GL105 Petroleum Geology The Reservoir IHRDC Video Library for Exploration and Production Specialists [PERS Lege Me ee es aE a a ap ER ae EYVideo Library for Exploration & Production Specialists Fundamentals of Petroleum Geology GL 105 The Reservoir R.C. Selley Consulting Geologist, London David C. Morrill Partner, Donohue, Anstey & Morrill, Boston International Human Resources Development CorporationCopyright © 1983 International Human Resources Development Corporation, All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission of the publisher except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information address: IHRDC, Publishers, 137 Newbury Street, Boston, MA 02116 US.AContents Acknowledgments v Preface vii Instructions to the User ix Legend x introduction 1 Unit 1 Porosity 2 Permeability 20 Relationship Between Porosity, Permeability and Texture 25 Unit 1 Effects of Diagenesis on Sandstone Reservoirs 35 Unit Effects of Diagenesis on Carbonate Reservoirs 49 Unit IV Reservoir Continuity 63 References 85 Further Reading 89 Questions 91 Appendix A 97Acknowledgments This manual and the accompanying viceo program constitute one module of the IHROC Video Library for Exploration and Production Specialists. This module was produced during the first production cycle of the Video Library, which was sponsorea in part by the following companies: AGIP S.p.A. ARAMCO Chevron Corporation Cities Service Oil and Gas Corporation Dome Petroleum Ltd. Gulf O11 Corporation Mobil Oil Corporation Phillips Petroleum Company Schlumberger Technology Corporation Texaco Inc. Their sponsorship does not constitute approval or recommendation of the methods or procedures contained herein. Anyone using this program does so with the understanding that these companies anc IHRDC are to be held harmless from any use or misuse that may result therefrom. Throughout the production of the Video Library, many companies have provided technical support, information, ano illustrations. We woul like to thank these companies for permission to use their materials in the development of these modules. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Cambriage, Massachusetts Frank Adler Location Geologist Phillips Petroleum Company Denver, Colorado Phillips Petroleum Company Bartlesville, Oklahoma Phillips Petroleum Company Denver, Colorado Core Laboratories, Inc. Denver, Colorado The Frame Shop Newton, Massachusetts Multivision, Inc. Neecham, MassachusettsIHRDC Video Library Modules in Petroleum Geology Fundamentals Welisite Geology eu101 ot aos Basie Concepts of Basic Diling snd Well Potoinum Geology Completion technology ou 102 Physical and Chamcal Feopatas of Rysrocarbons ‘103 ‘The Subeurtace ou 20s eionment sarge adc vm Hanging and Anais Gonsraton and Gt ot -Migcation of Hyeroenrbons swudlopging GL 108 ‘The Ronervoi L106 ‘The Trap, Wireline GL.07 in a Habliat of Well Logging inentary Bane teuodution to Wal Logg Basic Skills a 09 Porosity Logs au 20 je Cross Sections Gi doa Geologie Crowe Sinet ‘Advanced Well Logging 202 subsuace Macong bier cu 202 Reservoirs GL sor Concepts ard Methods of Subeurtnce Facies Analysis at soe Explocaton for Nonmarine ‘Sandstone Reservors Gt 503 Exeloraton for Marginal Marine Sandstone Reserors 504 Exploration for a 505 Porosiy Eveluion of Sangstone Resevoir’ i 506 __ Exporation for i sor Pososty Evoustion o onate Reserv0's Gt 508 Evapontes ana Their moore Petroleum Exoloaton Structural Geology ‘and Global Tectonics aL sot Structural Gaclogy 602 Teetonies and Develooment of Secimertaty Basins 503 Habit of Pevoleum in Sivergent Margin ane in Baen GL soe att of Petroleum in Ccorvergent Margn Bases Topics suitable for cross-diseiplinaey training purposes are indicated by heavier type vi Geochemistry L701 Introduction to Exploration Geeenomistry oun Acoizaon cl Geocnemitty fo Petroleum Eaploraton General 00) ‘Computer Agpeatons in Petrowum Bxperaton ct soe Photogeeeay and Remote Sorsing cian Resource Assessment tao Basin Analyse Gt aos Pay ArasPreface The IKRDC Video Library for Exploration and Production Specialists is a video-based instructional system that provides practical technical training in the fields of Petroleum Geology, Exploration Geophysics, and Petroleum Engineering. The organization of the Petroleum Geology specialty is shown in the outline at left. Topics are organized into eight major series that adoress the foremost concerns of working geologists in the petroleum industry. Though the modules are designed to compose a working curriculum, they do not necessarily need to be studied in sequential order. Module numbers beyond the 100, 200, and 300 series indicate in only a general sense the level of aifficulty anc range of prerequisites, Distribution requirements wili vary with the individual student's neeas. However, the videotapes and manuals of the Fundamentals Series constitute a self-contained introduction to Petroleum Geology. Familiarity witn their content is necessary to study in the other series. The modules GL101-GL107 provide an overview for three distinct audiences: o Geologists who will then embark on the detailed study of a particular series 0 Geophysicists, engineers, and geotechnical support staff who require basic understanding of petroleum geology for job competency; o Professionals in marginally related or unrelated disciplines who, for short-term or permanent requirements, need to understand either the basic properties and behavior of oil ana gas, the principles of petroleum geology, or both This module, GL1O5 The Reservoir, is the fifth in the Geology Specialty and examines the structural and textural properties of reservoir rocks. Both primary and diagenetic factors of sandstone and carbonate reservoirs are consicered. Knowledge of GL10l is reauired anc familiarity with GL103 is recommended. viiInstructions to the User This video-based instructional series is composed of seven modules: each with a videotape program and manual. The series can benefit a variety of industry personnel as follows: Individuals requiring or seeking only a broad overview of @ topic (e.g. managerial or administrative personnel, or specialists in geophysics or petroleum engineering) will obtain a general understanding of each topic by viewing the videotape alone. Entry-level geologists requiring a more detailed working knowledge of each subject are instructed to view each videotape, to study the accompanying manual, and to answer the questions pertaining to that module. To facilitate the learning process, each module is civided into instructional units, consisting of about 10-15 minutes of viewing. At the end of each unit the user is asked to review the corresponding section(s) in the manual, to do some further reading, and to answer the questions relevant to the unit. Questions are found at the end of each manual. This reinfarcement technique insures that the user "internalizes" what he/she hears and sees in the video portion of the module. To assist IHRDC in assessing the effectiveness of this video-assisted instruction, the user is asked to rate each Module on the attached evaluation form and to submit it to his/her training administrator or to: IHRDC E&P Viceo Library 137 Newbury Street Boston, WA 02126 U.S.A.Legend F577) Calcite [27234 Cement (Can be calcite, silica, authigenic clay or other) eee Dolomite nN Ae c Dolomite crystals BZ Feldspar ni he Limestone Limestone Limestone NOTE: this manual, please refer to: Glossary of Geological Terms Second Edition R.C. Bates and J.a. Jackson American Geological Institute Falls Church, VA oil i Pore space/Porosity Salt Zs tt it Sand grain Sandstone Shale Shell fragments Water For definitions of geological terms used inIntroduction The conditions necessary for a commercial accumulation of oil or gas are: a mature source rock, a reservoir rock with a migration route between source and reservoir, an impermeable seal, or cap rock, above the reservoir; finally, the source, reservoir and seal must be arranged so that the oil is trapped. This module is concerned with the reservoir rock. First, the two essential attributes of any reservoir, porosity and permeability, will be discussed, Different types of porosity will then be examined, based on structure and based on origin, Next, permeability and how it is measured will be discussed, Finally, the relationships that exist among the texture of sediments, porosity and permeability will be examined. Most reservoir rocks are sandstones or carbonates For that reason sandstone and carbonate reservoirs will be considered in some depth. only aUnit 1 Porosity brief look will be taken at some of the less common reservoirs such as those pro- vided by igneous and metamorphic rocks. Porosity is the first of two essential requirements for a rock to act as a hydrocarbon reservoir. It is simply @ measurement of the pore or void spaces in @ rock and is usually expressed as a percentage using the formula: Porosity (%) =(——volume of voids _) x 100 total volume of rock Porosity is often represented by the greek letter phi (#). Figure 1 shows the frequency of oil and gas reservoirs plotted against porosity. Almost all reservoirs have porosities in a range of five to thirty percent with the majority falling between ten and twenty percent. Any porosity less than five percent is veryReservoir frequency Fig. 0 10 20 30 Porosity % Reservoir frequency vs. porosityseldom commercial, and any porosity over thirty-five percent is extremely unusual. Porosity can be measured in the laboratory from cores and down the borehole using well logs, especially the sonic, density and neutron logs Gccasionally, it can be estimated from seismic data. There are three main types of porosity: interconnected, connected and isolated. Interconnected porosity utilizes multiple pore throat passages to connect neighboring pores (Fig. 2). Connected, or dead-end, porosity has only one pore throat passage (a) connecting with another pore space (Fig. 3). Isolated porosity has no connections between pores (Fig. 4). Interconnected and connected pores constitute effective porosity because hydrocarbons can move out from them. In the case of interconnected porosity, oil and gas flowing through the pore space can be flushed out by a natural orartificial water drive. Connected porosity is unaffected by flushing but may yield some oil or gas by expansion, as reservoir pressure drops. Reservoirs with isolated porosity are unable to yield hydrocarbons. Any oil or gas contained entered the pore spaces before they were closed by compaction or cementation. Thus, isolated porosity contributes te the total porosity of rock but not to the effective porosity. The ratio of effective to total porosity is extremely important, being directly related to the permeability of a tock. Permeability is discussed in the next section. Porosity can be classified into two major types according to their origin (Murray, 1960). Primary porosity is formed when a sediment is deposited. Secondary porosity forms after deposition. Primary porosity is divisible into two types: intergranu- lar, or interparticle porosity whichoccurs between the grains of a sediment (Fig. 5) and intragranular, or intraparticle porosity which actually occurs within the sediment grains themselves (Fig. 6). Intergranular porosity is more typical of sandstones. It is also generally found within newly-deposited lime sand. However, in lime sands it i seldom preserved because of porosity loss by cementation. With intergranular porosity, the pore spaces are connected, one to another, by throat passages (Fig. 5). Unless there is extensive later cement: tion, reservoirs with intergranular porosity generally have both good interconnected porosity and good permeability. Effective porosity in these reservoirs is equivalent to total porosity. Intragranular porosity is more typical of newly-deposited skeletal lime sands. Figure 6 is a sketch of a thinFig.5 Intergranular porositysection of a limestone reservoir showing pore spaces within skeletal grains. It is unusual for such pores to be preserved. They are generally infilled during early burial by cementation but, in some cases, the cement may be leached out to leave the original intraparticle pore. Secondary porosity is porosity formed within a reservoir after deposition. The types of secondary porosity are: © Penestral © Intercrystalline * solution (moldic and vuggy) * Fracture fenestral porosity is developed where there is a gap in the rock framework larger than the normal grtain-supported pore spaces. Fenestral porosity is characteristic of lagoonal pelmicrites in which dehydration has caused shrinkage and buckling of the laminae, This type of porosity is less 112 frequently encountered. Intercrystalline porosity occurs between crystals and is the type of porosity found in several important oil and gas fields. In recrystallized limestones, intercrystalline porosity is negligible. However, crystalline dolomites often possess high intercrys- talline porosity. Figure 7 is @ sketch of a thin section of a crystalline dolomite reservoir. These reservoirs are usually composed of secondary dolomite formed by “dolomitization™, the process whereby a pre-existing calcium carbonate deposit is replaced by dolomite. rt is this type of intercrystalline porosity that gives secondary dolomites their character- istic saccaroidal (sugary) texture, and can make them such good reservoirs. Several types of secondary porosity can be caused by solution. This is a eriticel process in developing porosity in carbonates, but can develop secondarycrystalline dolomite reservoir Sketch of a thin section of Fig.7 showing interctystalline porosity 1314 porosity in sandstones as well. There are several ways the solution process actually occurs, Figure 8 is a sketch of a thin section showing secondary solution pores developed in a limestone, Some of the pores are round. These are where pellets of lime mud have been leached out. This type of fabric-selective poresity is referred to as moldic, and these pores, therefore, as pelmoloic. Some irregular pore spaces which crosscut the original fabric of rock should also be noted. These pores are referred to as vugs and the porosity as vuggy+ If limestone has undergone extensive solution, the vugs may become very large, ot cavernous. With solution porosity the adjacent pore spaces may not be connected; therefore, the effective poresity may be much lower than the total porosity, and the permeability may also be low. CavernousFig.8 Sketch of a thin section showing moldic and vuggy porosity ina limestone. 56 pores up to five meters high are found in the Fusselman limestone of the Dollarhide field of Texas (Stormont, 1949) and in the Arab D Jurassic limestone of the Abqaiq field, Saudi Arabia (McConnell, 1951). The last significant type of secondary porosity is fracture jorosity. Fractured reservoirs can occur in any brittle rock that breaks by fracturing rather than by deforming plastically. Thus, there are fractured reservoirs in shales, hard-cemented quartzitic sandstones, limestones, dolomites and, of course, basement rocks such as granites and metamorphics, As shown in Figure 9, fractures may develop from tectonic forces associated with folding and faulting. They may also develop from overburden unloading ana weathering immediately under uncon- formities. Volume shrinking from cooling of igneous rocks and dewatering of shales also cause fracturing in these rocks.Fig.9 Fracture porosity in a brittle limestone formation caused by folding (left) and Faulting (right)18 Fractures are generally vertical to subvertical with widths varying from paper thin to about 6 mm, Figure 10 is a sketch of @ slabbed core showing fracture porosity. when this type of porosity is developed, the reservoir may have an extremely high permeability although the actual poresity may not be very high. One must be able to distinguish between fracture porosity and porosity which occurs within the rock itself. Very often fractures are an important part of storage capacity, and sometimes only oil or gas from the fracture pore space itself is actually produced. Fracture porosity can result in high production rates during initial testing of a well, followec by a rapid decline in production thereafter. When a rock has been fractured, the fractures need not necessarily remain open pores forever. They may be infilled by laterFig.10._ Sketch of a slabbed core showing fracture porosity 1920 cementation by silica, calcite or dolomite (Fig. 11). In summarizing this account of the different types of porosity, remember that sandstones generally contain primary intergranular porosity, but may also contain secondary solution poro~ sity. Carbonates generally show only secondary porosity. Fracture porosity can be present in any brittle rock. Appendix A (Choquette and Pray, 1970) contains an excellent discussion of porosity types in carbonates, as well as a bibliography, and a glossary of poro- sity terms. This appendix is strongly recommended for those who desire further clarification of the preceding discussion of porosity. Other methods to classify porosity have been presented by Robinson (1966) and Levorsen (1967). Permeability is the second essential attribute for a reservoir. It is not enough for a rock just to contain