Math Education

Why do some students excel in math classes and others do not? How can a teacher differentiate instruction to reach all students regardless of their interest level or competence in math?

Stephanie Bryan April 19, 2012

Introduction Emma is beginning a high school pre-calculus course. She took algebra last year and she caught on to all the topics pretty quickly. She has always been an Astudent in her math courses. Her teachers see her as very motivated and talented in mathematics. Her parents encourage and support her in her academics and most of her friends perform well in school too. She has received praise from her math teachers in the past and as a result is very confident in her abilities. She is already planning to attend college, so she knows it will be important to understand the concepts in pre-calculus. Luke is beginning the same high school pre-calculus course. He also took algebra last year, and although he passed the class he has forgotten most of the skills he learned, because he simply memorized them for the tests. He has always performed averagely in his math courses and has never received a lot of attention from his teachers. His parents are too busy working to spend much time discussing academics with him, so he has not set any firm educational goals for himself. He completes his assignments but does not feel like he is capable of being a high achiever in mathematics. He thinks math is boring and he does not see any connection between mathematics and real-life skills. You are the teacher of this pre-calculus course both Luke and Emma are in your class. How can you reach both of them? How can you recognize and work with their current situations, past experiences, and attitudes toward math?

Teaching High School Mathematics The tricky part of being a high school teacher is that students have already had at least ten years of schooling that have helped to shape their opinions on certain subjects, their perceived level of competence in different areas, and their skill/knowledge levels. When a student enters the classroom, a teacher not only lacks knowledge of the past experiences of her students she also lacks the ability to change those experiences. Perhaps one of the most frightening realizations for a high school mathematics teacher is that mathematics difficulties are cumulative and worsen with time (Jordan, 850). There is evidence that people are born with some level of natural number sense, and this is enhanced through nurturing it as an infant (with number games and activities). However, regardless of the number sense that students have when they enter kindergarten, elementary school classes can often leave them with gaps in their number competence skills the skills necessary to understand basic numerical properties, such as magnitude, sequences, and counting. Each year, a childs math class builds upon the math class he took the year before. Just because a student passes a class, he is not necessarily prepared to take the next class. Many students see math as memorization and rote learning (Boaler), and they never gain the understanding necessary to apply those skills to higher-level math courses. Algebra courses in particular have been getting a lot of criticism for being too generic and not differentiated enough for the wide range of students who enroll in them (Silver, 30). Even in college, I have seen students whose algebra skills (or lack thereof) are holding them back from achieving highly in calculus courses. Outside of tangible knowledge and understanding, students bring with them an attitude toward math. This also results from the culmination of many mathematical experiences. Students will naturally develop an academic selfperception their view of how capable they are of succeeding in a subject, as well as how important that success is to them. Although the factors that influence this selfperception vary for each student, strong positive correlations have been found between mathematical self-perceptions and: The importance that adults in a students life (teachers, parents, etc.) places on mathematics The level of support and encouragement that a student receives How the student perceives others feel about his competence (for example, if he feels that his teacher believes he is competent then he is more likely to feel competent)

(Bouchey). Students also develop opinions or attitudes toward mathematics as a subject. Negative attitudes may be due in part to the cultural attitudes in the United States that make it socially acceptable, even trendy, to lack mathematical knowledge

(Deitte, 278). Children may be receiving an overarching message from society that it is not cool to put any effort forth in math classes. While students are at an age where peer influence is very strong and fitting in socially is often of great importance, this can be a difficult message for teachers to overcome. A students personal beliefs about a subject correlate with the beliefs that he perceives his peers to have about the subject (Bouchey). In other words, if a student believes that his classmates all hate math and think it is a waste of time, then he is more likely to feel that way himself. All of these factors come together to give each student in a classroom a unique background and outlook. As a teacher, the question is: what can I do as a result?

Welcome to Class!
The professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics state that every math teacher should strive to create: A learning environment that focuses on important and significant mathematics, encourages independent and collaborative student work, fosters respect among students for different solution strategies, furnishes a motivating context for further study, and maximizes each students potential (Chapin, 112). Creating a classroom that fulfills these goals is the first step toward ensuring that, regardless of their past mathematics experience, students will have every opportunity to develop a genuine understanding of topics and gain a sense of mathematical competence. The following suggestions are adapted from Suzanne Chapin and Kristen Eastman. External Characteristics These are the physical, tangible aspects of the classroom. Display student work Seating arrangement should allow for flexibility and be practical for instruction, independent work, and group work Be aware of the budget/resources and use them wisely Incorporate field trips, real-life applications, and guest speakers whenever possible

Internal Characteristics These are the intangible aspects of the classroom. As the teacher, be aware of your own beliefs and habits of mind, as they will influence your teaching Be open to new ideas and approaches Show enthusiasm Understand that math is not a fixed body of knowledge it is changing, and what is most important is that students develop the skills necessary to be successful in mathematics, not the specific knowledge

In order to successfully integrate these approaches into ones classroom, it is important that a teacher further her own education to remain up to date on new ideas in the content area, observe and collaborate with other teachers to share experiences and ideas, join a professional organization, and be an active member of the school-wide community.

Flash Fiction Here we return to the stories of Emma and Luke, two students in a pre-calculus class. This reflects Lukes stream of thoughts during math class one day.

Picture from < http://blog.adw.org/2011/10/why-teens-leave-a-new-study/>

Im hungry. This class is dragging on forever and I just want it to be lunchtime! I dont even know what the teacher is saying. Maybe if I had paid attention from the beginning Id get itbut what is she even writing on the board now? Oh my gosh, I hope she doesnt call on me. None of this makes any sense! I mean I guess it looks kind of like that stuff we did last year, but I never really got that either. None of my teachers ever explain stuff in a way that makes sense and how can they expect me to remember everything they make me memorize? Its not like this stuff matters anyway. Ill probably end up working at some lame job after high school. And Ill definitely never need to know calculus. Did someone just make this stuff up to confuse kids? Its not like anyone uses it in real life. Seriously when will this school day be over? I want to go play some basketball! Oh, man, the teachers announcing tomorrows test? I completely forgot about thatoh well, theres no point in studying. Im just gonna fail anyway.

Making Math Accessible for Every Student There is sometimes a tendency to assume that everyones predominant modes of representation are similar (Dowker, 99). In many math classrooms, teachers present numerical ideas to students in only one way. When students are unable to be successful with this approach, it is assumed that they do not understand the material. However, it is possible that it is not the material that is confusing to them but rather the way things are being represented. Some people, for example, have a strong ability level in arithmetical calculations; however, they cannot connect those abilities to written numbers. As a result, they require different approaches (such as finger counting or visual representations of quantities). Every student acquires knowledge and understanding in a unique way. It is unfair to assume that the issue lies in their capacity for comprehension instead, a teacher should consider the possibility that a new approach is required.

Students Varying Needs Some students have a natural giftedness in mathematics. Some of their common characteristics are relatively predictable: Enjoy mathematics Reason quickly Deal well with abstract concepts Can recognize general solutions from specific examples Recognize overarching ideas rather than details

On the other hand, some common characteristics are less predictable: High rate of allergies and autoimmune disorders Short-sighted Male Left-handed

Students who are gifted in math may require additional challenges or opportunities to explore the subject in order to stay engaged with the curriculum. Just as gifted students are inevitably present in classrooms, so are students who struggle with mathematics. Math requires a wide variety of mental abilities, not just numerical or arithmetical. Students who struggle with one or many facets of mathematics may simply require different approaches/perspectives on material or extra time to develop a complete understanding. Many factors can contribute to difficulty in mathematics: Premature birth or brain damage Genetics level of math ability seems to run in families Spatial abilities Culture or language Overall IQ o However, many people with low IQs demonstrate astounding calculation abilities! Any learning disability that affects reasoning/logic, reading/language, or arithmetical abilities o The most well-known arithmetic-related disability is dyscalculia

(All information from Individual Differences in Arithmetic by Ann Dowker)

Why Dont You Like Math?

Knowing why a student dislikes math can help a teacher to attempt to make math more appealing for that student. Here are some student responses to the question Why dont you like math?

Its not that I dont like it. It has just always been difficult for meI guess people dont enjoy things theyre not good at.

Just giving me a formula and some examples has never been enough. Thats how most of my math teachers went about instruction, and I could never fully understand things.

I want to be an English major, so it has always been hard for me to see the point of my math classes.

I could never see how it connects to real life. Even the real-life examples in textbooks werent things Id ever actually use in real life.

All of my math classes have been boring. Its hard to stay focused when the teacher is just lecturing and Im not even able to follow her logic. Sohow can these students be helped?

What can you do for a student who just hates math? You cannot change a students frame of mind by force. The students must convince themselves that mathematics is interesting and useful (Deitte, 278). Students need to be given the opportunity to explore math with respect to their own interests. The project suggestions that follow are the ideas of Jennifer Deitte and Michael Howe. In classrooms where they have been used, students generally reported higher levels of motivation in math class. However, it is important to bear in mind that students who naturally had an interest in mathematics or were talented in math did not enjoy the projects as much as those who had stronger interests outside of math. Research a contemporary mathematician in particular, students should look at why this individual chose to be a mathematician Look at current/modern math research this shows students that the subject is still alive. There are still new discoveries being made today! Develop models with real data this provides a connection between mathematics and data that is relevant to the student Interview a teacher in your favorite subject, and see how math relates to that subject Write a report on the career you are interested in, and find a way that math is used in that career/field

A poem for two voices, based on the observations of Jo Boaler (1998) The left column is the voice of a student attending Amber Hill a high school where traditional, textbook-based learning is the only approach to mathematics. The right column represents the voice of a student attending Phoenix Park a high school where open-ended projects allow students to form their own understandings of mathematical concepts. We sit in straight rows, Facing front. The teacher tells us how to do things Step by Step by Step. Its kind of boring sometimes. I know how to do the problem. As long as it looks like the examples In my textbook. We sit in comfy chairs Or on the floor Or in the hallway. The teacher gives us a prompt And we decide what we want to do And we choose our next Step. Its kind of noisy sometimes.

We all pay attention. We do our work, but just to get it done. I dont really care about math. I dont care about learning more.

I know why these skills are important. Ive seen how they apply To real life.

I can tell you what chapter we covered In the textbook.

Sometimes we get off-task. But I always know what Im working on, And I can explain it to you if you ask me. Im excited to discover new things as I go along. In fact, we have to explain everything we do.

The teacher tells us when were right. I wish there was more variety. I wish there was more structure. Math is memorizing, thats all. Math applies to my life. I can see that. Students at Phoenix Park actually got higher scores on standardized math tests, despite the fact that Amber Hill math classes emphasized procedures to complete problems similar to those on an exam. Amber Hill students struggled to use the skills that they had developed on problems that differed from those in their textbooks, while Phoenix Park students understood the concepts behind those procedures well enough to apply them elsewhere. Most people never use the math they learned in school in real life, but Phoenix Park provided students with the necessary connections between mathematics and life.

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