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Let’s learn about energy
A practical handbook for teachers
This publication may only be reproduced, distributed or transmitted, in any form, with the prior permission
in writing of the European Commission, Directorate General IA, Tacis.
Table of contents
What is Tacis? 5
Foreword 6
Introduction 7
Main themes
Key information
Suggested activities
Sources of energy 14
Fossil fuels 15
Main themes
Key information
Oil
Natural gas
Coal
Suggested activities
Nuclear power 25
Main themes
Key information
Suggested activities
Renewable energy 30
Main themes
Key information
Solar energy
Wind
Biomass
Water power
Geothermal
Suggested activities
Electricity 41
Main themes
Key information
Suggested activities
4 Table of contents
Main themes
Key information
In the home
Transport
Suggested activities
Main themes
Key information
Suggested activities
Glossary 54
Questionnaire 57
5
What is Tacis ?
The Tacis Programme is a European Union initiative for the New Independent States and
Mongolia which fosters the development of harmonious and prosperous economic and
political links between the European Union and these partner countries. Its aim is to sup-
port the partner countries’ initiatives to develop societies based on political freedom and
economic prosperity.
Tacis does this by providing grant finance for know-how to support the process of trans-
formation to market economies and democratic societies.
In its first five years of operation, 1991-1995, Tacis has committed ECU 2,268 million to
launch more than 2,200 projects.
Tacis works closely with the partner countries to determine how funds should be spent.
This ensures that Tacis funding is relevant to each country’s own reform policies and pri-
orities. A part of broader international effort, Tacis also works closely with other donors
and international organisations.
Tacis provides know-how from a wide range of public and private organisations which
allows experience of market economies and democracies to be combined with local
knowledge and skills. This know-how is delivered by providing policy advice, consultancy
teams, studies and training, by developing and reforming legal and regulatory frame-
works, institutions and organisations, and by setting up partnerships, networks, twin-
nings and pilot projects. Tacis is also a catalyst, unlocking funds from major lenders by
providing pre-investment and feasibility studies.
Tacis promotes understanding and appreciation of democracy and a market-oriented
social and economic system by cultivating links and lasting relationships between organ-
isations in the partner countries and their counterparts in the European Union.
The main priorities for Tacis funding are public administration reform, restructuring of
state enterprises and private sector development, transport and telecommunications
infrastructures, energy, nuclear safety and environment, building an effective food pro-
duction, processing and distribution systems, developing social services and education.
Each country then chooses the priority sectors depending on its needs.
Foreword
Since 1991, useful work, in a variety of different forms, has been done to assist partner
countries through the Tacis programme. In particular, practical field work, with more visi-
ble benefits, has been conducted on a more systematic basis since 1993.
A number of projects were successful in developing and testing possible solutions to
help partner countries adjust to a market economy. The impact of these projects is not
limited to the narrow geographical area in which they were implemented. Results will also
benefit organisations and individuals in other regions.
The above is the main aim of the Tacis technical dissemination project (TDP). TDP
selects projects with result which are worth disseminating, and develops material to facil-
itate the replication of those useful results. The content of this document is one such
action.
TDP produces and disseminates various types of material
• documentation on comprehensive actions successful in facilitating adjustment to a
market economy
• tools to help individuals or organisations understand how they perform, and therefore
better enable them to adjust
• training materials to facilitate quicker adjustment as part of the process of change.
Documents edited by TDP are not coloured by a particular ideology or political doctrine,
and they do not intend to prescribe any one solution to a problem. What is reflected are
merely the results achieved in a given situation, and the details of tools used to good
effect by local people in adjusting to their changing environment.
Replication of these results is possible, provided readers make an effort to adapt the
contents to their local environment. Situations can be similar, but are seldom identical.
This brochure was developed on the basis of the experience and results achieved by the
project described hereafter.
Tacis would be happy to receive suggestions and comments on this document. Please complete the question-
naire at the end of the document and return it to a TDP distributor (see addresses on page 56).
7
Introduction
Energy is an important topic throughout the school curriculum. However, it has tradition-
ally been covered in subjects such as physics, mathematics and chemistry. This science-
based approach can disguise the social, economic and political issues that are intimately
linked to the understanding of energy.
This handbook is intended to help you, as a teacher, present a broad and comprehen-
sive understanding of energy to students.
The approach proposed in this brochure encourages students to question and debate
how energy affects their lives. It helps them to understand the strategic importance of a
country’s energy reserves and the political and economic problems that might result
from a lack of adequate energy resources. Social and economic development is so
closely tied to energy-related issues that any industrial, economic, political or social study
requires a clear understanding of the underlying energy situation of a country.
Energy issues also transcend national barriers: primary fuels are sold into markets on the
other side of the globe, electricity is traded constantly between neighbouring countries,
large hydro-electric schemes often draw upon the water resources of several countries
and air-borne pollution does not stop at national borders. The handbook is therefore
intended to show the importance of energy in a global context.
The suggested activities include discussions and debates, projects, visits, role playing
and making presentations, posters, writing letters and reports, and a number of simple
scientific experiments and demonstrations. They encourage the students find out more
about their neighbourhood and society and to understand and question how energy is
used in their everyday lives, both in the school and in their homes.
Some of the exercises have been developed in detail, others provide suggestions that
you can expand further for use in class. The more detailed suggestions include a role
playing exercise relating to the proposed construction of a nuclear power station in the
neighbourhood and undertaking an energy audit project within the school.
9
Key information
Social and industrial development
The ability to harness different forms of energy as fuel has been central to mankind’s
development since prehistoric times. Stone Age man used wood fires to heat caves, for
cooking and to harden wooden hunting weapons. Later, in the Bronze and Iron Ages, fire
was used to shape metal weapons and implements. Charcoal provided the higher tem-
peratures needed for melting metals.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, industrial development was driven by the use of coal to
smelt iron for engineering structures - buildings, bridges and the first iron boats. It also
fuelled steam engines which could provide mechanical power for industrial processes,
such as the textile mills, and provided motive power for ships, trains and even the earliest
cars.
Even today developments in energy use continue to shape our lives. Space exploration is
made possible by the use of solar cells, tiny batteries allow surgeons to use ‘pace-mak-
ers’ within the human body to stimulate weak hearts and small nuclear reactors enable
submarines to remain submerged for months at a time.
Biomass 14%
Nuclear 2%
Hydro 2% Oil 37%
Coal 24%
Figure 2: Fossil fuel combustion is a major cause of air and water pollution
Energy wastage
A large part of the primary energy used today is squandered and wasted. This occurs at
all stages of the cycle, from the extraction of primary fuel, conversion to electricity, distri-
bution through the electricity network and finally in its end-use. This wastage comes from
the technologies we use but also from the way we use them. Generally society has a
poor appreciation of the importance and possibilities of reducing our energy use. If we
use energy more efficiently, if we create new products which require less energy, if we
change the way we live to reduce energy consumption, we also slow down our con-
sumption of remaining energy resources and reduce the adverse environmental impact
of producing and consuming energy.
The best way to extend limited energy resources is simple - by consuming less energy.
Instilling the idea of the rational use of energy in students is a priority in teach-
ing.
Why energy is important 13
70%
(1) Timeline references:
The timetables of History by
Bernard Grun published by
Touchstone, and The
timetables of Science by Primary
Fuel 100% 30% Electricity
Hellemans and Bunch
published by Simon and
Schuster.
14
Sources of energy
This chapter is structured in three parts, each with themes, key information and suggest-
ed activities.
Fossil fuels - including: • oil
• natural gas
• coal.
Nuclear power
Renewable energies - including: • solar
• wind
• biomass
• water
• geothermal.
Fossil fuels
Key information
The fossil fuels were formed from the remains of plants and animals from many millions
of years ago. Through the actions of micro-organisms and particular conditions of
immense temperature and pressure, these remains have been transformed into carbon
deposits trapped within the ground or deep beneath the oceans. The time-scale of this
process is so huge, compared to that of mankind’s development, that the reserves are
considered to be finite and our continued extraction will ultimately deplete known
reserves completely. There is a very strong incentive to look for ‘sustainable’ energy solu-
tions and to maximise the effectiveness with which we utilise energy in order to prolong
the lifetime of the fossil fuel reserves for future generations.
Predictions of oil and gas resources indicate they will last for around another 40 years.
New deposits are continually being located, but energy demand is also increasing and
predictions of how long known reserves will last have remained approximately static
since the 1960s. Known coal reserves are much larger and are predicted to last up to
two thousand years.
Fossil fuels are not only important for their energetic value but also as the raw material for
many products of everyday life. For example, consider a car: fossil fuels not only power
the car (in the form of petrol) and provide the energy for its manufacture, but provide the
basic material for the tyres, the dashboard, the wiring insulation and the paintwork. The
tar and bitumen used to construct the road is also derived from fossil fuels.
Oil
What is oil?
When oil is extracted from the ground it is called “crude oil”. It floats on water, has a
heavy, characteristic smell and has a colour which, depending on its composition, goes
from yellow to deepest black, but always has the characteristic ‘oil film’ iridescence. It is
a non-uniform, highly complex mixture of hydrocarbons (carbon and hydrogen chains)
with paraffins, naphthenes and aromatic compounds. It also has small quantities of other
components including heavy metals and sulphur.
16 Fossil fuels
Drilling station
Layers and
sedimentary
Oil rock
The crude oil is transported to storage depots and refineries in large pipelines or, for
transportation by sea, in oil tankers of up to 500,000 tonnes capacity. Many safety fea-
tures are necessary to prevent damage to the pipelines and the oil tankers. Leaks lead to
a loss of oil, and major spills can have dire consequences for the environment. At sea
crude oil forms slicks on the surface of the water which kills fish and seabirds and endan-
gers coastal habitats. Oil tankers are designed with compartmentalised holds to balance
the ship’s loading and to reduce the quantity of oil lost should there be a collision or other
problem.
Optional topic - Oil has many non-energy uses
The most important use of refined oil, besides that for energy, is as transport fuel for
cars, lorries, trains and aeroplanes. It has many other extremely valuable components
whose derivatives are separated out from crude oil in the distillation process. This tech-
nique works using a distillation column with graduated temperatures at which the various
components, or fractions, of oil are separated out, condensed and collected.
Initial refining releases asphalts, lubricants, combustible fuels and raw materials for the
petro-chemical industry. Further processing yields innumerable end products such as:
fertilisers, pesticides, resins, pharmaceutical products, plastics, polythene, polypropy-
lene, polyesters, textile fibres, explosives, detergents, adhesives, dyes, paint and others.
USA 3%
Abu Dhabi 10% Mexico 6%
Venezuela 8%
Iran 10%
UK 0.4%
Russian Federation 5%
India 0.6%
China 3%
Kuwait 11%
Libya 2%
Nigeria 2%
Iraq 11%
Natural gas
A clean convenient fuel
Natural gas is colourless, odourless gas comprising largely methane and small quantities
of other hydrocarbons such ethane and propane. It is an extremely convenient and ver-
satile fuel which is easily extracted. It burns with very little pollution and is distributed
through a pipeline network to the final point of use. It can be used directly within the
home, or industry, and there is little requirement for storage.
The use of natural gas as a primary fuel is relatively recent, as for many years gas was
seen as a necessary by-product from the extraction of crude oil. From 1960, as pipelines
and local gas transmission networks have been constructed, the growth in demand for
natural gas has been spectacular. Now gas supplies over 30% of the world’s total ener-
gy demand . Like oil, natural gas is an important raw material for the petro-chemical
industry and is used to obtain a multitude of products including ammonia, (for nitrogen
fertilisers) and methanol (the basis of many plastics and other synthetic materials).
Coal
The fuel of industrial development
Coal provided the energy to fuel the industrial revolution in Britain in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. It was relatively simple to mine and required little preparation. Coal
provided the energy required to fire blast furnaces to produce iron, to fuel reciprocating
steam engines for mechanical power and for the railways to transport raw materials and
products. The importance of coal diminished with the discovery of oil, and many applica-
tions switched towards this more convenient and economical fuel. However, the oil
crises of the 1970s and the relative abundance of coal has restored the balance and coal
will remain a very significant fuel well into the future.
The main uses of coal today are:
• as fuel in thermo-electric power stations
• within the iron and steel industry, both as raw material for coke and as a fuel for smelt-
ing and heating processes.
Before the exploitation of natural gas, coal was widely used to generate ‘town gas’ for
urban use. Like oil and gas it also provides raw materials for the petrochemical industry.
Composition of coal
Coal is a solid, black carbon material with varying amounts different minerals which form
inert residues (ash) when the coal is burnt. It also contains volatile hydrocarbons and
other impurities e.g. sulphur.
At the surface the extracted coal has to be separated from inert rock material. This is
achieved through a series of mechanical size classification processes and floatation
techniques. Coal is transported by rail and ship.
Figure 8: Typical deep-shaft mine, showing the coal face and working galleries
and shafts
22 Fossil fuels
Coal reserves
Coal reserves are found all over the world. Europe has a long tradition of coal mining, but
due to a reliance on expensive deep shaft mining the industry has contracted rapidly in
the past twenty years. Eastern Europe, Russia and Ukraine are still major coal producers
and exporters. The newest coal producers are countries such as Colombia, Australia,
Canada and South Africa which operate massive open-cast mines and export a high
proportion of their output. China, India and Korea have extensive coal resources but
export little as it is needed to provide for their internal consumption. Present estimates of
world coal resources are around 10 million million tonnes which would satisfy the world’s
present energy demand for 2000 years. Although coal seems to present a long term
solution to man’s energy needs, coal combustion has major impacts on local and global
environments. Research into cleaner coal technologies may provide solutions which can
satisfactorily reduce the environmental effects associated with present coal usage.
Investigate the effects of oil on water and feathers. Students can examine
the fine structure of feathers using a hand lens or magnifying glass. Wet the
feathers with water and re-examine. Repeat with engine oil. Find out whether
oiled feathers float as well as clean ones. Investigate the floating property of oil
and the effects of dispersants such as detergent. This should lead to better
understanding of the properties of oil and the effects of spillage on sea birds
(loss of insulation, water resistance and ingestion of oil through preening).
Combustion of coal and oil releases sulphur dioxides and nitrogen oxides into
the atmosphere. The pollution and acidification resulting from these atmospher-
ic pollutants can have serious effects on plant growth and decay of stone build-
ings. The following suggestions each consider the effects of atmospheric
pollution.
Effect of air pollution on seedlings. Sodium metabisulphite tablets (known
as Camden tablets) dissolved in water, release small quantities of sulphur diox-
ide of comparable concentrations to that found in polluted air.
Students should first sow some seeds such as mustard or cress in Petri dishes
and grow them on until they are small seedlings - between forty and one hun-
dred seedlings in each Petri dish. The Petri dishes and seedlings are then
placed inside a plastic bag, together with another Petri dish containing a sodium
metabisulphite tablet dissolved in a little water. The bag is sealed, labelled and
left in a sunny place. Also set up a control without the metabisulphite tablet for
comparison. Observe the seedlings over the next ten days and record their
growth.
Get the students to examine the effects of different concentrations, light intensi-
ty and temperature on seedling growth.
Corrosion effect of pollution on buildings. Examine the effect of sulphur
dioxide on various building materials by placing samples of limestone, tile, brick
etc. in a bell jar and introduce sulphur dioxide gas from a sodium metabisulphite
solution or directly from a cylinder. This should be carried out in a fume cup-
board. Observe the changes to the stone over the following three weeks. The
bell jar should not be removed from this experiment during this period. The per-
meable stones will show clear evidence of pitting and corrosion. Get students to
look for similar signs of pollution corrosion of stonework (old buildings, statues
etc.) in their town or city.
Lichen surveys. Environmental scientists sometimes use lichen surveys to find
out the pollution level in a local area. Lichens are growths on trees and other
surfaces. They are generally pale in colour and should not be confused with
mosses which are greener and more plant like.
Lichen species Pollution level Pollution scale
No lichens Extremely polluted 5
Powdery lichens Very polluted 4
Crusty lichens Quite polluted 3
Leafy lichens Slightly polluted 2
Shrubby lichens Very slightly polluted 1
Wispy lichens like Usnea Clean air 0
Different kinds of lichen species can tolerate different levels of air pollution, in
particular different concentrations of sulphur dioxide. It follows that we can use
them as pollution indicators. The chart sets out the different kinds of lichens and
the pollution levels which they indicate.
24 Fossil fuels
Check the local lichen species near to the school and give students drawings
and descriptions of them to make them easier to identify. Groups of students
can search for lichens and mark the corresponding pollution levels at various
sites on a provided map. This can be developed into an air pollution map of the
area onto which students can mark possible sources of air pollution such as
power stations, factories, major roads. The students would then have sufficient
data to drawn some conclusions about the pattern of air pollution in the area.
25
Nuclear power
Key information
Free energy?
In the second half of this century we have become increasingly aware of the finite nature
of the fossil fuel resources upon which our industrial societies depend. Renewable ener-
gy from the sun and the wind provides a truly sustainable source but one that can only
support a tiny fraction of our present energy demand. In the 1950s controlled nuclear fis-
sion was achieved and the possibility of using small quantities of uranium to produce
massive amounts of energy was realised. This discovery led to the popular claims that
the advent of nuclear power stations would provide electricity that was ‘too cheap to
meter’ and it was hailed as a possible solution to our dependence upon fossil fuels.
The reality has been very different. Nuclear programmes were taken up by most industri-
alised countries and nuclear stations have been operating for over 30 years. In that time
the risks of nuclear power has been made very apparent by a few major incidents, and
the full costs of decommissioning old stations and safely disposing of nuclear waste are
only now being appreciated. Even after this time a satisfactory solution for the storage of,
even medium and low level, radioactive waste has not been agreed.
The full social and economic costs of nuclear power are still not fully known.
Condensor
Uranium
fuel
rods
Water circuit
Pump
Heat exchanger
The majority of existing nuclear stations use an enriched uranium fuel and water as the
cooling agent.
• Pressurised water reactors (PWR or BBEP) use water as the reaction moderator.
• Light water graphite reactors (LWGR or PBMK) use graphite for the moderator.
• CANDU, developed in Canada, uses a natural uranium fuel and heavy water as the
moderator and cooling agent. This type of reactor accounts for only around 10% of
the world’s nuclear generating capacity.
Renewable energy
Key information
What are renewable energies?
Our present energy systems rely to a great extent upon fossil fuels (and to a smaller
extent uranium) of which there is only a finite quantity. Ultimately these resources will run
out. Renewable energy sources, sometimes known as ‘alternative energy sources’, are
not of a finite nature. They are continually replenished by the earth’s natural cycles and
therefore provide an inexhaustible source of energy.
They may be grouped into five broad categories:
• solar
• wind
• biomass
• water
• geothermal.
The water category includes power from rivers, dams and oceans.
Renewable energies seem to provide an ideal energy source: they are inexhaustible and
environmentally friendly. They do not release carbon dioxide or other pollutants and they
create very little waste. However, large-scale utilisation has its difficulties due to the dif-
fuse nature of the resource, the tendency for the best resource sites to be distant from
centres of energy demand and the high cost of the technologies required.
Presently renewable contribute only around 2.5% to man’s energy demand world-wide.
Some countries utilise a high proportion of renewable sources. In Brazil over 95% of
electricity generation is from hydro-electric stations, and the use of wood and other bio-
mass is still extremely important in rural Africa for cooking and heating.
Solar energy
Students should understand:
• the concepts of passive solar heating and photovoltaics (pv)
• commercial applications for solar energy.
Solar heating
Solar power can be used to provide heating for buildings through appropriate design and
orientation. This is called passive solar design, and uses windows and conservatories to
trap the heat of the sun during the day. Good insulation and thermal storage ensures this
heat is retained. Passive solar buildings have plenty of natural light and so also reduce
electrical lighting demands.
Another form of solar heating uses an active system (Figure 10). Here a solar panel is
used to collect heat from the sun and using water, or sometimes oil, in a heat exchange
circuit heat can be stored and distributed around the house. Swimming pools make
32 Renewable energy
excellent heat stores for larger systems, perhaps in hotels or sports complexes. Active
solar is most commonly used to assist domestic hot water and heating systems.
Collector
Header tank
Pump
Hot water
tank
Cold input
Hot water
Active solar systems are also used for power generation, such as a very large example in
California which produces 10 MW of electricity. A huge array of mirrors concentrates the
sun’s rays and is used to heat water and raise steam to drive a turbine and generate
electricity. The mirror automatically track and respond to the sun’s movement throughout
the day. Smaller systems (up to 15 kW) will use a single reflective dish perhaps up to
15 m in diameter.
Photovoltaic systems
Solar cells make use of the particular characteristic of silicon to emit a small quantity of
electricity when struck by sunlight. This is called the photovoltaic effect. Other materials
are also photosensitive, but silicon is the material generally used. It is in plentiful supply
and makes up around 28% of the earth’s crust. Individual cells generate only around
1 watt of electricity, however when multiple cells are connected together in panels to
form an array they can produce tens of kilowatts. This is tiny compared to conventional
generation (a fossil fuel power station will produce hundreds of megawatts) but there are
applications especially in remote and arid areas where solar power can be the best solu-
tion, or perhaps the only possible solution!.
Silicon technology has advanced greatly in recent years, improving the efficiency of solar
panels and reducing their cost. Photovoltaics are used extensively for remote installa-
tions - the best example being their use in outer space for powering satellite communica-
tion systems. They are also used increasingly for isolated terrestrial applications such as
field medical centres (refrigerators for storing vaccines and charging batteries) and run-
ning pumps for drinking water and irrigation.
Wind
Students should understand:
• the wind has been harnessed for centuries for mechanical energy, only recently for
electricity generation
• wind-speed and sitting requirements for wind turbines
• the importance of technological developments in turbine design
• visual and noise impact can affect planning.
Turbine construction
Modern turbines are large structures that need to withstand severe storm and wind con-
ditions, yet remain light and responsive to operation in conditions of little wind. The rotor
is designed to operate at a fixed speed (typically 34 rpm) and the angle of the blades is
automatically trimmed to achieve this speed. The head or ‘nacelle’ of the turbine is also
turned by a yaw motor so that it continually faces into the direction of the wind.
The turbines blades, perhaps each being 15m long for a 300 kW machine, are assem-
bled by hand from a composite glass fibre material reinforced with wood or aluminium.
The construction technique has been developed from that used for the hulls of modern
sailing yachts. Blades may sometimes be made from steel.
Biomass
Students should understand:
• many different forms of biomass may be used as fuel
• energy may be recovered as heat, fuel or electricity
• the possibilities and limitations of recovering energy from urban solid waste.
Conversion technologies
Most biomass applications involve the direct combustion of the material as fuel, some-
times in combination with fossil fuels. Other techniques, such as gasification and pyroly-
sis, produce a secondary fuel (gas and liquid respectively) that may be burnt in more
conventional systems. Neither of these technologies are fully developed and commercial-
ly proven.
Methane-rich biogas is evolved from anaerobic breakdown of waste material in sealed
landfill sites and sewage digestors (Figure 12). This is proving to be a highly economic
technology in many countries (China, India, etc.).
Water power
Students should understand:
• the different ways in which energy can be harnessed from rivers and oceans
• the advantages and drawbacks of hydro-electric power.
There are many ways in which water power can be harnessed, some are commercial
and proven whilst others, which use the power of the oceans, remain at the
developmental stage but still show enormous promise. The main technologies are
shown in the table.
Geothermal
Students should understand:
• what geothermal energy is and how it may be harnessed.
Students fix a thumb tack point upwards to the top of the post of the retort
stand using a lump of plasticene. They can then place the lemonade bottle
upside down over the post and it should spin using the thumb tack as a bearing.
They should then remove the lemonade bottle from the retort stand and decide
how many sails their windmill will have and how large the sails will be. The
lemonade bottle should then be cut and flaps bent outwards to make the
required number of sails. The surface area of the sails can be worked out by
tracing their shape onto squared paper and counting the squares. The bottle is
then replaced over the stand on the bearing.
Rotation
Pivot
Figure 14: Diagram showing
Air
how the windmill is made flow
Windmill sails
Plastic bottle
Retort stand
The air flow from the fan represents the wind. Students should count the num-
ber of revolutions of their vertical axis windmill each minute and record this figure
as the result from the experiment. They should try this three or four times and
calculate an average figure for the speed of their windmill.
The students can then experiment by making windmills with different numbers of
sails or the same number of sails of different surface areas. Pieces of lemonade
bottle can be glued onto the windmills if extra sail area is required. Each windmill
should be tested using the same fan set at the same air flow and held the same
distance away. Each time the students should take an average of three or four
readings.
Students should be encouraged to compare their findings with those of others
so that they have more data to consider when drawing their conclusions about
the lemonade bottle windmills. At the end of the investigation students should
be able to write a report about the most efficient design of lemonade bottle
windmill. They should have collected sufficient data to draw some more general
conclusions about vertical axis windmills.
Biogas generators. Demonstrate the release of methane on decomposition of
animal manure or compost by setting up a simple experiment (Figure 15). Use a
flask with some manure and a similar amount of water (for the decomposition to
work well this needs to be maintained at a temperature of 30-35°C, consider
insulation of the flask). Collect the off gases over water using a plastic pipe and a
test tube. Note that methane will not be released until all of the air in the flask has
been used up - it may be around one week before methane can be collected.
40 Renewable energy
Manure and
water mixture Water
Analogy between leaves and solar cells. Ask the students to draw compar-
isons between photovoltaic solar cells and plant leaves as collectors of solar
energy. Consider items such as the need for large surface area, re-orientation
towards the sun, surface texture and colour, how energy is energy stored.
Parabolic reflectors. Give students cardboard and aluminium foil to make sim-
ple parabolic reflectors. Show how effectively the device concentrates the sun’s
rays by heating a small container of water (best if painted matt black) and mea-
suring the temperature rise. These devices are also used for cooking food and
heating water in remote locations. e.g. field trips.
41
Electricity
Key information
What is electricity?
Electricity is a very convenient and controllable form of energy. It is easy to transport over
long distances and enables us to supply energy directly into the home or factory for innu-
merable applications. It provides heating, lighting and mechanical power at the flick of a
switch. It is also simple and accurate to measure its usage which is helpful in monitoring
processes and charging for consumption. At the point of use energy does not create pol-
lution. It is difficult to store, but chemical energy in batteries and potential energy, say in
pumped storage reservoirs, are quickly converted back into electricity.
Power transmission is one aspect of electricity but there are many others. It is used for
communications (e.g. the telephone), our bodies nervous system functions due to tiny
electrical charges, static electricity is an accumulation of charge (lightning, or the static
on a balloon when rubbed on a woollen jumper).
Electrical power is measured in watts, kilowatts, megawatts etc. See panel for examples.
UNITS OF POWER
An amount of energy is measured in joules (J). This might be the total quantity of
energy released by burning a lump of coal. The rate at which energy is used or
released is measured in watts (W) and would be the amount of heat energy in
joules that was given off per second by burning the coal.
The watt is a small unit of energy compared to, say, the output of a power station
so larger units are required. When recording an amount of electricity consumed
the term kilowatt-hours is used (kWh) this equals 3,600,000 J.
Electricity is more efficiently transported at high voltages and typically different parts of
the network would operate at 400 kV, 330 kV and 110 kV. The supply network uses
lower voltages to feed into cities and towns, 35 kV and 10 kV are common. The electric-
ity is further transformed down for end-users - 380 volts for industry and 220 volts for
domestic consumers.
Efficiency losses
Each of the many stages in generating and distributing electricity has associated losses.
Much of this loss is inevitable (limited by fundamental thermodynamic principles for trans-
ferring energy from one form to another), but other losses are associated with the type of
technology used, its condition and the way it is operated. Further non-technical losses
come from the unaccounted loss of electricity from illegal connections. Many convention-
al coal fired power stations are only around 30% efficient and losses on distribution are
often 10-15%. Modern natural gas stations (called combined cycle) and advanced coal
stations (not yet fully commercial) are more efficient and over 50% is typical.
A specific problem for the energy industry is the non-payment of energy bills by con-
sumers - industrial and residential1. This has undermined the economics of the NIS
power sector, debts for fuel remain unpaid, essential maintenance is neglected and the
much needed investment programmes are slow to take effect.
Students should be provided with as many resources as possible for this part of
the activity. These might include textbooks, newspapers, a library, the Internet
and others. It might be appropriate to highlight local issues, or for an internation-
al perspective, to ask the students to produce the leaflet in English which will
make the project even more cross-curricular.
Making resistance heaters. Electrical immersion heaters, kettles and bar fires
provide heat from resistance heating. Students can make small electric heaters
by coiling wire around a pencil. Such heaters when connected up to a laborato-
ry power pack (12 volts) will supply enough heat to warm up a beaker of water.
Measure the change in temperature of the water over a fixed time period
and monitor the electricity consumed with an ammeter (current) and voltmeter
(voltage).
From the readings it is possible to calculate the energy delivered by the heater
two ways.
One way uses the current and voltage:
Energy released (Joules) = voltage x current x time in seconds
The other way uses the temperature rise in the water:
Energy released (Joules) = mass of water x temp rise in °C x 4.2
From these calculations students can work out the efficiency of the heater in
converting electrical energy into heat energy. Where has the other energy been
lost?
Try using a variety of lengths and types of wire e.g. different gauges and various
metals such as iron, copper or steel.
45
Key information
A need for efficiency
Adequate and reliable energy supplies are of vital importance to any country’s social and
economic security. In the NIS a lack of investment and revenue has led to an electricity
system that is in need of rehabilitation and new investment to satisfy present demands.
Much of the energy used is generated from highly polluting power stations, which are
contributing to global climatic changes and to the detriment of peoples health. Nuclear
power can have devastating consequences, should accidents occur, and leaves a lega-
cy of radioactive waste that has to be stored safely for hundreds and thousands of years.
Renewable energies offer cleaner energy but the cost is too high to make a significant
impact now.
One way of making a major contribution is to look at the way we use energy (Figure 18).
Can we use less, in our homes, cities and industry? The answer is certainly ‘yes’ and the
cost is significantly less than the investment needed in the supply system to generate
additional electricity
Efficiency is a resource
Energy efficiency can be seen as a resource. By reducing the amount of energy used,
the investment needed in new power stations is reduced, or the oldest and most pollut-
ing power stations can be closed down. The dependence on fuel imports is reduced,
and for countries that export primary energy more can be sold - in both cases the nation-
al economic balance of payments is improved.
Many of the savings can be achieved through changing people’s habits, such as turning
off lights, choosing to purchase more efficient household appliances, taking the bus to
work rather than the motor car. Other savings require investment, and although the result
may be a benefit over the lifetime of the investment the initial cost can present an impor-
tant hurdle.
Many actions and groups within society are helping to adopt the energy efficiency mes-
sage. Architects have developed energy-saving houses, engineers are designing more
energy efficient industrial processes, companies are appointing professional energy man-
agers to examine and control energy use, and city planning is encouraging public trans-
port to reduce energy and improve the quality of the urban environment.
Government actions
Governments can undertake a range of information and economic actions to encourage
the uptake of energy efficiency.
Information actions Providing technical information to industry.
Promoting the need to save energy to the public.
University courses and other training on energy saving
techniques.
Testing and labelling electrical goods with energy information.
Economic actions Providing grants or other financial support for energy saving
projects.
Setting up energy saving projects to act as examples.
Levy taxes to encourage energy or environmental actions e.g.
a carbon tax.
Other Establish organisations that can provide advice and
assistance.
Support new research activities, including international
collaboration.
There are many aspects of society in which the energy used can be reduced, a few
examples are given in this section, others are developed in the Suggested activities.
In the home
There are many ways of reducing the amount of energy used in the home. Some are
related to the building itself, to the types of fuel used and the appliances and other ener-
gy using devices in the home. Others are behavioural and relate to the way that people
live and their awareness of energy wastage.
Simple energy saving measures keep homes warmer without using more energy, and
when energy is restricted makes better use of the energy available (Figure 19).
Reducing our energy use 47
Building insulation
Buildings should be well insulated to retain heat and to reduce the amount of heating
required to maintain a comfortable temperature. Check for insulation in the loft and floor
cavities and that the hot water pipes and storage tank (if present) are lagged. Windows
are a major source of heat loss. Prevent draughts around doors and window frames by
use of well fitting doors and draught excluder strips. Thick curtains will help to reduce
heat loss through windows. Other measures to increase the house’s insulation are fitting
of double glazed windows and lining internal walls with insulation. Houses built with a
twin external wall can have the cavity filled with insulating material.
Heating systems
Homes may be heated from a community heating network or with individual hot water, or
electric systems in each dwelling. Community heating is more common in NIS and
Eastern Europe than the West and could be a very efficient form of heating. But it pre-
sents little incentive for occupiers to minimise their energy use, thermostats are rarely
used and individual energy use is not metered per apartment. Individual heating gives
greater controllability and choice for users. Students could consider the advantages and
disadvantages of the two types of heating system.
Where individual heating systems are installed their efficiency, and safety, is maximised
by regular servicing and cleaning. Radiators and hot air vents should not be covered, for
example by drying clothes. Thermostats maintain rooms at the required temperature and
should be turned down if a room is too warm, rather than simply opening the window!
Baths use more hot water that showers, and water-saving shower heads will reduce
energy usage further.
Electrical appliances
Modern electrical appliances are considerably more efficient than models designed ten
years or so ago. Energy labelling schemes are becoming more widespread. These pro-
vide information to the purchaser on the amount of energy the appliance will use, and the
cost of this electricity over the items lifetime. This helps consumers to make a choice, it is
better to perhaps pay a little more for a more efficient appliance that will save on the
amount of electricity used.
48 Reducing our energy use
We can also make best use of electrical appliances. Refrigerators and refrigerator-
freezers are more efficient if defrosted regularly. Cooking is more efficient if pans are the
right size for the electric ring and lids are used on pans. Simple actions such as only boil-
ing the quantity of water needed also help to reduce energy use.
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) are available that use four times less power than con-
ventional incandescent light bulbs and last around eight times longer. Consider replacing
lights that are left on for more than a couple of hours each day with more efficient lamps.
Switch off lights when leaving a room, and use lower power lights closer to working
areas e.g. desk lights. Keep light bulbs, reflectors and shades clean to maximise light
output.
Recycling also helps to reduce energy consumption. Processing of plastic, metal and
glass containers is energy intensive. Higher levels of reuse and recycling therefore saves
primary energy.
Transport
Collective transport systems are greatly more efficient than use of the personal motor car
(Figure 20). Rail travel typically uses less than 10% of the energy consumed in road
transport. Many countries have established schemes which provide incentives for people
to reduce their car use and switch to collective transport. This has maximum effect in
congested urban situations where collective transport has access to priority lanes and
journey times are faster.
100 passenger. km
per litre
80 passenger. km
per litre
20 passenger. km
per litre
10 passenger. km
per litre
Enforcing road speed limits energy consumption. This has several components, speeds
closer to the optimum engine efficiency and reducing the effect of air and road friction.
Simple aerodynamic styling for lorries can reduce fuel consumption by over 15%.
Reducing our energy use 49
Key information
Energy Intensity
The countries of the former Soviet Union have inherited an industrial base that is among
the most energy intensive in the world. This is partially due to the high proportion of
heavy and energy intensive industry, but also by historically low energy prices and limited
incentives to try to use energy more efficiently. Industry in the NIS has not benefited from
investment in modern technology and processes and some industries, for example the
metallurgy sector, have an energy intensity calculated at twice that of accepted world
best practice. Other industries are perhaps one third more energy consuming than their
Western counterparts.
Energy intensity has increased in the region by around 30% since 1990. This has accom-
panied a dramatic fall in economic and industrial activity, and reflects industrial enterpris-
es operating at a fraction of normal output.
In 1990, the distribution of energy use in the NIS region was as shown below. For com-
parison the energy use in a typical Western European country (UK) is also shown.
Energy consumption NIS, 1990: industry 48%, buildings 24%, transport 15%, agricul-
ture and other 13%.
Energy consumption UK, 1990: industry 25%, transport 32%, buildings 29%, services
13%, agriculture 1%.
Transport is generally more efficient in NIS compared to Western countries due to the
lower proportion of private car ownership and greater use of public transport. Trains and
buses are highly efficient compared to low occupancy car usage. Many countries in the
West have instigated programmes and incentives to encourage a switch from private car
usage to greater use of public transport.
Current energy pricing and general policy in the NIS does not create incentives for
renewable energies and it is unlikely that these alternative technologies could provide for
more than a few percent of energy demand. The most interesting options include:
• solar heating for domestic and industrial applications
• biogas generation from landfill sites and sewage sludge
• small hydropower
• geothermal systems.
Electrical appliances are rarely designed for high efficiency in the NIS. In Europe many
appliances are now marked with an energy label that gives clear advice to the purchaser
on the appliance’s energy consumption. This is helping to eliminate the manufacture of
the lowest efficiency appliances and to encourage consumers to think about the lifetime
cost of electrical goods (i.e. including the electricity it will use) rather than solely the initial
purchase price. Typical differences in efficiency for goods in the shops in NIS compared
to Western Europe: 13% higher for refrigerators, 66% for TVs, 50% for electric ovens,
66% for vacuum cleaners, 54% for irons.
Russia’s oil reserves are found mostly in Siberia and Volga-Urals and much is export-
ed, through pipelines, to Western Europe. A dramatic fourfold increase in car owner-
ship since 1992 has put increasing strain on the Russia’s two refineries that produce
high quality petroleum.
Electricity generation
Russia’s electricity is predominantly generated from fossil fuels in over 600 thermal
plants. Together these supply 70% of all electricity generation. The remainder is
sourced from hydro-electric stations (20%) and there are 29 nuclear power plants
which account for a little over 10%. Demand for electricity is growing and new power
stations are being constructed. The nuclear stations are in the Northwest, natural gas
is predominant in the central and Urals regions; electricity in Siberia is generated from
hydropower and coal; and coal is mostly used to the East. The older nuclear stations
are nearing their forecast lifetimes and decommissioning is proposed however it is
uncertain that adequate funding will be available to carry this out.
Because of Russia’s size, many outlying areas are not connected to the electricity
grid, and rely on small diesel power stations.
Parts of Russia’s energy system experience severe financial difficulties with high ener-
gy losses, many non-accountable energy users and unpaid consumer debts. Cross
subsidies on energy pricing have further eroded revenue whilst essential industries
and military establishments are still provided with energy even when energy bills
remain unpaid. The result is an energy system that has suffered the neglect of basic
maintenance for many years and is in urgent need of investment. In the coal industry
these factors have led to major labour strikes as miners’ salaries are not paid. Many
mines have been forced to close.
54
Glossary
Acid rain Rain, dew or snow which is more acidic than usual, produced
by sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides given off by the combus-
tion of fossil fuels.
Biogas Gas produced by decaying material such as animal manure and
other farm, household and industrial waste. The gas contains
methane and can be used as a fuel to heat buildings or gener-
ate electricity.
Biomass All types of organic (animal or plant) material. Biomass is a store
of energy, which can be converted into other types of energy,
e.g. wood, straw or animal dung can be burnt to produce heat
and light energy.
Chemical energy Energy stored in a substance and released during a chemical
reaction. Fuels such as wood, coal, oil and food all contain
chemical energy. The reaction when they are burnt (or digested)
releases the energy, e.g. as heat and light energy.
Conservation of energy When energy changes from one form to another (e.g. when fuel
burns), the total amount of energy before the change is always
the same as the total amount of energy after the change. The
energy is always conserved. It cannot be destroyed.
Distillation The process of separating a mixture of liquids by heating. The
different liquids evaporate at different temperatures, the one
with the lowest boiling point evaporating first. The separated
gases are condensed back into liquids by cooling.
Dynamo A machine which changes kinetic energy into electrical ener-
gy.
Fission The splitting up of the nucleus of a heavy atom into two (or
more) lighter nuclei. It releases huge amounts of energy.
Fossil fuels Fuels which result from the compression of the remains of living
matter over millions of years. Coal, oil and natural gas are all fos-
sil fuels.
Friction The resistance between two touching surfaces (or one surface
and the air) when they move over each other. This slows down
the moving object(s). Some of the kinetic energy changes into
other types of energy,
Fusion The joining together (fusing) of the nuclei of two or more atoms
into one heavier nucleus. It releases vast amounts of energy.
Generator A device which turns mechanical energy into electricity. The
mechanical energy may be provided by an engine or a turbine.
Geothermal energy The heat energy which is produced by natural processes inside
the earth. It can be extracted from hot springs, reservoirs of hot
water deep below the ground or from hot rocks in the earth’s
crust.
Greenhouse effect The warming effect produced when radiation cannot escape to
the atmosphere or space. A good example is what happens in a
greenhouse (hence the name). Short-wave radiation from the
sun penetrates the glass of the greenhouse, and is absorbed by
the plants, but the long-wave radiation that the plants emit can-
not get back out through the glass. Carbon dioxide and other
gases in the atmosphere act like the greenhouse glass.
Grid system A distribution network of cables which carry electricity from
power stations, where it is produced, to the cities, towns and
villages of a country.
Glossary 55