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INTRODUCTION
REFINERY OPERATIONS
The function of the refinery is to convert crude oil into the finished products
required by the market in the most efficient, and hence most profitable manner.
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2 Pressure Safety Design Practices
The methods employed necessarily vary widely from one refinery to another,
depending on the crude processed, the nature and location of the market, the type
of equipment available, and many other factors. However, for simplification, it
may be considered that all refining processes fall into one of four basic
categories.
Nearly all the fractions produced by the processes mentioned above contain
certain objectionable constituents or impurities. The third basic category is,
therefore, treating. This group of processes includes the removal of the
unwanted components, or their conversion to innocuous or less undesirable
compounds. Removal of the impurities is sometimes accomplished by physical
treating, as exemplified by the process for manufacturing kerosene, wherein
sulfur and certain undesirable hydrocarbons are removed by extraction with
liquid sulfur dioxide. Alternatively, the removal may be carried out by converting
the unwanted compounds to a form more readily removed as is done in the
hydrodesulfurization of diesel fuel. Here the sulfur compounds are cracked and
hydrogenated. The sulfur is converted to hydrogen sulfide which can be readily
separated from the heavier diesel oil by fractionation. An example of the
conversion of undesirable components to innocuous compounds which remain in
the product is found in the gasoline sweetening processes. There the mercaptans
present give the product a foul, objectionable odor. The sweetening process
Introduction to Petroleum Refinery Operations 3
The fourth basic category is blending of the finished cuts into commercially
saleable products such as motor gasoline, kerosene, lubricating oils, and bunker
fuel oil, according to their specifications.
TYPES OF REFINERIES
Refineries produce chemical feed stocks for sale to the chemical affiliates
and do not have responsibility for the manufacture of chemical products directly.
Both operations may be carried out at the same physical location but the
corporate product responsibilities are usually separate.
Hydroskimmer
A hydroskimmingrefinery lends itself to locations where the market demands for
the major fuel products (gasoline, gas oil, and residual fuel oil) approximate the
quantities of these products obtainable by distillation from the available crudes.
A typical hydroskimming refinery would include the following:
1. Atmospheric Pipestill
2. Powerforming (Catalytic Naphtha Reforming)
3. Light Ends Recovery - Fractionation
4.Treating and Blending
takes place. The most important of these is aromatization; other reactions include
isomerization, cracking, hydrogenation, and polymerization. The desired product
is of approximately the same boiling range as the feed, but the molecules have
been rearranged or reformed into higher octane compounds.
Conversion
Figure 2 shows a simplified flow plan for a typical conversion type refinery.
The atmospheric P/S residuum can be fed to a vacuum pipestill. The vacuum
tower enables the refiner to cut deeper into the crude, at the same time avoiding
high temperatures (above about 750 O F ) which cause thermal cracking with
resultant deposition of coke and tarry residues in the equipment.
crackmg unit for conversion into high octane gasoline blending stock. Byproducts
are gas, distillate, cycle gas oil, and fractionator bottoms. The process uses a
fluidized catalyst system. The catalyst is circulated continuously between the
reactor where cracking takes place and the regenerator where the coke deposited
on the catalyst is burned off. The major competing process is hydrocracking
which offers greater conversion and flexibility but usually requires a higher
investment.
1. Coking-Delayed Coking and Fluid Coking are the two major variations
of this process. Fluid coking produces less coke as compared with delayed coking
and hence yields a better product distribution. That is, for a given product slate
less crude is converted into coke. The coke produced by fluid coking, however,
is of little value as it consists of fine hard particles in contrast to large pieces for
delayed coke. This difference in size and texture is important to electrode
manufacturers who historically have used delayed coke.
production.
Hydrofining usually involves only minor molecular changes of the feed with
hydrogen consumption in the range of about 100 to 1,0oO cu.ft./bbl. Typical
applications include desulfurization of a wide range of feeds (naphtha, light and
heavy distillates, and certain residua) and occasional pretreatment of cat cracker
feeds.
6. Hydrocracking.
10. Grease Manufacture - Selected lube oil fractions 2::: blended with
various metallic soaps to produce high viscosity lubricating greases.
11. Wax Manufacture - A waxy distillate cut frox i(ude or the wax
byproduct from lube oil dewaxing is first deoiled. Resulting low oil content wax
is hydrofined for color improvement and fractionated into appropriate melting
point grades.
12. Asphalt Manufacture - Saleable asphalts are produced from the residua
of selected crudes. The residuum itself may be sold as straight reduced cuts to
make it easier to handle, producing the so called cut-back asphalts. Another
variation is air blown or oxidized asphalts for improved tenacity, greater
resistance to weathering, and decreased brittleness. Emulsified asphalts are made
for application at relatively low temperatures.
There are many other processes used in refineries not mentioned here. The
list above is intended only to emphasize the wide diversity of processing which
is common to petroleum refining and to introduce in a very general way some of
the more important of these processes. Also it must be emphasized that only
fundamental principles of refinery operations have been discussed and modem
manufacturing techniques vary widely from company to company.