Technical English 4

mHOW TO PRESENT A PROJECT
PROJECT IDENTIFICATION PART I : IDENTIFICATION 1. What is a project? A project is a proposal prepared for yourself, for someone else, for a whole community or even for a country. It involves making plans for the future and describing them to others or to the community as a whole. At the start there is nothing certain about a project except perhaps the desire or determination to undertake it. Thus it is the attempt to define this which has led us to make the various suggestions in this publication. Identifying a project involves recognizing a need in a certain place and for a given group of people. A proper understanding of the target group is very important. 2. Checking out the context Proper research is the prime necessity for any project. If this is not taken sufficiently seriously, the project proposed is often ill-adapted to the situation it is designed to. The result of this can be failure even though a large amount of money may have been invested. Here we are going to concentrate on the initial steps necessary to identify and properly understand the environment of the project in order to avoid these pitfalls. Thus the study of the context of a project is like laying the foundations of a house : the firmer they are, the more solid and durable the house. 3. Researching the project The aim of this research is better to understand the field of operation of the project and the people for whom the project is designed. The detailed planning of the project then needs to be done in an intelligent way, which means not disrupting local traditions, customs and structures. In instances where the need has been clearly identified by the local population. It is nevertheless necessary to try out the basic idea as a pilot scheme involving only a sample of the population. This will test the relevance of the ideas which need to be developed in the process of putting the project together. The length of time spent on research depends on the amount of time needed getting to know the context of the project plus the time taken to do the necessary detailed planning. Bearing in mind the fact that the context and the needs are constantly changing, time must be allowed to ensure that the proposals are free of misunderstandings and hasty judgments and that the project still corresponds to the real needs of the people and has not been drawn up in a way that causes the people for whom it was conceived not to be interested in it. The work done during this first phase should give precise information on local needs, customs and traditions, and on the political, social, cultural and economic context. This information is essential and needs to be systematically studied throughout the period of identification and planning. NOTE : The initiators of the project should not forget that it may need also to interest a funding organization. It is advisable therefore to try to relate as far as possible the interests of the people with the criteria of the organizations from which funding is sought. 1
UNIT 1 PART TWO : PREPARATION AND WORKING OUT OF THE PROJECT DOCUMENT Main criteria used by United Nations agencies. In Part One, we have seen that to identify a project is not enough simply to have a good idea. It is vital that the idea corresponds realistically to the needs of the local population. Once this is clear, it must be certain that the project fits into the social, economic, cultural and political context and has a good chance of being carried through (in terms of finance, organization, manpower and availability of equipment and materials). When this task has been completed, the project organizer will than try to link the information obtained with the original idea of the project. This may mean reformulating his or her ideas before defining the project strategy. After this comes the process of preparing and working out the project document. The conception and preparation of a project document that will be submitted to a national or international funding organization should follow certain guidelines without which it would have no hope of being considered. The initiator of the project should realize that this document is his first real introduction to the potential founders and forms the basis on which future agreements will be made. Care must be taken with the presentation and content of the document it must respond to whatever questions the funding organization might ask before deciding whether to accept the project or not. It is also particularly important that the document is drawn up in a precise fashion, presenting clearly and concisely in a logical order the details of the project and its proposed development. Composition of the project document A project document can be drawn up in the following sections: 1. General Introduction a. Context and justification b. Population targeted c. Institutional framework 2. Methods and strategies a. Development objective / overall aim b. Immediate objective/s c. Proposed strategy d. Products e. Activities planned f. Work plan 3. Available resources; Aid requested; Budget a. Available resources b. Aid requested c. Budget 4. Follow up, Report; Evaluation a. Follow up b. Report c. Evaluation
HOW TO PRESENT A PROJECT Composition of the Title Page The following should be featured clearly on this page : - the title of the project - the project number (if you have submitted more than one project) - the field of activity - the location (city, region, country) - the tentative starting date and duration - the name(s) of organization(s) carrying out the project - the name(s) of the funding organization(s) - the name(s) of the organizations associated with the project - an estimate of the total budget - the total amount of funding sought (indicate the currency) - the name of the organization submitting the project (or the name and title of the person authorized to do so) - the date of submission. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1. Context of the project This sub-section should explain in a few lines the project's context and the environment in which it will be carried out. The information given should explain : - the origin of the project (considering the social, economic, cultural, political, historical and geographical conditions) - the problem which the project seeks to solve, or the main objective of the project - the position of the organization proposing the project and of the local authorities regarding this problem or situation - what previous steps have been taken and what has been their effect. EXAMPLE : A context presented by a CCIVS member organization for a project in Bangladesh. With a population of about one billion, south Asian Countries are mostly economically underdeveloped. About 50% of these people live below the poverty line and the same percentage of them are illiterate. There is a wide gap between overall development needs and available resources. There are many social workers and volunteers in these countries who are interested in local , national and international development. However, appropriate training is not available since there are no adequate training facilities in the region. Due to these circumstances, BWCA believes that such a huge population of illiterate and economically disadvantaged people should be provided with a training centre to promote their education, cultural and socio-economic development. BWCA proposes to begin training program's in the area to fill these needs. With funding from UNESCO, trainers can be provided, volunteers will have the means to participate, and training courses can be developed - high quality work without the needing to make an immediate profit.
UNIT 1 Example 2: Starting a Pilot Agricultural Centre for youth in Zaire. A. Introduction : The goal of this project is to help disadvantaged youth to participate in social and economic activities, to fight against the drift from rural areas which strips the land of its vital forces. In the region of Bas-Zaire where the land is fertile and which could become the granary of Kinshasa, the present output is scarcely enough to feed its inhabitants. To change this situation, young people need to be encouraged to stay in the rural areas. The Regional Council for Social Protection and Family Planning wants to establish at Nkondo Malembe an experimental agricultural centre for youth. The activities of this centre would include orientation of young people as well as agricultural production. B. Description of the context of the project : Nkondo Malembe is a village which is a part of the Luima community in the Songololo zone, the former training and production centre of JMPR (the youth movement of the ruling party). It is a relatively hot region with clay soil. Rainfall varies from 1200 to 1700 ml per year. It has two seasons: dry and rainy. 1.3 Target community Most projects are for the benefit of a certain defined population. A project planner should therefore try concisely to determine who would benefit from the project. This means taking into account certain criteria such as the composition of the target community and its origin; the geographical area targeted; their main activity (e.g. farming), age distribution and educational level. This sub-section should also indicate : - to what extent the targeted population supports the idea of the project; to what extent they are mobilized; and which sections of the population are seen as a priority. (In the example in Zaire given above, it is evident that the population targeted is the peasants from the southern part of the country and the criteria used to determine this were the geographical region and the main activity of the population).
HOW TO PRESENT A PROJECT The potential waste of human resources through early childbirth, drug abuse cases resulting in psychiatric cases and other social vices among the youth makes it imperative that actions are taken by NGO's and communities to curb these unfortunate phenomena. These conditions tend negatively to affect the physical and intellectual development of the adolescents into adulthood; thus a vicious cycle of deprivation is created if this precarious situation is not addressed. Example 2 : A target population in a CCIVS project in Bolivia. Another major benefit of this project is women. In each community the vast majority of teachers are women. With the supply of the double-school desks their job in educating young children will be much easier. Easier by enabling the students more incentive to learn in comfortable but will boost the morale of the students, teachers and communities alike. Previously teachers employed in rural Bolivia were reluctant to finish their term. They cited poor equipment as major factor. With VEA's cooperation, most are willing to stay and finish their terms. The desks built by VEA can also be used by the local mothers' club and their daughters. 1.4. The institutional framework The sub-section should give a clear outline of how the project is expected to evolve, without going into minor details. You should include the following : - where the project is taking place - staffing (national or international personnel, volunteers, consultants etc.) - the sources of the funds and materials for the project - the funding organizations - the organizations carrying out the project; other associated organizations - the co-ordination ties between these organizations - the body or person in charge of the project. Example : The proposed seminar to train social workers to work in the X region will take place at X from April 1 May 30, 1993. It will be organized by the training staff of the Association for the Children of Region X with technical help from a consultant from UNICEF. UNICEF and UNESCO will be providing the fares for the 120 social workers. The Association for the Children of Region X will pay for food, lodging and logistical aspects of the training programmed. The Ministry of Youth and Sports will be presiding over this training seminar and has given a grant to the national association.
UNIT 1 Procedure to follow when submitting a project (simplified version) : 1. Identification : - idea for a project or identification of a need or a problem. 2. Checking out the context : - analysis of the economic, social cultural and political environment - survey of the needs and the problems - consultation with the targeted population - collection of information from organizations or people involved in the same area of work - consultation with the local or national authorities - choice of development objectives - immediate objectives. 3. Feasibility Study : - funding, equipment and materials, human and organizational resources. 4. Project design : - analysis of the information obtained from research - definition of the proposed working methods - choice of the products and activities that need to be developed - study of the means necessary to carry out this project - planning the project - attention paid to the criteria for drawing up a project document. 5. Submission of the project : - presentation of the project to international and regional organizations, development banks, NGO's, other associations, foundations and private companies - project proposals should be sent directly to financing organization or submitted through a coordinating body such as CCIVS.
PREPARATION OF A PROJECT VOCABULARY
PROPOUSAL
UNDERTAKE ATTEMP RESEARCH
A document that tells vendors and service providers what type of service or products a company is attempting to purchase. To make oneself responsible for; take over as a charge To make an effort to do, get, have, etc.; try; endeavor
Careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to discover or establish facts or principles PRIME first in importance or value; principal; main ENVIRONMENT all the conditions, circumstances, and influences surrounding, and affecting the development of, an organism or group of organisms FOUNDATIONS the base on which something rests; specif., the supporting part of a wall, house, etc., usually of masonry, concrete, etc., and at least partially underground to direct (one's efforts) to disturb or interrupt the orderly course of (a social affair, meeting, etc.) an outline or diagram showing different parts or elements of an object or system the total set of items, persons, etc. from which a sample is taken any of the recurrent stages of variation in the illumination and apparent shape of a moon or a planet
STATISTICS
AIM DISRUPT
SCHEME
POPULATION PHASE
SUBMIT GUIDELINES POPULATION TARGET FRAMEWORK
to present or refer to others for decision, consideration, etc. a standard or principle by which to make a judgment or determine a policy or course of action the total set of items, persons, etc. from which a sample is taken and to whom the investigation is directed. the basic structure, arrangement, or system
STRATEGY BUDGET
a plan or action based on this a plan or schedule adjusting expenses during a certain period to the estimated or fixed income for that period the amount of money needed or allotted for a specific use
FOLLOW UP REPORT
designating or of anything that follows something else as a review, addition, etc. to give a formal statement or official account of; announce formally (the results of an investigation, etc.) the process of evaluating something or an instance of this Initial investments in a start-up, provided by a venture capitalist or private equity investor. Refinancing debt before maturity, typically referred to as refunding. the act of submitting something to another for decision, consideration, etc. a detailed study or inspection, as by gathering information through observations, questionnaires, etc. and analyzing it Possibility to carry on with the project
EVALUATION FUNDING SOUGHT
SUBMISSION
SURVEY
FEASIBILITY
WORKSHEET In groups according to your career, fill in the following format. Present a project.
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BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
In business, administration consists of the performance or management of business operations and thus the making or implementing of major decisions. Administration can be defined as the universal process of organizing people and resources efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals and objectives.
Administrative functions
Administrators, broadly speaking, engage in a common set of functions to meet the organization's goals. These "functions" of the administrator were described by Henri Fayol.
Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who should do it. It maps the path from where the organization is to where it wants to be. The planning function involves establishing goals and arranging them in logical order. Administrators engage in both short-range and long-range planning. Organizing involves identifying responsibilities to be performed, grouping responsibilities into departments or divisions, and specifying organizational relationships. The purpose is to achieve coordinated effort among all the elements in the organization. Organizing must take into account delegation of authority and responsibility and span of control within supervisory units. Staffing means filling job positions with the right people at the right time. It involves determining staffing needs, writing job descriptions, recruiting and screening people to fill the positions. Directing is leading people in a manner that achieves the goals of the organization. This involves proper allocation of resources and providing an effective support system. Directing requires exceptional interpersonal skills and the ability to motivate people. One of the crucial issues in directing is to find the correct balance between emphasis on staff needs and emphasis on economic production. Controlling is the function that evaluates quality in all areas and detects potential or actual deviations from the organization's plan. This ensures high-quality performance and satisfactory results while maintaining an orderly and problem-free environment. Controlling includes information management, measurement of performance, and institution of corrective actions. Budgeting, exempted from the list above, incorporates most of the administrative functions, beginning with the implementation of a budget plan through the application of budget controls.
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UNIT 1 Management in business and human organization activity, in simple terms means the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals. Management comprises planning, organizing, resourcing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources. To accomplish in a successful way the management function two kind of skills must be fulfilled: 1. Human skills 2. Financial skills In human skills can be mentioned: the ability to communicate, leadership, conflict management, decision taking etc. In Financial skills: the management tools, benchmarking, outsourcing, six sigma and more.
EXERCISE According to the managerial skills for a good administrator, write an ideal manager profile.
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BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION LEADERSHIP

The word leadership can refer to: 1. Those entities that perform one or more acts of leading. 2. The ability to affect human behavior so as to accomplish a mission. 3. Influencing a group of people to move towards its goal setting or goal achievement.
Types of leadership styles

The bureaucratic leader (Weber, 1905) is very structured and follows the procedures as they have been established. This type of leadership has no space to explore new ways to solve problems and is usually slow paced to ensure adherence to the ladders stated by the company. Leaders ensure that all the steps have been followed prior to sending it to the next level of authority. Universities, hospitals, banks and government usually require this type of leader in their organizations to ensure quality, increase security and decrease corruption. Leaders that try to speed up the process will experience frustration and anxiety. The charismatic leader (Weber, 1905) leads by infusing energy and eagerness into their team members. This type of leader has to be committed to the organization for the long run. If the success of the division or project is attributed to the leader and not the team, charismatic leaders may become a risk for the company by deciding to resign for advanced opportunities. It takes the company time and hard work to gain the employees' confidence back with other type of leadership after they have committed themselves to the magnetism of a charismatic leader. The autocratic leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) is given the power to make decisions alone, having total authority. This leadership style is good for employees that need close supervision to perform certain tasks. Creative employees and team players resent this type of leadership, since they are unable to enhance processes or decision making, resulting in job dissatisfaction. The democratic leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) listens to the team's ideas and studies them, but will make the final decision. Team players contribute to the final decision thus increasing employee satisfaction and ownership, feeling their input was considered when the final decision was taken. When changes arises, this type of leadership helps the team assimilate the changes better and more rapidly than other styles, knowing they were consulted and contributed to the decision making process, minimizing resistance and intolerance. A shortcoming
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UNIT 1 of this leadership style is that it has difficulty when decisions are needed in a short period of time or at the moment. The laissez-faire ("let do") leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) gives no continuous feedback or supervision because the employees are highly experienced and need little supervision to obtain the expected outcome. On the other hand, this type of style is also associated with leaders that dont lead at all, failing in supervising team members, resulting in lack of control and higher costs, bad service or failure to meet deadlines. The people-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967) is the one that, in order to comply with effectiveness and efficiency, supports, trains and develops his personnel, increasing job satisfaction and genuine interest to do a good job. The task-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967) focus on the job, and concentrate on the specific tasks assigned to each employee to reach goal accomplishment. This leadership style suffers the same motivation issues as autocratic leadership, showing no involvement in the teams needs. It requires close supervision and control to achieve expected results. The servant leader (Greenleaf, 1977) facilitates goal accomplishment by giving its team members what they need in order to be productive. This leader is an instrument employees use to reach the goal rather than an commanding voice that moves to change. This leadership style, in a manner similar to democratic leadership, tends to achieve the results in a slower time frame than other styles, although employee engagement is higher. The transaction leader (Burns, 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached. The transformation leader (Burns, 1978) motivates its team to be effective and efficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group in the final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and uses chain of command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on the big picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details. The leader is always looking for ideas that move the organization to reach the companys vision.
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The environment leader ( Carmazzi, 2005) is the one who nurtures group or organizational environment to affect the emotional and psychological perception of an individuals place in that group or organization. An understanding and application of group psychology and dynamics is essential for this style to be effective. The leader uses organizational culture to inspire individuals and develop leaders at all levels. This leadership style relies on creating an education matrix where groups interactively learn the fundamental psychology of group dynamics and culture from each other. The leader uses this psychology, and complementary language, to influence direction through the members of the inspired group to do what is required for the benefit of all. "Leadership is the energetic process of getting people fully and willingly committed to a new and sustainable course of action, to meet commonly agreed objectives whilst having commonly held values"
EXERCISE
At the laboratory ask students to access the link to identify the level of leadership they have.
http://www.queendom.com/queendom_tests/transfer
After taking the test, ask them to: 1. 2. 3. 4. Write an analysis of their result Identify their strengths and weaknesses Identify what aspects they should improve Identify what aspects
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UNIT 1
COMMUNICATION
Communication is the process of transferring information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood by both sender and receiver. It is a process that allows organisms to exchange information by several methods. Communication requires that all parties understand a common language that is exchanged; there are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, or the use of writing. Communication is defined as a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. Use of these processes is developmental and transfers to all areas of life: home, school, community, work, and beyond. It is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur. Communication is the articulation of sending a message, through different media whether it be verbal or nonverbal, so long as a being transmits a thought provoking idea, gesture, action, etc. Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in many different ways, and for most beings, as well as certain machines. Several, if not all, fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to communication, so when speaking about communication it is very important to be sure about what aspects of communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication range widely, some recognizing that animals can communicate with each other as well as human beings, and some are more narrow, only including human beings within the parameters of human symbolic interaction. Nonetheless, communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Content (what type of things are communicated), source, emisor, sender or encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium), destination, receiver, target or decoder (to whom), and the purpose or pragmatic aspect. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings). Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
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UNIT 1 1. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols), 2. pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and 3. semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent). Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk.
In a simple model, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. A particular instance of communication is called a
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speech act. In the presence of "communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties. Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Language
A language is a syntactically organized system of signals, such as voice sounds, intonations or pitch, gestures or written symbols which communicate thoughts or feelings. If a language is about communicating with signals, voice, sounds, gestures, or written symbols, can animal communications be considered as a language? Animals do not have a written form of a language, but use a language to communicate with each another. In that sense, an animal communication can be considered as a separated language. Dialogue A dialogue is a reciprocal conversation between two or more entities. The etymological origins of the word (in Greek (di,through) + (logos, word,speech) concepts like flowing-through meaning) do not necessarily convey the way in which people have come to use the word, with some confusion between the prefix -(di-,through) and the prefix - (di-, two) leading to the assumption that a dialogue is necessarily between only two parties. Nonverbal communication Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, or symbols and infographics. Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of
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UNIT 1 words, or the use of emoticons. A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols used to convey emotional content in written or message form.
EXERCISE
At the laboratory ask students to access the link to identify the level of leadership they have.
http://www.queendom.com/queendom_tests/transfer
After taking the test, ask them to: 5. 6. 7. 8. Write an analysis of their result Identify their strengths and weaknesses Identify what aspects they should improve Identify what aspects
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. BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Conflict management refers to the long-term management of intractable conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by which people handle grievances standing up for what they consider to be right and against what they consider to be wrong. Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule, lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law, mediation, and avoidance. Which forms of conflict management will be used in any given situation can be somewhat predicted and explained by the social structure or social geometry of the case. Conflict management is often considered to be distinct from conflict resolution. The latter refers to resolving the dispute to the approval of one or both parties, whereas the former concerns an ongoing process that may never have a resolution. Neither is it considered the same as conflict transformation, which seeks to reframe the positions of the conflict parties. Types of Managerial Actions that Cause Workplace Conflicts 1. Poor communications a. Employees experience continuing surprises, they aren't informed of new decisions, programs, etc. b. Employees don't understand reasons for decisions, they aren't involved in decision-making. c. As a result, employees trust the "rumor mill" more than management. 2. The alignment or the amount of resources is insufficient. There is: a. Disagreement about "who does what". b. Stress from working with inadequate resources. 3. "Personal chemistry", including conflicting values or actions among managers and employees, for example: a. Strong personal natures don't match. b. We often don't like in others what we don't like in ourselves. 4. Leadership problems, including inconsistent, missing, too-strong or uninformed leadership (at any level in the organization), evidenced by: a. Avoiding conflict, "passing the buck" with little follow-through on decisions. b. Employees see the same continued issues in the workplace. c. Supervisors don't understand the jobs of their subordinates
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UNIT 1 Ways People Deal With Conflict There is no one best way to deal with conflict. It depends on the current situation. Here are the major ways that people use to deal with conflict. 1. Avoid it. Pretend it is not there or ignore it. a. Use it when it simply is not worth the effort to argue. Usually this approach tends to worsen the conflict over time. 2. Accommodate it. Give in to others, sometimes to the extent that you compromise yourself. a. Use this approach very sparingly and infrequently, for example, in situations when you know that you will have another more useful approach in the very near future. Usually this approach tends to worsen the conflict over time, and causes conflicts within yourself. 3. Competing. Work to get your way, rather than clarifying and addressing the issue. Competitors love accommodators. a. Use when you have a very strong conviction about your position. 4. Compromising. Mutual give-and-take. a. Use when the goal is to get past the issue and move on. 5. Collaborating. Focus on working together. a. Use when the goal is to meet as many current needs as possible by using mutual resources. This approach sometimes raises new mutual needs. b. Use when the goal is to cultivate ownership and commitment. EXERCISE Ask students to role play a conflict first following these steps, then not following them. Analyze the result.
Step1 Decide whether you want to confront the person who is bothering you. It is usually better to air grievances in the open than to let them fester. Step2 Speak to the other person calmly, politely and rationally. Focus on the situation and facts, avoiding gossip and personal attacks. Step3 Be careful not to express hostility in your posture, facial expression or tone. Be assertive without being aggressive. Step4 Listen to the other person carefully: What is she trying to say? Be sure you understand her position. Step5
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Express interest in what the other person is saying. You can acknowledge her ideas without necessarily agreeing or submitting. Saying, "I understand that you feel this way. Here's how I feel..." acknowledges both positions. Step6 Communicate clearly what you want, offering positive suggestions and recommendations. Be willing to be flexible. Step7 Speak to your supervisor if a problem with a difficult co-worker seriously threatens your work, but avoid whining.
Glossary of Term Business Administration
1. Acquisition The acquiring of supplies or services by the federal government with appropriated funds through purchase or lease. 2. Affiliates Business concerns, organizations, or individuals that control each other or that are controlled by a third party. Control may include shared management or ownership; common use of facilities, equipment, and employees; or family interest. 3. Best and Final Offer For negotiated procurements, a contractor's final offer following the conclusion of discussions. 4. Certificate of Competency A certificate issued by the Small Business Administration (SBA) stating that the holder is "responsible" (in terms of capability, competency, capacity, credit, integrity, perseverance, and tenacity) for the purpose of receiving and performing a specific government contract. 5. Certified 8(a) Firm A firm owned and operated by socially and economically disadvantaged individuals and eligible to receive federal contracts under the Small Business Administrations 8(a) Business Development Program. 6. Contract A mutually binding legal relationship obligating the seller to furnish supplies or services (including construction) and the buyer to pay for them. 7. Contracting Purchasing, renting, leasing, or otherwise obtaining supplies or services from nonfederal sources. Contracting includes the description of supplies and services required, the selection and solicitation of sources, the preparation and award of contracts, and all phases of contract administration. It does not include grants or cooperative agreements.
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8. Contractor Team Arrangement An arrangement in which (a) two or more companies form a partnership or joint venture to act as potential prime contractor; or (b) an agreement by a potential prime contractor with one or more other companies to have them act as its subcontractors under a specified government contract or acquisition program. 9. Electronic Data Interchange standardized electronic versions of common business documents.
10. Emerging Small Business A small business concern whose size is no greater than 50 percent of the numerical size standard applicable to the Standard Industrial Classification code assigned to a contracting opportunity. 11. Equity An accounting term used to describe the net investment of owners or stockholders in a business. Under the accounting equation, equity also represents the result of assets less liabilities. 12. Fair and Reasonable Price A price that is fair to both parties, considering the agreed-upon conditions, promised quality, and timeliness of contract performance. "Fair and reasonable" price is subject to statutory and regulatory limitations. 13. Full and Open Competition With respect to a contract action, "full and open" competition means that all responsible sources are permitted to compete. 14. Intermediary Organization Organizations that play a fundamental role in encouraging, promoting, and facilitating business-to-business linkages and mentor-protg partnerships. These can include both nonprofit and for-profit organizations: chambers of commerce; trade associations; local, civic, and community groups; state and local governments; academic institutions; and private corporations. 15. Joint Venture In the SBA Mentor-Protg Program, an agreement between a certified firm and a mentor firm to perform a specific federal contract. 16. Mentor A business, usually large, or other organization that has created a specialized program to advance strategic relationships with small businesses. 17. Negotiation Contracting through the use of either competitive or other-than
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competitive proposals and discussions. Any contract awarded without using sealed bidding procedures is a negotiated contract. 18. One-Stop Capital Shops OSCSs are the SBAs contribution to the Empowerment Zones/Enterprise Communities Program, an interagency initiative that provides resources to economically distressed communities. The shops provide a full range of SBA lending and technical assistance programs. 19. Partnering A mutually beneficial business-to-business relationship based on trust and commitment and that enhances the capabilities of both parties. 20. Prime Contract A contract awarded directly by the Federal government. 21. Protg A firm in a developmental stage that aspires to increasing its capabilities through a mutually beneficial business-to-business relationship. 22. Request for Proposal (RFP) A document outlining a government agencys requirements and the criteria for the evaluation of offers. 23. Small Business A business smaller than a given size as measured by its employment, business receipts, or business assets. 24. Small Business Development Centers (SBDC) SBDCs offer a broad spectrum of business information and guidance as well as assistance in preparing loan applications. 25. Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Code A code representing a category within the Standard Industrial Classification System administered by the Statistical Policy Division of the U.S. Office of Management and Budget. The system was established to classify all industries in the US economy. A two-digit code designates each major industry group, which is coupled with a second two-digit code representing subcategories.
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STRATEGIC PLANNING
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What is a Strategic Plan? Entrepreneurs and business managers are often so preoccupied with immediate issues that they lose sight of their ultimate objectives. That's why a business review or preparation of a strategic plan is a virtual necessity. This may not be a recipe for success, but without it a business is much more likely to fail. A sound plan should:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Serve as a framework for decisions or for securing support/approval. Provide a basis for more detailed planning. Explain the business to others in order to inform, motivate & involve. Assist benchmarking & performance monitoring. Stimulate change and become building block for next plan.
A strategic plan should not be confused with a business plan. The former is likely to be a (very) short document whereas a business plan is usually a much more substantial and detailed document. A strategic plan can provide the foundation and frame work for a business plan. A strategic plan is not the same thing as an operational plan. The former should be visionary, conceptual and directional in contrast to an operational plan which is likely to be shorter term, tactical, focused, implementable and measurable. As an example, compare the process of planning a vacation (where, when, duration, budget, who goes, how travel are all strategic issues) with the final preparations (tasks, deadlines, funding, weather, packing, transport and so on are all operational matters). A satisfactory strategic plan must be realistic and attainable so as to allow managers and entrepreneurs to think strategically and act operationally. Basic Approach to Strategic Planning A critical review of past performance by the owners and management of a business and the preparation of a plan beyond normal budgetary horizons require a certain attitude of mind and predisposition. Some essential points which should to be observed during the review and planning process include the following:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Relate to the medium term i.e. 2/4 years Be undertaken by owners/directors Focus on matters of strategic importance Be separated from day-to-day work Be realistic, detached and critical Distinguish between cause and effect Be reviewed periodically Be written down.
CTECHNICAL ENGLISH IV
STRATEGIC PLANNING MARKETING- HSP
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As the precursor to developing a strategic plan, it is desirable to clearly identify the current status, objectives and strategies of an existing business or the latest thinking in respect of a new venture. Correctly defined, these can be used as the basis for a critical examination to probe existing or perceived Strengths, Weaknesses, Threats and Opportunities. This then leads to strategy development covering the following issues discussed in more detail below:
Vision Mission Values Objectives Strategies Goals Programs The preparation of a strategic plan is a multi-step process covering vision, mission, objectives, values, strategies, goals and programs. These are discussed below.
The Vision The first step is to develop a realistic Vision for the business. This should be presented as a pen picture of the business in three or more years time in terms of its likely physical appearance, size, activities etc. Answer the question: "if someone from Mars visited the business, what would they see (or sense)?" Consider its future products, markets, customers, processes, location, staffing etc. Here is a great example of a vision: I will come to America, which is the country for me. Once there, I will become the greatest bodybuilder in history.......... I will go into movies as an actor, producer and eventually director. By the time I am 30 I will have starred in first movie and I will be a millionaire...... I will collect houses, art and automobiles. I will marry a glamorous and intelligent wife. By 32, I will have been invited to the White House. Attributed to Arnold Schwarzenegger who was elected Governor of the State of California in 2003. The Mission The nature of a business is often expressed in terms of its Mission which indicates the purposes of the business, for example, "to design, develop, manufacture and market specific product lines for sale on the basis of certain features to meet the identified needs of specified customer groups via certain distribution channels in particular geographic areas". A statement along these lines indicates what the business is about and is infinitely clearer than saying, for instance, "we're in electronics" or worse still, "we are in business to make money" (assuming that the business is not a mint !). Also, some people confuse mission statements with value statements (see below) - the former should be very hard-nosed while the latter can
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deal with 'softer' issues surrounding the business. The following table contrasts hard and soft mission statements.
Hard Soft
Reason for existence What business is/does Competitive advantages Primary products/services Unique/distinctive features Key processes & technologies Important philosophical/social Main customer groups issues Primary markets/segments Image, quality, style, Principal channels/outlets standards Stakeholder concerns
The Values The next element is to address the Values governing the operation of the business and its conduct or relationships with society at large, customers, suppliers, employees, local community and other stakeholders. The Objectives The third key element is to explicitly state the business's Objectives in terms of the results it needs/wants to achieve in the medium/long term. Aside from presumably indicating a necessity to achieve regular profits (expressed as return on shareholders' funds), objectives should relate to the expectations and requirements of all the major stakeholders, including employees, and should reflect the underlying reasons for running the business. These objectives could cover growth, profitability, technology, offerings and markets. The Strategies Next are the Strategies - the rules and guidelines by which the mission, objectives etc. may be achieved. They can cover the business as a whole including such matters as diversification, organic growth, or acquisition plans, or they can relate to primary matters in key functional areas, for example:
The company's internal cash flow will fund all future growth. New products will progressively replace existing ones over the next 3 years. All assembly work will be contracted out to lower the company's break-even point.
Use SWOTs to help identify possible strategies by building on strengths, resolving weaknesses, exploiting opportunities and avoiding threats.
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SWOTs - Keys to Business Strategies

Having built up a picture of the company's past aims and achievements, the allimportant SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis can commence.
Strengths & Weaknesses

Strengths and weaknesses are essentially internal to the organization and relate to matters concerning resources, programs and organization in key areas. These include:
Sales - marketing - distribution - promotion - support; Management - systems - expertise - resources; Operations - efficiency - capacity - processes; Products - services - quality - pricing - features - range - competitiveness; Finances - resources - performance; R&D - effort - direction - resources; Costs - productivity - purchasing; Systems - organization - structures.
If a startup is being planned, the strengths and weaknesses are related mainly to the promoter(s) - their experience, expertise and management abilities - rather than to the project.
Threats & Opportunities

The external threats and opportunities confronting a company, can exist or develop in the following areas:
The company's own industry where structural changes may be occurring (Size and segmentation; growth patterns and maturity; established patterns and relationships, emergence/contraction of niches; international dimensions; relative attractiveness of segments) The marketplace which may be altering due to economic or social factors (Customers; distribution channels; economic factors, social/demographic issues; political & environmental factors) Competition which may be creating new threats or opportunities (Identities, performances, market shares, likely plans, aggressiveness, strengths & weaknesses) New technologies which may be causing fundamental changes in products, processes, etc. (Substitute products, alternative solutions, shifting channels, cost savings etc.)
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Against an uncertain and shifting background, the objective must be to identify and prioritize the key SWOTs in a one-handed manner (Don't say "on the one hand ...........but on the other hand........."). The Goals Next come the Goals. These are specific interim or ultimate time-based measurements to be achieved by implementing strategies in pursuit of the company's objectives, for example, to achieve sales of $3m in three years time. Goals should be quantifiable, consistent, realistic and achievable. They can relate to factors like market (sizes and shares), products, finances, profitability, utilization, efficiency. The Programs The final elements are the Programs which set out the implementation plans for the key strategies. These should cover resources, objectives, time-scales, deadlines, budgets and performance targets. Developing a Mission Statement
1. At is most basic, the mission statement describes the overall purpose of the organization. 2. If the organization elects to develop a vision statement before developing the mission statement, ask Why does the image, the vision exist -- what is its purpose? This purpose is often the same as the mission. 3. Developing a mission statement can be quick culture-specific, i.e., participants may use methods ranging from highly analytical and rational to highly creative and divergent, e.g., focused discussions, divergent experiences around daydreams, sharing stories, etc. Therefore, visit with the participants how they might like to arrive at description of their organizational mission. 4. When wording the mission statement, consider the organization's products, services, markets, values, and concern for public image, and maybe priorities of activities for survival. 5. Consider any changes that may be needed in wording of the mission statement because of any new suggested strategies during a recent strategic planning process.
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6. Ensure that wording of the mission is to the extent that management and employees can infer some order of priorities in how products and services are delivered. 7. When refining the mission, a useful exercise is to add or delete a word from the mission to realize the change in scope of the mission statement and assess how concise is its wording. 8. Does the mission statement include sufficient description that the statement clearly separates the mission of the organization from other organizations?
Developing a Vision Statement

1. The vision statement includes vivid description of the organization as it effectively carries out its operations. 2. Developing a vision statement can be quick culture-specific, i.e., participants may use methods ranging from highly analytical and rational to highly creative and divergent, e.g., focused discussions, divergent experiences around daydreams, sharing stories, etc. Therefore, visit with the participants how they might like to arrive at description of their organizational vision. 3. Developing the vision can be the most enjoyable part of planning, but the part where time easily gets away from you. 4. Note that originally, the vision was a compelling description of the state and function of the organization once it had implemented the strategic plan, i.e., a very attractive image toward which the organization was attracted and guided by the strategic plan. Recently, the vision has become more of a motivational tool, too often including highly idealistic phrasing and activities which the organization cannot realistically aspire.
Developing a Values Statement

1. Values represent the core priorities in the organizations culture, including what drives members priorities and how they truly act in the organization, etc. Values are increasingly important in strategic planning. They often drive the intent and direction for organic planners. 2. Developing a values statement can be quick culture-specific, i.e., participants may use methods ranging from highly analytical and rational to highly creative and divergent, e.g., focused discussions, divergent experiences around daydreams, sharing stories, etc. Therefore, visit with the participants how they might like to arrive at description of their organizational values.
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3. Establish four to six core values from which the organization would like to operate. Consider values of customers, shareholders, employees and the community. 4. Notice any differences between the organizations preferred values and its true values (the values actually reflected by members behaviors in the organization). Record each preferred value on a flash card, then have each member rank the values with 1, 2, or 3 in terms of the priority needed by the organization with 3 indicating the value is very important to the organization and 1 is least important. Then go through the cards again to rank how people think the values are actually being enacted in the organization with 3 indicating the values are fully enacted and 1 indicating the value is hardly reflected at all. Then address discrepancies where a value is highly preferred (ranked with a 3), but hardly enacted (ranked with a 1). 5. Incorporate into the strategic plan, actions to align actual behavior with preferred behaviors.
Benefits of Strategic Planning

Strategic planning serves a variety of purposes in organization, including to: 1. Clearly define the purpose of the organization and to establish realistic goals and objectives consistent with that mission in a defined time frame within the organizations capacity for implementation. 2. Communicate those goals and objectives to the organizations constituents. 3. Develop a sense of ownership of the plan. 4. Ensure the most effective use is made of the organizations resources by focusing the resources on the key priorities. 5. Provide a base from which progress can be measured and establish a mechanism for informed change when needed. 6. Bring together of everyones best and most reasoned efforts have important value in building a consensus about where an organization is going. Other reasons include that strategic planning: 7. Provides clearer focus of organization, producing more efficiency and effectiveness 8. Bridges staff and board of directors (in the case of corporations) 9. Builds strong teams in the board and the staff (in the case of corporations) 10. Provides the glue that keeps the board together (in the case of corporations) 11.Produces great satisfaction among planners around a common vision 12. Increases productivity from increased efficiency and effectiveness 13. Solves major problems
Source: http://www.managementhelp.org/plan_dec/str_plan/basics.htm
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STRATEGIC PLANNING VOCABULARY
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MARKETING Marketing is a societal process which discerns consumers' wants, focusing on a product or service to fulfill those wants, attempting to move the consumers toward the products or services offered. Marketing is fundamental to any businesses growth. The marketing teams (marketers) are tasked to create consumer awareness of the products or services through marketing techniques. Unless it pays due attention to its products and services and consumers' demographics and desires, a business will not usually prosper over time. Marketing tends to be seen as a creative industry, which includes advertising, distribution and selling. It is also concerned with anticipating the customers' future needs and wants, which are often discovered through market research. Essentially, marketing is the process of creating or directing an organization to be successful in selling a product or service that people not only desire, but are willing to buy. Therefore good marketing must be able to create a "proposition" or set of benefits for the end customer that delivers value through products or services. A marketing plan is a written document that details the necessary actions to achieve one or more marketing objectives. It can be for a product or service, a brand, or a product line. It can cover one year (referred to as an annual marketing plan), or cover up to 5 years. A marketing plan may be part of an overall business plan. Solid marketing strategy is the foundation of a well-written marketing plan. While a marketing plan contains a list of actions, a marketing plan without a sound strategic foundation is of little use. In most organizations, "strategic planning" is an annual process, typically covering just the year ahead. Occasionally, a few organizations may look at a practical plan which stretches three or more years ahead.
Marketing plans are vital to marketing success. They help to focus the mind of companies and marketing teams on the process of marketing i.e. what is going to be achieved and how we intend to do it. There are many approaches to marketing plans. Marketing Teacher has focussed upon the key stages of the plan. It is contained under the popular acronym AOSTC. ANALYSIS. OBJECTIVES. STRATEGIES. TACTICS. CONTROLS.
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Stage One - Situation Analysis (and Marketing Audit).

Marketing environment. Laws and regulations. Politics. The current state of technology. Economic conditions. Sociocultural aspects. Demand trends. Media availability. Stakeholder interests. Marketing plans and campaigns of competitors. Internal factors such as your own experience and resource availability. Also see tools for internal/external audit:
SWOT. PEST.
Porter's Five Forces. Marketing Environment.
Stage Two - Set marketing objectives.

SMART objective.

Specific - Be precise about what you are going to achieve. Measurable - Quantify you objectives. Achievable - Are you attempting too much? Realistic - Do you have the resource to make the objective happen (men, money, machines, materials, minutes)? Timed - State when you will achieve the objective (within a month? By February 2010?). If you don't make your objective SMART, it will be too vague and will not be realized. Remember that the rest of the plan hinges on the objective. If it is not correct, the plan may fail.
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Stage Three - Describe your target market

Which segment? How will we target the segment? How should we position within the segment? Why this segment and not a different one? (This will focus the mind). Define the segment in terms of demographics and lifestyle. Show how you intend to 'position' your product or service within that segment. Use other tools to assist in strategic marketing decisions such as Boston Matrix , Ansoff's Matrix , Bowmans Strategy Clock, Porter's Competitive Strategies, etc.
Stage Four - Marketing Tactics.

Convert the strategy into the marketing mix (also known as the 4Ps). These are your marketing tactics.

Price Will you cost plus, skim, match the competition or penetrate the market? Place Will you market direct, use agents or distributors, etc? Product Sold individually, as part of a bundle, in bulk, etc? Promotion Which media will you use? e.g sponsorship, radio advertising, sales force, point-of-sale, etc? Think of the mix elements as the ingredients of a 'cake mix'. You have eggs, milk, butter, and flour. However, if you alter the amount of each ingredient, you will influence the type of cake that you finish with.
Stage Five - Marketing Controls.

Remember that there is no planning without control. Control is vital.

Start-up costs. Monthly budgets. Sales figure. Market share data. Consider the cycle of control. Finally, write a short summary (or synopsis) which is placed at the front of the plan. This will help others to get acquainted with the plan without having to spend time reading it all. Place all supporting information into an appendix at the back of the plan.
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Marketing audit
The first formal step in the marketing planning process is that of conducting the marketing audit. Ideally, at the time of producing the marketing plan, this should only involve bringing together the source material which has already been collected throughout the year - as part of the normal work of the marketing department. The emphasis at this stage is on obtaining a complete and accurate picture. In a single organization, however, it is likely that only a few aspects will be sufficiently important to have any significant impact on the marketing plan; but all may need to be reviewed to determine just which 'are' the few. In this context some factors related to the customer, which should be included in the material collected for the audit, may be:

Who are the customers? What are their key characteristics? What differentiates them from other members of the population? What are their needs and wants? What do they expect the `product' to do? What are their special requirements and perceptions? What do they think of the organization and its products or services? What are their attitudes? What are their buying intentions?
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Content of the marketing plan

Small business A marketing plan for a small U.S. business typically includes: 1. Demographics of customers 2. Description of competitors, including the level of demand for the product or service and the strengths and weaknesses of competitors 3. Description of the product or service, including special features 4. Marketing budget, including the advertising and promotional plan 5. Description of the business location, including advantages and disadvantages for marketing 6. Pricing strategy
7. Market Segmentation
Medium-sized and large organizations The main contents of a marketing plan are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Executive Summary Situational Analysis Opportunities / Issue Analysis - SWOT Analysis Objectives Strategy Action Programme (the operational marketing plan itself for the period under review) 7. Financial Forecast
8. Controls
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In detail, a complete marketing plan typically includes:

1. Title page 2. Executive Summary 3. Current Situation - Macroenvironment o economy o legal o government o technology o ecological o sociocultural o supply chain 4. Current Situation - Market Analysis o market definition o market size o market segmentation o industry structure and strategic groupings o Porter 5 forces analysis o competition and market share o competitors' strengths and weaknesses o market trends 5. Current Situation - Consumer Analysis o nature of the buying decision o participants o demographics o psychographics o buyer motivation and expectations o loyalty segments 6. Current Situation - Internal o company resources financial people time skills o objectives mission statement and vision statement corporate objectives financial objective marketing objectives long term objectives description of the basic business philosophy o corporate culture 7. Summary of Situation Analysis o external threats o external opportunities o internal strengths
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internal weaknesses Critical success factors in the industry our sustainable competitive advantage 8. Marketing research o information requirements o research methodology o research results 9. Marketing Strategy - Product o product mix o product strengths and weaknesses perceptual mapping o product life cycle management and new product development o Brand name, brand image, and brand equity o the augmented product o product portfolio analysis B.C.G. Analysis contribution margin analysis G.E. Multi Factoral analysis Quality Function Deployment 10. Marketing Strategy - segmented marketing actions and market share objectives o by product, o by customer segment, o by geographical market, o by distribution channel. 11. Marketing Strategy - Price o pricing objectives o pricing method (eg.: cost plus, demand based, or competitor indexing) o pricing strategy (eg.: skimming, or penetration) o discounts and allowances o price elasticity and customer sensitivity o price zoning o break even analysis at various prices 12. Marketing Strategy - promotion o promotional goals o promotional mix o advertising reach, frequency, flights, theme, and media o sales force requirements, techniques, and management o sales promotion o publicity and public relations o electronic promotion (eg.: Web, or telephone) o word of mouth marketing (buzz) o viral marketing
o o o
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13. Marketing Strategy - Distribution o geographical coverage o distribution channels o physical distribution and logistics o electronic distribution 14. Implementation o personnel requirements assign responsibilities give incentives training on selling methods o financial requirements o management information systems requirements o month-by-month agenda PERT or critical path analysis o monitoring results and benchmarks o adjustment mechanism o contingencies (What if's) 15. Financial Summary o assumptions o pro-forma monthly income statement o contribution margin analysis o breakeven analysis o Monte Carlo method o ISI: Internet Strategic Intelligence 16. Scenarios o Prediction of Future Scenarios o Plan of Action for each Scenario 17. Appendix o pictures and specifications of the new product o results from research already completed
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MARKETING VOCABULARY aggregation A concept of market segmentation that assumes that most consumers are alike. brand A name, term, design, symbol, or any other feature that identifies one seller's good or service as distinct from those of other sellers. The legal term for brand is trademark. A brand may identify one item, a family of items, or all items of that seller. If used for the firm as a whole, the preferred term is trade name. Library could be considered a trade name. budget The detailed financial component of the strategic plan that guides the allocation of resources and provides a mechanism for identifying deviations of actual from desired performance so corrective action can be taken. A budget assigns a dollar figure to each revenue and expense related activity. A budget is usually prepared for a period of one year by each component of an organization. A budget provides both a guide for action and a means of assessing performance. A budget is a library's post control system. census A complete canvass of a population. chain store system A groups of retail stores of essentially the same type, centrally owned and with some degree of centralized control of operation. channel of distribution An organized network of agencies and institutions which in combination perform all the functions required to link producers with end customers to accomplish the marketing task. For a library this would include vendors, publishers as well as library facilities.
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circulation The number of copies of a print advertising medium that are distributed. For the library field, this is numbers of items checked out by users. clustering A statistical method of forming natural groupings in which a number of important characteristics of a large diverse group are identified in order to define target markets. For a library such a cluster might include higher education levels, and income. (Wood and Koontz) competition The rivalry among sellers trying to achieve such goals as increasing profits, market share and sales volume by varying the elements of the marketing mix: price, product, distribution and promotion. The agency changes to better meet consumer wants and needs. For a library competition may be bookstores, community events, video stores or even other libraries. consumer The ultimate user of goods, ideas or services. Also the buyer or decision maker, for example, the parent selecting children's books is the consumer. consumer behavior The behavior of the consumer or decision maker in the market place of products and services. Library user behavior is often captured in library literature under use studies. consumer characteristics The demographic, lifestyle and personality characteristics of the consumer. For a library this would be the user. consumer satisfaction The degree to which a consumer's expectations are fulfilled or surpassed by a product. User satisfaction with library services and materials is often difficult to determine because: 1) there is no clear ring of the cash register at the end of the day; 2) privacy issues concerning use of library materials and services usually deter marketing-type exit interviews; 3) and little research is conducted in this area due to lack of expertise.
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core product The central benefit or purpose for which a consumer buys a product or service. The core product varies from purchaser to purchaser. For a library user the core benefit of checking out a book, may be for one user that there is no charge, and to another the availability of a work which can no longer be purchased. demand The number of units of a product sold in a market over a period of time. For example, six thousand library books were circulated in Branch X's market area last year. demarketing The process of reducing the demand for a product--or decreasing consumption. demographics Objective characteristics of consumers such as age, income, education, sex or occupation (Assael.) direct marketing Marketing efforts, in total directed toward a specific targeted group--direct selling, direct mail, catalog or cable--for soliciting a response from customer. A library may mail a library registration card to every new mother in the hospital. distribution The marketing and carrying of products to customers (bookmobiles, facilities, library loan.) diversification (Wood) Extends skills or experience from current product or market activities rather than covering totally unfamiliar territory. Customized online searches by reference librarians would extend their current research in print skills.
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elasticity The degree that an economic variable changes in response to a change in another economic variable. For example how much library use changes according to how far an individual must travel for library services. erratic demand A pattern of demand for a product that is varied and unpredictable, e.g., some best sellers, or specific online databases randomly assigned in curriculum by teachers. feature The use of advertising, displays, or other activity, generally by a retailer, to call special attention to a product, generally for a limited period of time. focus group A method of gathering quantitative data on the preferences and beliefs of consumers through group interaction and discussion usually focused on a specific topic or product. geodemography The availability of demographic consumer behavior and life style data by arbitrary geographic boundaries that are typically quite small. For example, a librarydesignated service area of two census tracts (US). goals A concrete point of measurement that the business unit/library intends to meet to achieve objectives. For example, the library's goal is to improve reference services, its objectives include increasing fill rate by 20% in two months. halo effect A problem that arises in data collection when there is carry over from one judgement to another.
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macroenvironment The conditions facing a company/library including demographic economic, natural, technological, political, and cultural forces. market The set of actual of potential users/customers. (Kotler) market area A geographical area containing the customers/users of a particular firm/library for specific goods or services. (The library's legal service area.) market demand The total volume of a product or service bought/used by a specific groups of customers/users in a specified market area during a specified period. market positioning Positioning refers to the user's perceptions of the place a product or brand occupies in a market segment. Or how the company/library's offering is differentiated from the competition's. market profile A breakdown of a facility's market area according to income, demography, and life style (often.) market research The systematic gathering, recording and analyzing of data with respect to a particular market, where market refers to a specific user group in a specific geographic area. market segmentation The process of subdividing a market into distinct subsets of users that behave in the same way or have similar needs. Segments for the library could be demographic (Asian); geographic (branch-level); psychographics (leisure-oriented); customer size (largest user group area); benefits (have children in the home learning to read.)
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market share A proportion of the total sales/use in a market obtained by a given facility or chain. marketing The process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational goals. marketing mix The mix of controllable variables that the firm/library uses to reach desired use/sales level in target market, including price, product, place and promotion- 4 P's. norms The rules of behavior that are part of the ideology of the group. Norms tend to reflect the values of the group and specify those actions that are proper and those that are inappropriate, as well as rewards for adherence and the punishment for conformity. Norms are important for librarians to understand when serving culturally diverse markets. objectives The desired or needed result to be achieved by a specific time. An objective is broader than a goal, and one objective can be broken down into a number of specific goals. per capita income A nation's or other geographic market's total income divided by the number of persons in its population. point-of-purchase Promotional materials placed at the contact sales point designed to attract user interest or call attention to a special offer, e.g., 'Sign up for Summer Reading Program.
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point-of-sale(POS) A data collection system that electronically receives and stores bar code information derived from a sales transaction. This could the zip codes for library users, facilitating the library in determining geographic market are that users reside in. price The formal ratio that indicates the quantities of money goods or services needed to acquire a given quantity of goods or services. For a library user price may come in the form of time the library users must expend to obtain library materials or services. product A bundle of attributes or features, functions, benefits and uses capable of exchange, usually in tangible or intangible forms. The library's products include materials to use, questions answered, storyhours, online searching, etc. product life cycle The four stages products go through from birth to death: introductory, growth, maturity, and decline. product mix The full set of products offered by an organization e.g., books, videos, storyhours, etc. product positioning The way users/consumers view competitive brands or types of products. This can be manipulated by the organization/library. The library's video collection, available for free, is competitive with local video stores that charge, if video collections are comparable. If the collections are not, the library is differentiating the video collection from the video store. Reilly's law A model used in trad area analysis to define the relative ability of two cities to attract users from the area between them.
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slogan The verbal or written portion of an advertising message that summarizes themain idea in a few memorable words--a tag line. stakeholder One of a group of publics with which a company must be concerned. Key stakeholders for a library could be users, employees, board members, vendors or other who have a relationship with the library. store layout The interior layout of the store/library for the ease of user movement through the store to provide maximum exposure of good and attractive display. Retail store layout, is also successfully applicable to library layout. strategic market planning The planning process that yields decisions in how a business unit can best compete in the markets it elects to serve. The strategic plan is based upon the totality of the marketing process. target market The particular segment of a total population on which the retailer focuses its merchandising expertise to satisfy that submarket in order to accomplish its profit objectives. Or for the library, a target market might be within the market area served, children 5-8 years old, for summer reading programs, to increase juvenile use and registration. underdeveloped country Characteristics: small factories erected to supply batteries, tires, footwear, clothing, building materials and packaged foods; agricultural activity declines and egree of urbanization increases; available educational effort expands and literacy rises. vision A guiding theme that articulates the nature of the business/library and its intentions for the future, based upon how management believes the environment will unfold. A vision is informed, share, competitive and enabling.
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Safety and Health Programs

The goal of a Health and Safety Program is the development of a long term plan that is successful in reducing injuries in the workplace. Effective management of worker safety and health protection is crucial in reducing the numbers and severity of workplace illnesses and injuries. To be effective, such management must include:

Methods to identify and understand all hazards, real and potential Prevention or control of hazards so workers are not exposed or exposure minimized
Good management also results in prevention or control of employee exposures to toxic substances or other unhealthful conditions which can produce work-related illnesses. Better management systems will produce lower costs, higher productivity, reduced waste, and improved employee morale. The four major elements of an effective health and safety program.

Management Commitment and Employee Involvement Worksite Analysis Hazard Prevention and Control Safety and Health Training OSHA Standards Safety and Health Programs
Safety and health programs are addressed in specific standards for the general and construction industries and basic program elements for federal employees OSHA. This page highlights OSHA standards, Federal Registers (rules, proposed rules, and notices), and directives (instructions for compliance officers) related to safety and health programs. of the OSH Act, often referred to as the General Duty Clause, requires employers to "furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his employees". Requires employers to "comply with occupational safety and health standards promulgated under this Act".
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An effective safety and health program depends on the credibility of management's involvement in the program; inclusion of employees in safety and health decisions; rigorous worksite analysis to identify hazards and potential hazards, including those which could result from a change in worksite conditions or practices; stringent prevention and control measures; and thorough training. It addresses hazards whether or not they are regulated by government standards. The following references characterize and further explain safety and health programs. What is a hazard? A hazard is the potential for harm. In practical terms, a hazard often is associated with a condition or activity that, if left uncontrolled, can result in an injury or illness. See Appendix 2 for a list of common hazards and descriptions. Identifying hazards and eliminating or controlling them as early as possible will help prevent injuries and illnesses.
What is a job hazard analysis? A job hazard analysis is a technique that focuses on job tasks as a way to identify hazards before they occur. It focuses on the relationship between the worker, the task, the tools, and the work environment. Ideally, after you identify uncontrolled hazards, you will take steps to eliminate or reduce them to an acceptable risk level. Why is job hazard analysis important? Many workers are injured and killed at the workplace every day in the United States. Safety and health can add value to your business, your job, and your life. You can help prevent workplace injuries and illnesses by looking at your workplace operations, establishing proper job procedures, and ensuring that all employees are trained properly. One of the best ways to determine and establish proper work procedures is to conduct a job hazard analysis. A job hazard analysis is one component of the larger commitment of a safety and health management system. (See page 15 for more information on safety and health management systems.)
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What is the value of a job hazard analysis? Supervisors can use the findings of a job hazard analysis to eliminate and prevent hazards in their workplaces. This is likely to result in fewer worker injuries and illnesses; safer, more effective work methods; reduced workers' compensation costs; and increased worker productivity. The analysis also can be a valuable tool for training new employees in the steps required to perform their jobs safely. For a job hazard analysis to be effective, management must demonstrate its commitment to safety and health and follow through to correct any uncontrolled hazards identified. Otherwise, management will lose credibility and employees may hesitate to go to management when dangerous conditions threaten them. What jobs are appropriate for a job hazard analysis? A job hazard analysis can be conducted on many jobs in your workplace. Priority should go to the following types of jobs:

Jobs with the highest injury or illness rates; Jobs with the potential to cause severe or disabling injuries or illness, even if there is no history of previous accidents; Jobs in which one simple human error could lead to a severe accident or injury; Jobs that are new to your operation or have undergone changes in processes and procedures; and Jobs complex enough to require written instructions.
Where do I begin? 1. Involve your employees. It is very important to involve your employees in the hazard analysis process. They have a unique understanding of the job, and this knowledge is invaluable for finding hazards. Involving employees will help minimize oversights, ensure a quality analysis, and get workers to "buy in" to the solutions because they will share ownership in their safety and health program.
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2. Review your accident history. Review with your employees your worksite's history of accidents and occupational illnesses that needed treatment, losses that required repair or replacement, and any "near misses" -- events in which an accident or loss did not occur, but could have. These events are indicators that the existing hazard controls (if any) may not be adequate and deserve more scrutiny. 3. Conduct a preliminary job review. Discuss with your employees the hazards they know exist in their current work and surroundings. Brainstorm with them for ideas to eliminate or control those hazards. If any hazards exist that pose an immediate danger to an employee's life or health, take immediate action to protect the worker. Any problems that can be corrected easily should be corrected as soon as possible. Do not wait to complete your job hazard analysis. This will demonstrate your commitment to safety and health and enable you to focus on the hazards and jobs that need more study because of their complexity. For those hazards determined to present unacceptable risks, evaluate types of hazard controls. More information about hazard controls is found in Appendix 1. 4. List, rank, and set priorities for hazardous jobs. List jobs with hazards that present unacceptable risks, based on those most likely to occur and with the most severe consequences. These jobs should be your first priority for analysis. 5. Outline the steps or tasks. Nearly every job can be broken down into job tasks or steps. When beginning a job hazard analysis, watch the employee perform the job and list each step as the worker takes it. Be sure to record enough information to describe each job action without getting overly detailed. Avoid making the breakdown of steps so detailed that it becomes unnecessarily long or so broad that it does not include basic steps. You may find it valuable to get input from other workers who have performed the same job. Later, review the job steps with the employee to make sure you have not omitted something. Point out that you are evaluating the job itself, not the employee's job performance. Include the employee in all phases of the analysis -- from reviewing the job steps and procedures to discussing uncontrolled hazards and recommended solutions. Sometimes, in conducting a job hazard analysis, it may be helpful to photograph or videotape the worker performing the job. These visual records can be handy references when doing a more detailed analysis of the work.
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How do I identify workplace hazards? A job hazard analysis is an exercise in detective work. Your goal is to discover the following:

What can go wrong? What are the consequences? How could it arise? What are other contributing factors? How likely is it that the hazard will occur?
To make your job hazard analysis useful, document the answers to these questions in a consistent manner. Describing a hazard in this way helps to ensure that your efforts to eliminate the hazard and implement hazard controls help target the most important contributors to the hazard. Good hazard scenarios describe:

Where it is happening (environment), Who or what it is happening to (exposure), What precipitates the hazard (trigger), The outcome that would occur should it happen (consequence), and Any other contributing factors.
A sample form found in Appendix 3 helps you organize your information to provide these details. Rarely is a hazard a simple case of one singular cause resulting in one singular effect. More frequently, many contributing factors tend to line up in a certain way to create the hazard. Here is an example of a hazard scenario: In the metal shop (environment), while clearing a snag (trigger), a worker's hand (exposure) comes into contact with a rotating pulley. It pulls his hand into the machine and severs his fingers (consequences) quickly.
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To perform a job hazard analysis, you would ask:
What can go wrong? The worker's hand could come into contact with a rotating object that "catches" it and pulls it into the machine. What are the consequences? The worker could receive a severe injury and lose fingers and hands. How could it happen? The accident could happen as a result of the worker trying to clear a snag during operations or as part of a maintenance activity while the pulley is operating. Obviously, this hazard scenario could not occur if the pulley is not rotating. What are other contributing factors? This hazard occurs very quickly. It does not give the worker much opportunity to recover or prevent it once his hand comes into contact with the pulley. This is an important factor, because it helps you determine the severity and likelihood of an accident when selecting appropriate hazard controls. Unfortunately, experience has shown that training is not very effective in hazard control when triggering events happen quickly because humans can react only so quickly. How likely is it that the hazard will occur? This determination requires some judgment. If there have been "near-misses" or actual cases, then the likelihood of a recurrence would be considered high. If the pulley is exposed and easily accessible, that also is a consideration. In the example, the likelihood that the hazard will occur is high because there is no guard preventing contact, and the operation is performed while the machine is running. By following the steps in this example, you can organize your hazard analysis activities.
The examples that follow show how a job hazard analysis can be used to identify the existing or potential hazards for each basic step involved in grinding iron castings. Grinding Iron Castings: Job Steps Step 1. Reach into metal box to right of machine, grasp casting, and carry to wheel. Step 2. Push casting against wheel to grind off burr. Step 3. Place finished casting in box to left of machine.
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Example Job Hazard Analysis Form

Job Location: Metal Shop Analyst: Joe Safety Date:
Task Description: Worker reaches into metal box to the right of the machine, grasps a 15-pound casting and carries it to grinding wheel. Worker grinds 20 to 30 castings per hour. Hazard Description: Picking up a casting, the employee could drop it onto his foot. The casting's weight and height could seriously injure the worker's foot or toes. Hazard Controls: 1. 2. 3. 4. Remove castings from the box and place them on a table next to the grinder. Wear steel-toe shoes with arch protection. Change protective gloves that allow a better grip. Use a device to pick up castings.
Task Description: Worker reaches into metal box to the right of the machine, grasps a 15-pound casting and carries it to grinding wheel. Worker grinds 20 to 30 castings per hour. Hazard Description: Castings have sharp burrs and edges that can cause severe lacerations. Hazard Controls: 1. Use a device such as a clamp to pick up castings. 2. Wear cut-resistant gloves that allow a good grip and fit tightly to minimize the chance that they will get caught in grinding wheel. Task Description: Worker reaches into metal box to the right of the machine, grasps a 15-pound casting and carries it to grinding wheel. Worker grinds 20 to 30 castings per hour. Hazard Description: Reaching, twisting, and lifting 15-pound castings from the floor could result in a muscle strain to the lower back. Hazard Controls: 1. Move castings from the ground and place them closer to the work zone to minimize lifting. Ideally, place them at waist height or on an adjustable platform or pallet. 2. Train workers not to twist while lifting and reconfigure work stations to minimize twisting during lifts.
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Appendices Appendix 1 Hazard Control Measures Information obtained from a job hazard analysis is useless unless hazard control measures recommended in the analysis are incorporated into the tasks. Managers should recognize that not all hazard controls are equal. Some are more effective than others at reducing the risk. The order of precedence and effectiveness of hazard control is the following: 1. Engineering controls. 2. Administrative controls. 3. Personal protective equipment. Engineering controls include the following: Elimination/minimization of the hazard -- Designing the facility, equipment, or process to remove the hazard, or substituting processes, equipment, materials, or other factors to lessen the hazard; Enclosure of the hazard using enclosed cabs, enclosures for noisy equipment, or other means; Isolation of the hazard with interlocks, machine guards, blast shields, welding curtains, or other means; and Removal or redirection of the hazard such as with local and exhaust ventilation.
Administrative controls include the following: Written operating procedures, work permits, and safe work practices; Exposure time limitations (used most commonly to control temperature extremes and ergonomic hazards); Monitoring the use of highly hazardous materials; Alarms, signs, and warnings; Buddy system; and Training.
Personal Protective Equipment -- such as respirators, hearing protection, protective clothing, safety glasses, and hardhats -- is acceptable as a control method in the following circumstances: When engineering controls are not feasible or do not totally eliminate the hazard; While engineering controls are being developed; When safe work practices do not provide sufficient additional protection; and During emergencies when engineering controls may not be feasible.
Use of one hazard control method over another higher in the control precedence may be appropriate for providing interim protection until the hazard is abated permanently. In reality, if the hazard cannot be eliminated entirely, the adopted control measures will likely be a combination of all three items instituted simultaneously.
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Appendix 2 Common Hazards and Descriptions Hazards Chemical (Toxic) Hazard Descriptions A chemical that exposes a person by absorption through the skin, inhalation, or through the bloodstream that causes illness, disease, or death.The amount of chemical exposure is critical in determining hazardous effects. Check Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), and/or OSHA 1910.1000 for chemical hazard information. A chemical that, when exposed to a heat ignition source, results in combustion. Typically, the lower a chemical's flash point and boiling point, the more flammable the chemical. Check MSDS for flammability information. A chemical that, when it comes into contact with skin, metal, or other materials, damages the materials. Acids and bases are examples of corrosives. Self explanatory.
Chemical (Flammable)
Chemical (Corrosive)
Explosion (Chemical Reaction) Explosion (Over Pressurization) Electrical (Shock/Short Circuit)
Sudden and violent release of a large amount of gas/energy due to a significant pressure difference such as rupture in a boiler or compressed gas cylinder. Contact with exposed conductors or a device that is incorrectly or inadvertently grounded, such as when a metal ladder comes into contact with power lines. 60Hz alternating current (common house current) is very dangerous because it can stop the heart. Use of electrical power that results in electrical overheating or arcing to the point of combustion or ignition of flammables, or electrical component damage. The moving or rubbing of wool, nylon, other synthetic fibers, and even flowing liquids can generate static electricity. This creates an excess or deficiency of electrons on the surface of material that discharges (spark) to the ground resulting in the ignition of flammables or damage to electronics or the body's nervous system.
Electrical (Fire)
Electrical (Static/ESD)
Electrical (Loss of Power) Safety-critical equipment failure as a result of loss of power. Ergonomics (Strain) Damage of tissue due to over exertion (strains and sprains) or repetitive motion.
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Ergonomics (Human Error) Excavation (Collapse)
A system design, procedure, or equipment that is error-provocative. (A switch goes up to turn something off). Soil collapse in a trench or excavation as a resultof improper or inadequate shoring. Soil type is critical in determining the hazard likelihood. Conditions that result in falls (impacts) from height or traditional walking surfaces (such as slippery floors, poor housekeeping, uneven walking surfaces, exposed ledges, etc.) Temperatures that can cause burns to the skin or damage to other organs. Fires require a heat source, fuel, and oxygen. Vibration that can cause damage to nerve endings,or material fatigue that results in a safety-critical failure. (Examples are abraded slings and ropes, weakened hoses and belts.) Self explanatory; typically occurs when devices exceed designed capacity or are inadequately maintained. Skin, muscle, or body part exposed to crushing, caught-between, cutting, tearing, shearing items or equipment. Noise levels (>85 dBA 8 hr TWA) that result in hearing damage or inability to communicate safety-critical information. Alpha, Beta, Gamma, neutral particles, and X-rays that cause injury (tissue damage) by ionization of cellular components. Ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, and microwaves that cause injury to tissue by thermal or photochemical means. Accelerated mass that strikes the body causing injury or death. (Examples are falling objects and projectiles.) Injury to a body part as a result of coming into contact of a surface in which action was initiated by the person. (An example is when a screwdriver slips.) Temperatures that result in heat stress, exhaustion, or metabolic slow down such as hypothermia. Lack of lighting or obstructed vision that results in an error or other hazard. Self explanatory.
Fall (Slip, Trip)
Fire/Heat
Mechanical/Vibration (Chaffing/Fatigue)
MechanicalFailure
Mechanical
Noise
Radiation (Ionizing)
Radiation (Non-Ionizing)
Struck By (MassAcceleration) Struck Against
TemperatureExtreme (Heat/Cold) Visibility Weather Phenomena (Snow/Rain/Wind/Ice)
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Appendix 3 Sample Job Hazard Analysis Form Job Title: Task # Job Location: Task Description Analyst Date
Hazard Type:
Hazard Description:
Consequence:
Hazard Controls:
Rational or Comment:
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ISO, DOCUMENTATION
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What International standardization means

When the large majority of products or services in a particular business or industry sector conform to International Standards, a state of industry-wide standardization exists. The economic stakeholders concerned agree on specifications and criteria to be applied consistently in the classification of materials, in the manufacture and supply of products, in testing and analysis, in terminology and in the provision of services. In this way, International Standards provide a reference framework, or a common technological language, between suppliers and their customers. This facilitates trade and the transfer of technology. ISO's name Because "International Organization for Standardization" would have different acronyms in different languages ("IOS" in English, "OIN" in French for Organisation internationale de normalisation), its founders decided to give it also a short, all-purpose name. They chose "ISO", derived from the Greek isos, meaning "equal". Whatever the country, whatever the language, the short form of the organization's name is always ISO.
Understand the basics

Generic means that the same standard can be applied to any organization, large or small, whatever its product or service, in any sector of activity, and whether it is a business enterprise, a public administration, or a government department. Management system refers to what the organization does to manage its processes, or activities, so that its products or services meet the objectives it has set itself, such as:

satisfying the customer's quality requirements, complying with regulations, or meeting environmental objectives.
Management system standards provide a model to follow in setting up and operating a management system. This model incorporates the features on which experts in the field have reached a consensus as being the international state of the art.
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Plan Do Check Act

The Plan Do Check Act (PDCA) cycle is the operating principle of ISO's management system standards.
Plan establish objectives and make plans (analyze your organization's situation, establish your overall objectives and set your interim targets, and develop plans to achieve them). Do implement your plans (do what you planned do). Check measure your results (measure/monitor how far your actual achievements meet your planned objectives). Act correct and improve your plans and how you put them into practice (correct and learn from your mistakes to improve your plans in order to achieve better results next time).
Benefits
In a very small organization, there may be no "system", just "our way of doing things", and "our way" is probably not written down, but all in the head of the manager or owner. The larger the organization, and the more people involved, the more the likelihood that there are written procedures, instructions, forms or records. These help ensure that everyone is not just "doing his or her own thing", and that the organization goes about its business in an orderly and structured way. This means that time, money and other resources are utilized efficiently. To be really efficient and effective, the organization can manage its way of doing things by systemizing it. This ensures that nothing important is left out
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and that everyone is clear about who is responsible for doing what, when, how, why and where. Large organizations, or ones with complicated processes, could not function well without management systems. Companies in such fields as aerospace, automobiles, defence, or health care devices have been operating management systems for years. ISO's management system standards make this good management practice available to organizations of all sizes, in all sectors, everywhere in the world. ISO standards make a positive contribution to the world we live in. They ensure vital features such as quality, ecology, safety, economy, reliability, compatibility, interoperability, efficiency and effectiveness. They facilitate trade, spread knowledge, and share technological advances and good management practices.
The ISO standardization system
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) is a global network that identifies what International Standards are required by business, government and society, develops them in partnership with the sectors that will put them to use, adopts them by transparent procedures based on national input and delivers them to be implemented worldwide. ISO standards distil an international consensus from the broadest possible base of stakeholder groups. Expert input comes from those closest to the needs for the standards and also to the results of implementing them. In this way, although voluntary, ISO standards are widely respected and accepted by public and private sectors internationally. ISO a non-governmental organization is a federation of the national standards bodies of 157 * countries, one per country, from all regions of the world, including developed, developing and transitional economies. Each ISO member is the principal standards organization in its country. The members propose the new standards, participate in their development and provide support in collaboration with ISO Central Secretariat for the 3 000 technical groups that actually develop the standards.
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ISO members appoint national delegations to standards committees. In all, there are some 50 000 experts contributing annually to the work of the Organization. When their work is published as an ISO International Standard, it may be adopted as a national standard by the ISO members and translated.
The ISO systems output
ISO has a current portfolio of over 17 000 * standards that provide practical solutions and achieve benefits for almost every sector of business, industry and technology. They make up a complete offering for all three dimensions of sustainable development economic, environmental and societal. ISOs work programmed ranges from standards for traditional activities, such as agriculture and construction, through mechanical engineering, manufacturing and distribution, to transport, medical devices, the latest in information and communication technology developments, and to standards for services. The ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 families of management system standards have spearheaded a widening of ISOs scope to include managerial and organizational practice. (ISO does not carry out certification to these or any other of its standards, nor does it control the certification business sector.) Complementing the above is a toolbox of ISO standards and guides for conformity assessment covering all aspects from suppliers declaration of conformity to third -party certification and accreditation which is becoming a vital component of business transactions, global trade and regulatory requirements.
ISOs partners
ISO collaborates with its partners in internacional standardization, the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) and the ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union), particularly in the field of information and communication technology. They have established the World Standards Cooperation (WSC) as the focus for their combined strategic activity. ISO has a strategic partnership with the World Trade Organization (WTO) aiming to promote a free and fair global trading system. Signatories to the WTO Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) commit themselves to promoting and using international standards of the type developed by ISO.
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ISOs path forward

New growth areas for ISO standards in t h e coming years include : the environment with standards for meeting new requirements such as greenhouse gas verification (climate change mitigation) and for other aspects of sustainable development ; the service sectors with standards already being developed for personal financial services, market opinion, social research and tourism ; security among aspects already addressed are maritime port security, freight transport and countering illegal trafficking of radioactive materials ; good managerial and organizational practice such as the guidelines ISO is developing on societal responsibility. In addition, ISO is well placed to provide voluntary standards for formerly regulated areas such as energy, water supply or transportation. . "Conformity assessment" means checking that products, materials, services, systems, processes or people measure up to the specifications of a relevant standard or specification. Today, many products require testing for conformity with specifications or compliance with safety, or other regulations before they can be put on many markets. ISO guides and standards for conformity assessment represent an international consensus on best practice. Their use contributes to the consistency of conformity assessment worldwide and so facilitates trade.
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ISO 9000 and ISO 14000

The ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 families are among ISO's best known standards ever. ISO 9001:2000 and ISO 14001 (1996 and 2004 versions) are implemented by over a million organizations in 161 countries. The ISO 9000 family addresses "quality management". This means what the organization does to fulfill:

the customer's quality requirements, and applicable regulatory requirements, while aiming to enhance customer satisfaction, and achieve continual improvement of its performance in pursuit of these objectives. The ISO 14000 family addresses "environmental management". This means what the organization does to:
minimize harmful effects on the environment caused by its activities, and achieve continual improvement of its environmental performance
Certification
Certification is not a requirement of any of ISO's management system standards. This section provides a basic understanding of what certification and related terms mean.
Certification, registration and accreditation In the context of ISO 9001:2000 or ISO 14001:2004, certification refers to the issuing of written assurance (the certificate) by an independent external body that it has audited a management system and verified that it conforms to the requirements specified in the standard. Registration means that the auditing body then records the certification in its client register. So, the organizations management system has been both certified and registered.
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Therefore, in the ISO 9001:2000 or ISO 14001:2004 context, the difference between the two terms is not significant and both are acceptable for general use. Certification is the term most widely used worldwide, although registration is often preferred in North America, and the two are used interchangeably. On the contrary, using accreditation as an interchangeable alternative for certification or registration is a mistake, because it means something different. In the ISO 9001:2000 or ISO 14001:2004 context, accreditation refers to the formal recognition by a specialized body an accreditation body that a certification body is competent to carry out ISO 9001:2000 or ISO 14001:2004 certification in specified business sectors. In simple terms, accreditation is like certification of the certification body. Certificates issued by accredited certification bodies may be perceived on the market as having increased credibility.
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ISO 9001 2000

Every organization would like to improve the way it operates, whether that means increasing market share, driving down costs, managing risk more effectively or improving customer satisfaction. A quality management system gives you the framework you need to monitor and improve performance in any area you choose. ISO 9001 is by far the worlds most established quality framework, currently being used by over million organizations in 161 countries, and sets the standard not only for quality management systems, but management systems in general. It helps all kinds of organizations to succeed through improved customer satisfaction, staff motivation and continual improvement. ISO 9000 series of standards ISO 9001 is one of a series of quality management system standards. It can help bring out the best in your organization by enabling you to understand your processes for delivering your products/services to your customers. The ISO 9001 series of standards consist of: ISO 9000 Fundamentals and Vocabulary: this introduces the user to the concepts behind the management systems and specifies the terminology used.

ISO 9001 Requirements: this sets out the criteria you will need to meet if you wish to operate in accordance with the standard and gain certification. ISO 9004 Guidelines for performance improvement: based upon the eight quality management principles, these are designed to be used by senior management as a framework to guide their organizations towards improved performance by considering the needs of all interested parties, not just customers.
ISO 19011: Guidelines on quality and/or environmental management systems auditing
Who is it relevant to? ISO 9001 is suitable for any organization looking to improve the way it is operated and managed, regardless of size or sector. However, the best returns on investment come from those companies that are prepared to implement it throughout their organization rather than at particular sites, departments or divisions. In addition, ISO 9001 is designed to be compatible with other management systems standards and specifications, such as BS OHSAS 18001 Occupational Health and Safety and ISO 14001 Environment. They can be integrated seamlessly through Integrated Management. They share many principles so choosing an integrated management system can offer excellent value for money.
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ISO 9001:2000 Requirements

ISO 9001:2000 specifies the requirements for a quality management system where an organization: Needs to demonstrate its ability to consistently provide product that meets customer and applicable regulatory requirements, and Aims to enhance customer satisfaction through the effective application of the system, including processes for continual improvement of the system and the assurance of conformity to customer and applicable regulatory requirements. It is now the only standard in the ISO 9000 family against whose requirements your quality system can be certified by an external agency. The ISO 9001:2000 certification signifies a global benchmark in customer satisfaction, product quality, and leads to significant reduction in defect levels. The standard recognizes that the word "product" applies to services, processed material, hardware and software intended for, or required by your customer.
ISO 9001:2000 Sections

There are four sections in ISO 9001:2000 that specify the key activities while implementing a system. 1. Management Responsibility There must be a commitment to the establishment of quality policy, planning and objectives as well as meeting customer requirements. There should be measurable and quantifiable improvement targets and supporting data. 2. Resource Management This is required with specific attention to resource availability and resources such as information, communication, facilities and work environment. The training effectiveness must be evaluated.
4. Measurement, Analysis and 3. Product/Service Realization Improvement While this is a rather abstract concept, it These are required for 'continual is now central to ISO's approach. In fact, improvement' as it is an explicit ISO devotes an entire section (Section 7) requirement of ISO 9000:2000. Customer to this new concept. A product usually satisfaction must be measured. starts out as an idea. The idea is realized Measurements are also extended to the or actualized by following a set of product system, processes, and product or realization processes. Product realization services. Improvement actions have to refers to the interconnected processes be initiated as and when necessary. that are used to bring out high quality
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products. Essentially, when you start out with an idea and end up with a product, you've gone through the product realization process. The standard is designed to look at all of the important processes affecting quality, from the initial review of contracts from customers, to the delivery of the finished product/service. The intent of the standard is to provide a universal baseline for quality management, which can be used by companies from various industry segments and around the world.
ISO 9001:2000 and its 8 Principles

Principles contain greater scope requirements than ISO 9001:1994, but have less specific documentation requirements.
Principle 1 - Customer focus

Organizations depend on their customers, and therefore should understand current and future customer needs. They should meet customer requirements and strive to exceed customer expectations. Key benefits: Increased revenue and market share obtained through flexible and fast responses to market opportunities. Increased effectiveness in the use of the organization's resources to enhance customer satisfaction. Improved customer loyalty leading to repeat business. Applying the principle of customer focus means: Researching and understanding customer needs and expectations. Ensuring that the objectives of the organization are linked to customer needs and expectations. Communicating customer needs and expectations throughout the organization. Measuring customer satisfaction and acting on the results. Systematically managing customer relationships. Ensuring a balanced approach between satisfying customers and other interested parties (such as owners, employees, suppliers, financiers, local communities and society as a whole).
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Principle 2 - Leadership
Leaders establish unity of purpose and direction in the organization. They should create and maintain the internal environment in which people can become fully involved in achieving the organization's objectives. Key benefits: People will understand and be motivated to achieve the organization's goals and objectives. Activities are evaluated, aligned and implemented in a unified way. Bad communication within the organizational levels will be minimized. Applying the principle of leadership means: Establishing a clear vision of the organization's future. Setting challenging goals and targets. Creating and sustaining shared values, fairness and ethical role models at all levels of the organization. Establishing trust. Providing people with the required resources, training and freedom to act with responsibility and accountability. Inspiring, encouraging and recognizing people's contributions.
Principle 3 - Involvement of people

The involvement of people at all levels in an organization is essential to the success of a Quality Management System implementation. Key benefits: Motivated, committed and involved people within the organization. Innovation and creativity in furthering the organization's objectives. People accountable for their own performance. People eager to participate in and contribute to continual improvement. Applying the principle of involvement of people means: People understanding the importance of their contribution and role in the organization. People identifying constraints to their performance.
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People accepting ownership of problems and their responsibility for solving them. People evaluating their performance against their personal goals and objectives. People actively seeking opportunities to enhance their competence, knowledge and experience. People freely sharing knowledge and experience. People openly discussing problems and issues.
Principle 4 - Process approach

Quality is achieved more efficiently when activities and related resources are managed as processes. Key benefits: Lower costs and shorter cycle times through effective use of resources. Improved, consistent and predictable results. Focused and prioritized improvement opportunities. Applying the principle of the process approach means: Systematically defining the activities necessary to obtain a desired result. Analyzing and measuring the capability of key activities. Identifying the interfaces of key activities within and between the functions of the organization. Focusing on factors such as resources, methods, and materials that will improve the key activities of the organization. Evaluating risks, consequences and impact of activities on customers, suppliers and other interested parties
Principle 5 - System approach to management

Identifying, understanding and managing interrelated processes as a system contribute to the organization's effectiveness and efficiency in achieving its objectives. Key benefits: Integration and alignment of the processes that will best achieve the desired results. Ability to focus effort on the key processes.
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Providing confidence to interested parties regarding the consistency, effectiveness and efficiency of the organization. Applying the principle of system approach to management means: Structuring a system to achieve the organization's objectives in the most effective and efficient way. Understanding the interdependencies between the processes of the system. Structured approaches that harmonize and integrate processes. Providing a better understanding of the roles and responsibilities necessary for achieving common objectives and thereby reducing cross-functional barriers. Understanding organizational capabilities and establishing resource constraints prior to action. Targeting and defining how specific activities within a system should operate. Continually improving the system through measurement and evaluation.
Principle 6 - Continual improvement

The continual improvement of the organization's overall performance should be a permanent objective of the organization. Key benefits: Performance advantage through improved organizational capabilities. Alignment of improvement activities at all levels of the organization's strategic intent. Flexibility to react quickly to opportunities. Applying the principle of continual improvement means: Employing a consistent organization-wide approach to the organization's performance. Providing people with training in the methods and tools of continual improvement. Making continual improvement of products, processes and systems an objective for every individual in the organization. Establishing goals to guide, and measures to track continual improvement. Recognizing and acknowledging improvements.
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Principle 7 - Factual approach to decision making

Effective decisions are based on the analysis of data and information. Key benefits: Informed decisions. An increased ability to demonstrate the effectiveness of past decisions through reference to factual records. Increased ability to review, challenge and change opinions and decisions. Applying the principle of factual approach to decision making means: Ensuring that data and information are sufficiently accurate and reliable. Making data accessible to those who need it. Analyzing data and information using valid methods. Making decisions and taking action based on factual analysis, balanced with experience and intuition.
Principle 8 - Mutually beneficial supplier relationships

An organization and its suppliers are interdependent, and a mutually beneficial relationship enhances the ability of both to create value. Key benefits: Increased ability to create value for both parties. Flexibility and speed of joint responses to changing market or customer needs and expectations. Optimization of costs and resources. Applying the principles of mutually beneficial supplier relationships means: Establishing relationships that balance short-term gains with longterm considerations. Pooling of expertise and resources with partners. Identifying and selecting key suppliers. Clear and open communication. Sharing information and future plans. Establishing joint development and improvement activities. Inspiring, encouraging and recognizing improvements and achievements by suppliers.
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Thus the revised ISO 9001 standard was developed on a simple process-based structure. This is a departure from the previous 20-element structure used in the 1994 revision of ISO 9001. The new process-based structure is more generic and adopts the process-management approach already widely used in business today. Also, the process-based structure is consistent with the Plan-Do-Check-Act improvement cycle used in the ISO 14000 standards (on environmental management systems).
ISO 9001:2000s Areas of Focus

Some of the changes reflected in the current standard are: Sequence There is a logical sequence of requirements and guidelines due to process orientation of the new standards. top Management A great deal of emphasis has been placed on the role of top management, which includes its commitment to the development and improvement of quality management systems, responding to customer needs, consideration of legal and regulatory requirements, and the establishment of measurable objectives at relevant functions and levels. Continual Improvement An enhanced requirement for "continual improvement" has been introduced, defining a complete cycle to improve the effectiveness of the quality management system Permissible Exclusions The concept of "permissible exclusions" to the requirements of ISO 9001:2000 has been introduced to tackle the wide spectrum of organizations and activities that use the standard. Customer Satisfaction There is an organizational requirement to monitor information on customer satisfaction and/or dissatisfaction as a measure of system performance. The ISO 9000 Resources It is considered the responsibility of the top management to provide the necessary resources. Requirements now include evaluation of the effectiveness of training, provision of relevant information, internal and external communication, facility needs, and human and physical factors of the work environment.
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Terminology A few notable changes have also manifested in terminology. The most important changes concern the use of the term "organization" instead of "supplier" and the use of the term "supplier" instead of "subcontractor". These changes respond to the need to be more consistent with the normal use and meaning of the words. Documentation The number of requirements for documented procedures has been reduced in ISO 9001:2000, and the emphasis is placed on the organization to display effective operation. Other Changes Further detailed changes of less strategic impact are also studied wherever possible with the intention to simplify or clarify the requirements of the existing standards, and to make them more "user-friendly". Continual improvement Continual improvement is a process of increasing the effectiveness of your organization to fulfill your quality objectives. ISO 9001:2000 requires that you plan and manage the processes necessary for the continual improvement. ISO 9004:2000 provides information that will be helpful in going beyond ISO 9001:2000 to improve the efficiency of your operation. It is recommended that you obtain data from various sources, both internal and external, to assess the merit of your quality system goals. This information can also be used to improve process function. Organizations can also expand their management systems by extending the ISO 9001:2000 structure to comprise the requirements of the ISO 14001 Environmental management systems. The structural and organizational requirements of the two management systems have been designed to be compatible. Impact of ISO 9001:2000 on QS-9000:1998 QS-9000 was the first automotive management standard that affected the corporate management and design function of the global automotive supply base. However QS-9000:1998 was a plant-focused management systems standard standardizing and improving the product and processes on the plant floor. ISO 9001:2000, which is a quality management process model will affect the entire enterprise and business processes. ISO 9001:2000 links quality objectives, key processes and continuous improvement. Though the automotive standard heavily influenced ISO 9001:2000, it doesnt embody all the current scope of ISO 9001:2000 requirements. In essence QS-9000-registered companies will lose their ISO certification if their quality systems are not upgraded accordingly. http://www.omnex.com/standards/iso_9001_2000/iso_9001_2000.html
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ISO 14,000 Environmental Management Systems

ISO 14000, which was initially released in 1996 and updated in 2004, is a global series of environmental management systems (EMS) standards. As a continuation of the standardization process that was initiated with the ISO 9000 series, the ISO 14000 series of international standards have been developed so that organizations may incorporate environmental aspects into operations and product standards. It is a set of voluntary environmental management standards, guides and technical reports, which specifically focuses on corporate environmental management systems, operating practices, products, and services. The ISO standards in general aim to facilitate international trade and commerce. Companies can implement any or all of the ISO 14000 series standards. They do not prescribe environmental performance targets, but provide organizations with the tools to assess and control the impact of their activities, products or services on the environment. The ISO 14000 series addresses the following aspects of environmental management: Environmental Management Systems (EMS) Environmental Auditing & Related Investigations (EA&RI) Environmental Labels and Declarations (EL) Environmental Performance Evaluation (EPE) Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Terms and Definitions (T&D)
Compliance to an ISO 14000 EMS:

Assures customers of your commitment to demonstrable environmental management Maintains excellent public relations Satisfies investor criteria and improves access to capital Obtains insurance at reasonable cost Enhances your image and market share Meets your clients registration requirements Improves cost control by identifying and eliminating waste and inefficiency Lessens incidents that result in liability Reduces your consumption of materials and energy Facilitates the attainment of permits and authorizations
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Decreases the cost of complying with environmental regulations Improves industry-government relations
ISO 14000 registration

With respect to ISO 14000, registration is the formal recognition of an organizations ability to conform to the requirements of an EMS. Organizations may simply declare that their EMS meets the requirements of ISO 14001 ("selfdeclaration"). However, many organizations choose to have their EMS registered, usually to provide greater assurance to clients and the public, or because regulators and clients require it.
What are the principles behind the ISO 14000 series?

The ISO 14000 standards and documents are being developed with the following key principles in mind: To result in better environmental management To encompass environmental management systems and the environmental aspects of products To be applicable in all countries To promote the broader interests of the public as well as users of these standards To be cost-effective, non-prescriptive and flexible so they are able to meet the differing needs of organizations of any type or size, worldwide As part of their flexibility, to be suitable for internal and/or external verification To be scientifically based Above all, to be practical, useful and usable
ISO 14000 standards- "Organization" and "Product" oriented

The ISO 14000 series fall into two major groupings: organization-oriented and product-oriented documents. The organization-oriented standards provide complete guidance for establishing, maintaining and evaluating an EMS. They are also concerned with other organization-wide environmental systems and functions. The following is a list of the published organization-oriented ISO 14000 standards, TRs and guides:
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ISO 14001:2004, Environmental Management SystemsSpecification With Guidance for Use ISO 14004:2004, Environmental Management SystemsGeneral Guidelines on Principles, Systems and Supporting Techniques ISO 14010:1996, Guidelines for Environmental AuditingGeneral Principles ISO 14011:1996, Guidelines for Environmental Auditing-Audit Procedures-Auditing of Environmental Management Systems ISO 14012:1996, Guidelines for Environmental AuditingQualification Criteria for Environmental Auditors ISO 14031:1999, Environmental Management-Environmental Performance Evaluation-Guidelines ISO/TR 14032:1999, Environmental Management-Examples of Environmental Performance Evaluation (EPE) ISO/TR 14061:1998, Information to Assist Forestry Organizations in the Use of Environmental Management System Standards ISO 14001 and ISO 14004 The product-oriented standards are concerned with determining the environmental aspects and impacts of products or services over their life cycles, and with the application of environmental labels and declarations on or to products. These standards assist an organization in assembling the data needed to support planning and decision-making, and to communicate specific environmental information about a product/service to customers, end-users, and other interested parties.
ISO 14000 and International Trade

ISO endeavors to avoid the creation of unnecessary barriers to trade. The objective of environmental management standards has been to develop a common language platform for environmental issues, so that businesses, prospective customers, and governments are certain that all organizational level environmental concerns have been addressed. By focusing on management and product standards, and emphasizing guidance over strict specifications in its documents, ISO 14000 has created a positive ambiance for world trade, at the same time encouraging progress in environmental performance.
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ISO 14001:2004 What is ISO 14001?

ISO 14001 is the international standard that specifies an Environmental Management System framework against which an organization can be certified by a third party. With ISO 14001:2004, clauses have been clarified and updated to be in harmony with ISO 9001:2000. ISO 14001 is considered the foundation document of the entire ISO 14000 series. This highly effective, globally accepted framework establishes and continually improves applicable management system processes. ISO 14001 can also be used as a guide to upgrade your companys present environmental management system in accordance with an internationally recognized set of requirements. The procedures and elements of the ISO 14001 certification are based on sound environmental management principles. It contains only those requirements that can be objectively audited, and addresses the fundamental aspects of a company's operations. It can be used to integrate the environmental system with the overall organizational management structure to enhance performance and continual improvement.
Environmental Management System (EMS)

Of all the standards within the ISO 14000 series, ISO 14001 is the standard that specifies the requirements for an organizations EMS. The Environmental Management System (EMS) document is the central document controlling the interaction of the core elements in the organization, and provides a third-party auditor with the key information necessary to understand the environmental management systems in place. It is a "tool" that enables an organization of any size or type to control the impact of its activities, products or services on the environment. As in the case of ISO 9001, the key to a successful ISO 14001 EMS is having documented procedures that are implemented and maintained so that they describe environmental goals and their place in all other company-wide activities. ISO 14001 standards require sites to document and make an Environmental Policy available to the public. In addition, procedures should be established for a continuous review of the environmental aspects and the impacts of products, activities, and services. Based on these environmental aspects and impacts, then goals and objectives are established that are consistent with the environmental policy,. As with a QMS, Internal Audits of the EMS should be conducted routinely to ensure that non-conformances in the system are identified and addressed. In addition, the management review process must be in place to ensure top managements involvement in the assessment of EMS.
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According to ISO 14001, there are six key elements of an EMS: 1. Environmental policy - the organization states its intentions and commitment to environmental performance. 2. Planning - the organization analyzes the environmental impact of its operations. 3. Implementation and operation - the development and execution of processes to realize environmental goals and objectives. 4. Checking and corrective action - monitoring and measurement of environmental indicators to ensure that goals and objectives are met. 5. Management review - review of the EMS by the organizations top management to ensure its continuing suitability, adequacy and effectiveness. 6. Continual improvement - An EMS enables an organization to control the environmental impact of its activities, products and services by establishing targets and objectives related to identified environmental management goals.
ISO 14001 Registration

Once a company has implemented an ISO 14001 EMS, it can either self-certify that it meets the requirements of the standard, or have an external party, an ISO 14000 registrar, document that the company has met the standards requirements. This is referred to as ISO 14001 registration. There are certain advantages associated with third-party registration. External registration is more credible to customers and regulatory agencies. Also, bringing in a third-party expert allows a company to obtain practical guidance on system design and implementation. There are five steps leading to ISO 14001 registration: 1. Gap Analysis This is the review of the companys existing program to determine the changes the company needs to initiate in order to conform its environmental management system to ISO 14001 requirements. 2. Initial Implementation Implementation of an ISO 14001 EMS requires a company to: Develop an implementation strategy (including selecting a registrar if the company is going to seek third-party registration). Update or redesign documentation (written policies, programs, procedures, forms) so that they align with ISO specifications.
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Train personnel and communicate with other parties as needed to
implement the revised EMS, and Develop measuring, corrective action; internal audit and management review procedures (if not already in place). 3. Pre-Registration Internal Audits Many registrars prefer a company to do at least one full cycle of internal audits and management review prior to seeking registration. 4. Registration The selected registrar performs an EMS registration audit to test for conformance of the companys EMS to the requirements specified in ISO 14001. 5. Ongoing Implementation Becoming registered is not the end of the process. A major component of ISO 14001 is continuous improvement -- your EMS needs to change as your companys products, processes, or personnel change. It also needs to change according to the fluctuations in overall business or regulatory conditions.
Possible EMS implementation Benefits

A properly designed EMS allows efficient identification of opportunities for cost savings. It can trigger procedural and/or technological changes that reduce the total cost of a product or improve its value. Some of the benefits of implementing an Environmental Management System (EMS) in accordance with the ISO 14000 standards include: Operational Benefits Efficiency, discipline and operational integration with ISO 9000. Greater employee involvement in business operations with a more motivated workforce. Easier to obtain operational permits and authorizations. Assists in developing and transferring technology within the company. Helps reduce pollution. Fewer operating costs. Savings from safer workplace conditions. Reduction of costs associated with emissions, discharges, waste handling, transport & disposal.
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Improvements in the product as a result of process changes. Safer products.
Environmental Benefits Minimizes hazardous and non-hazardous waste. Conserves natural resources--electricity, gas, space and water with resultant cost savings. Prevents pollution and reduces wastage. Marketing Benefits Demonstrates to customers that the firm has met environmental expectations. Meets potential national and international government purchasing requirements. Delivers profits from marketing "green" products. Provides a competitive marketing tool. Improves international competitiveness Financial Benefits Improves the organizations relationship with insurance companies. Elimination of costs associated with conformance to conflicting national standards. Process cost savings by reduction of material and energy input. Satisfying investor / shareholder criteria. Helps reduce liability and risk. Improved access to capital. Third party ISO 14001 Certification Benefits ISO certification will enhance the ability to provide the written documentation necessary to demonstrate compliance with regulations. Demonstrates a commitment to governmental authorities that the firm is moving beyond compliance and pursuing continual improvement. Preferred government supplier status. Reduces monitoring and reporting requirements. Communicates evaluation and acceptance by an accredited, third party professional organization.
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Negates "conflict of interest" claims associated with organizations that "self-declare" the status of their programs. Validates the integrity of an organizations claims. Provides organizations with an unbiased review of their programs, policies, etc Addresses the requirement to compete in international markets. Demonstrates the companys environmental responsibility to shareholder groups. Possible reduction in need for multiple on-site audits by regulatory agencies.
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SHIPPING AND TRANSPORT DOCUMENTATION

This topic concerns the cross-border delivery of goods in international trade. In international trade, the seller sells goods under a contract of sale agreed with the buyer and the goods must be sent by the seller physically from one country to another so that the buyer can obtain the goods, sell them and pay the seller. This movement of goods, which is by sea, air, rail or truck involves the following stages: The seller must arrange for the goods to be handed over to a carrier directly or through an agent or a freight forwarder. The carrier or their agent acknowledges that goods have been received for transport, in terms of the sellers instructions, to the buyer in the destination country. The carrier or their agent issues a transport document which acknowledges the receipt of goods from the seller and states the terms and conditions upon which the carrier undertakes the transport of goods. Shipping operators A multimodal transport operator is one who arranges for the despatch of goods from the sellers warehouse to the buyers warehouse and this journey may involve two modes of transport: by truck from the warehouse of the seller to the shipping port then by ship to the destination port and by truck to the buyers warehouse. There is, here, more than one mode of transport and therefore the term multimodal transport is used to describe it. A multimodal transport operator is responsible for the entire carriage and takes on contractual responsibility for the whole journey from the sellers warehouse to the buyers warehouse. A multimodal transport operator is called a contractual carrier, which distinguishes them from an actual carrier such as the shipping company and the master(captain) of the ship which carries the cargo from the port of loading to the port of discharge. Freight forwarders collect and consolidate goods of different sellers and deliver all such consolidated goods to the actual carrier for shipment. The freight forwarder handles the shipping arrangements for a number of sellers and obtains the most competitive freight rates from the carrier, not only because of the volume of business they direct to the carrier but also because of their personal contacts in the transport trade. The freight forwarder does not, however, undertake responsibility for the goods and their delivery, which lies with the carrier.
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Transport document issued by freight forwarders Article 30 of ICC Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits ICC publication 500 accepts transport documents issued by freight forwarders only in the following circumstances: A transport document issued by a freight forwarder where the freight forwarders name is shown as the carrier or multimodal operator and the freight forwarder has signed or authenticated the transport document as carrier or multimodal operator in their own name. (The freight forwarder has responsibility for carriage.) A transport document issued by a freight forwarder that shows the name of the carrier or multimodal transport operator and has been signed or authenticated by the freight forwarder as agent for and on behalf of the carrier or multimodal transport operator. (The carrier or multimodal operator has responsibility for carriage.) Payment will be compromised if transport documents: o do not clearly show who the carrier is, with the carriers name shown on the same side of the document as all the other details; o have not been clearly signed by the named carrier or by the named carriers named agent. Marine bills of lading bring additional requirements: The ports of loading and discharge as indicated on the Credit must be shown. Goods must be shown to be on board a named ocean vessel. If the bills of lading indicate an intended ocean vessel, there must be an additional, separate endorsement showing the actual ocean vessel used (even if it is the intended ocean vessel). If the bills of lading indicate a similar qualification about the port of loading, there must be an additional, separate endorsement showing the port of loading (even if the port has already been shown elsewhere). The exporter should also do an overall check to ensure that:
all required documents have been assembled; the required number of copies of each document are also assembled; any document requiring any consular or other certification has been certified
exactly as required by the Credit;
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all documents are consistent with each other i.e. nothing in any document
should contradict or cast doubt upon the information in the same or any other document. Control of goods The exporter must always protect their position by retaining constructive (if not physical) control of the goods until the buyer pays. In some methods of trading open account trading, clean collections, and documentary collections, documents against acceptance (D/A) the exporter consciously decides to let the buyer have possession of the goods pending payment. By contrast, however, in documentary collections, documents against payment (D/P), the buyer gets the necessary export documents only after payment. This enables the exporter to keep control of the goods until the last moment. In Letters of Credit, the exporter relies less on the goods and more on the Issuing Banks (and where applicable the Confirming Banks) irrevocable undertaking to pay against: the presentation of stipulated documents, and compliance with the terms and conditions of the Credit. However, the security of the exporters position is somewhat constrained by the nature and character of different transport documents: Marine/ocean bill of lading: 1. Negotiable 2. Title to goods 3. Carrier will deliver against an original negotiable bill of lading.
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Non-negotiable sea waybill: 1. Non-negotiable 2. No title to goods 3. Carrier will deliver to a named consignee. Charter party bill of lading: 1. Negotiable document subject to charter party 2. Title subject to charter party 3. Carrier will deliver according to charter party. Multimodal transport document (document covering two or more transport modes): 1. If last mode by sea: negotiable, with title to goods, carrier will deliver against original B/L 2. Otherwise: non-negotiable, with no title to goods, carrier will deliver to consignee. Air transport document: 1. No title to goods 2. Carrier will deliver to named consignee. Road, rail or inland waterway transport documents: 1. No title to goods 2. Carrier will deliver to named consignee. Courier and post receipts: 1. No title to goods 2. Carrier will deliver to named addressee.
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These characteristics affect constructive control of the goods in the following ways: Multimodal transport documents, in which the last mode of transport is by sea, and ocean marine bills of lading both allow the exporter to have constructive control of the goods, provided that all originals of such documents are held by the bank authorised to obtain payment in respect of a collection on D/P terms, or to settle a Letter of Credit transaction. Non-negotiable sea waybills, by contrast, allow goods to be delivered to the consignee without the need for surrendering the original waybill. The exporter can exercise constructive control only if (with the authorised banks agreement) the waybill shows that bank as consignee. Similarly (and with the banks agreement), an air waybill that shows the authorized bank as consignee makes it possible to exercise some control. In all other cases, such as the transport of goods by truck, inland waterway, courier and post, delivery is made to the named consignee of the goods without reference to any other party. The exporters prospects for retaining constructive control of the goods before payment are limited, so they should not voluntarily give away any control that they are able to exercise. Above all, the exporter must resist any attempt by the buyer to have the goods delivered directly to them. Buyers may try to achieve this in the sales contract or the Credit (or both) either by: o requiring one of the original bills of lading to be sent to them directly, or o allowing the buyers name to appear as consignee on bills of lading or air waybills. If the exporter allows such tactics, the buyer can take physical possession of the goods, and they will have no inducement to pay up. The following extract is quoted from page 53 of ICC Publication No 561 ICC Guide to Collection Operations, published in July 1996: Transport Documents: This guide will not describe and analyse every type of transport document used in international trade. Instead, a brief study of the main documents is included based on the following considerations: What is the mode of transport? Is the document a receipt for goods? Does the document: evidence a contract of carriage? give title to the goods? provide for negotiability?
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How are the goods to be delivered? Can control over goods be exercised? Are there other considerations?
Customs & Shipping Forms Information

Bill of Lading
The information on the Bill of Lading must be consistent with the information listed on the Commercial Invoice, it must contain a complete and accurate description of the goods, and it must be legible. Please clearly indicate the following: the type of clearance preferred by the consignee, and the name of the Customs Broker (or their appointed agents) at the frontier port or inland sufferance warehouse.
Commercial Invoice
You will need two copies of the Commercial Invoice, one must accompany the freight from the point of pickup to the point of customs clearance, the other should be attached to the Bill of Lading. This document is simply an invoice with a complete description of the goods being shipped, along with the proper valuations and currency information.
Customs Invoice
This document should accompany the freight from the point of pickup to the point of customs clearance. An additional copy should be attached to the Bill of Lading. If border clearance is indicated on the Bill of Lading, please write "PARS Clearance" on the Canada Customs Invoice.
Certificate of Origin
The Certificate of Origin is used by the broker to determine the correct rate of duty under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). If this document is missing, the highest rates may be applied to each consignment, and U.S. Customs may not allow the goods into the country.
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TRANSPORTATION AND SHIPPING DOCUMENTATION

VOCABULARY Accessorial Charges (also called "Assessorial Charges") Charges made for performing services beyond normal pickup and delivery such as inside delivery or storage charges. Air Freight Forwarder An air freight forwarder provides pickup and delivery service under its own tariff, consolidates shipments into larger units, prepares shipping documentation, and tenders shipments to the airlines. Air freight forwarders do not generally operate their own aircraft and may therefore be called "indirect air carriers." Because the air freight forwarder tenders the shipment, the airlines consider the forwarder to be the shipper. Air Waybill An air waybill is a shipping document used by the airlines. Similar to a bill of lading, the air waybill is a contract between the shipper and airline that states the terms and conditions of transportation. The air waybill also contains shipping instructions, a description of the commodity, and transportation charges. Articles of Extraordinary Value Carriers are not liable for "documents, coin money, or articles of extraordinary value" unless the items are specifically rated in published classifications or tariffs. Exceptions may be made by special agreement. If an agreement is made, the stipulated value of the articles must be endorsed on the bill of lading. Articles may include precious stones, jewels, and currency. Many tariffs include restrictions on commodities with values in excess of a specified amount. Bill of Lading (B/L) A bill of lading is a binding contract that serves three main purposes: (1) a receipt for the goods delivered to the carrier for shipment; (2) a definition or description of the goods; and (3) evidence of title to the relative goods, if "negotiable". Complete the BOL online.
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Bonded Carrier A carrier licensed by U.S. Customs to carry Customs-controlled merchandise between Customs points. THE COMPANY is a bonded carrier. Break bulk To separate parts of a load into individual shipments for routing to different destinations. Broker A broker is an independent contractor paid to arrange motor carrier transportation. A broker may work on behalf of a carrier or shipper. Cartage Agent A carrier who performs pickup or delivery in areas that THE COMPANY does not service.

Cartage agents use their own paper work while transporting the shipment. THE COMPANY does not track the shipment while it is in the cartage agent's possession. When THE COMPANY gives a shipment to a cartage agent for delivery, the shipment is considered to be "delivered" in THE COMPANY's tracking tool.
Claim Cargo Claim -A "Cargo Claim" is a demand made upon a transportation company for payment, due to freight loss or damage alleged to have occurred while shipment was in the possession of carrier. Pursuant to the National Motor Freight Classification (NMFC) Uniform Bill of Lading, all cargo claims must be filed within 9 months. COD A shipment for which the carrier is responsible for collecting the sale price of the goods shipped prior to delivery. Commodity Any article of commerce. Goods shipped. Common Carrier Company that provides transportation services to the public in return for compensation.
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Concealed Loss Shortage or damage not evident at delivery. Help with concealed loss.
Consignee The person or place where a shipment will be transferred for the last time (destination); the individual or organization to whom the freight is addressed. Delivery Receipt Document dated and signed by consignee or its agent at the time of delivery stating the condition of the goods at delivery. The signed delivery receipt is returned to the driver for retention at the terminal. The customer retains the remaining copy. Dispatch The act of sending a driver on his/her assigned route with instructions and required shipping papers. Contact is maintained with the driver throughout day via phone, pager, radio, satellite communication, or cellular phone. Dock A platform, generally the same height as the trailer floor, where trucks are loaded and unloaded. Dolly (Jifflox) Converter that provides an extra axle and fifth wheel and is used to connect multiple trailers. Drayage Also known as connecting road haulage. 1. The hauling of a load by a cart with detachable sides (dray). 2. Road transportation between the nearest railway terminal and the stuffing place. Exempt Commodity Commodities that are exempt from federal regulation, such as agricultural and forestry products. Free Along Side (F.A.S.) A basis of pricing meaning the price of goods alongside a transport vessel at a specified location. The buyer is responsible for loading the goods onto the transport vessel and paying all the cost of shipping beyond that location.
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Free On Board (F.O.B.) An acronym for "free on board" when used in a sales contract. The seller agrees to deliver merchandise, free of all transportation expense, to the place specified by the contract. Once delivery is complete, the title to all the goods and the risk of damage become the buyer's. F.O.B Origin "F.O.B. Origin" means that title and risk pass to the buyer at the moment of the seller's delivery to the carrier. The parties may agree to have title and risk pass at a different time or to allocate freight charges by a written agreement. F.O.B. Destination "F.O.B. Destination" changes the location where title and risk pass. Under this arrangement, title and risk remain with the seller until they have delivered the freight to the delivery location specified in the contract. Freight Any commodity being transported. Freight Bill Shipping document prepared by THE COMPANY to confirm delivery of the freight and indicate the terms of payment (prepaid or collect). Gives a description of the freight, its weight, amount of charges, taxes, and whether the bill is collect or prepaid. If bill is prepaid, freight charges are paid by shipper. If bill is collect, freight charges are paid by the receiver of the goods. Freight Broker A "Freight Broker" is any person who sells transportation without actually providing it. The term usually refers to an agent for TL shipments, matching small shippers with carriers. Freight brokers often do not accept any responsibility for their shipments. (Also see Freight Forwarder and Shipper's Agent.) Freight Forwarder A freight forwarder combines less-than-truckload (LTL) or less-than-carload (LCL) shipments into carload or truckload lots. Freight forwarders are designated as common carriers. They also issue bills of lading and accept responsibility for cargo. The term may also refer to the company that fills railroad trains with trailers. (Also see Freight Broker and Shipper's Agent.)
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Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) The combined weight of the vehicle (tractor and trailers) and its cargo. Hazardous Material Hazardous materials are defined by the U.S. Department of Transportation in accordance with the Federal Hazardous Material Law. A substance or material may be designated as hazardous if the transportation of the material in a particular amount and form poses an unreasonable risk to health and safety or property. Hazardous material may include: an explosive, radioactive material, etiologic agent, flammable or combustible liquid or solid, poison, oxidizing or corrosive material, and compressed gas. For more general information, go to the U.S. DOT website at http://hazmat.dot.gov In Bond Shipments move under bond from point of entry to an interior U.S. destination for clearance or to another border location for clearance. Intermodal (also called Multimodal) Shipment moves by more than one mode of transportation (ground, air, rail, ocean). Jifflox (also called Dolly) Converter that provides an extra axle and fifth wheel and is used to connect multiple trailers. Less-Than-Truckload (LTL) Freight, typically less than 10,000 pounds, from several shippers loaded onto one trailer. THE COMPANY is primarily an LTL carrier, utilizing a hub and spoke network to efficiently move freight from origin to destination. Linehaul Movement of freight between cities or between THE COMPANY facilities, especially origin terminal and destination terminal (excluding pickup and delivery service). Multimodal Transportation (also called Intermodal) Freight movement involving more than one mode of transportation (ground, air, rail, ocean).
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Non-vessel operating common carriers (NVOCC) A type of ocean freight forwarder. NVOCCs books space in large quantities for a reduced rate, then sell space to shippers in lesser amounts. NVOCCs consolidate smaller shipments into a container load that ships under one bill of lading. Order Notify (also called Negotiable Bill of lading) A shipment requiring the consignee to surrender the original endorsed bill of lading at the time of delivery. This is a method for the shipper to use to guarantee payment for goods shipped. More commonly used with truckload shipments. Overage Number of units received is in excess of the quantity shown on shipping documents. Overages should not be delivered to a customer. They're returned to the terminal unless more info is received while the driver is out. Payment Terms Generally, the shipper is responsible for payment of prepaid shipments and the consignee is responsible on collect shipments unless a third party is indicated as payor on the shipping papers. PRO An acronym for "progressive rotating order"; it is a ten-digit number assigned to each shipment and serves as a tracking number and a THE COMPANY invoice number. Revenue Freight charges received by carrier for transportation of freight. Shipper's Agent A "Shipper's Agent" is not a carrier, freight forwarder, or broker. Shipper's agents generally arrange for the transportation of truckload or container load shipments. Shipper's agents commonly provide services related to warehousing or loading and unloading. (See also "Freight Forwarder" and "Broker) Shortage The number of units received is less than quantity shown on shipping documents. The outstanding shipment may be delivered later.
ISO, DOCUMENTATION
UNIT THREE
MARKETING STRATEGY
Tariff A "Tariff" is a document setting forth applicable rules, rates, and charges for the movement of goods. A tariff sets forth a contract of carriage for the shipper, the consignee, and the carrier. Since January 1, 1996, motor carriers are not required to "publish" tariffs. However, in accordance with federal law, tariffs must be provided to a shipper upon request. Third-Party Third-party other than the shipper or consignee that is ultimately responsible for paying the shipment charges. Truckload (TL) Large-volume shipment from a single customer that weighs over 10,000 pounds or takes up the trailer space so no other shipment can be loaded. Truck Tonnage The weight (in tons) of shipment transported by truck. UN Number An internationally accepted 4-digit number used to identify hazardous material. Waybill A "Waybill" is a non-negotiable document prepared by or on behalf of the carrier at the point of shipment origin. The document shows point of origin, destination, route, consignor, consignee, description of shipment, and amount charged for the transport service.

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mHOW TO PRESENT A PROJECT

PREPARATION OF A PROJECT VOCABULARY

UNDERTAKE ATTEMP RESEARCH

SUBMIT GUIDELINES POPULATION TARGET FRAMEWORK

EVALUATION FUNDING SOUGHT

BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION LEADERSHIP

Types of leadership styles

Glossary of Term Business Administration

STRATEGIC PLANNING MARKETING- HSP

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SWOTs - Keys to Business Strategies

Strengths & Weaknesses

Threats & Opportunities

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Developing a Vision Statement

Developing a Values Statement

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Benefits of Strategic Planning

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STRATEGIC PLANNING VOCABULARY

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Stage One - Situation Analysis (and Marketing Audit).

Stage Two - Set marketing objectives.

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Stage Three - Describe your target market

Stage Four - Marketing Tactics.

Stage Five - Marketing Controls.

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Content of the marketing plan

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In detail, a complete marketing plan typically includes:

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Safety and Health Programs

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To perform a job hazard analysis, you would ask:

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Example Job Hazard Analysis Form

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Explosion (Chemical Reaction) Explosion (Over Pressurization) Electrical (Shock/Short Circuit)

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Ergonomics (Human Error) Excavation (Collapse)

Fall (Slip, Trip)