:MllerGmbH_Chemica
the shop performance test. For ex-
ample, data with an uncertainty of 2%
cannot yield conclusions requiring an
accuracy of 1.5%. Thus, if 1.5% accu-
racy is required (for instance, by the
CPI operator) for assessment of a shop
performance test, then the entire shop
test installation and test procedure
should reflect the uncertainty goal.
The polytrophic efficiency (that is,
the efficiency corresponding to theo-
retically reversible compression pro-
cess) depends on many details, such
as the impeller specific speed, but this
is usually limited to approximately
7480% for traditional 2D impellers,
and about 8087% for modern 3D
impellers (usually with vaned diffus-
ers). The most important performance
checkpoint is a comparison between
the driver power (compressor driver-
generated power) and driven power
(compressor absorbed power).
If the difference between the driver
power and driven power is small, and
the calculated head and efficiency are
also lower than expected, then the
shop performance data are likely cor-
rectly measured and the compressor
likely has a performance problem.
However, if either the head or the ef-
ficiency is off, in terms of having large
differences compared to the theoreti-
cal or expected values, but the powers
(that is, the driver power and com-
pressor power) do not agree, this often
indicates inaccurate test data.
Mechanical run tests
A pressurized run test is always pre-
ferred (one that is pressurized usually
with nitrogen), except for very special
cases for which testing under vacuum
conditions may be required. As far
as practically possible, all job compo-
nents should be used in a shop test,
and the use of shop facilities should be
minimized. If the use of a job coupling
is not practical, the shop test can be
carried out using a coupling simulator
(to simulate the weight and the bend-
ing effects of the job coupling).
The shop mechanical run-test proce-
dure is straightforward. The compres-
sor is started and the speed increases
to the maximum continuous speed.
The operation continues until bear-
ing metal temperatures, lubrication
oil temperatures and shaft vibrations
are stabilized. Then the compressor
should be operated for 15 minutes
at the trip speed. After that, the unit
should be operated continuously for
four hours at the maximum operating
speed. The main focus of the shop run
test is to evaluate vibration.
During the shop test of the lubri-
cation oil system, the oil temperature
rise through the bearing should not
exceed certain limits (as an indica-
tion, oil temperature rise could be
around 30C). Vibration readings and
bearing temperatures at the end of
the four-hour run should essentially
be the same as those recorded at the
beginning of the test. After the test is
complete, all bearings should be re-
moved, inspected, and reassembled.
However, removal and inspection of
the dry gas seal is not recommended.
Many dry gas seals (particularly car-
tridge-type seals) require that the seal
be returned to the seal manufacturer
if removed for inspection. If traditional
(old-fashioned) oil seals are used, they
should be removed for inspection after
the test (Note that such mechani-
cal, oil-film-type shaft end seals are
not typically used today for dynamic
compressors).
Minor scuffs and scratches may
occur on the bearings. Subsequent
minor cosmetic repairs of these parts
do not justify repetition of the test.
However, if melting or smearing, over-
heating or distinct wear occurs in the
Babbit layer of bearing shoes, then
these parts should be replaced or re-
paired. The cause of the defect should
be investigated and eliminated, so the
test can be repeated.
After the run test, the compressor
casing is gas-leakage tested to evalu-
ate the joints and the seals. The as-
sembled compressor is tested to the
maximum operating pressure for a
minimum of 30 minutes. The inert gas
with MW less than the actual gas MW
should be used for this test. Helium is
usually employed as a substitute for a
low-MW gas and nitrogen (or an inert
refrigerant gas) is typically used as a
substitute for a high-MW gas.
Varying the lubrication-oil condi-
tions (such as the oil pressure and
the temperature at the minimum and
maximum values) during the shop test
is strongly recommended to evaluate
the impact of these changes on com-
pressor performance. This will help to
evaluate correctly the mechanical op-
eration of the machine.
It is not recommended to perform
a post-test-inspection of the inter-
nal casing, because most operators
prefer to receive a proven-run and
pressure-tested compressor.
When users and vendors work to-
gether as a team, and when all engi-
neers involved give sufficient atten-
tion to the important details, changes
and requirements, it is possible to
specify reliable, high-performance
compressors. n
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
Krytox Fluorinated Lubricants
miller-stephenson chemical company, inc.
California - Illinois - Connecticut - Canada
e-mail: support@miller-stephenson.com
www.miller-stephenson.com
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Krytox
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properties. Mil-spec, Aerospace and Food Grades (H-1 and
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Amin Almasi is a rotat-
ing machine consultant in
Australia. He is a chartered
professional engineer of En-
gineers Australia (MIEAust
CPEng Mechanical) and
IMechE (CEng MIMechE).
He holds an M.Sc. and B.Sc.
in mechanical engineering
and RPEQ (Registered Pro-
fessional Engineer in Queen-
sland). He specializes in ro-
tating machines including centrifugal, screw and
reciprocating compressors, gas turbines, steam
turbines, engines, pumps, subsea, offshore rotat-
ing machines, LNG units, condition monitoring
and reliability. Almasi is an active member of
Engineers Australia, IMechE, ASME, Vibration
Institute, SPE, IEEE, and IDGTE. He has au-
thored more than 80 papers and articles dealing
with rotating equipment, condition monitoring,
offshore issues and reliability.
Gulf Coast
special advertising section
A Box 4 U
Aggreko
Cashco
Collins Instrument
Emerson Process Management
HTRI
Inline Industries
John Zink Hamworthy Combustion
Koch-Glitsch
Ross
Therminol
Tiger Tower Services
Wood Group Mustang Engineering
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Gulf Coast Special Advertising Section
A
ggrekos proven experience and
innovation have made it the premier
resource for rental energy solutions for
the petrochemical and refining indus-
tries. Drawing on vast industry-specific
knowledge, the company develops custom
solutions to meet the challenges of turn-
arounds, shutdowns and general mainte-
nance, including process, operational and
environmental constraints.
Aggreko Process Services (APS) con-
sists of an experienced process engineer-
ing team. It can design and install process
enhancement solutions within a matter of
weeks, rather than the months required for
a typical capital project. This enables cus-
tomers to capture short-run market oppor-
tunities. APS specifically targets process
limitations caused by high ambient tem-
peratures and fouled or under-performing
equipment.
To address the demands for emergency
or supplemental cooling at refineries,
factories or other plants, Aggreko Cooling
Tower Services (ACTS) was created. It
provides 24-hour availability of the larg-
est fleet of modular cooling towers in the
industry, and enables operations to keep
running smoothly during emergencies
or maximize production while reducing
the risks inherent in process cooling.
Additional benefits of ACTS include:
maximize production during hot summer
months or peak demand times;
maintain production while repairing or
maintaining existing cooling tower;
reduce costly downtime after disaster
strikes; and
meet or exceed customers own environ-
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Whether providing rapid emergency
response to equipment failures or vessel
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Aggreko is committed to delivering the
highest performance standards 24/7/365.
Aggreko keeps production and profitability
flowing while delivering valuable time and
cost savings, thanks to its experience, skill
and specialized equipment.
www.aggreko.com/northamerica
The expert source for rental energy solutions
Aggreko supplies rental equipment and services for temporary process cooling,
climate control, power generation, and compressed air
Cooling towers and generators are
among the equipment available
I
nline Industries has been providing
innovative valve solutions to the process
industry for 20 years. The company has
built a strong reputation for manufacturing
high quality, consistent, and reliable prod-
ucts. From manual operation, to automated
valve assemblies, to high performance
control valves, Inline products help cus-
tomers minimize total cost of ownership.
Inline is able to provide this economy
by designing and building its own valve
products as a vertically integrated manu-
facturer. The company pours its own cast-
ings, machines, then assembles and tests
each valve to exacting industry standards.
Valves are cast to applicable ASTM
material standards and designed and
tested to ASME B16.34 specifications to
assure that the products will perform at
the pressures and temperatures for which
they are designed. Each casting is heat
stamped and documented through an
ISO 9001:2008 quality control process to
provide consistency and complete product
traceability.
Innovation has been at the heart of
Inline valve design since the companys
founding. Inline introduced the inte-
grally cast ISO-5211 direct mount pad 20
years ago. Today, versions of the Inline
high-cycle/live-loaded design dominate
the automated ball valve market. Direct
mount technology can eliminate the cost
and problems associated with an actua-
tor mounting kit by directly coupling the
actuator to the valve body. This system
improves performance, reduces misalign-
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shrinks the size of the valve package,
saving up-front material costs as well as
reducing long-term maintenance.
Direct mount technology has been
integrated into the high-performance 334
Series ball valve which serves as the foun-
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fire-safe, high pressure, high temperature
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mount valves are available with locking
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F
our very large stainless steel columns
needed alterations to accommodate
new packing. Sounds simple enough, but
this project had many challenges.
Column number one is 17 ft 6 in. in
diameter and stands 184 ft high. All the dis-
tributors, bed limiters and existing random
packing had to be removed and replaced
with five beds of replacement packing,
bed limiters, distributors and four sophis-
ticated anti-foaming devices. Additionally,
the flash gallery was replaced along with
an H-type pipe distributor. New bed limit-
ers also were installed above each new
bed of packing, requiring hot work modifi-
cations at each bed level to accommodate
the new design.
The other columns required similar
alterations. One needed only one bed of
packing, while another required six. In
all, 81,782 cu. ft of packing was removed
and replaced with new random packing.
All of the distributors in each column were
replaced and leveled to the manufacturers
precise specifications.
The tight time limit was not the only
challenging feature of this job a restric-
tive footprint around the columns also
made the work logistically challenging. The
tremendous quantity of internals had to be
housed at a remote location. Tiger Tower
Services worked closely with its own
internal manufacturer alliance partner to
create a precise materials control/delivery
system that functioned smoothly as the
project progressed.
The clients end-user engineering
representatives worked in tandem with
The Tigers to ensure that the turnaround
resulted in a high-quality installation com-
pleted within the time schedule.
Tiger Tower Services is known for get-
ting to the heart of any tower/column turn-
around, revamp or emergency. The firm is
well known for its ability to address tight
footprint issues, using its Window Section
Resection (WSR) in-situ technique as a
more viable solution than the traditional
lift down top half approach.
www.tigertowerservices.com
Getting to the heart of large columns
Tiger Tower Services, operating within a tight timeframe, changes out the internals of
a complicated multiple column turnaround; thus giving new life to old vessels
Tiger Tower Services answered a tall
and logistically challenged order when
a client needed to give new life to four
existing columns
F
rom the wellhead to chemical and petro-
chemical facilities worldwide, Zeeco has
more than three decades of combustion
experience. All of the companys activities
relate to combustion, including innova-
tive burners, flares and thermal oxidizers.
Combustion experts design and deliver
specifically engineered applications for
olefin plants on time, on budget, and with
guaranteed performance.
Zeeco understands the complex inter-
action of flame, fuel, emissions, and public
perception. For instance, flare systems for
olefins production are designed to oper-
ate smokelessly at significant flowrates
for long periods of time. For plants near
population centers, in environmentally
sensitive areas, or with limited space, the
experienced team at Zeeco will design an
enclosed multi-point ground flare system
to eliminate visible flaring and reduce
environmental impacts without sacrificing
efficiency, safety or reliability.
Because Zeeco is a combustion com-
pany and not just a flare or a burner
company, the firm takes a more complete
view of plant processes and interactions.
The rise of shale gas means many olefin
facilities are working to increase capaci-
ties. Retrofitting or equipping ethylene
furnaces with the latest low-emission
burner technology can be difficult due to
burner spacing issues and their resulting
effect on burner flame quality. As existing
furnaces are upgraded to achieve higher
capacities, more floor burners are added.
Designed for compact operation with no
flame rollover, patented Zeeco Ultra Low-
NOx GLSF Min-Emissions Enhanced Jet Flat
Flame burners are often used to increase
heating capacity without flame interac-
tion in ethylene cracking furnace retrofits.
The GLSF Min Emissions burner provides a
stable flame over a wide range of operat-
ing conditions and does not require any
stabilization metal in the burner throat.
GLSF Min-Emissions burners can achieve
NOx emissions levels as low as 44 ppmv
without sacrificing burner flame quality.
The GLSF burner transfers heat evenly to
the process tubes, reducing the possibility
of localized hot spots or flame interaction.
Zeeco is dedicated to delivering on
time and on budget worldwide. The Zeeco
Houston Service Center provides local
service to the Gulf Coast area 24/7, includ-
ing heater tuning, burner cleaning, flare tip
replacement, controls/pilot upgrading,
and more. www.zeeco.com
Cracking furnace burners and olefin plant flares
Describing itself as a combustion company, not just a flare or burner manufacturer,
Zeeco takes an integrated approach to process design and retrofits
Zeeco burners in an olefin furnace
S
purred by the growth in international sales of its diversified
line of control valves, regulators and tank equipment, Cashco,
Inc. recently opened new sales and service offices in both Brazil
and Germany to better serve its world-wide customer base. While
the Brazil office, located in the outskirts of So Paulo, will initially
service the customer base within the country, it will eventually
provide service and support to Cashco customers through-
out South America. The other office, located in Hoppegarten,
Germany, will be a sales and service center for all of Europe and
western Asia.
In addition, the German location, which is actually near Berlin,
provides us with engineering and design capabilities, as well as
new manufacturing capabilities, explains Clint Rogers, General
Manager, Valve Division, Cashco, Inc. This will allow us to design
and introduce new products that are unique to the European mar-
ket, yet hold the potential for future use in the U.S.
Rogers says the plan is to eventually share some design capa-
bilities between the U.S. and Europe and, hopefully, ship more
U.S. products to Europe and vice versa. By collaborating on design
capabilities, he relates, Cashco can better fit the needs of both
markets with a broader line of products built in both countries.
The new sales and service offices in Brazil and Germany,
along with the new corporate headquarters in Ellsworth, Kansas, is
just part of our commitment to growing our business and support-
ing our customers, Rogers continues. We already have local peo-
ple at both locations who understand the markets and languages.
By having one or more technicians within the country, we can also
deal with issues that come up in a much more timely and efficient
manner than if we were to address them from the U.S. At the
same time, Rogers insists customers in South America and Europe
can be assured that Cashco products meet the highest standards
and adhere to all compliances, no matter the import country.
Cashco manufactures a broad line of throttling rotary and lin-
ear control valves, pressure reducing regulators, back pressure
regulators and vapor control systems in a wide range of sizes.
www.cashco.com
Valve vendor seizes new international markets
Control valve and pressure regulator manufacturer Cashco has opened new sales and
service offices to cover the South American, European, and western Asian markets
Blue skies ahead
R
oss Low Pressure Drop (LPD) Static Mixers are used through-
out the oil and gas industry for turbulent-flow mixing appli-
cations. These heavy-duty low-maintenance devices serve in
continuous operations where high performance and accuracy are
required, such as on-line water determination of crude oil; dosing
of various additives into gasoline; blending different kinds of fuel
oils; gas-gas blending; and pipeline reactions, among others.
Static mixers have no moving parts and the energy for mix-
ing is available in the form of pressure. Pressure loss a natural
consequence of static mixing sometimes becomes the deciding
factor in mixer selection. The LPD Static Mixer remains a classic
choice for many inline blending requirements due to its simple and
durable design capable of uniform mixing with little pressure loss.
The mixer elements consist of semi-elliptical plates carefully posi-
tioned in series to split and rotate the product 90 deg. in alternat-
ing clockwise and counterclockwise directions.
LPD mixers in diameters from 1 in. through 2.5 in. are welded
to a central rod, while larger elements are welded to four outside
support rods for maximum rigidity and stability. Units as large as
48 in. diameter can be supplied as stand-alone mixer elements or
as modules complete with a mixer housing and injection ports.
Established in 1842, Ross is one of the oldest and largest mix-
ing equipment companies in the world. Ross mixing, blending, dry-
ing and dispersion equipment is used throughout many industries
in the manufacture of foods, adhesives, electronics, coatings,
cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, plastics and composites.
www.staticmixers.com
A classic mixing tool for the petroleum industry
Ross LPD Static Mixers are rugged, reliable devices for inline mixing at minimal
pressure loss
Shown are removable LPD mixing elements supplied with a
retainer ring which goes between two mating flanges to keep
the mixer from spinning or moving downstream
S
afety is a growing concern
among process industries on
the Gulf Coast and throughout
the world. Government standards
and new regulations make safety
instrumented systems (SIS) a
critical part of many operations.
Emersons DeltaV SIS system
with its game-changing electronic
marshaling technology gives
unprecedented flexibility
to provide safety when and
where it is needed and
with dramatic savings, the
company claims. The system
is designed to be smart: to
shut down the plant when
necessary for safety, but to
keep it running safely when
components fail.
The DeltaV SIS system provides
an integrated but separate architec-
ture to meet IEC 61511 requirements
for separation of safety and control.
The systems electronic marshal-
ing with signal characterization
modules (CHARMs) allows much
shorter cable runs from field devices
to localized junction boxes, which
then connect multiple control loops
to the control room via two redundant
Ethernet cables. Traditional marshal-
ing cabinets and cross-wiring with
fault-prone connection points and
screws are eliminated. This reduces
not only engineering and wiring costs,
but also weight on offshore plat-
forms. Refineries are achieving similar
engineering savings when applying
DeltaV SIS CHARMs in remote instrument
enclosures (RIEs) in Class 1, Div 2 hazard-
ous areas. Because DeltaV SIS CHARMs give com-
plete flexibility to accommodate any signal type, late engineering
changes or facility expansions can be accommodated easily.
The DeltaV SIS system helps to improve process safety by con-
tinuously monitoring and diagnosing the ability of sensors, logic
solvers, and final elements to perform on demand as required. To
increase process availability, the DeltaV SIS system detects com-
ponent failures and keeps the facility running when other systems
might shut it down.
The system provides dedicated safety hardware, software and
networks; and integrated configuration, operations, and mainte-
nance with the DeltaV system. This approach provides unmatched
visibility into the process, by enabling direct access to all SIS
information across the entire safety loop.
This seamless integration with the DeltaV system provides
comprehensive process safety that leverages investment in
automation. www.EmersonProcess.com/DeltaV
A smart approach to SIS
Safety Instrumented Systems (SIS) just
got a whole lot smarter, says Emerson
T
here are no regulations governing the design and construction
of blast-resistant buildings (BRBs), so its important to educate
yourself before making a purchase. Here are the five big questions
to ask when you shop for a BRB:
1. Was the BRB designed and tested by a blast expert?
A surprising number of BRBs have not been proven safe through
real blast testing. Make sure your BRB design has been taken off
the drawing board and successfully blast tested under the super-
vision of a well-credentialed engineer.
2. Are blast-test reports specific and conclusive?
There are many interpretations of the term blast-tested (also
see question 5), but a successfully blast-tested building has the
proven ability to actually save lives. Pay special attention to psi
ratings when you review blast test reports because different
applications call for different specifications.
3. Was the building blast tested for non-structural as well as
structural components?
If a structure survives a blast, but its interior walls, lights or other
fixtures create shrapnel, the risk of casualties is still high. Always
ask BRB vendors to provide data and rationale for non-structural
items like wall finishes, cabinets, lights and electrical fixtures.
4. Can the following information be provided?
(These items are too technical to cover in the context of this article
but should be on your list of discussions to initiate with any BRB
vendor.)
Was the BRB tested dynamically rather than statically?
Was the BRB tested in a free-field environment?
Was a pressure-impulse (P-I) curve generated to show the BRBs
response over a wide range of blast loading?
5. Does the buildings response level demonstrate its capability
to save lives?
A BRB vendor can claim their product has been blast tested, but
if closer examination of test data demonstrates a high-response
result, this is not the BRB you want protecting your personnel.
Response level ratings have been established by the American
Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) to predict the extent of repair
resources needed after an explosion:
Response level Description
Low Response
(Low Damage)
Localized building/component damage
Building can be used, however repairs are required
to restore the integrity of the structural envelope
The total cost of repair is moderate
Medium Response
(Medium Damage)
Widespread building/component damage
Building cannot be used until repaired
Total cost of repairs is significant
High Response
(High Damage)
Building/component has lost structural integrity
May collapse due to environmental conditions
Total cost of repairs approach replacement cost of
building
When you go shopping for a BRB, its important to ask solid
questions and expect solid answers; your employees lives could
depend on it. www.abox4u.net
Five questions to ask about
blast-resistant buildings
by Jeff Lange, Owner of A Box 4 U
C
ollins Instrument Companys line of
economical 2-in. flanged plastic control
valves handle corrosive liquids including
hydrochloric acid, caustic, sulfuric acid,
and many others. With bodies of either
PVDF or polypropylene, these highly-
responsive control valves are specifically
designed for use with corrosive media
and/or corrosive atmospheres.
Suitable for applications in numerous
industries, including chemical, petrochem-
ical, pulp and paper, and municipal, these
valves are extremely corrosion-resistant,
and feature fast-acting positioning (stroke
rate approximately
1
2 in./s). They are avail-
able with a wide selection of trim sizes, in
globe, angle, and corner configurations.
The differential-area piston eliminates
the necessity for auxiliary loading regu-
lators. All actuator parts apart from the
integral positioner are molded of glass-
filled, UV-inhibited polypropylene. Before
shipment, the aluminum positioner and a
portion of the cylinder are immersed in Dip
Seal to provide atmospheric protection.
The integral positioner eliminates the need
for external linkages which are subject to
corrosion and malfunctioning. Valves may
also be furnished without a positioner for
on/off applications.
Collins also offers a plastic pneumatic
actuator. The combination of a plastic
actuator and a plastic valve body provides
an effective way to handle both corrosive
materials flowing through the valve, and
harsh environments that can attack the
outside of the valve and actuator. Collins
plastic control valve packages withstand
salty marine atmospheres as well as indus-
trial environments that are too corrosive
for metal valves and actuators.
Collins actuators incorporate a unique
internal locking ring to attach the cylin-
der to the yoke. A semicircular groove is
machined inside the lower edge of the
cylinder, and a matching groove cut in
the yoke. When the yoke and cylinder are
assembled, a flexible polypropylene rod is
inserted into the groove through a slot in
the side of the cylinder, securing the two
sections together.
Along with its corrosion resistance the
Collins control valve features a stem pack-
ing arrangement that virtually eliminates
the problem of fugitive emissions, thereby
protecting the environment.
Located on the Texas Gulf Coast in
the town of Angleton, Collins Instrument
Company has been serving the chemical
and petrochemical industry for over
65 years. www.collinsinst.com
Plastic control valves handle corrosive chemicals
Collins 2-in. valves and actuators are specially designed to handle corrosive fluids
acids, bleaches, chlorine, pH control and aggressive environments
Plastic valves and actuators from
50 years of service for heat transfer fluid systems
Therminol heat transfer fluids from Eastman have been used in gas processing,
refining, oil and gas pipeline operations and reprocessing used lube oils for 50 years
T
herminol heat transfer fluids are commonly used in offshore
and onshore oil and gas processing, fractionation, refining,
transportation,and recycling operations. Therminol 55, Therminol
59, Therminol 62, Therminol 66 and Therminol VP1 have success-
fully demonstrated low-cost, reliable, and safe performance in
these applications for five decades.
Therminol fluids are selected because they provide lower
capital and operating costs, and better temperature control, than
other heat transfer options.
In gas processing and fractionation, Therminol fluids are fre-
quently used to heat gases for regenerating solid desiccants (such
as molecular sieve) in gas dehydration beds; to reboil liquid desic-
cants (such as glycols) used for gas dehydration; to regenerate
liquid solvents (such as amines) used for gas sweetening; to heat
gas stabilization and NGL fractionation reboilers; and for other
gas processing operations.
In oil processing and refining, Therminol fluids are often used
to enhance oil/gas/water/sediment/salt separation and for other
processing and refining operations such as low-sulfur gasoline
production, solvent extraction, and sulfur recovery.
Therminol heat transfer fluids have applications in transpor-
tation too. Pumping stations along oil and gas pipelines often
require heating to control the viscosity of oil streams, and to pre-
vent condensation of components from gas streams.
Therminol heat transfer fluids have proven capable of meeting
these requirements in virtually any environment. And the repro-
cessing of used lubricating oils involves operations at very high
temperatures and high vacuum, for which Therminol heat transfer
fluids are ideal.
A variety of Therminol fluids are available with low vapor pres-
sure, high thermal stability, and good heat transfer performance,
supporting process needs at virtually any temperature.
www.therminol.com
W
ood Group Mustang has a wide range of experience in chemi-
cal and polymer projects, facilitated by project manage-
ment teams who have worked together for more than 30 years.
Similarly, the companys process engineers average more than
20 years experience. And, behind the scenes, superior support
teams utilize the latest 3D modeling techniques, including laser
scanning, to streamline projects and reduce costs. Additionally,
Wood Group Mustang staff use their proprietary stage gate pro-
cess and project management tool (PACESETTER) to ensure that
projects are successful from start to finish.
Clients projects are managed from concept through to opera-
tions. With field-proven processes and a focus on safety, the
company execute projects with predictable results on budget,
on time and with flawless start-up. Personnel have experience in
most licensed and proprietary petrochemical, chemical and poly-
mer processes, and regularly assist clients with the introduction
of first of a kind or licensed technologies. Wood Group Mustang
offers comprehensive technical and economic studies, technology
evaluation, experimental program design, pilot plant programs,
and acquisition of physical and chemical property data.
Founded in 1987, Wood Group Mustang has established a
global reputation for quality engineering design, project man-
agement, procurement, and inspection services. Wood Group
Mustang consistently leverages its global organization to deliver
the best resources and most cost-effective solution for chemicals and polymer projects to its clients. www.mustangeng.com
Delivering results for chemicals and polymers
Wood Group Mustang provides highly experienced process engineers and project
managers for all types of process projects over the project lifecycle
i
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Wood Group Mustang has completed more than 11,000
engineering projects worldwide
F
or many years, equipment designers
searched for the ultimate mass transfer
device one that could be used for any
application. Over time, they reached the
conclusion that there is no single device
for all applications; rather, there is always
a device that has distinct benefits and
characteristics that make it the most suit-
able to meet the requirements for a par-
ticular application.
Koch-Glitsch put decades of practi-
cal knowledge, innovative thinking, and
tremendous expertise into research and
testing that led to the development of a
comprehensive product portfolio. The line
of products includes high-performance
trays, random packing, structured pack-
ing, and severe-service grid to address the
needs of plant operators.
Koch-Glitsch set the standards with
IMTP random packing and FLEXITRAY valve
trays, which were the preferred technology
in the industry for many years.
PROFLUX severe-service grid and
PROVALVE trays provide reliable unit oper-
ations in severe operating conditions, such
as fouling, coking, erosion, corrosion, and
frequent upsets.
In new columns, high-performance
trays can reduce vessel diameters,
heights, or both. In existing columns, they
can increase capacities, reduce utility
costs, and improve separations.
INTALOX ULTRA random packing pro-
vides higher capacity and efficiency and
lower pressure drop compared to previ-
ous generations of random packing. It is
applied in acid gas removal, demethanizer/
de-ethanizer, sour water strippers and
atmospheric and high-pressure distillation.
Koch-Glitsch continues its long tra-
dition of innovation in developing new
equipment designs that provide higher
efficiency, higher capacity, improved plant
performance, and increased reliability
yielding significant capital and energy
savings. www.kochglitsch.com
Celebrating a century of mass transfer innovation
At Koch-Glitsch, the culture of innovation has been going strong for 100 years with
brands that set the standards and are the preferred technology in the industry
M
y team was called in to investigate the Texas City, Texas,
refinery disaster in 2005. The wood-frame office trailers at
the site had been reduced to splinters, and 15 people had died in
and around them. I thought to myself, there has to be a better way.
Around the same time, ConocoPhillips approached A Box 4 U,
a Kansas-based company that had been supplying ConocoPhillips
with ground-level offices, to ask if the company could build a more
rugged office design to protect personnel in a blast zone. A Box 4
U contacted me, and we set out on a mission to save lives.
There were other companies selling blast-resistant buildings,
so our first step was to research their products. I was surprised to
learn that no testing had been done on these designs, so no one
really knew how they would stand up in a blast. I was even more
alarmed to learn that every blast-resistant building on the mar-
ket was designed to hold together as a structure but gave little
attention to protecting the personnel inside. Some petrochemical
plants were buying them based on interior amenities like attrac-
tive lighting fixtures and even glass mirrors in the restrooms,
which could injure or kill personnel in a blast. This is still true of
many blast-resistant buildings being sold today.
We designed our unit, built it, and then did something unprec-
edented in the field of blast-resistant buildings we tested it.
If you like to watch Hollywood-quality explosions, click on the
blast test video links on www.abox4u.net. They speak for them-
selves, in terms of the products ability to survive close-proximity
explosions.
What you dont see in these videos is the most important
part of the process. When we tested, we didnt just use an empty
structure. We added lights, furniture, office equipment and a test
dummy, then hit it with 1,250 lb. of ANSI high explosive. The build-
ing moved less than two inches and suffered no structural dam-
age. The same was true of the test dummy. With designs like these
available today, there never has to be another deadly refinery
disaster. www.abox4u.net
Not all blast-resistant buildings are created equal
A Box 4 U is the only manufacturer to have successfully blast tested its blast-resistant
buildings to meet a low to medium response rating, says Dr Ali Sari, PE
Video evidence: testing a blast-resistant building from A Box 4 U
H
eat Transfer Research, Inc. (HTRI) has released version 7 of
Xchanger Suite
, the culmination of more than 50 years of

research. Xchanger Suite is a comprehensive suite of modules
that predict the performance of process heat transfer equipment.
Xchanger Suite 7 represents the largest increase in capabilities
ever for HTRI software and includes simulation modules for:
shell-and-tube exchangers
jacketed pipe and hairpin exchangers
plate-and-frame exchangers
plate-fin exchangers
spiral plate exchangers
fired heaters
air coolers and economizers
tube vibration analysis
New to version 7, the plate-fin module continues HTRIs practice
of developing rigorous, incremental simulations that are based on
extensive experimental research. In addition to this new module,
version 7 incorporates significant additions and upgrades through-
out. Ten major updates have been made to the predictive models,
including shellside reflux condensation, horizontal tubeside
condensation, tubeside convective boiling, kettle reboilers, and
tubeside laminar flow. The graphical interfaces have been reorga-
nized and streamlined to make data entry easier than ever before.
Perhaps the single most significant upgrade is an interactive,
behind-the-scenes mechanical design for shell-and-tube exchang-
ers. Based on ASME codes, the shell-and-tube module automati-
cally performs and updates a rigorous mechanical design of your
exchanger as you enter data. This mechanical design provides the
basis for the most flexible tube layout available.
Of course, software is just a part of the package. With experi-
mental and analytical research, engineer-based technical support,
and worldwide training, HTRI provides a complete solution for
process heat transfer.
Heat Transfer Research, Inc. is a leading global provider of
process heat transfer and heat exchanger technology, research,
and software. Founded in 1962, this industrial research and devel-
opment consortium serves the engineering needs of nearly 1500
corporate member sites in more than 60 countries. www.htri.net
Heat transfer simulation software updated
HTRI releases version 7 of its industry-leading simulation suite for process heat
transfer equipment
J
ohn Zink Hamworthy Combustion solu-
tions include:
Flare systems: advanced flare design and
clean flare technologies set the standard
for upstream, downstream and biogas
flaring. John Zink Hamworthy Combustion
has more than 700 biogas flare systems
in operation, including the ZULE Ultra Low
Emissions flare system.
Thermal oxidation: More than 3,500 ther-
mal oxidation systems installed around the
world destroy up to 99.9999% of a variety
of hazardous industrial wastes.
Process burners: A broad range of conven-
tional low-NOx and ultra-low-NOx process
burner systems reduce pollution and maxi-
mize heating performance for the ethylene,
refining and reforming industries.
Boiler burners: John Zink Hamworthy
Combustions customized boiler burners
accommodate variable fuels, emissions
levels, boiler types and flame geometry for
industrial steam generation, power gen-
eration and marine markets worldwide.
Flare gas recovery: John Zink Hamworthy
Combustion flare gas recovery systems
reduce normal flaring by nearly 100%. This
near-zero flaring allows the recovered gas
to be reused as fuel or feedstock, combin-
ing environmental control with an immedi-
ate return on investment.
Vapor control: John Zink Hamworthy
Combustion has more than 2,000 vapor
combustion and vapor recovery instal-
lations worldwide. The firms vapor
control technologies are recognized as
the Best Demonstrated Technology
and the Maximum Achievable Control
Technology by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Marine and offshore: With thousands
of installations, John Zink Hamworthy
Combustion is a world leader in gas and
oil combustion systems for the marine and
offshore sector. Specialized burner sys-
tems handle a variety of fuels and cover a
wide range of applications including main
and auxiliary boilers, thermal heaters,
flare systems and well-test burners.
Research and development: John Zink
Hamworthy Combustions three R&D cen-
ters (Tulsa, Okla.; Luxembourg; and Poole,
England) make up the largest and most
advanced testing complex in the indus-
try, with a team of PhD engineers using
advanced CFD to solve turbulent flow
problems involving multiple-step chemical
reactions and non-linear heat transfer.
www.johnzinkhamworthy.com
Combustion authority for 80+ years
John Zink Hamworthy Combustion provides proven emissions-control and clean-air
systems to a variety of industries worldwide
John Zink Hamworthy Combustion has
installed thousands of flare systems
The Chemical Engineering bookstore offers a
variety of industry topics you will come to rely on.
Environmental Management: Air-Pollution Control
Environmental Management: Wastewater and Groundwater Treatment
Fluid Handling
Gas-Solid and Liquid-Solid Separation
Liquid-Liquid and Gas-Liquid Separation
Managing Bulk Solids
For a complete list of products, visit the Chemical
Engineering bookstore now. http://store.che.com/product/book
17792
Environmental Manager
S
ome injuries are permanent; some
injuries are total. People who work
for, or near, small companies need to
be protected just as much as those
associated with large companies. Small
companies, however, usually cannot afford
to employ full-time, certified, degreed,
safety professionals. From my own career
experiences, it seems as though a com-
pany with less than 50 employees cannot
afford to employ an expert full time. FRI
is such a small company.
One solution for a small company
is to utilize consultants. For example,
professor Jan Wagner has assisted FRI
with process hazard analyses (PHAs),
risk management plans (RMPs), relief
system analyses and dispersion stud-
ies. Alan Drew, of Meridian Technol-
ogy, teaches safety classes and per-
forms outside audits. Ming Yu, of
Red River Environmental Laboratory
and Consulting Co., performs an an-
nual radiation audit that addresses
FRI gamma-scan apparatuses and co-
balt sources. The bulk of FRIs safety
efforts, however, are performed on a
part-time basis by four FRI employ-
ees, including myself. Not too long
ago, we benefitted appreciably from
a surprise all-day audit of our safety
programs by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). According
to that inspector, FRI is doing a very
good job for a small company. In
fact, every outside auditor seems to
say just about the same thing.
Following the EPA audit, FRI created
a safety tool that might be unique. FRI
created an electronic Safety Journal.
Every employee who performs any sig-
nificant safety chore is encouraged to
enter a dated sentence in the journal.
One example, TCT re-trained CWK
regarding forklift operation; Safety
meeting run by AD regarding PPE;
and KM plugged insulation holes on
reflux line. With the first two exam-
ples, other documentation of the event
was, of course, prepared. This Safety
Journal has many benefits, including
the fact that it is word-searchable. Any
FRI employee can search for objects
like the following: CWK, forklift, PPE,
KM, insulation, and so on. The Safety
Journal has proven extremely valuable
with external auditors when they have
asked questions like, When was the
last time that you . . . and Is there any
documentation regarding . . . FRIs
Safety Journal is also the place where
FRI stores reminders regarding future
safety/reporting deadlines. Some large
companies employ dashboards and
scorecards, which are similar to FRIs
Safety Journal, to keep track of process
safety management (PSM) information.
The idea for FRIs Safety Journal came
from my MBA studies (many years ago)
when I learned about the journals that
accounting departments keep.
About a year ago, at a general safety
meeting, I went around the room and
asked several engineers, technicians
and administrators the same question,
What is the key to safety? The an-
swers that came back included words
like training, caring, documentation,
pre-engineering, personal protective
equipment, inspections, audits, follow-
ups and communications. When I was
done receiving input, I reached under
the table and pulled out a string of
592 metal keys, which I held above the
table. I stated, There are many keys
to a safe working environment. Now,
whenever anybody enters my office,
the first thing they see is the FRI safety
keys hanging from my coat rack.
Mike Resetarits
Fractionation Column
Small-company safety
Mike Resetarits is the technical direc-
tor at Fractionation Research, Inc. (FRI;
Stillwater, Okla.; www.fri.org), a distilla-
tion research consortium. Each month,
Mike shares his frst-hand experience
with CE readers
PRODUCT
SHOWCASE
PTFE or FKM
diaphragms.
PVC, Polypro or
PVDF bodies.
Available with
or without
gauges.
Gauge
Shields for
harsh environments.
PLAST-O-MATIC VALVES, INC.
CEDAR GROVE, NJ 07009
(973) 256-3000 Fax: (973) 256-4745
www.plastomatic.com info@plastomatic.com
Compact and Economical, Plast-O-Matic
Gauge Guards prevent dangerous leaks and
allow dependable instrument readings from
full vacuum to 250 psi.
Protect pressure or vacuum
instruments from clogging,
corrosion and damage.
Circle 201 on p. 72 or go to
adlinks.che.com/45772-201
CONSULTING
HFP
NOISE MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT, AND CONTROL COMPUTER NOISE MODELING
NOISE CONTROL ENGINEERING
ACOUSTICAL CONSULTANTS
HOUSTON, TEXAS
(713) 789-9400
CALGARY, AB
(403) 259-6600
INDUSTRIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SOUND LEVEL SURVEYS REGULATORY COMPLIANCE STUDIES F
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CRYSTALLIZATION &
PRECIPITATION
Dr. Wayne J. Genck
Genck International
3 Somonauk Court, Park Forest, IL. 60466
Tel (708) 748-7200 Fax (708) 748-7208
genckintl@aol.com http://www.genckintl.com
Design/Scale-up Purity
Size Distribution Caking
Laboratory Investigations Drying
Filtration Particle Habit
Troubleshooting Polymorphism
Product Micro-Analysis Kinetics Studies
Industrial Seminars
Engineering e-material, e-solutions, e-courses
and e-seminars for energy conversion systems:
Physical Properties Steam Approximations
Power Cycles Power Cycle Components/Processes
Compressible Flow
ENGINEERING SOFTWARE
Phone/FAX: (301) 540-3605
Web Site: http://www.engineering-4e.com
Visit the web site to check out free demos, etc.!
SOFTWARE
HEAT EXCHANGERS
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* Arca-Regler GmbH 32I-4
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Carver Pump 26
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Emerson Process FOURTH
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* GEA Wiegand GmbH 32I-5
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* Haver & Boecker Drahtweberei
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Heat Transfer Research, Inc. 57
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Inline Industries 59
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* Italvacuum 32I-2
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John Zink Hamworthy
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Miller-Stephenson
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MineARC Systems 30
1-214-337-5100 adlinks.che.com/45772-32
Mller GmbH 58
49 (0) 7623/969-0 adlinks.che.com/45772-33
* OHL Gutermuth 32I-6
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PNC Financial Services Group 16a
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* Pompetravaini 32I-8
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Quest Integrity Group 53
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Ross, Charles & Son Company 25
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Saint Gobain
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Samson AG 15
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SoundPLAN International LLC 60
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Therminol 3
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Tiger Tower Services 10
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Wood Group Mustang 20
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Genck International 71
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HFP Acoustical Consultants 71
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Indeck Power Equipment Co. 71
1-847-541-8300 adlinks.che.com/45772-245
Plast-O-Matic Valves, Inc. 71
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Classifed Index May 2013
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Product Showcase . . . . . . . . .71
Computer Software . . . . . . . . .71
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Ross, Charles & Son Company 71
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Wabash Power Equipment Co. 71
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Xchanger, Inc. 71
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* International Edition
People
Steve Edwards will become chairman,
president and CEO of global
engineering-and-construction com-
pany Black & Veatch (Overland
Park, Kan.), when Len Rodman
retires at the end of 2013.
John Rolando becomes president of
specialty chemicals company Evonik
Corp. (Parsippany, N.J.), succeeding
Tom Bates, who is retiring.
Henri Haggblom becomes manag-
ing partner of consultancy Sinclair
Group (The Woodlands, Tex.).
Nuclear and chemical-process safety
company Fauske & Associates, LLC
(Burr Ridge, Ill.) welcomes the return
of Michael Grolmes, one of its found-
ing principals and current owner of
Centaurus Technology, as an exclu-
sive consultant.
Richard Grenville joins Philadelphia
Mixing Solutions, Ltd. (Palmyra,
Pa.) as director of mixing technology.
SVF Flow Controls, Inc. (Santa
Fe Springs, Calif.) appoints Russ
Chomiak director of sales.
John M. Brown joins General Elec-
trical Co. (GECO; St. Louis, Mo.) as
vice president of industrial and
instrumentation.
ValvTechnologies, Inc. (Houston),
manufacturer of severe-service isola-
tion valve solutions, names Julie
Bodine global director of marketing.
Bryan Burns becomes president
and COO for DeZurik, Inc. (Sartell,
Minn.), a global maker of municipal
and industrial valves.
Suzanne Shelley
Edwards Bodine Haggblom Rolando
MAY WHOS WHO
Chomiak
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6
Incorporating Solids Into Liquids

Focus on Gas Detection
New Engineering Materials
Closed Liquid Dispensing
Finding the Right Gloves
To Fit the Application
Facts at Your Fingertips:
Vacuum Pumps Flowmeter News
PAGE 34
August 2008
www.che.com
8
Sterilization
Reverse Osmosis
Heat Transfer
Fluids
Hydrocarbon Properties
PAGE 34
Focus on Filtration
Facts at Your Fingertips: Valves
Preventing Caking
Lessons-Learned
Systems
Economic Indicators
May 2013; VOL. 120; NO. 5
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PLANT WATCH
Neste Jacobs to expand enzyme
production plant in Finland
April 5, 2013 Neste Jacobs Oy (Porvoo,
Finland; www.nestejacobs.com) has signed
a contract to expand an enzyme plant op-
erated by Roal Oy (Rajamki, Finland; www.
roal.fi). Enzymes produced at the Rajamki
plant are used to make foodstuffs, clothing,
animal feed, pulp and paper. The contract,
which is worth several million euros, started
in April and will be executed in phases, fin-
ishing in June 2016.
ThyssenKrupp to build a second
cement plant in Indonesia
March 27, 2013 ThyssenKrupp Polysius
(Beckum, Germany; www.thyssenkrupp-
resource-technologies.com) has won a
contract from PT Holcim Indonesia Tbk.,
Jakarta, to build a second 1.7-million ton/yr
cement plant near the town of Tuban on the
northern coast of Java. The contract is worth
around $250 million and the plant is sched-
uled to start production in 2015. The Tuban 1
plant, also being built by Thyssen-
Krupp Polysius, is due to start up in June.
UOP propylene technology chosen
for plants in Canada and China
March 26, 2013 UOP LLC (Des Plaines,
Ill.; www.uop.com), a Honeywell company,
says that its UOP C3 Oleflex propane dehy-
drogenation (PDH) technology has been
selected by Williams (Tulsa, Okla.) for a plant
in Alberta, Canada. The 1-billion lb/yr facil-
ity will convert propane recovered from oil
sands offgas into polymer-grade propylene.
This is Canadas first PDH facility and the sixth
successive win for Honeywells UOP Oleflex
technology in North America.
Uhde Inventa-Fischer commissions
polyamide 6 plant in Belarus
March 25, 2013 Uhde Inventa-Fischer (Do-
mat/Ems, Switzerland; www.uhde-inventa-
fischer.com) and JSC Grodno Azot PTC
Khimvolokno (Belarus) have successfully
commissioned a 91,000-metric tons (m.t. )/
yr polyamide 6 plant in Grodno, Western
Belarus.
Toyo wins EVOH plant contract in Texas
and refinery modernization in Tatarstan
March 18, 2013 Toyo Engineering Corp.
(Toyo; Chiba, Japan; www.toyo-eng.co.jp)
has won a contract to construct a 15,000-
ton/yr ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer
(EVOH) plant in La Porte, Houston, for Nip-
pon Synthetic Chemical Industry Co. Con-
struction is scheduled to begin this summer
and to be completed at the end of 2014. The
project will add a third production line to
Nippon Synthetics two existing lines.
The previous week, Toyo Engineering
Corp. was awarded a contract with TAIF-
NK (Nizhnekamsk, Republic of Tatarstan,
Russian Federation) to provide detailed
engineering and procurement for the mod-
ernization of an oil refinery in Nizhnekamsk.
TAIF-NK belongs to TAIF PSC Group (Republic
of Tatarstan, Russian Federation), and is one
of the largest petroleum refineries in Russia.
The project, which is due to be completed in
2016, will see the worlds first use of the VCC
(Veba Combi Cracker) process from KBR
(Houston; www.kbr.com) on a Heavy Resi-
due Conversion Complex (HRCC).
Jacobs awarded contract for sulfuric
acid regeneration plant
March 12, 2013 Jacobs Engineering
Group Inc. (Pasadena, Calif.; www.jacobs.
com) was awarded a contract by Jiangsu
Sailboat Petrochemical Co. for the design
of a sulfuric acid regeneration plant in Li-
anyungang, Jiangsu, Peoples Republic of
China. The plant will treat spent acid from a
new methyl methacrylate (MMA) and acry-
lonitrile (AN) production facility.
Ineos and Sinopec form JV agreement
for chemical complex in Nanjing
March 11, 2013 Ineos Phenol (Rolle,
Switzerland; www.ineosphenol.com) and
Sinopec Yangzi Petrochemical Co. (Sino-
pec YPC) have formed a joint venture (JV)
to build and operate a 1.2-million m.t./yr
cumene, phenol and acetone complex at
Nanjing Chemical Industrial Park in Jiangsu
Province, China. Capacity will be at least
400,000 m.t./yr of phenol, 250,000 m.t./yr
of acetone and 550,000 m.t./yr of cumene,
making it the largest plant of its kind in Chi-
na. Startup is planned for the end of 2015.
Pyry awarded EPCM assignment in a
pulp mill project in Brazil
March 11, 2013 Pyry Oyj. (Helsinki,
Finland; www.poyry.com) has won an en-
gineering, procurement and construction
management (EPCM) contract from CMPC
Celulose Riograndense for the expansion
of the companys Guaiba pulp mill in Rio
Grande do Sul state, Brazil. Under the Bal-
ance of Plant (BOP) assignment, Pyry will
work on integrating the different processes
of the mill. Startup of the new 1.3-million
m.t./yr mill is planned for early 2015.
MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS
CB&I acquire Phillips gasification
technology and signs Korean PDH deal
March 21, 2013 CB&I (The Woodlands,
Tex.; www.cbi.com) has agreed to acquire
the E-Gas gasification business from Phil-
lips 66. E-Gas technology is a commercially
proven way to convert coal or petroleum
coke into synthesis gas. The previous week,
CB&I announced a contract from SK Gas
for the license and engineering design of a
propane dehydrogenation (PDH) unit to be
built in Ulsan, Korea, for startup in 2016. The
600,000-m.t. /yr plant will use Catofin tech-
nology from Lummus.
BASF to start up new FCC catalysts testing
and research laboratory in Heidelberg
March 13, 2013 BASF Corp. (Iselin, N.J.;
www.basf.com) says it will open a new multi-
million euro fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
catalysts testing and research laboratory at
the hte AG (www.hte-company.com) facil-
ity in Heidelberg, Germany. hte is a wholly
owned subsidiary of BASF SE (Ludwigshafen,
Germany) and provider of services to en-
hance productivity in research and devel-
opment. The new BASF laboratory will begin
operating in the first half of 2014.
Davy Process Technology and SEKAB
E-Technology form strategic partnership
March 13, 2013 Davy Process Technology
Ltd. (Davy; London, U.K.; www.davyprotech.
com), a Johnson Matthey company, and
SEKAB (Rotterdam, the Netherlands; www.
sekab.com), a leader in ethanol-based
chemicals and biofuels, announced that
they will collaborate to develop and market
CelluTech, SEKABs lignocellulosic-based
biorefinery technology.
AkzoNobel and Solvay establish a
partnership on renewable solvents
March 12, 2013 Solvay S.A. (Brussels,
Belgium; www.solvay.com) has agreed
to supply bio-based chemicals for use in
paints and coatings made by AkzoNobel
(Amsterdam, the Netherlands; www.akzono-
bel.com). The agreement covers the manu-
facture of biobutanol and bio-acetone
and their derivatives, and the Solvay Coatis
Augeo family of solvents, in volumes of up to
10,000 ton/yr by 2017.
Charles Butcher
BUSINESS NEWS
FOR MORE ECONOMIC INDICATORS, SEE NEXT PAGE CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2013 75
Economic Indicators
400
450
500
550
600
650
J F M A M J J A S O N D
DOWNLOAD THE CEPCI TWO WEEKS SOONER AT WWW.CHE.COM/PCI
CURRENT TRENDS
P
reliminary data for the Febru-
ary 2013 CE Plant Cost Index
(CEPCI; top), which is the most re-
cent available, indicate that capi-
tal equipment prices declined from
January to February, by 0.2%. The
current February 2013 preliminary
Plant Cost Index stands at 4.4%
lower than the PCI value from a
year ago (February 2012). Within
the equipment subcategories, costs
for pumps & compressors, process
instruments and electrical equip-
ment edged higher, while costs
in other areas, including process
machinery and heat exchangers
& tanks, fell. Meanwhile, the Cur-
rent Business Indicators from IHS
Global Insight (middle), show that
the latest CPI output index value
(March 2013) increased from the
previous month.
2011 2012 2013
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT COST INDEX (CEPCI)
(195759 = 100)
Feb. 13
Prelim.
Jan.13
Final
Feb. 12
Final
CE Index
569.9 571.2 596.3
Equipment 690.9 692.8 730.6
Heat exchangers & tanks 627.3 630.1 689.9
Process machinery 653.6 657.6 677.7
Pipe, valves & fittings 887.6 890.4 933.5
Process instruments 417.1 416.5 433.8
Pumps & compressors 917.4 913.9 919.6
Electrical equipment 513.5 513.3 514.2
Structural supports & misc 739.3 741.6 772.9
Construction labor 318.9 319.2 321.7
Buildings 531.0 530.9 524.4
Engineering & supervision 326.6 326.8 328.4
CURRENT BUSINESS INDICATORS
LATEST PREVIOUS YEAR AGO
CPI output index (2007 = 100) Mar. '13 = 88.3 Feb. '13 = 88.7 Jan. '13 = 88.2 Mar. '12 = 87.0
CPI value of output, $ billions Feb. '13 = 2,218.0 Jan. '13 = 2,195.4 Dec. '12 = 2,164.3 Feb. '12 = 2,199.3
CPI operating rate, % Mar. '13 = 74.7 Feb. '13 = 75.1 Jan. '13 = 74.9 Mar. '12 = 74.6
Producer prices, industrial chemicals (1982 = 100) Mar. '13 = 313.5 Feb. '13 = 314.2 Dec. '13 = 299.7 Mar. '12 = 327.3
Industrial Production in Manufacturing (2007=100) Mar. '13 = 95.7 Feb. '13 = 95.9 Jan. '13 = 95.0 Mar. '12 = 93.4
Hourly earnings index, chemical & allied products (1992 = 100) Mar. '13 = 155.2 Feb. '13 = 155.2 Jan. '13 = 155.0 Mar. '12 = 157.3
Productivity index, chemicals & allied products (1992 = 100) Mar. '13 = 105.5 Feb. '13 = 105.1 Jan. '13 = 105.6 Mar. '12 = 106.3
60
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75
80
85
1000
1300
1600
1900
2200
2500
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
70
80
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100
110
120
CPI OUTPUT INDEX (2007 = 100) CPI OUTPUT VALUE ($ BILLIONS) CPI OPERATING RATE (%)
Current Business Indicators provided by IHS Global Insight, Inc., Lexington, Mass.
are now available at www.equipment-cost-index.com.
Quarterly updates of our industry-leading Equipment Cost Index
Equipment Cost Index Available
Exclusively from Marshall & Swift
Annual
Index:
2005 = 468.2
2006 = 499.6
2007 = 525.4
2008 = 575.4
2009 = 521.9
2010 = 550.8
2011 = 585.7
2012 = 584.6
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Incorporating Solids Into Liquids

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