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= FH F IE?E p q GKA IA AA p IE O I IE q J= >E p AGKEL= A = q AI LAH@=@AH= ?K= @ p O q JEA A A EI L= H @A LAH@=@ AI @A?EH

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, @A IA AIJ HAFHAIA J= @ A ?=@= D= IAF=H=@ =I DEF JAIEI @A = ? ? KIE AIJ L LAHA I I =@A = JA A= K = @A =I FH F IE?E AI O IA F H K = A= D HE J= 5 >HA

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JH=I B H =I D=>EJK= AI @A @A?EH A E F E?=

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p (p q ) (p q ) (q r) (p q ) (p q ) (p q ) p (p p)

implica implica implica implica implica

lo gicamente lo gicamente lo gicamente lo gicamente lo gicamente

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A JA = p

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I GKA

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2 H JH = p q

equivale equivale equivale equivale equivale

lo gicamente lo gicamente lo gicamente lo gicamente lo gicamente

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=@ A A A F

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equivale lo gicamente =

((p) (q q ))

+)2 67

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JAIEI

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? KIE

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5E I C= = ?=HHAH= A J ?AI 2A@H BKA A IACK @ 4= BKA A IACK @ 5E 2A@H BKA A IACK @ A J ?AI I C= = ?=HHAH= 5E +=H I BKA A IACK @ A J ?AI 4= BKA A IACK @ I C= = ?=HHAH= KAC +=H I BKA A IACK @
,A AIJ= = AH= = F=HJEH @A FH F IE?E AI LAH@=@AH=I GKA E E?E= A JA ? B H = I =NE =I IA FKA@A KJE E =H H= = EA J I L E@ I F=H= @A IJH=H GKA K = KAL= FH F IE?E AI J= >E LAH@=@AH= 8A= I = CK I A A F I @A @A IJH=?E AI JEF

,A IJH=?E AI @EHA?J=I IA KI= F=H= FH >=H GKA K = IA JA ?E= @A = B H = p q AI LAH@=@AH= F=H= ?K= KJE E = I = IECKEA JA J=KJ C = HA?KHIEL= A JA ((p r) (r s)) (p s).
,A AIJ= = AH= IE F @A I ? IJHKEH K = ?=@A = EJ= @A IA JA ?E=I LAH@=@AH=I @A = B H = p p1 p1 p2 pn q D=>HA I @A I JH=@ GKA p q AI LAH@=@AH=

-A F

E F=H - ABA?J

 !  ,A

IJHA

I GKA IE x AI K A JAH E F=H IK ?K=@H=@ AI ?AI ANEIJA K A JAH p J= GKA

IE x AI E F=H A J

x = 2p + 1

&

+)2 67

/1+)

F H = @A E?E @A IAH E F=H . H = A JA DA FH F IE?E q AI N AI E F=H O q1 AI = FH F IE?E N F  A J ?AI JA A I = LAH=?E@=@ @A

I @A IJH=@ GKA IE = ANEIJA F A JAH J= GKA

q q1 .
,A DA?D F H @A E?E @A E F=H q q1 )F E?= @ =I HAC =I F=H= D=?AH A ?K=@H=@ JA A I

x2 = (2p + 1)2 = 4p2 + 4p + 1.

-IJ= AI K = E F E?=?E q1 q2 @ @A q2 AI = FH F IE?E J= GKA x2 IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH ? x2 = 4p2 + 4p + 1 5=?= @ B=?J H ? >JA A I ANEIJA F A JAH

x2 = 2(2p2 + 2p) + 1.
2 H GKA A ABA?J x2 AI E F=H AH I =JKH= AI a, b N = {1, 2, 3...} 5A @A A AH =JKH= c N J= GKA a = b + c ,A IJH=H ?AI a > c

- AH?E?E & 5A= a, b @ I

GKA a > b IE ANEIJA K GKA IE a > b O b > c A J

,A IJH=?E F H ? JH=F IEJEL ? IEIJA A KJE E =H = AGKEL= A ?E= CE?= @A =I IA JA ?E=I p q O q p.

-A F
IEJEL

= E F E?=?E

 !  8=

I = @A IJH=H KI= @ = @A HA? FH ?= @A A A F = JAHE H

IJH=?E

F H?

JH=F

x2 impar implica x impar.

,A>A I @A IJH=H A J ?AI GKA AI LAH@=@AH= = IA JA ?E= ? JH=HHA? FH ?=

x no impar implica x2 no impar.

AGKEL= A JA A JA

x par implica x2 par.

GKA IA D=?A A@E= JA K = @A IJH=?E @EHA?J= E@ JE?= = = @A A A F = JAHE H ?= >E= @ = @A E?E @A E F=H F H = @A F=H

!

/1+) 24 2 51+1

'

,A IJH=?E F H HA@K??E = =>IKH@ ? IEIJA A KJE E =H = AGKEL= A ?E= CE?= AI?HEJ= = JAHE H A JA -IJ AI IKF AH GKA = DEF JAIEI AI LAH@=@AH= = ? ? KIE AI B= I= O AC=H = K = ? JH=@E??E

-A F

 ! ! ,A IJH= I A IECKEA JA DA?D IE a AI K AH HA= 1 >0 a > 0, A J ?AI a 7I= I = FH FEA@=@ @A I IEC I GKA E @E?= GKA A FH @K?J @A @ I AH I HA= AI AI F IEIEJEL IE O I = A JA IE = > I I F IEJEL I = > I I AC=JEL I 5KF C= I GKA = ? ? KIE AI B= I= O = DEF JAIEI AI LAH@=@AH= AIJ 1 1 1 AI a > 0 O a 0 -I ALE@A JA GKA a = 0 FKAI a a = 1 2 H J= J ? A 1 FH @K?J a a = 1 A J ?AI a < 0 A ? JH=@E??E ? = DEF JAIEI a > 0.
,A IJH=?E F H ?=I I ?K= @ IA JEA A K = E F E?=?E @A JEF p a1 a2 ... an F=H= @A IJH=H GKA p q AI IK ?EA JA @A IJH=H GKA a1 q O GKA an q

- AH?E?E ' ,AJAH E =H = J=KJ

?E I

C = GKA KIJE ?= A F H ?=I I 0=?AH = J=> = @A LAH@=@ F=H= n = 2

J @ @A @A

IJH=

FKA@A J =H I L= HAI   + IA JEA A GKA IE x N A J ?AI x AI F=H x AI E F=H A J @A>A I FH >=H GKA IE x AI F=H A J ?AI IA ?K F A = = H =?E O GKA IE x AI E F=H A J ?AI J= >E IA ?K F A = = H =?E - ABA?J IE x AI F=H A J ?AI ANEIJA p N @A @ GKA

-A F

 ! " 5A= x N @A

IJH=

I GKA A HAIJ @A @ELE@EH x2 A JHA " ?AI

x = 2p
O F H J= J @A @ GKA x AI JEF

x2 = 4 p 2
@A " AIJ AI IK HAIJ = @ELE@EH F H " AI  @ GKA ?AI ANEIJA p N @A

; IE x AI E F=H A J

x = 2p + 1
O F H J= J F H

x2 = 4p2 + 4p + 1 = 4(p2 + p) + 1

GKA A HAIJ @A @ELE@EH F H " AI 

!

+)2 67

/1+)

,A IJH=?E @A @ > AI E F E?=?E AI = @A IJH=?E @A K = @ > A E F E?=?E p q IA ? LEAHJA A@E= JA = AGKEL= A ?E= CE?= ? (p q ) (q p) A @ I @A IJH=?E AI = @A p q O = @A q p.
EH= @ I A A F I FHAIA J=@ I A = @A IJH=?E @E HA?J= O A = @A IJH=?E KI= @ = IA JA ?E= ? JH=HHA? FH ?= IA D= @A I JH=@ A DA?D IECKEA JA x AI E F=H IE O I = A JA IE x2 AI E F=H

-A F

 ! #

!" -

J @ @A HABKJ=?E

J @ @A HABKJ=?E IEHLA F=H= @AJAH E =H IE K = B H = FH F IE?E = AI K = J=KJ C = IE A?AIE@=@ @A >JA AH IK J=> = @A LAH@=@ ? F AJ= -IJA J @ ? IEIJA A E JA J=H FH >=H GKA = B H = FH F IE?E = @=@= AI K = J=KJ C = >KI?= @ =GKA I L= HAI @A =I L=HE=> AI FH F IE?E = AI GKA D=?A B= I= = B H = FH F IE?E = @=@= 5E LA I GKA AIJ AI E F IE> A = B H = FH F IE?E = > AJ @A AIJK@E IAH A?AI=HE= A JA K = J=KJ C = - ?=I ? JH=HE IAH O D=>HA I A ? JH=@ K I F IE> AI L= HAI @A LAH@=@ @A =I L=HE=> AI FH F IE?E = AI GKA D=?A GKA IA= -I E F HJ= JA IA = =H GKA AIJA J @ AI AIFA?E= A JA BA?K @ @A>E@ = GKA A A?= EI > IE? GKA A F A= ? IEIJA A HA@K?EH = B H K = @=@= = K = ANFHAIE ?=@= LA I IE F A 5E A AI K = B H = FH F IE?E = A J ?AI A : V HAIFA?JEL= A JA A : F  IEC E ?= GKA ? IE@AH= I = FH F IE?E A LAH@=@AH= HAIFA?JEL= A JA B= I= +K= @ = B H = AI K = L=HE=> A @EC= I p = LA?AI AI?HE>EHA I p := V HAIF p := F 

J=?E

-A F
J=KJ

I = @A IJH=H GKA = IECKEA JA FH F IE?E C = KJE E = @ A J @ @A HABKJ=?E

 ! $ 8=

AI K =

((p q ) (r q )) ((p r) q )
5KF C= I GKA IK L= H @A LAH@=@ AI F O L= I = EH @A@K?EA @ I L= HAI @A LAH@=@ GKA @A>A JA AH =I L=HE=> AI FH F IE?E = AI p, q O r F=H= GKA AI ?KHH= 5E

((p q ) (r q )) ((p r) q ) : F,
?=>A @ I F IE>E E@=@AI GKA EHA I @AI=HH = @ F=I = F=I

!

/1+) 24 2 51+1

!

>EA (p q ) (r q ) : 8 O ((p r) q ) . @A @ @A (p q ) (r q ) : 8 (p r) :8 , q : . KAC (p .) (r .) : 8 p :8 r :8 F H GKA (8 .) (8 .) : 8 AI @A?EH . 8 (contradiccio n)

>EA (p q ) (r q ) : . O (p r) q 8 @A @ @A (p q ) : . (r q ) : . (p r) q 8 KAC p 8 r:8 q:. (p r) q 8 F H GKA (8 8) . 8 AI @A?EH . 8 (contradiccio n)

KAC f alla A E JA J @A FH >=H GKA AI K = J=KJ C = GKA AI EI AI F IE> A =IEC =H L= HAI @A LAH@=@ = =I L=HE=> AI FH F IE?E = AI GKA E JAHLEA A @A = AH= GKA = B H = FH F IE?E = ((p q ) (r q )) ((p r) q ) IA= B= I= F H GKA ? ? KE I GKA @E?D= B H = FH F IE?E = AI ABA?JEL= A JA K = J=KJ C =

-A F

 ! % = IA JA ?E=
((p q ) q ) p

AI K = J=KJ C = - ABA?J J = I ((p q ) q ) : V O p : F + ((p q ) q ) : V A J ?AI q : V O (p q ) : V + p : F A J ?AI ABA?JEL= A JA (p q ) : V ,A AIJA @ p : F O q : V D=?A GKA = IA JA ?E= IA= F O F H J= J AIJA I = JA K = J=KJ C =

 ! # + K J I =@A?K=@ I @A ? FH F IE?E AI

A?JEL I A

CE?= @A

-I F IE> A KJE E = @ =I AGKEL= A ?E=I CE?=I ANFHAI=H ?K= GKEAH B H = FH F IE?E = A@E= JA K = B H = FH F IE?E = AGKEL= A JA A = GKA E?= A JA =F=HA ?= L=HE=> AI FH F IE?E = AI O ?EAHJ I ? A?JEL I CE? I IA A? ?E =@ I ? FHE EJEL I )I F H A A F AI @EB ?E @A IJH=H GKA F=H= ?K= GKEAH B H = FH F IE?E = A AI F IE> A A ? JH=H K = B H = FH F IE?E = AGKEL= A JA A = GKA I E? I ? A?JEL I GKA =F=HA ?= IA= I @A

+)2 67

/1+)

? K J {, , }. 2 H A A F IE A AI = B H = FH F IE?E = B C , JA @HA I GKA = B H = FH F IE?E = A AI CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA = (B C ) 5E A AI = B H = FH F IE?E = B C JA @HA I GKA = B H = FH F IE?E = A AI CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA = (B C ) (C B ) 2 H AI IA @E?A GKA I ? A?JEL I {, , } ? IJEJKOA K ? K J =@A?K=@ @A ? A?JEL I 7JE E = @ =I AOAI @A ,A HC= ? =NE =I AI F IE> A IJH=H GKA J= J {, } ? {, } ? IJEJKOA ? K J I =@A?K=@ I @A ? A?JEL I -NEIJA ? K J I =@A?K=@ I @A ? A?JEL I GKA ? IJ= E?= A JA @A K A A A J 5DA AH E JH @K A '! @ I KAL I ? A?JEL I GKA =?JK= A JA IA ? ?A ? = @ O H -IJ I @ I ? A?JEL I JEA A CH= KJE E@=@ A =I =F E?=?E AI = I ?EH?KEJ I @A ? KJ=?E - ? A?JEL H IA HAFHAIA J= ? A I > IEA @ = IA JA ?E= p q CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA = (p q ) - ? A?JEL = @ IA HAFHAIA J= ? A I > | IEA @ p | q CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA = (p q )

- AH?E?E  + FH >=H GKA J= J {} ? {|} I ? K J I =@A?K=@ I @A ? A?JEL I 2=H= LAH ANFHAI=H =I B H =I FH F IE?E = AI p q, p q O p A BK ?E A FHE AH KC=H @A ? A?JEL {} O A IACK @ KC=H A BK ?E @A ? A?JEL {|}

"

CE?= @A FHA@E?=@ I
FHA@E?=@ I O > AJ I

 "  1 JH @K??E

0=O @A@K??E AI GKA IA HA= E = D=>EJK= A JA A =JA JE?=I F=H= =I GKA AI F IE> A = = E =H IK L= E@A @A JH @A >EJ @A = CE?= @A FH F IE ?E AI 2 H A A F IE ? IE@AH= I = @A@K??E 6 @ I I D >HAI I 5 ?H=JAI AI K D >HA 5 ?H=JAI AI HJ= HJ= AI

A E JA J= I f ormalizarla AIJ AI ANFHAI=H IK B H = A IE?E AI >JA @H = I

CE?= @A FH F

p q r

"

/1+) ,- 24-,1+), 5

!!

F H GKA AI K H= = EA J L E@ J = @ p : V q : V O r : F  A ? JH=@E??E ? KAIJH= E JKE?E A?AIEJ= I A J ?AI K = @AI?HEF?E I = GKA FAH EJ= @EIJE CKEH I D >HAI  I > AJ I @A IKI FH FEA@=@AI FHA@E?=@ I + IE@AHA I =D H= = @A@K??E 6 @ I I AH I FHE ! AI K AH FHE ! AI E F=H 5E IAF=H= I =I IA JA ?E=I II E F=HAI

! AI FHE # AI FHE # AI E F=H

>IAHL= I GKA =K IEA @ @EIJE J=I =F=HA?A A A =I F=HJAI ? =I @ I FHE AH=I E JAHLEA A = FH FEA@=@ IAH FHE =I @ I JE =I E JAHLEA A A > AJ # @ K AI

A A

-IJ=I IA JA ?E=I FKA@A IAH IE > E =@=I @A IECKEA JA

N AI N AI ! AI # AI # AI
A A AA F @A ? EA

FHE E F=H FHE E F=H FHE

2N 1N 2! 1# 2#

N AI HJ= N AI D >HA
6= >E AI F IE> A IE > E =H @A AIJA L=HE I > AJ I

N 0N
@ FH FEA@=@AI GKA =BA?J= =

!"

+)2 67

/1+)

N N N N N

AI A F=@HA @A O AIJK@E= = ?=HHAH= O O AIJ = E A=@ I AI ECK= = O AI =O H GKA O

2N O -N O N O  N O x>y

CE?= @A FHA@E?=@ I IA @EIJE CKA FKAI A JHA =I FH FEA@=@AI J= >E = =@=I FHA@E?=@ I  O I > AJ I = I GKA @E?D=I FH FEA@=@AI IA HA AHA CE?= O A CA AH= A =JA JE?=I IA KJE E = @ I JEF I @A > AJ I ?HAJ I B H = @ K K ELAHI @A

=I ? IJ= JAI GKA I @EI?KHI K ? K J U

> AJ I ?

=I L=HE=> AI GKA I > AJ I CA HE? I GKA H = A JA @A J= ? =I AJH=I x, y, z.... O GKA F @H IKIJEJKEHIA F H > AJ I @A U

2 H A A F J = @ A ? K J @A I AH I =JKH= AI U = N A  AI K = ? IJ= JA O HAFHAIA J= K A A A J @A N EA JH=I GKA F @A I AI?HE>EH x K = L=HE=> A GKA FKA@A J =H ?K= GKEAH L= H =JKH= = ?=H=?JAH IJE?= AIA ?E= GKA @EBAHA ?E= =I L=HE=> AI @A =I ? IJ= JAI AI GKA =I L=HE=> AI FKA@A IAH IKIJEJKE@=I F H ?K= GKEAH > AJ @A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI A A JH= I?KHI @A K = @A@K??E 7 FHA@E?=@ AI A J ?AI K = IA JA ?E= GKA E L K?H= L=HE=> AI @A @ GKA = IAH IKIJEJKE@=I F H ? IJ= JAI IA ? LEAHJA A K = FH F IE?E 2 H A A F A FHA@E?=@ N AI FHE IA ? LEAHJA A K = FH F IE?E = IKIJEJKEH x F H K AH =JKH= I FHA@E?=@ I IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H F H I > I @A JEF P (x) Q(x) R(x) GKA IA @A E = BK ?E AI FH F IE?E = AI J= >E IA JA ?E=I =>EAHJ=I 7 = LA GKA IA D=O= =IEC =@ K L= H =@A?K=@ = = L=HE=> A x = BK ?E FH F IE?E = P (x) @= KC=H = K = FH F IE?E @A = GKA AI F IE> A = H =H IE AI LAH@=@AH= B= I= 2 H A A F IE P (x) :=N AI FHE A J ?AI P (3) AI LAH@=@AH= O P (4) AI B= I= 2 H JH= =I BK ?E AI FH F IE?E = AI FKA@A JA AH I @A K = L=HE=> A )I F H A A F IE Q(x, y, z ) @AIEC = = IA JA ?E= x + y = z JA @HA I GKA =I IA JA ?E=I Q(1, 2, 3) O Q(2, 2, 4) I LAH@=@AH=I O GKA Q(1, 2, 5) AI B= I=

"

/1+) ,- 24-,1+), 5

!#

"

I ?K= JE ?=@ HAI K ELAHI= O ANEIJA ?E=

+ DA I LEIJ K = BK ?E FH F IE?E =  IA JA ?E= =>EAHJ= FKA@A @=H KC=H = K = FH F IE?E  GKA AI EI IA FKA@A ?AHH=H =IEC = @ L= HAI ? ?HAJ I @A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI = =I L=HE=> AI GKA A A = E JAH LEA A 1 JH @K?E I =D H= JH= = AH= @A ?AHH=H =I IA JA ?E=I =>EAHJ=I KI= @ I ?K= JE ?=@ HAI K ELAHI= O ANEIJA ?E=  + IE@AHA I = ANFHAIE 2=H= J @ > AJ N @A K K ELAHI @A @EI ?KHI 7 IA LAHE ?= P (x) = BH=IA F=H= J @ > AJ N @A 7 IA @A E = ?K= JE ?=@ H K ELAHI= O IA HAFHAIA J= F H x U 5E = BK ?E FH F IE?E = P (x) HAIK J= IAH K = FH F IE?E LAH@=@AH= = IKIJEJKEH = L=HE=> A x F H ?K= GKEAH A A A J @A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI U @EHA I GKA F=H= J @ A A A J x @A U = FH F IE?E P (x) AI LAH@=@AH= 2 @A I AI?HE>EH =>HALE=@= A JA = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= GKA HAIK J= IAH LAH @=@AH= x U P (x).

 2 H JH= F=HJA A DA?D @A GKA F=H= = A I K A A A J = @A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI U = IA JA ?E= P (a) IA= K = FH F IE?E LAH@=@AH= I FAH EJA = H =H GKA = FH F IE?E ANEIJA K A A A J x @A U J= GKA = FH F IE?E P (x) AI LAH@=@AH= GKA ANFHAI= I @A B H = I >HALA F H

x U P ( x )
AI LAH@=@AH= = BH=IA ANEIJA K > AJ N @A ? K J 7 IA @A ANEIJA ?E= O IA HAFHAIA J= F H x U E = ?K= JE ?=@ H

)I FKAI F=H= F @AH =I ?E=H K L= H @A LAH@=@  GKA AI EI E JAHFHAJ=H = K = IA JA ?E= =>EAHJ= AI A?AI=HE ?AHH=H = FHALE= A JA IA @E?A GKA K = IA JA ?E= AI ?AHH=@= IE JEA A L=HE=> AI IE ?K= JE ?=H + DA I LEIJ K = IA JA ?E= IA FKA@A ?AHH=H =IEC = @ ? IJ= JAI = =I L=HE=> AI GKA A A = E JAHLEA A ?K= JE ?= @ @E?D=I L=HE=> AI 5E =I L=HE=> AI AIJ ?K= JE ?=@=I A L= H @A LAH@=@ @AFA @A @A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI GKA IA ? IE@AHA )I F H A A F = IA JA ?E=

x U (x2 = 2)

!$

+)2 67

/1+)

AI LAH@=@AH= A A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI @A I AH I HA= AI U = R IEA @ x = 2 FAH AI B= I= A A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI @A I AH I A JAH I U = Z O= GKA 2 / Z 5E A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI AI EJ A ?K= JE ?=@ H K ELAHI= FKA@A IKIJE JKEHIA F H K AH EJ @A ? K ?E AI O A ?K= JE ?=@ H ANEIJA ?E= F H K AH EJ @A @EIOK ?E AI 2 H AA F IE I L= HAI F IE> AI @A = L=HE=> A x I a, b, c, U = {a, b, c} = IA JA ?E= ?AHH=@=

x U P ( x )
AI F H @A E?E

P (a) P (b) P (c)

O = IA JA ?E=

x U P ( x )
AI F H @A E?E

P (a) P (b) P (c).

-IJ=I @A E?E AI KAIJH= GKA I ?K= JE ?=@ HAI ANEIJA ?E= O K ELAHI= I K = B H = =>HALE=@= @A AI?HE>EH I ? A?JEL I O

 " ! . H = @A FHA@E?=@ I
+ A A ?=I @A = CE?= FH F IE?E = A = CE?= @A FHA@E?=@ I >IAH L= I GKA = L= E@A @A ?EAHJ I H= = EA J I AIJ A IK B H = 5A= F H A A F A H= = EA J = JAI ? IE@AH=@ GKA E JKEJEL= A JA IA KAIJH= ? L E@ 6 @ I I D >HAI I 5 ?H=JAI AI K D >HA 5 ?H=JAI AI HJ= -IJA H= = EA J AI A 6 @ I - ?=I - ?=I ; IA F @H = HAFHAIA J=H ? EI HJ= AI

A IK B H = GKA I ?=I I I HAI K> AI ? H= AI K ?=I ? H= AI HAI K> A

"

/1+) ,- 24-,1+), 5

!%

x U P ( x ) aU P (a)
KAIJH= E JKE?E IA = = GKA AIJA H= = EA J AI L E@ IEA FHA A A IA JE@ @A GKA @AFA @A @A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI ? IE@AH=@ 4AIK J= A J ?AI =JKH= AI?HE>EH = IECKEA JA ANFHAIE GKA ? IE@AH=HA I LAH@=@AH=

(x P (x)) P (a).
>I HLAIA GKA IA D= AI?HEJ A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI

,A AIJA @ AI E JAHAI= JA ? IJHKEH K = CE?= B H = KI= @ FHA@E?= @ I + AIJA > AJ L= I = @=H K ? K J @A HAC =I F=H= @A EH B H = @A FHA@E?=@ I GKA AI A AGKEL= A JA A = CE?= @A FHA@E?=@ I = ? ?AFJ @A B H = FH F IE?E = A = CE?= FH F IE?E =

2=I  + 2=I

A = I FHE AH ? IE@AH= @ BK ?E AI FH F IE?E = AI @A = B H = P (x), Q(x), ... @ @A J= >E IA FKA@A ? IE@AH=H L=HE=I L=HE=> AI =I BK ?E AI FH F IE?E = AI I B H =I @A FHA@E?=@ I JEL I 5A FKA@A ? IJHKEH KAL=I B H =I @A FHA@E?=@ I KI= @ CE? I . H =I F H A A F @A JEF I? A?

P (x) Q(x) P (x) Q(y ) P (x) P (x) Q(x) P (x) Q(x) P (x) Q(x)

2=I ! ,=@= K = B H = @A FHA@E?=@ I @A =I ? IJHKE@=I D=IJ= =D H= @ @A

=F=HA?A = L=HE=> A x @EC= ANFHAIE AI I F H IE F E?E@=@ P (x) IA FKA@A ?

IJHKEH =I

x P (x) x P (x).
2 HAA F IA ? IJHKOA =I B H =I

x (P (x) Q(x)) x (P (x, y ) Q(x)).

!&

+)2 67

/1+)

- =I B H =I ? IJHKE@=I A A F=I ! = L=HE=> A x =BA?J=@= F H A ?K= JE ?=@ H K ELAHI= ANEIJA ?E= IA @E?A GKA GKA@= EC=@= - HAIJ @A F IE> AI L=HE=> AI IA @E?A E>HAI 8 LAHA I I =@A = JA I >HA AIJ= @A E?E

2=I " , I B H =I @A FHA@E?=@ IA FKA@A ?

CE? I I F=H JAIEI I ? IE@AH= @ F H A A F

>E =H KI= @ ? A?JEL I A?AI=HE I F=H= ALEJ=H = >EC A@=@AI -IJ= I ANFHAIE AI @A JEF

(x P (x)) (x Q(x)).

2=I # ,=@= K = B H = @A FHA@E?=@ I P (x) @ @A =F=HA?A K = L=HE=> A

E>HA x IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH ANFHAIE AI @A JEF

x P (x) x P (x).
2 HAA F ANFHAIE AI @A JEF

x(y Q(x, y )) x(P (x) (y Q(y )))

2=I $ ,=@= K = B H = @A FHA@E?=@

FKA@A IKIJEJKEHIA F H K = ? B H = @A FHA@E?=@

?K= GKEAH= @A IKI L=HE=> AI E>HAI IJ= JA =H>EJH=HE= @= @ KC=H = K = KAL=

7I=HA I I J H E I B H = @A FHA@E?=@ I IA JA ?E= @A ?=@ I ANFHAIE @A CE?= @A FHA@E?=@ I E @EIJE J= A JA

CE?= @A FHA@E

-A F

 "  7 = ANFHAIE

@A

CE?= @A FHA@E?=@ I AI F H A A F

(x P (x)) = (x Q(x)).
A AA F GKA E KIJH=>= A ? EA @A = IA??E

(x P (x)) P (a).

>IAHL=?E  " +K= @ A K FHA@E?=@ =F=HA?A K = L=HE=> A =BA?J=@= F H K ?K= JE ?=@ H O IE K J A= A JA =F=HA?A J= >E IE IAH =BA?J=@= F H AIA EI ?K= JE ?=@ H @A>A E JAHFHAJ=HIA GKA IA AIJ KJE E = @ A EI >HA @A L=HE=> A F=H= @ I L=HE=> AI @EIJE J=I

"

/1+) ,- 24-,1+), 5 x P (x)) (x Q(x)) x P (x)) (x Q(x)) 4A?KFAH= I = @A E?E

A FHA@E?=@ @A>A E JAHFHAJ=HIA ?

!' x P (x)) (y Q(y )) x P (x)) (y Q(y ))

AIJ=> A?E@= = JAHE H A JA

E?E  " ! ,EHA I GKA K = L=HE=> A x =F=HA?A EC=@= A K = B H = @A FHA@E?=@ P IE AIJ =BA?J=@= F H = C ?K= JE ?=@ H - ?=I @A GKA K = L=HE=> A =F=HA ?= EC=@= @EHA I GKA =F=HA?A E>HA ,A
2 HAA F
=I L=HE=> AI =F=HA?A 

N (x) x>y y  y > x ) N (x) y y > x) x (N (x) y y > x))

x =F=HA?A libre x A y =F=HA?A libres x =F=HA?A libre A y ligada x =F=HA?A libre A y ligada x A y =F=HA?A ligadas

2=H= F @AH =IEC =H L= HAI @A LAH@=@ = =I B H =I @A FHA@E?=@ D=O GKA ? IA @A? = = JAHE H A JA ?AHH=H =I B H =I AIJ AI IKIJEJKEH =I L=HE=> AI E>HAI F H ? IJ= JAI O A JA @AH ? IA =IEC = L= HAI @A LAH@=@ = =I L=HE=> AI ?K= JE ?=@=I

5E A K = B H = =F=HA?A ?K= JE ?=@ HAI = IKIJEJKEH =I L=HE=> AI F H ? IJ= JAI = =IEC =?E @A L= HAI @A LAH@=@ IA D=?A AN=?J= A JA ? A CE?= @A FHA@E?=@ I

-A F
O?

"" 2 HAA F

I =B H =

(P (x) Q(x)) R(y ),

IJ= JAI a O b ) IKIJEJKEH JA A I

(P (a) Q(a)) R(b),

GKA AI K = ANFHAIE @A CE?= FH F IE?E = @ @A P (a) Q(a) O R(b) I L=HE=> AI FH F IE?E = AI O ? J= IA JH=J= FK@E @ IA ? IJHKEH IK J=> = @A LAH@=@

"

+)2 67

/1+)

,=@= K = B H = @A FHA@E?=@ @A JEF x P (x) @ @A P (x) AI K = B H = @A FHA@E?=@ IE ?K= JE ?=@ HAI O ? K = I = L=HE=> A x IA @E?A GKA = ANFHAIE x P (x) AI LAH@=@AH= IE = IKIJEJKEH x F H K = ? IJ= JA a ?K= GKEAH= A ?K= GKEAH K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI IA JEA A GKA P (a) AI LAH@=@AH
O= GKA F=H= ?=@= ? IJ= JA a A ?=@= K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI U IA JEA A GKA P (a) P (a) AI LAH@=@AH=

-A F

 " # = IA JA ?E= x (P (x) (P (x))) AI V - ABA?J

,=@= K = B H = @A FHA@E?=@ @A JEF x P (x) @ @A P (x) AI K = B H = @A FHA@E?=@ IE ?K= JE ?=@ HAI O ? K = I = L=HE=> A N IA @E?A GKA = ANFHAIE x P (x) AI LAH@=@AH= IE = IKIJEJKEH x F H K = ? I J= JA a A = C K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI IA JEA A GKA P (a) AI LAH@=@AH -I @A?EH A L= H @A LAH@=@ @A x P (x) AI A EI @A (x P (x))

- A F  " $ = B H = x (P (x) P (a)) @ @A x K = L=HE=> A O a K = ? IJ= JA AI LAH@=@AH= FKAI J = @ = ? IJ= JA a = IKIJEJKEH = L=HE=> A E>HA x F H a IA >JEA A = ANFHAIE (P (a) P (a)) GKA AI LAH@=@AH=
7I= @ I IEC E ?=@ I @A I @EIJE J I ? A?JEL I CE? I F @A I =IEC =H L= HAI @A LAH@=@ = KAL=I B H =I @A FHA@E?=@ 8A= I K A A F

-A F

 " % = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= AI LAH@=@AH=

(x P (x)) (y P (y )).

- ABA?J IE x P (x) AI B= I = E F E?=?E AI LAH@=@AH= ; IE x P (x) AI LAH@=@AH= A J ?AI F=H= ?=@= ? IJ= JA a A ?=@= K ELAHI P (a) AI LAH@= @AH= F H GKA y P (y ) AI LAH@=@AH=
2=H= =IEC =H L= HAI @A LAH@=@ = ?K= GKEAH B H = @A FHA@E?=@ A?AIEJ= I A ? ?AFJ @A J=KJ C = A CE?= @A FHA@E?=@ I GKA AI AN=?J= A JA ECK= GKA A GKA = A = I A CE?= FH F IE?E = O KI=H ? DAHA JA A JA I IEC E ?=@ I @A I ? A?JEL I CE? I

,A

 " & ,EHA I GKA K = B H = @A FHA@E?=@ GKA ? JA C= L= HE=> AI E>HAI AI K = J=KJ C = IE J = E?= A JA A L= H V E @AFA @EA
JA A JA @A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI O I > AJ I ? GKA =IEC A I = =I L=HE=> AI GKA =F=HA?A E>HAI ?HAJ I @A @E?D K ELAHI

E?E

"

/1+) ,- 24-,1+), 5

"

-A F

FH F IE?E = A FHA@E?=@ P (x) (P (x)) AI K = J=KJ C = 2 @A I =HCK A J=H AIA DA?D @A IECKEA JA @ FKAIJ GKA @AFA @EA @ @A > AJ ? ?HAJ GKA ? GKA I A KC=H @A = x P (x) IAH V F JA A I = J=> =

 " ' 5EA @ P (x) K = BK ?E

P (x) V F
7JE E = @ =D H= P (x) K J ? I ? A?JEL I CE? I O ? IJHKE I P (x) (P (x)) 6A EA @ A ?KA J= A IEC E ?=@ @A @E?D I ? A?JEL I F @A I ? F AJ=H = J=> = @A LAH@=@ >JA EA @

P (x) P (x) P (x) (P (x)) V F V F V V

- AH?E?E  ,A
AI K = J=KJ C=

IJH=H GKA = ANFHAIE

(P (x) (P (x))) Q(x, y ) 2 @A I =D H= =IEC =H K L= H @A LAH@=@ = = B H = x P (x) @ @A P (x) AI K = B H = ?K= GKEAH= O x AI K = L=HE=> A E>HA @A = IECKEA JA = AH= = IA JA ?E= x P (x) AI V IE P (x) AI K = J=KJ C = O F A ?=I ? JH=HE

-A F
?

IJ= JAI

 "  = IA JA ?E= HA? H@=H GKA x AI K = L=HE=> A O a b I

(x P (x, y )) P (a, b) es V, puesto que :

= 5E (x P (x, y )) AI V P (x, y ) AI K = J=KJ C = GKA IEC E ?= GKA = IKIJEJKEH = L=HE=> A x HAIFA?JEL= A JA = y  F H ?K= GKEAH > AJ ? ?HAJ @EC= I a HAIFA?JEL= A JA b @A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI GKA IA ? IE@AHA >JA A I GKA P (a, b) LAH@=@AH= O F H ? IECKEA JA

(x P (x, y )) P (a, b)
AI V > 5E F H A ? JH=HE (x P (x, y )) AI F = E F E?=?E

(x P (x, y )) P (a, b)

es V.

"

+)2 67

/1+)

2=H= =IEC =H K L= H @A LAH@=@ = = ANFHAIE x P (x) @ @A P (x) AI K = B H = ?K= GKEAH= O x AI K = L=HE=> A E>HA ? IE@AH= I IECKEA JA = IA JA ?E= x P (x) AI V IE P (x) AI K = J=KJ C = O F A ?=I ? JH=HE
-I @A?EH x P (x) AI V IE D=O K K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI U O K = ? a U J= GKA P (a) AI V 5A AIJ=> A?A A J ?AI = AGKEL= A ?E= CE?= IECKEA JA IJ= JA

x P (x)
AI CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA A A IA JE@ @A GKA JEA A A LAH@=@ = (x P (x)). = 5E x P (x) AI V P (x) AI K = J=KJ C = P (x) AI F ? GKA (x P (x)) AI V EI L= H @A

GKA AI

EI

> 4A? FH ?= A JA IE (x P (x)) AI V A?AI=HE= A JA (x P (x)) AI F GKA AI EI P (x) AI K = J=KJ C = - J ?AI ANEIJA K > AJ a @A K K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI J= GKA P (a) AI F ? GKA P (a) AI V -IJ E F E?= GKA = IA JA ?E= x P (x) AI V 2 H ? IECKEA JA A ?K= GKEAH K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI F=H= J @ FHA@E?=@ P O F=H= J @= L=HE=> A x = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= AI LAH@=@AH=

x P (x) (xP (x)).

- AH?E?E  2H >=H GKA A ?K= GKEAH K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI

?E

P (x) = IECKEA JAI IA JA ?E=I I

LAH@=@AH=I

F=H= J @= BK

(xP (x)) (xP (x)) (xP (x)) (xP (x))

- A AH?E?E = JAHE H E @E?= ? AC=H =@A?K=@= A JA =I IA JA ?E=I =BA? J=@=I F H ?K= JE ?=@ HAI = AC=?E @A = BH=IA J @ D >HA AI HJ= HJ= IE GKA ANEIJA K D >HA GKA AI E HJ= AI J @ D >HA AI E

"

/1+) ,- 24-,1+), 5

"!

IJ= JA a A U @A @ GKA P (a) AI F ) @E?D a @A E =HA I ? JH=A A F 2 H A A F IA= U A ? K J @A I AH I =JKH= AI U = N O A FHA@E?=@ P (x) :=N AI FHE FH @K?J @A AN=?J= A JA @ I AH I FHE I = IA JA ?E= (x U P (x)) AI F FKAIJ GKA 30 AI FHE E FH @K?J @A AN=?J= A JA @ I FHE I AH 30 AI K ? JH=A A F = = IA JA ?E= x U P (x)

K =?

>IAHL=?E

 "  2=H= FH >=H GKA (x U P (x)) AI F >=IJ= A ? JH=H

 " " - A F I @A IA JA ?E=I LAH@=@AH=I + F I

8A= I = CK IAA F I I

JH=A A

2H F IE?E

 "  - ?K= GKEAH K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI AIJ=> A?E@ O F=H= ?K= GKEAH FHA@E?=@ P (x, y ) = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= AI V
(xyP (x, y )) (y xP (x, y ))
,A IJH=?E 4= =HA I F H HA@K??E = =>IKH@ L= I = IKF AH GKA = IA JA ?E= AI?HEJ= AI B= I= O >JA @HA I K = ? JH=@E??E 5KF C= I GKA (xyP (x, y )) (y xP (x, y )) AI F - AIA ?=I IA JEA A GKA (xyP (x, y )) AI V O (y xP (x, y )) AI F ,A = FHE AH= ? @E?E IA IECKA GKA ANEIJA K > AJ ? ?HAJ a @A K K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI J= GKA yP (a, y ) AI V 2 H J= J P (a, y ) AI K = J=KJ C= ,A = IACK @= ? @E?E IA IECKA GKA ANEIJA K > AJ ? ?HAJ > @A K K E LAHI @A @EI?KHI J= GKA xP (x, b) AI F GKA AI EI (x (P (x, b))) AI F - ? IA?KA ?E= JA @HA I GKA x (P (x, b)) AI V ? GKA P (x, b) J= >E AI K = J=KJ C = )D H= >EA F H IAH P (a, y ) K = J=KJ C = P (a, b) AI V O F H IAH P (x, b) K = J=KJ C = P (a, b) J= >E AI V ? GKA DA I >JA E@ = ? JH=@E??E >KI?=@=

2H F IE?E

 " ! AI ?EAHJ GKA F=H= ?K= GKEAH FHA@E?=@ P (x, y ) = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= AI V E @AFA @EA JA A JA @A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI
(xyP (x, y )) (y xP (x, y ))

""

+)2 67

/1+)

,A IJH=?E *=IJ= A ? JH=H K A A F A A GKA = B H = AI?HEJ= IA= LAH@=@ AIJ AI K ? JH=A A F 5A= A FHA@E?=@ P (x, y ) N AI AIJHE?J= A JA A H GKA O A A K ELAHI @A I AH I =JKH= AI - AIJA K ELAHI ? AIJA FHA@E?=@ IA JEA A

x U y U P (x, y ) : V
O= GKA F=H= ?=@= AH =JKH= x IEA FHA ANEIJA K A A F y = x + 1 AIJHE?J= A JA =O H 2AH AH =JKH= y F H

y U x U P (x, y ) : F
O= GKA ANEIJA K H= AI 2 H J= J AH =JKH= =O H GKA A HAIJ @A I AH I =JK

(xyP (x, y )) (y xP (x, y ))

AI B= I= A AIJA A A F

2H F IE?E
GKA IA=

I FHA@E?=@ I P O Q = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= AI LAH@=@AH=

 " " - ?K= GKEAH K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI O F=H= ?K= AIGKEAH=

x (P (x) Q(x)) (xP (x)) (xQ(x)).

,A

IJH=?E

IA JH=J= @A K = @ >HA E F E?=?E

JA A

I GKA FH >=H

E x (P (x) Q(x)) (xP (x)) (xQ(x)) AI V O GKA EE (xP (x)) (xQ(x)) x (P (x) Q(x)) AI V E 5KF C= I LAH@=@AH= = IA JA ?E= x (P (x) Q(x)) . 5A= a J= GKA

(P (a) Q(a))
AI LAH@=@AH= -NEIJA @ I F IE>E E@=@AI

5E P (a) AI V A J AI V 5E Q(a) AI V IA H=

?AI (xP (x)) AI V O F H J= J (xP (x)) (xQ(x)) == C= A JA

"

/1+) ,- 24-,1+), 5

"# AIA ?=I

EE 5KF C= I LAH@=@AH= = IA JA ?E= (xP (x)) (xQ(x)). ANEIJA J= >E @ I F IE>E E@=@AI

5E (xP (x)) AI V A J ?AI IEA @ a K > AJ J= GKA P (a) AI V HAIK J= GKA P (a) Q(a) AI V O F H J= J x (P (x) Q(x)) AI V 5E (xQ(x)) AI V IA H=
== C= A JA

2H F IE?E

 " # - ?K= GKEAH K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI O F=H= ?K= GKEAH F=H @A FHA@E?=@ I P (x) O Q(x) = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= AI LAH@=@AH=
((xP (x)) (xQ(x))) x (P (x) Q(x)) .
5E A >=HC AI ?EAHJ GKA A ?K= GKEAH K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI O F=H= ?K= GKEAH F=H @A FHA@E?=@ I P (x) O Q(x) = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= IA= LAH@=@AH=

x (P (x) Q(x)) ((xP (x)) (xQ(x)))

,A IJH=?E 2=H= @A IJH=H = FHE AH= F=HJA H= = I F H HA@K??E = =>IKH@ IKF C= I GKA ((xP (x)) (xQ(x))) AI V O GKA x (P (x) Q(x)) AI F ,A = IACK @= ? @E?E IA @A@K?A GKA ANEIJA K > AJ a J= GKA (P (a) Q(a)) AI F ? GKA P (a) AI F O Q(a) AI F - ? IA?KA ?E= (xP (x)) AI F O (xQ(x)) AI F AI @A?EH ((xP (x)) (xQ(x))) AI F
2=H= @A IJH=H = IACK @= F=HJA F @HA I K ? JH=A A F IA= A K ELAHI @A I AH I =JKH= AI O I FHA@E?=@ I P (x) N AI F=H O Q(x) N AI E F=H 5A= = IA JA ?E= J @ AH =JKH= AI >EA F=H >EA E F=H AI @A?EH x(P (x) Q(x)) -IJ= IA JA ?E= AI V 5E A >=HC = IA JA ?E= J @ AH =JKH= AI F=H J @ AH =JKH= AI E F=H AIJ AI xP (x) xQ(x) AI F

@E?=@ P (x, y ) = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= AI LAH@=@AH=

2H F IE?E

 " $ - ?K= GKEAH K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI O F=H= ?K= GKEAH FHA

xyP (x, y ) y x P (x, y )

IJH=?E ,A IJH= I FHE AH = E F E?=?E @A E GKEAH@= = @AHA?D= 4= = I F H HA@K??E = =>IKH@ IKF C= I GKA xyP (x, y ) AI V O GKA y xP (x, y ) AI F ,A = IACK @= ? @E?E IA IECKA GKA ANEIJA b J=

,A

"$

+)2 67

/1+)

GKA xP (x, b) AI F 2 H A ANEIJA a J= GKA P (a, b) AI F KAC yP (a, y ) AI F O A ? IA?KA ?E= xyP (x, y ) AI F 2=H= = JH= E F E?=?E >EA IA H= == C= A JA = = E F E?=?E GKA =?=>= I @A FH >=H >EA IA =F E?= A HAIK J=@ = JAHE H = = IA JA ?E= y x P (x, y ).

IJH=H A IECKEA JA DA?D KI= @ K = @A IJH=?E F H ? JH=F IEJEL 5E a 0 AI K AH HA= J= GKA F=H= J @ AH HA= F IEJEL > 0 IA JEA A 0 a < , A J ?AI a = 0

- AH?E?E ! ,A

"#

@A E =?E

@A ANFHAIE

AI A B H = IE > E?=

8A= I = CK I A A F I @A ? IA ANFHAI= A A CK= A B H = BH=IAI @A A CK= A =JKH= = IA JA ?E= 6 @ I JA A I AN=?J= A JA K = = CA A = IA FKA@A @A E =H @A = IECKEA JA B H = 5A= G(x, y ) = IA JA ?E= y AI A = = CA A = @A x = IA JA ?E= GKA GKAHA I @A E =H @E?A GKA F=H= ?K= GKEAH FAHI = x ANEIJA JH= y GKA AI IK = = CA A = O GKA ?K= GKEAH JH= FAHI = z AI A = = CA A = @A x

x y (G(x, y ) z ((z = y ) G(x, z )))

>IAHL=?E  " % 0=O GKA JA AH ?KE@=@ ? = AC=?E ?E= ?K= @ LEA A =BA?J=@= F H K ?K= JE ?=@ H 5KF C= AC=H = IA JA ?E=
6@ I I =K I @A AIJ= ? =IA D= =FH >=@ = C

@A K = IA JA I GKA GKAHA I

AN= A A BA>HAH

2=H= A IE > E?A I F H C (x) A FHA@E?=@ N AI K = K @A AIJ= ? =IA F H A(x, y ) A FHA@E?=@ N D= =FH >=@ A AN= A O O F H F (y ) O IA HA= E A BA>HAH )I = IA JA ?E= @=@= IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH

x [C (x) (y (A(x, y ) F (y )))] .

5K AC=?E IAH =

x [C (x) (y (A(x, y ) F (y )))]

GKA IAC I=>A I AI CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA =

x [C (x) (y (A(x, y ) F (y )))]

"

/1+) ,- 24-,1+), 5 CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA =

"%

GKA = IK LA AI GKA = IK LA AI GKA = IK LA AI GKA = IK LA AI

x [C (x) (y (A(x, y ) F (y )))]

CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA =

x [(C (x)) (yA(x, y ) F (y ))]

CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA =

x [C (x) (y (A(x, y ) F (y ))]

CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA =

x [C (x) (y (A(x, y ) F (y ))] .

-I @A?EH = AC=?E @A = IA JA ?E= AI

-NEIJA = C = K y (A(x, y )) IE

@A AIJ= ? =IA GKA D= =FH >=@ D= =FH >=@ D= IE@ A BA>HAH

E C

AN= A

5E FHABAHE I GKA@=H I ? = IA JA ?E= = FA JE = A= IA F @H = AAH ANEIJA = C = K @A AIJ= ? =IA GKA BA>HAH

CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA = IJ= @A

D= =FH >=@

E C

AN= A A

- AH?E?E " -I?HE>EH @A B H = IE > E?= =I IECKEA JAI IA JA ?E=I O IK A

C=?E @A = AH= GKA A = ANFHAIE FHA?A@E@ @A I > AC=?E  J @ I 5E = C ! 6@ A I AIF= AI I = D=O= E C

?K= JE ?=@ H

FAHE @EIJ=I I ?= E = JAI > IJA = @EIJ

?= E = JA > IJA = J @ I K @ ? AH I = ?A = = C

" - JHA @ I AH H=?E #

AH I HA= AI @EIJE J I ?K= AIGKEAH= ANEIJA = C =O H GKA A HAIJ @A I AH I FHE I

ANEIJA K FHE

- AH?E?E # 5A= xn K = IK?AIE

@A I @E?A GKA lim(xn ) = a IE R+ (n N(m N(m > n |xm a| < ))). -I?HE>EH K = IA JA ?E= GKA E @EGKA B H = A JA GKA lim(xn ) = a.

@A AH I HA= AI F IEJEL I O N A ?

AH I HA= AI 5A= R+ A ? K J K J @A I AH I =JKH= AI 5A

"&

+)2 67

/1+)

 # - H=

= EA J F H E @K??E

- AIJ= IA??E HALEI= I K = @A =I J ? E?=I I F JA JAI GKA A F A=HA I ? BHA?KA ?E= F=H= @A IJH=H FH FEA@=@AI @A > AJ I @EI?HAJ I ? F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ I JA HA =I I >HA CH=B I AJ?  - ? K J N @A I AH I =JKH= AI AI K ? K J ?=H=?JAHE =@ F H A JHA JH=I = IECKEA JA FH FEA@=@ L LAHA I I >HA AIJ A A ?=F JK !

5E A N AI J= GKA 1AO n N (n A (n + 1) A) A J ?AI A = N -IJ= FH FEA@=@ AI = >=IA @A GKA IA ?

E @K??E

?A ?

H=

= EA J F H

2H F IE?E

 #  5A= P (x) K = FH FEA@=@ @A

= AH= GKA

 P (1) AI LAH@=@AH=

n N IA LAHE ?= GKA (P (n) P (n + 1)) AI V

- AIJ=I ?EH?K IJ= ?E=I = IA JA ?E= (n N P (n)) AI V ,A IJH=?E 5A= A = {n N |P (n) es V }. = @A IJH=?E ? IEIJA A LAH GKA A = N. ,A =I DEF JAIEI IA IECKA GKA 1 A. 2=H= LAH GKA A = N I GKA@= F H @A IJH=H GKA IE n A A J ?AI (n + 1) A. 5KF C= I GKA n A; A AIA ?=I P (n) AI V O F H = DEF JAIEI 2 (P (n) P (n + 1)) AI V ? GKA P (n) (P (n) P (n + 1)) AI V O FKAIJ GKA = IA JA ?E= p (p q ) E F E?= CE?= A JA = = IA JA ?E= q, ? ? KE I GKA P (n + 1) AI V GKA AI EI GKA (n + 1) A -IJ ? ? KOA GKA N = A
- H= = EA J F H E @K??E IA FKA@A LAH E JKEJEL= A JA @A IECKEA JA @ ? P (1) AI V O P (1) P (2) AI V O= GKA AI K ?=I F=HJE?K =H @A (P (n) P (n + 1)) F @A I ? ? KEH GKA P (2) AI V 5EA @ P (2) LAH@=@ ? P (2) P (3) AI V F @A I ? ? KEH GKA P (3) AI V O =I IK?AIEL= A JA + GKA IA FHAJA @A AI FH >=H GKA P (n) AI V F=H= ?=@= n =JKH= AI IK ?EA JA >IAHL=H GKA F H KO CH= @A GKA IA= n IA FKA@A HAFAJEH A =H CK A J = JAHE H J= J=I LA?AI ? IA= A?AI=HE FAH IEA FHA K AH EJ @A LA?AI AN=?J= A JA n O ? ? KEH GKA P (n) AI V

#

- 4)

) 1- 6

2 4 1 ,7++1

"'

-I KIK= = D=?AH K H= F A=H = IECKEA JA AHC=

>IAHL=?E

#

= EA J F H E @K??E

P (1) AI V AI = >=IA @A E @K??E n N (P (n) P (n + 1)) AI A F=I @A E @K??E

H = A JA IA D=?A K = @A IJH=?E @EHA?J= @A F=I @A E @K??E = IKF IE?E @A GKA P (n) AI V F=H= ?EAHJ n AI ? ?E@= ?

DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E

-A F

GKA IA A D= GKEJ=@ K = ?=IE = FKA@A ?K>HEHIA ? FEA =I @A JHAI ?=IE =I A B H = @A IE GKA IA I =FA 2=H= @A IJH=H H= = I F H E @K??E I >HA

 # ! +K= GKEAH J=> AH ?K=@HE?K =@ @A 2n 2n ?=IE =I ECK= AI =

*=IA @A E @K??E

2 AI = FH F IE?E 7 J=> AH N = GKA IA A D= GKEJ=@ K = ?=IE = FKA@A ?K>HEHIA ? FEA =I @A JHAI ?=IE =I A B H = @A -IJ ? =H GKA A AIJA ?=I ? K = I = FEA = >=IJ= O = IA JA ?E= AI LAH@=@AH= 5KF C= I GKA F=H= J=> AH I @A 2n 2n ?=IE =I D=O I K?E 5E =D H= ? IE@AH= I K J=> AH @A J= = 2n+1 2n+1 F @A I @AI? F AH A ?K=JH J=> AH I @A J= = 2n 2n @ELE@E @ F H = EJ=@ CEJK@E = O JH= ILAHI= A JA + A A J=> AH E E?E= B= J= K = ?=IE = A K = @A =I ?K=JH F=HJAI A GKA DA I @ELE@E@ B= J= K = ?=IE = =I JH=I JHAI F=HJAI GKEJ= I = ?=IE = @A = AIGKE = GKA IA A ?KA JH= A A ?A JH @A J=> AH ,A AIJ= B H = =I JHAI ?=IE =I GKA GKEJ= I B H = K = )D H= A ?=@= K = @A =I ?K=JH F=HJAI JA A I K J=> AH @A J= = 2n 2n = GKA A B= J= K = ?=IE = 2 H J= J F H = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E F @A I HA A =H ?=@= K @A A I ? FEA =I A B H = @A F H IAF=H=@ 2=H= =?=>=H @A HA A =H A J=> AH HECE = I >=IJ= = =@EH K = A A DKA? ?A JH= B H =@ F H =I JHAI ?=IE =I GKA DA I GKEJ=@

2=I @A E @K??E

B H K =I

- AH?E?E $ ,A

IJH=H H=

= @ F H E @K??E
n

= L= E@A @A =I IECKEA JAI

n N,
k=1 n

k=

n(n + 1) 2

n N,
k=1

(2k 1) = n2

#

+)2 67

/1+)

n N,

2n (n + 1)!.
GKA A ABA?J AI K = J=KJ C= =

- AH?E?E % ,A

IJH=H F H E @K??E IA = =@= A A A AH?E?E '

 #  4=

= EA J F H E @K??E

F AJ=

- H= = EA J F H E @K??E ? F AJ= AI AGKEL= A JA = H= = EA J F H E @K??E A A IA JE@ @A GKA ?K= GKEAH @A IJH=?E F H E @K??E IA FKA@A HA= E =H F H E @K??E ? F AJ= O HA? FH ?= A JA =K GKA D=O ?=I I A I GKA F H IE F E?E@=@ AI ? LA EA JA A F A=H K K JH J @ 5A JH=J= @A @A IJH=H = L= E@A @A K = IA JA ?E= @A = B H =

(n N P (n)) .
- H= = EA J F H E @K??E ? F AJ= ? IJ= @A I IECKEA JAI F=I I  > IAHL= GKA = E?= @EBAHA ?E= ? A H= = EA J F H E @K??E AIJ A A F=I @A E @K??E 

*=IA @A E @K??E 2=I @A E @K??E P (n + 1)) AI V

P (1) AI V
5A @A KAIJH= GKA n N (P (1) ... P (n)

+ A A ?=I @A H= = EA J F H E @K??E IA JA ?E= (n N P (n)) AI V

=?

? KIE

AI GKA =

-A F

F AJ= GKA J @ FHE I

 # " 8=

I = @A AH A JAH

IJH=H KJE E = @ A =O H GKA  AI FHE

J @ @A E @K??E FH @K?J @A

? AH I

*=IA @A E @K??E
2=I @A E @K??E

2  AI LAH@=@AH= FKAI

AI FHE

5KF C= I GKA I AH I I FHE I FH @K?J @A FHE I 5E  AI FHE DA I =?=>=@ - ?=I ? JH=HE  AI ? FKAIJ AI @A?EH  FG ? 1 < p < n + 1 O 1 < q < n + 1 2 H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E F O G I FHE I FH @K?J @A FHE I O A ? IA?KA ?E=  J= >E AI

#

- 4)

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2 4 1 ,7++1

#

>I HLAIA GKA A AIJA ?=I = @A IJH=?E F H E @K??E A KC=H @A E @K??E ? F AJ= AI I ? F E?=@= O= GKA F @H = I = H =H F H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E GKA p O q I FHE I FH @K?J @A FHE I -IJ I F @H = I = H =H F=H= n FKAI = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E AI P (n) O P (1) P (n)

#

1 @K??E

AIJHK?JKH=

J @ @A E @K??E H@E =HE= IA =F O= A A DA?D @A GKA @=@ K AH =JKH= IK IK?AI H n + 1 AI E? = E @K??E AIJHK?JKH= AI K = CA AH= E =?E @A = E @K??E H@E =HE= GKA JEA A KC=H ?K= @ JA EA @ A ?KA J= = AIJHK?JKH= @A I > AJ I GKA IA AIJ ? IE@AH= @ A F=I @A E @K??E @A K A A A J = IECKEA JA FKA@A FH @K?EHIA A I @A K = @EHA??E -IJA J @ AI K = DAHH= EA J= KJE IE = F=H= A JH=J= EA J @A K?D I > AJ I GKA =F=HA?A A A >EJ @A =I ?EA ?E=I @A = ? FKJ=?E A F=HJE?K =H A = JA H = @A A CK= AI B H = AI O A = IA JE?= @A I A CK= AI @A FH CH= =?E J @ ? IEIJA A @A EH A FHE AH KC=H K = ?EAHJ= ? IJHK??E ? F H A A F K FH CH= = A 2=I?= E @K?JEL= A JA O @A IJH=H = CK = FH FEA@=@ @A FH CH= = F H E @K??E I >HA A AH @A =F E?=?E AI @A =I HAC =I @A FH CH= =

-A F
HAC =I

##

AH I A JAH I LEA A @AJAH E =@ I F H =I IECKEA JAI

0 Z Si n Z, entonces (n + 1) Z (n 1) Z.
- AIJA ?=I A F=I @A E @K??E JEA A @ I @EHA??E AI AI @A?EH F=H= FH >=H A F=I @A E @K??E D=>H = GKA ? FH >=H GKA IE n I=JEIB=?A = FH FEA@=@ > AJ @A AIJK@E A J ?AI J= >E = I=JEIB=?A (n + 1) O (n 1). 8A= I K A A F @A K = @A IJH=?E F H E @K??E AIJHK?JKH= A AIJA ? JANJ ,=@ a R, @A E I an F=H= n Z @A IECKEA JA @

a0 = 1 an+1 = an a, an1 =

an . a

+)2 67

/1+)

- AIJ=I ?

@E?E

AI F=H= ?

FH >=H = AO

am+n = am an
= I m =H>EJH=HE O H= = I F H E @K??E AIJHK?JKH=  A n

*=IA @A E @K??E

F=H= n = 0,

am+0 = am = am 1 = am a0 .

2=I @A E @K??E

IJH=H GKA A AIA ?=I

5KF C= I L E@= = AO F=H= n 6A A I GKA @A = AO J= >E AI L E@= F=H= (n + 1) O F=H= (n 1)

am+(n+1) = a(m+n)+1 = am+n a = = (am an ) a = am (an a) = am an+1 ,

@ @A = ECK= @=@ JAH?AH= AI = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E ; J= >E

am+(n1) = a(m+n)1 = =(

am+n = a

am an an ) = am ( ) = am an1 , a a @ @A @A KAL = ECK= @=@ JAH?AH= AI = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E ? ? KE I ? ? IA?KA ?E= @A H= = EA J F H E @K??E ABA?JK=@ GKA = AO AI L E@= n Z.

+ AIJ AIJHK?JKH=

-A F

 # $ ,=@= K = B H = FH F IE?E = A @A E F IE?E = ? F A A J=HE= @A A @A IECKEA JA @

I = B H = FH

Si p es una variable proposicional, comp(p) = p, comp(p) = p, comp(A B ) = comp(A) comp(B ), comp(A B ) = comp(A) comp(B ).

6A HA = 2=H= J @= B H = FH F IE?E = C IA LAHE ?=

comp(C ) = C.
,A IJH=?E 4= = I F H E @K??E AIJHK?JKH=

#

- 4)

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#!

*=IA @A E @K??E

I E? I ?=I I ?=I I > IE? I F=H= I GKA IA FKA @A =F E?=H @EHA?J= A JA = @A E?E @A B H = FH F IE?E = ? F A A J=HE= I IE C = p, comp(C ) = comp(p) = p = C O IE C = p

comp(C ) = comp(p) = p = p = C.
) JAI @A D=?AH A F=I @A E @K??E HA? H@=H GKA {, , } AI K ? K J =@A?K=@ @A ? A?JEL I F H GKA J @= B H = FH F IE?E = IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH A@E= JA =I HAC =I @A ? IJHK??E @A B H =I FH F IE?E = AI O I KI= @ AIJ I ? A?JEL I 2=I @A E @K??E 0EF JAIEI @A E @K??E 5KF C= I GKA ?K= GKEA B H = FH F IE?E = ? ? A?JEL I CE? I @A JEF I=JEIB=?A A JA HA = 5A= C K = B H = FH F IE?E = ? ? A?JEL I @A JEF 5E C = A B , JA @HA I GKA

comp(A B ) = comp(A) comp(B ) = = A B = (De M organ) = = (A B ) = C.

, @A = IACK @= ECK= @=@ AI LAH@=@AH= F H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E 5E C = A B , JA @HA I GKA

comp(A B ) = comp(A) comp(B ) = = A B = (De M organ) = = (A B ) = C.

, @A = IACK @= ECK= @=@ AI LAH@=@AH= F H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E 5E C = A A J ?AI F H =I AOAI @A ,A HC= A =@ EJA K = B H = AGKEL= A JA GKA @A J= I ECK= ? A EI AH @A ? A?JEL I @A JEF ,A AIJA @ F H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E

comp(C ) = comp(A) = (A) = A = C.

2 H ? IECKEA JA ? ? KE I ? GKEAH B H = FH F IE?E = IA JEA A GKAH = I @A IJH=H GKA F=H= ?K=

comp(C ) = C.

#"

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 $ )F E?=?E
 $  + HHA??E =I

AI
@A = C HEJ I O LAHE ?=?E @A FH CH=

+ AIJK@E=HA I ? I @AJ= A A A IECKEA JA ?=F JK K = C HEJ AI K = HKJE = FH ?A@E EA J A? E? GKA =?AFJ= K ?EAHJ ? K J @A E FKJI F=H= ?=@= K @A I ?K= AI >JEA A K KJFKJ JH=I K AH EJ @A F=I I 2 H K FH CH= = A JA @AHA I K = ANFHAIE K = IA?KA ?E= EJ= @A ANFHAIE AI A = C A CK= A @A FH CH= =?E - ? ?AFJ @A FH CH= = AIJ HA =?E =@ ? A ? ?AFJ @A = C HEJ FAH AI AN=?J= A JA ECK= FKAI K FH CH= = AI = HA= E =?E ? ?HAJ= @A K = C HEJ FAH K = C HEJ FKA@A IAH FH CH= =@  E F A A J=@  A @EBAHA JAI A CK= AI @A FH CH= =?E - A IECKEA JA ?=F JK AIJK@E=HA I A ? ?AFJ @A A ?EA ?E= HA =?E =@ ? I = C HEJ I JEA F @A A A?K?E O A?AIE@=@AI @A A HE= - AIJ= IA??E I ?KF=HA I @A = IECKEA JA FHACK J= +K @ F @A I =IACKH=H GKA K = C HEJ  A FH CH= = GKA E F A A J= AI ? HHA?J E A GKA D=?A =GKA F=H= GKA BKA @EIA =@  2H >=H GKA K = C HEJ AI ? HHA?J HAGKEAHA J @ I @A @A IJH=?E IE E =HAI = I AIJK@E=@ I A A @AI=HH @A ?=F JK - ?K= GKEAH ?=I LAHE ?=H GKA K = C HEJ AI ? HHA?J FKA@A IAH K = J=HA= KO @EB ?E 5 = C HEJ I HA = JEL= A JA IE F AI FKA@A IAH LAHE ?=@ I KJE E = @ =I J ? E?=I GKA L= I = @AI?HE>EH = ? JE K=?E - ?K= GKEAH ?=I = ? FHA IE @A AIJ=I J ? E?=I AI IACKH GKA IAHLEH @A =OK@= F=H= @EIA =H = C HEJ I @A K = = AH= A H 2 H JH= F=HJA AI E F IE> A @EIA =H K J @ GKA I FAH EJ= LAHE ?=H = ? HHA??E @A ?K= GKEAH FH CH= = -IJ AI K = ? IA?KA ?E= @A JA HA = @A E ? F AJEJK@ @A / @A I >HA I EJAI @A H= = EA J B H = >IJ= JA AIJA HAIK J=@ I FAH EJA C=H= JE =H GKA AI F IE> A @AI=HH =H K = =GKE =HE= CA AH= @A LAHE ?=?E @A = ? HHA??E @A FH CH= =I FAH A JEF @A FH CH= =I GKA =F=HA?A A = FH ?JE?= I A ?K= GKEAH ?=I J J= A JA CA AH= AI =I GKA F @A I @AI=HH =H J @ I @A LAHE ?=?E A = CK I ?=I I E F HJ= JAI I= = D=?AH AIJ=HA I A H= @ KAIJH= AJ @ C = @A FH CH= =?E - E@A= IAH = @EIA =H FH CH= =I K J ? =I @A IJH=?E AI @A IK ? HHA??E = LAHE ?=?E @A FH CH= =I AIJ KO HA =?E =@= ? GKA IA @A E = ,A IJH=?E =KJ JE?= @A JA HA =I ,A DA?D F=H= IAH HECKH I ? A ? ?AFJ @A LAHE ?=?E A?AIEJ=H = I K = @AI?HEF?E FHA?EI= @A =GKA GKA IA FHAJA @A GKA A FH CH= = D=C= O AIJ @A>A ANFHAI=HIA A

$

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-5

##

K A CK= A @EIA =@ F=H= AIJA FH F IEJ ) AIJA JEF @A A CK= AI IA AI @A E = A CK= AI @A AIFA?E ?=?E - ?K= GKEAH ?=I A > AJEL @A AIJA =F=HJ=@ AI HA =H?=H A F=FA GKA KAC= = E @K??E A =I EJAH=?E AI O HA?KHIE AI GKA IA A F A= A K?D I A CK= AI @A FH CH= =?E F=H= GKA E ? KE I = CK I A A F I F=H= E KI JH=H =I E@A=I

-A F

I A IECKEA JA BH=C A J @A FH CH= = @EIA =@ F=H= ?= ?K =H A FH @K?J @A @ I AH I =JKH= AI a O b KJE E = @ I = IK = = K JEF E?=?E F H O = @ELEIE F H

 $  + IE@AHA

r := 0 m := a n := b MDE A m > 0 EB m AI E F=H JDA r := r + n m := m/2 n := 2n

- =I IA JA ?E=I = JAHE HAI m/2 HAFHAIA J= A ? ?EA JA @A m A JHA = E JA ?E AI GKA IE a O b I =I L=HE=> AI m O n A J ?AI A FH CH= = @A>AH = JAH r ? A L= H ab. 2 H A A F F=H= a = 11 O b = 26, IECKEA JA AH F=HJA A JAH= @A I L= HAI E E?E= AI @A E =H ? = L=HE=> A A FH CH= = D=H =

m n r 11 $  # # $ " %&  & %&  "$ &$

AI @A?EH A KJFKJ AI &$ 26. -IJA FH CH= = F=HJE?K =H JEA A K = AIJHK?JKH= KO IE F A @AIFK I @A =IEC =H A L= H  = = L=HE=> A r A A?KJ= = EJAH=?E MDE A D=IJ= GKA = L=HE=> A m J = A L= H  2H >=HA I F H E @K??E I >HA k GKA @AIFK I @A k A A?K?E AI @A = EJAH=?E MDE A I L= HAI GKA = ?= = m, n O r I=JEIB=?A = ECK= @=@ m n + r = ab

#$

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IE k = 0 AI @A?EH IE AIJ= I KIJ = JAI @A GKA = EJAH=?E MDE A IA= A A?KJ=@= F H FHE AH= LA I L= HAI @A m n O r I HAIFA?JEL= A JA a, b O 0, ? GKA A HAIK J=@ AI E A@E=J 2=I @A E @K??E 5KF C= I A HAIK J=@ F=H= k AIJHE?J= A JA A H GKA A AH @A LA?AI GKA IA HAFEJA A >K? A 5A= a1 , b1 O c1 I L= HAI @A m n O r = JAI @A = EJAH=?E k + 1, O a2 , b2 O c2 I L= HAI @A m n O r @AIFK I @A @E?D= EJAH=?E 2 H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E

*=IA @A E @K??E

a1 b1 + c1 = ab
O GKA JA A I GKA @A IJH=H AI GKA

a2 b2 + c2 = ab.
,EIJE C= I @ I ?=I I = IE a1 AI F=H A J ?AI a2 =
a1 2

b2 = 2 b1 O c2 = c1 , F H a1 2b1 + c1 = ab. 2
(a1 1) 2

GKA

a2 b2 + c2 =
> IE a1 AI E F=H A J ?AI a2 =

b2 = 2b1 O c2 = c1 + b1 , F H

GKA

a2 b2 + c2 =
? GKA = @A

(a1 1) 2b1 + c1 + b1 = a1 b1 b1 + c1 + b1 = ab 2
F H E @K??E AIJ ? F AJ=

IJH=?E

7 = LA HA= E =@= AIJ= @A IJH=?E F @A I =IACKH=H GKA A FH CH= = A AIJA ?=I A BH=C A J @A FH CH= = AI ? HHA?J F=H?E= A JA O= GKA IE A FH CH= = JAH E = A J ?AI @= = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= - JH E CHA@EA JA @A = @A IJH=?E @A ? HHA??E AI = JAH E =?E 2=H= GKA A FH CH= = IA= ? HHA?J JA A I GKA @A IJH=H GKA A FH CH= = IEA FHA JAH E = -N= E = @ = ? =KIK = MDE A LA I GKA A FH CH= = JAH E = I ?K= @ m J = A L= H 0, O F H JH =@ A ?=@= EJAH=?E @A = ? =KIK = MDE A A L= H @A m @A?HA?A -IJ IEC E ?= GKA ? NE A = HAFAJE?E m IE = J =H A L= H 0, F H GKA F @A I =IACKH=H GKA A FH CH= = AI ? HHA?J

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#%

$

1 CA EAH = @A ?

?E EA J

IEIJA =I ANFAHJ I

7 IEIJA = ANFAHJ AI K IEIJA = E B H JE? @EIA =@ F=H= HAI LAH FH > A =I A K HA= AIFA? ?= O = GKA @A = C @ IA A D= @ J=@ @A K = ? FAJA ?E= IE E =H = = @A K ANFAHJ DK = @A AIA HA= )I F H AA F ;+1 AI K IEIJA = ANFAHJ A @E=C IJE? O JH=J= EA J @A K AH KO HA@K?E@ @A A BAH A@=@AI E BA??E I=I @A = I= CHA O 24 52-+ 6 4 AI K IEIJA = ANFAHJ A @AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A = ANEIJA ?E= @A O=?E EA J I @A ?EAHJ I E AH= AI = F=HJEH @A =I FHKA>=I HA= E =@=I I >HA A JAHHA 5AC A ?=I A > AJEL @A K IEIJA = ANFAHJ FKA@A IAH A @A IKIJEJKEH = ANFAHJ DK = A @A =OK@=H = I ANFAHJ I DK = I = JH=J=H ? L A AI @A E B H =?E GKA @AI> H@= IK ?=F=?E@=@ - ?K= GKEAH ?=I A > AJEL = AI A EI @A J @=I =I =F E?=?E AI E B H JE?=I HA AL=H = D >HA @A J=HA=I A? E?=I O FH F H?E =H A E IJHK A J I = F E ?=@ HAI @A IKI ?=F=?E@=@AI A J= AI I IEIJA =I ANFAHJ I IA ? IJHKOA IECKEA @ K = ? ?AF?E @K =H 2 H K = F=HJA IA ? IJHKOA K = >=IA @A ? ?E EA J I >=IA @A DA?D I O F H JH= IA @AI=HH = I FH ?A@E EA J I GKA FAH EJA = EFK =H AI= >=IA F=H= >JA AH K = HAIFKAIJ= ? @=J I ? ?HAJ I  J H @A E BAHA ?E= I FH > A =I GKA IKHCA A HA =?E ? AIJ I @ I =F=HJ= @ I D= @=@ KC=H = K HA= @A JH=>= GKA IA ? ?A ? E CA EAH = @A ? ?E EA J - AIJA =F=HJ=@ LAHA I ? IA KJE E = =I ANFHAIE AI CE?=I F=H= HAFHAIA J=H A ? ?E EA J O A F=HJE?K =H O F=H= ? F E?=H K?D = ANF IE?E =I IA JA ?E=I @A = CE?= FH F IE?E = 7 IEIJA = @A FH @K??E AI K @A @A ? FKJ=?E GKA @EIJE CKA JHAI ? F A JAI K = >=IA @A DA?D I K = >=IA @A ? ?E EA J I O K J H @A E BAHA ?E=I = >=IA @A ? ?E EA J I AI A?AI=HE= A JA K = >=IA @A @=J I A A IA JE@ E B H JE? D=>EJK= IAC A IEIJA = FKA@A IAH @AI@A K = J=> = @A AH I D=IJ= K = >=IA @A @=J I A IA JE@ FH FE =I HAC =I @A FH @K??E IA =F E?= I >HA = >=IA @A DA?D I ?= >E= @ IK AIJ=@ O A IEIJA = @A ? JH C >EAH = AIJ I FH ?A@E EA J I O =F E?=?E AI O D=?A GKA = ? FKJ=?E IA @AJA C= ?K= @ A AIJ=@ @A = >=IA @A @=J I I=JEIB=?A = CK = ? @E?E @A JAH E =?E FHA@A E@= = >=IA @A DA?D I ? JA @H I DA?D I E E?E= AI O I GKA IA L=O= >JA EA @ ? ? IA?KA ?E=I A A FH ?AI E BAHA ?E= =I HAC =I @A FH @K??E I F=HAI H@A =@ I ) * 5AC A JEF @A IEIJA = IA @A E = = JA?A@A JA O ? IA?KA JA ? @E?E O =??E FHA EI= O ? ? KIE 5K B H = E =?E

#& CE?= AI = @A =I IA JA ?E=I ? ? ?E EA J I @A IEIJA = :+

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@E?E = AI )* 2 H A A F A = >=IA @A D=O K =I # HAC =I 7 = @A A =I AI

5E A ? O IA ?

JANJ =?JK= AI A @A =IEC =H K = BKA JA @A = E A J=?E ?=@ K ?A = F IE?E @K 5*1 A K =H =HE @K GKA ?KF= A

O IA D= ? O IA @EIF A J
?

A @A K = BKA JA @A = E A J=?E ?=H = BKA JA A @E?D= F IE?E

?AI ?

-I ? =H GKA E @AFA @EA JA A JA @A IEC E ?=@ @A AI=I ANFHAIE AI A A JANJ @A @E?D IEIJA = = HAC = IA FKA@A B H = E =H A@E= JA = IA JA ?E=

(p1 p2 p3 p4 ) q.
- A ? =I HAC =I JANJ @A K IEIJA = ANFAHJ A A@E?E = F @H = I? IE@AH=H

4 5E A F=?EA JA JEA A A>HA

O J IA O JEA A @ A J
4

HAI

KI?K =HAI HAIBHE=@ =?

?AI F=@A?A CHEFA JEA A ?AI HA? ?AH= A @=H =IFEHE = O ?

5E A F=?EA JA F=@A?A CHEFA O A J

= B H = E =?E

@A J= AI HAC =I IAH =

R 1 : [ f t m] g R2 : [(g r) (u)] (a c)
7JE E = @ AGKEL= A JA = =I AGKEL= A ?E=I CE?=I LEIJ=I = HAC = R2 AI CE?= A JA

[(g (u)) a] [(g (u)) c] [(r (u)) a] [(r (u)) c]

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-5 F AH A =I IECKEA JAI

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R 2a R2b R2c R2d

: : : :

(g (u)) a (g (u)) c (r (u)) a (r (u)) c.

) JA K = IEJK=?E ? ?HAJ= A = GKA IA D=?A K = ? IK J= = IEIJA = IA JEA A = ALE@A ?E= @A GKA K IK>? K J @A AI I DA?D I I LAH@=@AH I O IA JH=J= @A A ? JH=H GK JH I DA?D I FKA@A E BAHEHIA @A AI= ?AHJE@K >HA O @A =I HAC =I 5E F H A A F DE?E IA I K = ? IK J= = IEIJA = I >HA K F=?EA JA GKA I=JEIB=?A I DA?D I f, t, m O u A IEIJA = JH=J=H = @A =F E?=H =I HAC =I F=H= LAH GK JAH=FE= D=>H = GKA =F E?=H )I FKAI I=>EA @ GKA JA A I I DA?D I f, t, m O u, F @A I D=?AH =I IECKEA JAI E BAHA ?E=I KI= @ = HAC = @A E BAHA ?E= @KI F A I

A AIJA

A J DA

A AIJA

A J DA

f tm R1 : [f t m] g g I = F E=@ = >=IA @A DA?D I ? g (u) R2a : (g (u)) a a I = F E=@ = >=IA @A DA?D I ? g (u) R2b : (g (u)) c c

KAL DA?D g )

KAL DA?D a)

AI @A?EH = JAH=FE= AI =IFEHE = O ? =? - FH > A = GKA IKHCA AI GKA A CA AH= JA @HA I @ I IE K?D=I HAC =I A I IEIJA =I ANFAHJ I AI BHA?KA JA GKA IA= @A H@A @A ?EA J I @A E AI O A CA AH= D=O GKA AIJ=> A?AH A GK H@A O @A GK = AH= =F E?= I =I HAC =I AI @A?EH ?K ?K AI IA =F E?= FHE AH  F=H= AIJ=> A?AH A FH ?A@E EA J @A E BAHA ?E= 2=H= AIJ D=O @ I AIJH=JACE=I > IE?=I  1H =F E?= @ ?K= J=I HAC =I @A FH @K??E O ?K= J=I HAC =I @A E BAHA ?E= IA FKA@= F=H= EH IK?AIEL= A JA = F E= @ = >=IA @A DA?D I GKA AI

$ GKA DA I DA?D A A A A F D=?E= =@A = JA .E =HIA K DA?D ? HAC =I @A FH @K??E EA J D=?E= =JH I O GKA IA ?

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A ?=@A = EA J

> AJEL O JH=J=H @A @A@K?EH LEA @ @A GK AI ? IA?KA JA -IJA AI A FHE ?EFE @A A ?=@A =

- JH=I F= =>H=I A A ?=@A = EA J D=?E= =@A = JA ? IEIJEH = A EH HA ? HHEA @ =I HAC =I @AI@A = FHE AH= D=IJ= AC=H = K = GKA FKA@= =F E?=HIA @A =?KAH@ ? = AO @A E BAHA ?E= @KI F A I = F E=H = >=IA @A DA ?D I ? = KAL= ? IA?KA ?E= A FA =H @A KAL ? = FHE AH= HAC = O =I IK?AIEL= A JA D=IJ= E ? KEH A > AJEL A = >=IA @A DA?D I D=IJ= GKA O= FKA@= =F E?=HIA HAC =I +K= @ IA JH=J= @A @AHEL=H ?K= J=I ? ? KIE AI IA FKA@= IE @A E BAHEH K > AJEL LAHE ?=H GKA K DA?D ? ?HAJ AI ? IA?KA ?E= @A JH I DA?D I O @A =I HAC =I @A FH @K??E GKA FH ?A@A AI =F E?=H A A ?=@A = EA J D=?E= =JH I F=H= ?K= IE F H A A F E JA J= I LAH IE FKA@A @A@K?EHIA K DA?D x, >KI?=H = I A FHE AH KC=H =I HAC =I A =I GKA CK H= ? ? IA?KA JA O = F=HJEH @A A =I EH = I HA= E = @ A AIJK@E D=?E= =JH I 7 A CK= A CH ? KO =@A?K=@ AI A @A I H> AI @A @A?EIE GKA AIJK@E=HA I A IK A J

 % - AH?E?E I
- AH?E?E & -I?HE>A = J=> = @A LAH@=@ @A =I IECKEA JAI FH F IE?E AI
  ! "

((p q ) m) m (q (p q )) p (p (m n)) m (p (m n)) m

- AH?E?E '

,AJAH E = IE A IECKEA JA H= = EA J AI ? HHA?J J @ AIJK@E= JA @A AIJ= ? =IA E@A A I AIJHE?J= A JA GKA  % I @A  % 2A@H E@A I @A  % KAC AI @A AIJ= ? =IA

- AH?E?E

 5A= X A ? K J @A F= IAI A Y A ? K J @A @AF HJAI FE? I = IA JA ?E= M (x, y ) IEC E ?= GKA A F= I x X D= C= = @ K = A@= = A A @AF HJA y Y -I?HE>A =I IECKEA JAI BH=IAI KJE E = @

%

- -4+1+1 5 ALEJ= @ = =F=HE?E @A K IEC @A AC=?E

$ @A = JA @A K

?K= JE ?=@ HAI ?K= JE ?=@ H E C 6 @ I )C )C

F= I D= C= =@ J @=I =I A@= =I I F= IAI D= C= =@ = CK = A@= = F= I D= C= =@ = CK = A@= = F= I D= C= =@ E CK = A@= =

- AH?E?E

K J @A I AH I =JKH= AI O P (a, b) = IA JA ?E= a @ELE@A = b AIJ AI A HAIJ @A @ELE@EH b A JHA a AI  ,AJAH E = A L= H @A LAH@=@ @A =I IECKEA JAI FH F IE?E AI P (2, 3) P (5, 10) P (2, 3) P (5, 10) P (2, 3) P (5, 10) P (2, 3) P (5, 10) m Nn N P (m, n) m Nn N P (m, n) n Nm N P (m, n) n N P (1, n) m N P (m, 1) -I?HE>A B H = A JA =I IECKEA JAI BH=IAI O IK AC=?E A A CK= A B H = O A A CK= A =JKH= 5E L= A A I @A  FJI ? AH A = ?=BAJAH = 6 @ I I D=>EJ= JAI @A =@HE@ LE= = A AJH E C D=>EJ= JA @A IJ AI ? CA A =KJ > I 0=O FAHI =I A J @=I =I ?EK@=@AI GKA KI= A JH= IF HJA F > E? =I IECKEA JAI = H =?E 1 + 2 + ... + n = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)/6 2n > n + 1 F=H= ?=@= A JAH =O H ECK= GKA xn y n AI @ELEIE> A F H x y F=H= J @ =JKH= n
2 2 2

 5A= N A ?

- AH?E?E

- AH?E?E

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AI

- AH?E?E

" 2 AH K A A F @EIJE J = @A =I ?E= J= GKA IEA @ = = H =?E xyP (x, y ) ?EAHJ= xyP (x, y )

J=I @A K = IA JA IA= = = H =?E

- AH?E?E
?K=

# ,A KAIJH= F H ?=I I = FH FEA@=@ @A L= H =>I KJ F H =

+)2 67

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|xy | = |x||y |

- AH?E?E
=?E

$ ,A KAIJH= F EA @ K ? JH=A A F GKA =I IECKEA JAI = H AI I LAH@=@AH=I 6 @ A JAH =O H GKA % AI A ?K=@H=@ @A K AH A JAH 6 @ A JAH =O H GKA $ AI JEF @A @A ! 100n + 1 > n2 F=H= J @ A JAH n % ,A KAIJH= F H HA@K??E
2 IE K
AI H=?E = AH HA= x AI H=?E = =>IKH@ = A J =I IECKEA JAI = H =?E AI H=?E =

- AH?E?E
AI

?AI + x

- AH?E?E

IJH= @ IE I ? HHA?J I 5E I= C = = ?= A A LEIJ 5= C = = ?= A F H J= = ? E@= E ? KOA A FHE AH F =J O A IACK @ F H FHE AH F =J 8A @= AI K = F= =>H= @A C AH BA A E F H J= J E O IE CK =H 5E L= A A I @A  FJI JA C @E AH IK ?EA JA IK ?EA JA ? FH=H 8= A A I @A  F H J= J ?

& -I?HE>A A

A CK= A B H =

I IECKEA JAI H=

= EA J I @A J L O LAIJE@ J= J E ? KOA A LA @= AI BA A 5E JA C @E AH FH

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I A AH?E?E I  ! " O & IA FHAIA J= HAIKA J I ? =F A

&

CE?= ?

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I =IFA?J I @A CE?= GKA IA ?=HC=

- FH CH= = =F A FAH EJA JH=>= =H = CK ? A F=GKAJA CE?

>

HAIJ=HJ MEJD CE? I E JAHAI= A AIJA A J = CK =I @A AIJ=I BK ?E

FH >=?E @A = AGKEL= A ?E=

AI CE?= @A =I ANFHA

>AGK= * *  ? IE AI * O *

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? 2=H= >JA AH I E B H =?E IK J=H = =OK@=
>

* AI K = J=KJ

C=

I >HA B=?E E@=@AI

CE?=I @A

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CE?

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>

A?JEL I

CE? I

I ? A?JEL I CE? I = @ H J 5 IK ?EA JAI CE?=I @A = E F E?=?E O = @ > A E F E?=?E ? DA?D=I ? = @ H O J 2=H= AL= K=H =I BK ?E AI A I >  ? GKA IA HAFHAIA J= = ? K ?E O

F = @ G
p= @q

>

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J F = @ 

true
)K GKA A ? A?JEL E F EAI AIJ I D=O K = BK ?E E F E?=?E F E F EAI G AI AGKEL= A JA = JF HG
>

E F EAI

>AGK= F E F EAI G 

J F  H G
true

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E F FH ?= > ?= ? ?  J = H > ? A @ @E F FH ?= > ?= ?  J = H > = @  J > H = ? A @ E F F G @E F F G

Jp Hq
(

J p H q) = @ (

J q H p)

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- AH?E?E
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= AI

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> >

G F  J

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>

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A := (

J p H q) = @ (

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J p H q) = @ (

J q H p)

>

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LAHJ) J E AHJ ?
true

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= AGKEL= A ?E= A JHA K = IA JA ?E= O IK ?

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A :=

Jp Hq

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LAHJ* J E AHJ

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J q = @ p) = @ (p = @

Jq= @p H

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true true

" 4A@K??E
>

= =>IKH@

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>

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true

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>

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>

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) @=I ?E=JEL @E F F = @ G = @ H F = @ G = @ H J=KJ CO? LAHJ) @=I ?E=JEL J E AHJ
true

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true

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> > > > > > >

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true

>

J=KJ

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AOAI @A @A
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J=> =F FH ?* ?= ) ? E > JHKA B= IA > B H E BH  J @ > ? >IE FIK>IF E G E * > FHE JF E G E ) ? > @ > A @ > J=> =FG FH ?* > ?= ) ? E > JHKA B= IA > B H E BH  J @ > B H BH  J @ > ? >IE FIK>IF E G * > FHE JF E G ) ? > @ > @ A @ > J=> =FGH FH ?* > ?= ) ? E > JHKA B= IA > B H E BH  J @ > B H BH  J @ > B H BH  J @ > ? >IE FIK>IF E G H * > FHE JF E G H ) ? > @ > @ > @ A @ -IJ I FH ?A@E EA J I IA FKA@A KI=H IEA FHA GKA D=O= K = @ I JHAI L=HE=> AI O IJ=I IA = A F G O H 5E IA = = =I =I ?= >E= I A >HA 5E GKAHA I = =@EH I L=HE=> AI D=O I GKA E JH @K?EH JH >K? A =I ?E ? FH F IE?E AI GKA IA FHAIA J= I > A  JF H G > A F = @  J F > A ! JF = @  J F > A " E F F G = @ J H > A # @E F  JF = @ G  J F H  J > G 5KI J=> =I @A LAH@=@ I > J=> =FGA 

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p = true , q = true , A = false p = true , q = false , A = false p = false , q = true , A = false p = false , q = false , A = true
>

J=> =FGA


p = true , q = true , A = false p = true , q = false , A = false p = false , q = true , A = false p = false , q = false , A = false

>

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p = true , q = true , A = true p = false , q = false , A = true

>

J=> =FGHA "

p = true , q = true , r = true , A = false p = true , q = true , r = false , A = true p = true , q = false , r = true , A = false p = true , q = false , r = false , A = false p = false , q = true , r = true , A = true p = false , q = true , r = false , A = true

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p = false , q = false , r = true , A = true p = false , q = false , r = false , A = true

>

J=> =FGA #
p = true , q = true , A = true p = true , q = false , A = true p = false , q = true , A = true p = false , q = false , A = true

- AH?E?E &
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>

A &  E F F H
ej18 1 :=

J G = @

J ((p H

J q ) = @ m) H m

>

A &  IK>I

H A & 

ej18 1 :=
>

J ((p H

J q ) = @ r) H r

J=> =FGHA & 

p = true , q = true , r = true , A = true p = true , q = true , r = false , A = true p = true , q = false , r = true , A = true p = true , q = false , r = false , A = true p = false , q = true , r = true , A = true

&

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

%

p = false , q = true , r = false , A = true p = false , q = false , r = true , A = true p = false , q = false , r = false , A = true
- A =F=HJ=@
>

D=O FH > A =I ?

>HAI @A =I L=HE=> AI

A &

E F  J G = @ E F F G
ej18 2 :=

J F

J(


Jq= @(

J p H q ) = @ p)

>

J=> =FGA &

p = true , q = true , A = true p = true , q = false , A = true p = false , q = true , A = true p = false , q = false , A = true
H > > > > >

I =F=HJ=@ I ! O " D=O GKA ?= >E=H

>HAI @A

F HGO

A & ! A & ! A & " A & "

E F E F F IK>I G E F E F F IK>I G

H = @

 

 

H A & ! H A & "

J=> =FGHA & !

p = true , q = true , r = true , A = true p = true , q = true , r = false , A = true p = true , q = false , r = true , A = false p = true , q = false , r = false , A = true

+)2 67

/1+)

p = false , q = true , r = true , A = true p = false , q = true , r = false , A = true p = false , q = false , r = true , A = false p = false , q = false , r = false , A = false
>

J=> =FGHA & "

p = true , q = true , r = true , A = true p = true , q = true , r = false , A = true p = true , q = false , r = true , A = true p = true , q = false , r = false , A = true p = false , q = true , r = true , A = true p = false , q = true , r = false , A = true p = false , q = false , r = true , A = false p = false , q = false , r = false , A = false

- AH?E?E # 5A=
A1 := p (q r) A3 := p
5A JH=J= @A @A IJH=H GKA = FH F IE?E

A2 := q r
IECKEA JA P AI K = J=KJ C=

A4 := q r.

A1 A2 A3 A4 .
5E J = I p = V q = F O r = V IA >IAHL= GKA = FH F IE?E L= H F ? GKA AI K = J=KJ C =

P J

=A

&

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

%!

- AH?E?E $

 5A= p := H AI K IK>CHKF FAHJA A A?A = 0 s := H AI ?AHH=@

q := (H = ) r :=A A A A J = FHE AH= DEF JAIEI AI

AKJH

A1 := (q r s) p.
= IACK @= DEF JAIEI AI

A2 := (q s) r.
=? ? KIE AI

B := s p
5A JH=J= @A @A IJH=H IE = IECKEA JA FH F IE?E AI K = J=KJ C=

(A1 A2 ) B.
; D=?EA @ IK J=> = @A LAH@=@ IA ? FHKA>= GKA AI FHKA>= GKA =

 5A= p = AI FAHBA?J q = AI F=H A i E F=H IA ? FH F IE?E IECKEA JA AI A ABA?J K = J=KJ C =

((p q i) q i) p.

! 5E h AI D=O DKA C= s AI A IE @E?=J EA JA O r AI A E EIJH JEA A H= A J ?AI A H= = EA J GKA IA FHAIA J= AI ? HHA?J F HGKA = IECKEA JA FH F IE?E AI K = J=KJ C =

(h s r) (h (h r)) s.

- AH?E?E % 5A= p :=

I C= = ?=HHAH= q :=2A@H BKA A IACK @ r :=4= BKA A IACK @ O s :=+=H I BKA A IACK @ - H= = EA J GKA IA FHAIA J= AI ? HHA?J F HGKA = IECKEA JA FH F IE ?E AI K = J=KJ C =

((p q r) (q p) (s r) p) s.
- ABA?J ? = JE = DEF JAIEI AI p F @A I IKF AH GKA p AI LAH@=@AH + p AI LAH@=@AH = FHE AH= DEF JAIEI @E?A GKA >EA q AI LAH@=@AH AI r = IACK @= DEF JAIEI E @E?= GKA IE q AI LAH@=@AH A J ?AI p AI B= I F H

%"

+)2 67

/1+)

J= J IA FKA@A @=H q LAH@=@AH - J ?AI r AI LAH@=@AH = IA JA ?E= ? JH=HHA? FH ?= @A = JAH?AH= DEF JAIEI E @E?= GKA IE r AI LAH@=@AH A J ?AI s AI LAH@=@AH ? GKAH = I @A IJH=H =JKH= d J= GKA a = b + d ,A ECK= = AH= IE b > c A J ?AI ANEIJA K AH =JKH= d J= GKA b = c + d ,A AIJA @ KI= @ = >=I ECK= @=@AI IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH

- AH?E?E & 5E a > b A J ?AI ANEIJA K

AH

a = b + d = ( c + d ) + d = c + (d + d )
? AI GKA ABA?JEL= A JA IA LAHE ?= a > c = J=KJ C = GKA KIJE ?= A J @ @A @A IJH=?E F H ?=I I

- AH?E?E '

((p a1 ... an ) (a1 q ) ... (an q )) (p q ).

- A ?=I F=HJE?K =H @A n = 2 IA JEA A

((p a1 a2 ) (a1 q ) (a2 q )) (p q ).

+KO= J=> = @A LAH@=@ AIJ ABA?JEL= A JA B H =@= I CE?=I F H8

- AH?E?E  - A AH?E?E AI ? IA?KA ?E= @A =I IECKEA JAI AGKEL= A ?E=I

p q (p q ) p p (p p) p p q (p q ) p q p|q (p q ) p|p (p p) p p|q (p q ) p q (p|q )|(p|q ) (p|q ) p q

AI IEA FHA LAH@=@AH=

- AH?E?E  +

= DEF JAIEI P (x) P (x) AI IEA FHA B= I= = E F E?=?E

&

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5 5A @A@K?A @EHA?J= A JA @A = J=KJ C=

%#

- AH?E?E 

x P (x) (xP (x))

A A FHE AH ?=I =F E? @ = = P (x) O A AGKEL= A ?E= @A =I AC=?E AI A IACK @ ?=I J = @ =

- AH?E?E ! 4=

= I @A IJH= @ = IA JA ?E= ? JH=HHA? FH ?= IE a=0 ? AI a 0 A J ?AI IA JEA A a > 0 ,A AIJA @ J = @ =a IA LAHE ?= GKA ANEIJA LAHE ?= @ 0 < a

- AH?E?E "

 5A= A K ELAHI U @A =I FAHI O P (x) = IAH FAHE @EIJ=

=I O

I FHA@E?=@ I E (x) = IAH AIF=

(x U (E (x) P (x)))
AGKEL= A JA A JA

x U (E (x) P (x)).
5K AC=?E AI

x U (E (x) P (x))
AIJ AI J @ I

I AIF=

AI I

FAHE @EIJ=I
I ?= E = JAI O A FHA@E?=@ B (x) N > IJA =

 5A= U A ? - J ?AI 5K AC=?E AI

K J @A

(x U B (x)) (x U B (x)). (x U B (x)) (x U B (x)).

-IJ AI ANEIJA FAHI

=I GKA > IJA = O FAHI

=I IA J

=I GKA
=

> IJA =

! - A K ELAHI U @A =I FAHI @EIJ O P (x, y ) N ? ?A = O

I FHA@E?=@ I M (x) N AI

x U y U (P (x, y ) M (y )).
5K AC=?E AI

x U y U (P (x, y ) M (y )).
-IJ AI ANEIJA FAHI

=I GKA

?A = E C

@EIJ

%$ "

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p, q R p < q s Q p < s < q

5K AC=?E AI

p, q R p < q s Q ((s q ) (s p)).

-IJ AI ANEIJA @ I # 5A= P A ?

AH I HA= AI p, q IE
K J @A I AH I FHE I

AH I H=?E

= AI A JHA A

p P q P p < q.
5K AC=?E AI

p P q P p q.
-IJ AI ANEIJA K

AH FHE

=O H GKA A HAIJ @A

AH I FHE

- AH?E?E # - lim(xn ) = a IE
( R+ (n N(m N(m > n |xm a| < ))))
AGKEL= A JA A JA KI= @ = AGKEL= A ?E= CE?= A JHA = E F E?=?E O p q > 0 n m > n |x m a | > .

pq

- AH?E?E $ ,A

IJH=?E

AI F H E @K??E

E 1 + ... + n = n(n + 1)/2 *=IA @A E @K??E A ABA?J IA ?K F A GKA 1 = (1 2)/2 2=I @A E @K??E KI= @ = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E IA JEA A

1 + ... + n + (n + 1) = (1 + .. + n) + (n + 1) = n(n + 1)/2 + (n + 1).

; AI K = ? FH >=?E LAHE ?=H = ECK= @=@ @A F E E I

n(n + 1)/2 + (n + 1) = (n + 1)(n + 2)/2.

EE

2 n k=1 (2k 1) = n .

&

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5 A ABA?J IA ?K F A GKA 1 = 1 KI= @ = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E

%%

*=IA @A E @K??E 2=I @A E @K??E

IA JEA A

+1 n 2 n k=1 (2k 1) = k=1 (2k 1) + (2n + 1) = n + 2n + 1.

; A ABA?J IA JEA A

n2 + 2n + 1 = (n + 1)2 .

EEE 2n (n + 1)!. *=IA @A E @K??E A ABA?J IA ?K F A GKA 2 2! = 2 2=I @A E @K??E KI= @ = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E IA JEA A

2n+1 = 2n 2 (n + 1)!2.
;?

2 n + 2 IA JEA A GKA 2n+1 (n + 2)!

GKAH =

I @A

IJH=H

((p a1 ) (a1 q )) (p q ) AI K = J=KJ C = ? LE I A I =FK JAI 2=I @A E @K??E -I K = ? IA?KA ?E= E A@E=J= @A = AGKEL= A ?E= CE?= (p a1 ... an an+1 ) ((p a1 ... an ) (p an+1 )).

- AH?E?E % *=IA @A E @K??E

- AH?E?E ' 5A= x U @ @A U AI A ?

K J @A AIJK@E= JAI 5A= R(x) : A AIJK@E= JA x AI @A AIJ= ? =IA 5A= P (x) : - AIJK@E= JA x E@A AIJHE?J= A JA A I GKA  % - H= = EA J IA FKA@A IE > E =H A = B H =

(H1 H2 ) T
@ @A

H1 := x U R(x) )P (x) P (x)). H2 := P (a) T := R(a)

%&

+)2 67

/1+)

O @ @A a HAFHAIA J= = 2A@H >IAHL= I GKA H1 AI IEA FHA V O GKA J = @ R(a) := F O P (a) := F IA JEA A GKA A H= = EA J AI L E@

- AH?E?E
E C

F= I D= C= =@ J @=I =I

A@= =

(xy M (x, y ).
AGKEL= A JA A JA

xy M (x, y ).
6 @ I I F= IAI D= C= =@ = CK = A@= = xy M (x, y ) ) C F= I D= C= =@ = CK = A@= = xy M (x, y ) ) C F= I D= C= =@ E CK = A@= = xy M (x, y )

- AH?E?E

P (5, 10) : V P (2, 3) P (5, 10) : V m N m N P (m, n) : F m N n N P (m, n) : V n N m N P (m, n) : F n N P (1, n) : V, m N P (m, 1) : F

 P (2, 3) : F P (5, 10) : V P (2, 3) P (5, 10) : F P (2, 3)

- AH?E?E

5E L= A A I @A  FJ=I ? AH A = ?=BAJAH = 5A= U A ? K J @A F IE> AI FHA?E I @A = ? E@= 5A= P (x) : x < 1000 5A= q : ? AH A = ?=BAJAH = KAIJH= BH=IA AI A A CK= A B H = P (x) q 5K AC=?E AI (P (x) q ) GKA AI CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA = (P (x) q ) 2 H = AO @A @A HC= AIJ AI AGKEL= A JA = P (x) q. - A CK= A =JKH= L= A A I @A  FJ=I O ? A = ?=BAJAH = 6 @ I I D=>EJ= JAI @A =@HE@ LE= = A AJH 5A= U A ? K J @A D=>EJ= JAI @A =@HE@ 5A= P (x) : x LE= = A AJH = BH=IA AI A A CK= A B H = x U ; P (x) 5K AC=?E AI x U P (x) GKA AI CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA = x U P (x) - A CK= A =JKH= ANEIJA = C D=>EJ= JA @A =@HE@ GKA LE= = A AJH E C D=>EJ= JA @A IJ AI ? CA A =KJ > 5A= U A ? K J @A D=>EJ= JAI @A IJ AI = BH=IA AI A A CK= A B H = (x U P (x)) - A CK= A =JKH= ANEIJA = C D=>EJ= JA @A IJ AI GKA ? CA 0=O FAHI I 5A= P (x) : x ? CA A =KJ > I 5K AC=?E AI x U P (x) A =KJ > I

=I A J @=I =I ?EK@=@AI GKA KI= A JH= IF HJA F > E?

&

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

%'

5A= U A ? K J @A FAHI =I O V A ? K J @A ?EK@=@AI 5A= P (x, y ) : = FAHI = x KI= A JH= IF HJA F > E? A = ?EK@=@ y - J ?AI A A CK= A B H = KAIJH= BH=IA AI y V x U P (x, y ) 5K AC=?E AI y V x U P (x, y ) GKA AI CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA = y V x U P (x, y ) AGKEL= A JA = IK LA = y V x U P (x, y ) - A CK= A =JKH= D=O ?EK@=@AI A =I GKA E CK @A IKI D=>EJ= JAI KI= A JH= IF HJA F > E?

- AH?E?E

! =
n

P (n) :
k=1

k2 =

n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 6

8AHE GKA

I = >=IA @A E @K??E

P (1) 2 H K = F=HJA
1

k2 = 1
k=1

O F H JH=

1(1 + 1)(2 1 + 1) =1 6 - ? IA?KA ?E= P (1) AI V 8AHE GKA I GKA >= = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E P (n) AI V  AI P (n) P (n + 1) J= >E V AI @A?EH GKA P (n + 1) AI V. 2=H= A ?= ?K = I
n+1 n

k2 =
k=1 k=1

k 2 + (n + 1)2 = F H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E

n(n + 1)(2n + 1) n(2n + 1) + (n + 1)2 = (n + 1) + (n + 1) = 6 6 = (n + 1) 2n2 + 7n + 6 ((n + 1) + 2)(2(n + 1) + 1) == (n + 1) 6 6

AI P (n + 1) LAH@=@AH 2 H E @K??E

GKA E F E?= GKA A ABA?J P (n) AI V >

n N

&

+)2 67

/1+)

P (n) : 2n > n + 1 F=H= n 2

KAIJH =HCK A J ? EA = A n = 2 2 H J= J = >=IA @A E @K??E = F @A I J =H ? P (2) P (2) AI V O= GKA 22 > 2 + 1 = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E AI GKA P (n) AI V 8AHE GKA I GKA >= AIJ= DEF JAIEI AI P (n +1) LAH@=@AH= 2n+1 = 2n 2 > F H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E 

> (n + 1) 2 = n + 2 + n > n + 2 = (n + 1) + 1
KAC n N P (n) AI V ?

P (n) : xn y n AI @ELEIE> A F H x y
= >=IA @A E @K??E DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E AI V AI V O= GKA x y AI @ELEIE> A F H x y  >LE  = AI GKA xn y n AI @ELEIE> A F H x y 8A= I IE P (n +1)

xn+1 y n+1 = x(xn y n ) + (x y )y n

GKA AI ? =H= A JA @ELEIE> A F H (x y ) IE n N P (n) AI V F=@HA FAH AI ?EAHJ GKA ANEIJ= = JA AH DE I A =>I KJ  AI (xn y n ) 2 H E @K??E

- AH?E?E

" 5A= P (x, y ) y AI A F=@HA @A x -I ? =H GKA J @ x JEA A K

A I K x GKA AI DE

@A y GKA FKA@A

- AH?E?E

= x 0, y 0 - J ?AI xy 0 O IA JEA A |xy | = xy = |x| |y | > x < 0, y 0 - J ?AI xy 0 O IA JEA A |xy | = xy = (x)y = |x| |y | ? x 0, y < 0 - J ?AI xy 0 O IA JEA A |xy | = xy = x(y ) = |x| |y | @ x < 0, y < 0 - J ?AI xy > 0 O IA JEA A |xy | = xy = (x)(y ) = |x | | y |

# 0=O ?K=JH ?=I I

- AH?E?E

$ 6 @ A JAH =O H GKA % AI A ?K=@H=@ @A K AH A JAH 2 H A A F A 21 AI A ?K=@H=@ @A K A JAH O= GKA 42 = 16 AI A H GKA 21 O 52 = 25 AI =O H

6 @ A JAH =O H GKA $ AI JEF @A @A ! ! AI FHE

&

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

&

100n + 1 > n2 *=IJ= J =H n IK ?EA JA A JA CH= @A 2 H A A F n = 1000 - AH?E?E % 5E 2 AI H=?E = A J ?AI ANEIJA p, q N FHE I A JHA I @A @ GKA 2 = p/q.
- AL= @ = ?K=@H=@ IA >JEA A 2q 2 = p2 ? GKA p2 AI F=H O F H J= J @A IJH=@ A I =FK JAI p AI F=H 5E p AI F=H A J ?AI ANEIJA r N @A @ GKA p = 2r ? GKA p2 = 4r2 ,A AIJA @ 2q 2 = p2 = 4r2 @A @ @A IA @A@K?A GKA q 2 AI F=H O F H J= J q AI F=H - J ?AI p O q I = > I F=HAI A ? JH=@E??E ? A DA?D @A GKA I DA I J =@ FHE I A JHA I 5E + x AI H=?E = A J ?AI ANEIJA y Q @A @ GKA + x = y ,AIFA = @ >JA A I = y x ? GKA AI = @EBAHA ?E= @A @ I AH I H=?E = AI F H J= J H=?E = + AI H=?E = JA A I = ? JH=@E??E

- AH?E?E
H=

= EA J AI

& = 5A= p :=I= C = = ?= A O q := A LEIJ

[(p q ) p] q.

- J

?AI A

- H=

= EA J AI L E@ 

@KI F

A I

> 5A= p := = ? E@= E ? KOA A FHE AH F =J O q := = ? E@= E ? KOA A IACK @ F =J - H= = EA J IAH = [p q ] p -IJ AI K = J=KJ C = O= GKA = E F E?=?E I FKA@A IAH B= I= IE p q AI V O p AI F 2AH AIJ AI E F IE> A F HGKA F=H= GKA p q IA= V AI A?AI=HE GKA p IA= V H= = EA J AI ? HHA?J ? 5A= p :=8A @= AI K = F= =>H= @A C AH BA A E 5A= q :=8A @= AI K = F= =>H= IE CK =H - H= = EA J IAH = p [p q ] -IJ AI K = J=KJ C = O= GKA IE p AI V O q AI F IA JEA A V F GKA AI F H= = EA J AI ? HHA?J @ 5A= v :=L= A A I @A  s :=JA C @E AH IK ?EA JA c := ? FH - H= = EA J AI ? HHA?J FKAIJ GKA = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= AI K = J=KJ C =

((v s) (s c) v ) c.

&

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+=F JK ) C HEJ
-

AIJA ?=F JK => H@=HA I A JA = @A @EIA O AL= K=?E @A = C HEJ I AI @A?EH @A FH ?A@E EA J I =KJ JE? I @A HAI K?E @A FH > A =I 5A @A EH A ? ?AFJ @A = C HEJ IA @AI?HE>EH A A CK= A A GKA L= I = AI?HE>EH I = C HEJ I FIAK@ ? @EC  O IA E JH @K?EH K = A@E@= @A = > @=@ @A K = C HEJ = ? F A E@=@ A A FA H @A I ?=I I AIJ AI K = AIJE =?E @A AH @A FAH=?E AI > IE?=I GKA HA= E = A = C HEJ A A ?=I I ? F E?=@ 5A FHAJA @A GKA = = @A ?=F JK A =K = = C HEJ O? K = C HEJ FA

+ ?= I ? ?AFJ I @A @A ? FKJ=?E E@=@ O IAF= @EI?AH EH IE K FH ?A@E EA J AI -I?HE>= = C HEJ + IJHKO= = C HEJ IK ? F A E@=@
I A FIAK@ ? @EC I IA ?E

I O IA= ?=F= @A = = E =H I AIJK@E= @


7

,A

E?E

AI O A A F I

@A I FK J I FHE ?EF= AI @A HA =?E A JHA =I =JA JE?=I O = E B H JE?= AI = HAI K?E =KJ JE?= @A FH > A =I AIJ AI = ? IJHK??E @A J @ I GKA FAH EJ= => H@=H ? = =OK@= @A H@A =@ H IEJK=?E AI =JA JE?= A JA ? F E?=@=I => HE I=I =I ?= ?K =@ H=I O I HA?EA JA A JA I FH CH= =I @A ? ?K IE > E? ,AHELA =F A =JDA =JE?= =JD =>  I A A F I @A = =OK@= A ?EA JA GKA FHAIJ= = GKE = A &!

&"

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) / 416

5 A JA KO

JA@E I=I ? F A =I ?KA J=I K JH I FH ?A@E EA J I @ @A D=>EJK= A JEA F O = FH >=>E E@=@ @A AHH H = HA= E =HIA F H K = FAHI = I CH= @AI

- ? EA JA F = JA= K FH > A = GKA IA FKA@A B H K =H A J H E I FHA?EI I O A E B H JE? D=?A HECKH I A F = JA= EA J @A FH > A = AIJK@E= IE FHAIA J= I K?E @EIA = K FH ?A@E EA J F=H= >KI?=H @E?D= I K?E @A KAIJH= GKA IK J @ HAIKA LA A FH > A = O AIJK@E= = A ?EA ?E= @A @E?D J @ 2H > A = HA= 2 = JA= EA J B H = 2HAIA J= I K?E ) C HEJ GKA @= = I K?E ,A IJH=?E -IJK@E @A = A ?EA ?E= - A JA = = JAHE H IA E JH @K A A CK= A @A = CE?= ? A A F @A GKA GKEAHA @A?EH IAH HECKH I O B H = E =H A A K ?E=@ @A K FH > A = - AIJA JA = = = E =HA I =I IECKEA JAI AJ=F=I @A FH ?AI ? IJHK??E @A = C HEJ I @A IJH=?E @A IK I LA ?E= O AIJK@E @A IK A ?EA ?E= E JH @K?EA @ A ? ?AFJ @A ? F A E@=@ O IK B H = E =?E =JA JE?= ,A = I A ? GKA ? B H = ?AFJ @A = C HEJ F EA @ A =?A J A IAA A J I

? K FH ?A@E EA J ? IJHK?JEL F=H= = HAI K?E @A K FH > A = GKA ? IJ= @A I IECKEA JAI A A A J I K I @=J I @A A JH=@= @A =JKH= A = FHA?EI= A JA @A E@= K = ?= JE@=@ EJ= @A E IJHK??E AI H@A =@=I GKA =F E?=@=I = I @=J I @A A JH=@= BHA?A JH=I K = ?= JE@=@ EJ= @A FAH=?E AI K = I K?E FHA?EI= @A FH > A = @A F=HJE@=
, I ? A J=HE I I >HA A J H E = C HEJ E FH LEA A @A >HA @A =JA JE? H=>A @A IEC 1: ) D M=HE E EE JEA A K IEC E ?=@ I = F E GKA A AH= A JA =F E?=@ = =I =JA JE?=I ? FH ?A@E EA J @A E@ F=I = F=I O A ?= E =@ = K ?EAHJ

,A

E?E

  5A @A A = C HEJ

,-.1 1+1

-5 ; - - 2

&#

4AI= J= I GKA E = =JKH= A = @A I @=J I @A A JH=@= @A>A IAH AN=?J= A JA @AI?HEJ= K = EIJ= @A AH I A JAH I K K AH H=?E =  EE =I FAH=?E AI GKA A = C HEJ HA= E = I IEA FHA K = ?= JE@=@ EJ= F=H= K I @=J I @A A JH=@= @A I GKA =@ EJA A = C HEJ AIJ AI A = C HEJ IEA FHA JAH E = =F HJ= @ K L= H @A I= E@= EEE IA @AI?HE>A K = @A IJH=?E = A I K = ALE@A ?E= @A GKA A = C HEJ HAIKA LA A FH > A = EL IA AIJK@E= A FH BK @E@=@ O A J H E I FHA?EI I = ? F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ AI @A?EH @A = CK = = AH= GKA FHA?EI=HA I A JEA F  A AIF=?E  GKA L= = A?AIEJ=H F=H= >JA AH = I K?E @A AIJA FH > A = L = HAIFKAIJ= AI FHA?EI= GKA IEC E ?= GKA IA >JEA A A HAIK J=@ AIFAH=@ -IJ GKEAHA @A?EH GKA = HAIFKAIJ= IA= A?AI=HE= A JA AN=?J= IE GKA ?K F A =I ? @E?E AI GKA IA = ANECA ) I=>AH IA FKA@A F H A A F @EIA =H K = C HEJ F=H= >JA AH A L= H K HE? =FH NE =@ @A K = ?EAHJ= E JACH=  K EJA K = FAH=?E  ? K AHH H @A H@A @A =I E IE =I 5E A = C HEJ AIJ >EA ? IJHKE@ A HAIK J=@ AI A?AI=HE= A JA A L= H AN=?J @A @E?D= E JACH=  EJA K FAH=?E  FAH LAHE ?= =I ? @E?E AI FA@E@=I AIJ AI =FH NE = = I K?E AN=?J= ? K AHH H A H GKA  E IE = ,A =I >IAHL=?E AI E O EE @A F HH=B @EIA = K = C HEJ IA @A>A I=>AH ? GK O ?K AI I =I FAH=?E AI > IE?=I GKA A A A J I ? IJEJKOA GKA IA IKA A @A = JAHE H IA @A@K?A GKA ?K= @ IA JEF @A @=J I IA FKA@A JH=>= =H IA FKA@A ? IE@AH=H AIJ I @ I E =H @A ? FKJ=?E =

7 @A ? FKJ=?E = D=>EJK= AI A ? ?E@ ? =??AII =?DE A @ @A I @=J I AIJ B H =@ I F H FAH=?E AI > IE?=I I =I IECKEA JAI

4) H= @ AH I A JAH I O =I

E )IEC =?E = K @=J @A K = @EHA??E @A A HE= EE =I FAH=?E AI @A IK = HAIJ= K JEF E?=?E O @ELEIE ? ?K @A ? ?EA JA O HAIJ  @A AH I A JAH I EEE = ? F=H=?E @A @ I AH I A JAH I a, b FK@EA @ @A?EH IE a < b a=b a>b -IJA AI A @A ? FKJ=?E = ? GKA I JH I L= I = JH=>= =H >IAHL=H GKA K @A ? FKJ=?E = AI K A JA =>IJH=?J = =H GKEJA?JKH= @A I H@A =@ HAI F H K =@ O F H JH = JA? C = @A =

&$

+)2 67

) / 416

FH CH= =?E D=?A @A K @A ? FKJ=?E = K = =@ EJA AI I @=J I =@A?K=@= A JA HAFHAIA J=@ I ? HA= E = ? A I AI=I FAH=?E AI > IE?=I O J @=I =GKA =I HA= E =H ? ? >E =?E @A =I FAH=?E AI > IE?=I - AIJA IA JE@ F @A I F AH JH I A A F I @A = AI

GKE = ? ?HAJ= GKA @=J I @A A JH=@= O JH=I GKA IA FKA@A @A I ? FKJ=?E

- A F I  E = /A AJH = ? HAC = O ? F I , @A I @=J I I FK J I HA?J=I O ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I O =I FAH=?E AI > IE?=I I = =F O=H = HAC = A K FK J > =F O=H K = F=J= @A ? F I A K FK J ? =F O=H K = F=J= @A ? F I A K = HA?J= @ FH @K?EH K = HA?J= ? = HAC = A FH @K?EH K = ?EH?K BAHA ?E= ? A ? F I B  E JAHIA?=H HA?J=I ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I O HA?J=I ? ?EH?K BAHA ?E=I
EE @A ? ?E@ ? 4A= 4) @ @A I @=J I @A A JH=@= I AH I HA= AI A KC=H @A A JAH I O =I FAH=?E AI > IE?=I I =I EI =I GKA A A 4)
; D=O K = FHE AH= E JAHAI= JA ?KAIJE @A I=>AH GK JEF @A FH > A =I IA FKA@A HAI LAH @A JH @A K @A ? FKJ=?E = -I ? ?E@ =K GKA J=H@ L=HE I IEC I A @AI?K>HEHIA GKA I FH > A =I @A = JHEIA??E @A K CK @ELE@EH K CK A JHAI IA?J HAI ECK= AI = @KF E?=?E @A ?K> @=@ K ?K> ? IJHKEH JH GKA JA C= AN=?J= A JA A @ > A @A L K A GKA A FHE AH  O = ?K=@H=JKH= @A ? H?K @=@ K ? H?K ? IJHKEH K ?K=@H=@ ? AN=?J= A JA A EI HA= IA FKA@A HAI LAH ? HAC = O ? F I AIJ AI D=O K = C HEJ ?KO=I E IJHK??E AI AIJ B H =@=I F H ? >E =?E AI @A =I FAH=?E AI > IE?=I @A @A ? FKJ=?E = @A E =@ /A AJH = ? HAC = O ? F I GKA FAH EJ= HA= E =H AI=I ? IJHK??E AI E F HJ= JA AI = @A ? ?AH I FH > A =I GKA @A ? FKJ=?E = -I @A?EH =GKA I FH > A =I F=H= I GKA = IK?AIE @A FAH=?E AI GKA ABA?J = A = C HEJ GKA I HAIKA LA FHA?EI= @A K JEA F H= => A  @A E AI @A = I F H A A F  F=H= =F HJ=H = I K?E @A FH > A = 0=HA I JH=I ? IE@AH=?E AI =?AH?= @A AIJ= IACK @= FHACK J= I =@A = JA ?K= @ D=> A I @A = ? F A E@=@ 7 = IACK @= ?KAIJE

HA=

A JA IA FKA@A HAI LAH A K

,-.1 1+1

-5 ; - - 2

&%

-A F

E CHAI I O K = EIJ= @A C=IJ I

 ! 2H > A = GKA F = JA= A ? EA JA ? J=>E E@=@ K = EIJ= @A

>JA ?E @A >= = ?A
EIJ=I @A AH I I O = I C=IJ I EIJ= FH F H?E = EIJ= IA >JEA A I

-J=F=  2 = JA= EA J A J H E I B H = AI IA JEA A @ I A JAH I @A J= = I n O m ? HHAIF @EA JAI = I E CHAI HAIFA?JEL= A JA = IK = @A I A A A J I @A = FHE AH= I E CHAI I + A EI FH ?A@E EA J F=H= = IACK @= I C=IJ I - >= = ?A AI = @EBAHA ?E= A JHA E CHAI I O C=IJ

-J=F= 2H ?A@E EA J F=H= HAI LAH A FH > A = -I ALE@A JA GKA A FH > A = JEA A I K?E O GKA IA F @H = HAI LAH = K= A JA 5A JH=J= @A AI?HE>EH AIA FH ?A@E EA J = K= F=H= GKA IA FKA@= D=?AH =KJ JE?= A JA ,=J I @A A JH=@= a1 , a2 , ..., an O b1 , b2 , ..., bm @ I EIJ=I @A AH I A JAH I 2H ?A@E EA J CA AH=H K FH ?A@E EA J GKA L=O= HA? HHEA @ I L= HAI @A = EIJ= @A E CHAI I @AI@A A FHE AH D=IJ= A A IE O @A I C=IJ I @AI@A A FHE AH D=IJ= A A IE O @ I L=HE=> AI K = @ @A IA L= = =@EA @ I L= HAI @A I E CHAI I O JH= F=H= I C=IJ I .E = A JA D=?AH = @EBAHA ?E= F=H= >JA AH A >= = ?A 7 = LA @A ? ?HAJ J AIJ B H =@ GKA I=>A I ? HAI LAH A FH > A = GKAHA I AI?HE>EH A = C HEJ = AH= GKA IA= ? =H A IK AI?HEJKH= O B ?E @A JH=@K?EH = K A CK= A @A FH CH= =?E - A CK= A @A I = C HEJ I A KAIJH ? JAN AI A A @A 4) IA IKA A ? ?AH ? FIAK@ ? @EC O AIJ F H I IECKEA JAI A A A J I

I @=J I @A A JH=@= I L=HE=> AI GKA IA FKA@= IKIJEJKEH F H ? IJ= JAI F=H= GKA A = C HEJ =?J A I >HA A =I H = A JA HAFHAIA J=HA I =I L=HE=> AI F H AJH=I 2=H= =IEC =H = K = L=HE=> A x K L= H a AI?HE>EHA I

x := a.
2=H= IK =H HAIJ=H D=>EJK= AI

K JEF E?=H

AH I A JAH I KJE E =HA

I IEC

a + b, a b, a b.
2=H= A ? ?EA JA O A HAIJ @A = @ELEIE

A JAH=

a/b, a mod b.

&&

+)2 67

) / 416

, @A F H A A F 5/2 AI O 5 mod 2 AI  )JA ?E = = @EBAHA ?E= ? = J=?E =JA JE?= D=>EJK= - A ? JANJ @A KAIJH FIAK@ ? @EC 5/2 AI K = BH=??E IE K AH A JAH KIJ= A JA = F=HJA A JAH= @A @E?D AH =I ? F=H=?E AI IA HAFHAIA J= ? I IEC I  A H ECK=   =O H ECK=  < AIJHE?J= A JA A H > AIJHE?J= A JA =O H = ECK=  O = @EIJE J  -IJ ? 6= >E HAIFA?J = =I FAH=?E E JH @K?E AI > IE?=I AI I ?EAHJ=I E IJHK??E

2 @A

I AI?HE>EH BH=IAI ?

@E?E

= AI @A JEF

1B ? @E?E
5E ?KHHA ABA?J = =  = GKA A D=?A =@= IAF=H=HA

JDA

FAH=?E

 A IA FAH=?E

= ? @E?E A J ?AI IA ABA?J = = FAH=?E  O IE ?KHHA IA FAH=?E 5E IA AI?HE>A = IACK @= F=HJA @A = ? @E?E = FEA = ? A IA IA E JAHFHAJ= GKA IE = ? @E?E ?KHHA IA +=>A IA = =H GKA J= >E F @A I JA AH L=HE=I ? @E?E AI GKA I ? ? =I

-A F

" 2 HAA F
- JH=@= a, b 1B a > b JDA c := a A IA c := b 5= E@= c A I CH= @A A JHA

I@ I

AH I

4AFAJE?E

@A FAH=?E

AI @A

E =@=@=I >K? AI

 . H i = a J b FAH=?E , @A = FAH=?E IA HAFEJA @AI@A A L= H a @A ? J=@ H i D=IJ= GKA IJA J = A L= H b E ?HA J= @ IA A L= H @A ? J=@ H A K = K E@=@ ?=@= LA GKA IA HA= E = = FAH=?E

-A F

# 2 HAA F

,-.1 1+1

-5 ; - - 2

&'

- JH=@= a, b  K AH I A JAH I F IEJEL I c := 0 . Hi=1J b c := c + a 5= E@= c A FH @K?J ab >IAHL=H GKA =I FAH=?E AI GKA IA HA= E = @A JH @A >K? A IA AI?HE>A K F ? I A A E JAHE H @A F HH=B F=H= @EIJE CKEH =I

9DE A ? @E?E
EA JH=I = ? @E?E

FAH=?E IA ?K F A IA HAFEJA = FAH=?E

-A F

 $ 2 H A A F A >K? A = JAHE H IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH ?

i := 1 9DE A i b c := c + a i := i + 1

; @A KAL IA = =H = F IE>E E@=@ @A GKA IA JA C= L=HE=I ? H=@=I F H ? =I -IJ=I H =I @A AI?HEJKH= I FAH EJA AI?HE>EH A = C HEJ J=>E E@=@ @A K = = AH= ? =H= O B ?E A JA JH= I?HE>E> A = K FH CH= =?E ? = IE J=NEI =@A?K=@= @A A CK= A AI? CE@ ,=J I @A A JH=@= a1 , ..., an ; b1 , ..., bm I := a1 i := 1 MDE A i n 1 i := i + 1 I := I + ai Ingresos := I G := b1 j := 1 MDE A j m 1 j := j + 1 G := G + bj Gastos := G 5= E@= Balance := Ingresos Gastos

@E?E

AI IAF=

@A = ? A CK= A @A

'

+)2 67

) / 416

-J=F= ! -IJK@E @A = I LA ?E= @A = C HEJ ? FH >A I GKA A = C HEJ JAH E = - ABA?J = E JH @K?EH I @=J I @A A JH=@= IA AIJ=> A?A I L= HAI @A n O m GKA I @ I AH I A JAH I F IEJEL I )I IA A JH= A A FHE AH >K? A GKA IA HAFEJA AN=?J= A JA n 1 LA?AI @AI@A i = 1 D=IJ= n 1 ?K= @ i J = A L= H n AIA FH ?AI JAH E = EI F=I= A A IACK @ >K? A ?= >E= @ A F=FA @A n F H A @A m .E = A JA D=O K = =IEC =?E @A L= H ? HHAIF @EA JA = >= = ?A ? GKA A FH ?AI =E = - = C HEJ @= = I K?E = FH > A = F HGKA ? FE= AN=?J= A JA A FH ?AI = K= GKA HA= E =H = K ? J=> A -J=F= " -IJK@E @A = A ?EA ?E= @A = C HEJ 2=H= HA= E =H @E?D AIJK@E A?AIEJ= I = CK =I @A E?E AI FHA?EI=I GKA IA AIJ=> A?AH I =@A = JA F=H= I=>AH A GK J H E I IA L= = A@EH AI= A ?EA ?E= 2 IF A I AIJA AIJK@E F=H= @AIFK I @A = @A E?E @A ? ?AFJ @A ? F A E@=@

- AH?E?E
-I K =

= JAHE H = @ I EIJ=I ? ?HAJ=I @A AH I = AH= =@A?K=@= @A >IAHL=H A BK ?E = EA J @A K = C HEJ 

' )F E?=H A =C HEJ

-A F

 % - ? JH=H A L= H

NE

A K = EIJ= @A

AH I A JAH I

,=J I @A A JH=@= K = EIJ= @A A JAH I a1 , a2 , ..., an 2H ?A@E EA J @A EH K = L=HE=> A a GKA J = E E?E= A JA A L= H @A a1 O GKA L= ? F=H @ IA ? I @EIJE J I L= HAI a2 a3 D=IJ= an ?= >E= @ IK L= H F H A @A = ? HHAIF @EA JA ai  IE A = ? F=H=?E AI AIJHE?J= A JA A H ,=J I @A A JH=@= a1 , ..., an a := a1 i := 1 MDE A i n 1 i := i + 1 1B a < ai JDA a := ai 5= E@= a AGKEL= A JA A JA KI= @ A >K? A B H ,=J I @A A JH=@= a1 , ..., an a := a1 i := 1

,-.1 1+1

-5 ; - - 2

'

B Hi=1J n 1B a < ai JDA a := ai 5= E@= a

- AH?E?E ! )F E?=H A = C HEJ

IJH=H GKA A = C HEJ

JAH E =

= K = EIJ= ?

?HAJ= @A

AH I A JAH I

-A F

AI K = C HEJ F HGKA JAH E = -IJ GKEAHA @A?EH GKA HA= E = K = ?= JE@=@ EJ= @A FAH=?E AI 5E ? IE@AH= I E F A A J=@ F H K = GKE = @E?D= GKE = ? EA = = A A?KJ=H FAH=?E AI FAH JAH E = K ?=

 & - IECKEA JA FH ?A@E EA J

k := 0 B H a = 1 J 10 b := a MDE A b 10 k := k + 1 5= E@=:= k
>IAHL= I GKA A L= H E E?E= @A = a AI  F H J= J b J = E E?E= A JA A L= H  GKA AI A H ECK= GKA  5A HA= E = A J ?AI A >K? A E JAHE H @ @A k ?= >E= @A L= H FAH b ?= >E= @A L= H )I = ? @E?E b 10 IA LAHE ?= IEA FHA O A FH ?A@E EA J K ?= I= A @A AIA >K? A

- AH?E?E ! 5A= A IECKEA JA = C HEJ

- JH=@= n N ?  . HE J . H J E ? ? 5= E@= ? -NF E?=H GK D=?A A = C HEJ O @=H K = B H K = F=H= = I= E@=

'

+)2 67

) / 416

) C HEJ

I @A > IGKA@= O @A H@A =?E

, I FH > A =I J FE? I GKA IEHLA F=H= E KIJH=H @EIJE J=I = AH=I @A @EIA =H = C HEJ I I I FH > A =I @A > IGKA@= @AJAH E =H IE K @=J AIJ A K = EIJ= @A @=J I O @A H@A =?E @=@= K EIJ= H@A =H = @A = CK = = A H= FHAAIJ=> A?E@= 5 FH > A =I E F HJ= JAI @=@ GKA A = A =@A?K=@ @A = E B H =?E AI BK @= A J= F=H= = JA? C = =?JK= -IJK@E I @A AH ?=@ A CA = DK = @AJAH E =?E @A F=JH AI @A ? F HJ= EA J I = CK =I @A =I IEJK=?E AI A =I ?K= AI K =@A?K=@ JH=J= EA J @A I @=J I AI ?HK?E= F=H= F @AH ANJH=AH J @=I =I ? IA?KA ?E=I @A I EI I

 ) C HEJ

I @A > IGKA@=
AH I A JAH I @AJAH E =H IE K AH GKA

5A JH=J= @A HAI LAH = IECKEA JA ?KAIJE

2H > A = @=@= K = EIJ= @A

IA @= AIJ A = EIJ=

,=J I @A A JH=@= a1 , a2 , ...an a 7 = EIJ= @A a J @ I I @A = EIJ= 5E A ?KA JH= K ? JH=HE = I= E@= AI - JH=@= a1 , ..., an a i := 1 MDE A i n a = ai i := i + 1 EB i n JDA r :=5 A IA r := 5= E@= r

AH I A JAH I O K A JAH

) C HEJ

 * IGKA@= 5A?KA ?E=

8= ? F=H= @ A A A A J a ? ECK= GKA a = I= E@= AI I A ?=I

) C HEJ

* IGKA@= >E =HE= - AIJA ?=I = EIJ= @A AH I A JAH I @A = A JH=@= @A>A AIJ=H H@A =@= @A A H = =O H - AIJA FH ?A@E EA J IA ? F=H= A A A A J a ? A GKA ?KF= A KC=H ?A JH= A = EIJ= 5E AI ECK= A FH ?AI JAH E = IE AI =O H A FH ?AI IA HAFEJA ? = IACK @= EJ=@ @A = EIJ= IE AI A H ? = FHE AH= EJ=@ @A = EIJ= - A IECKEA JA = C HEJ i O j HAFHAIA J= A ?=@= A J I IK> @E?AI @A I A A A J I E E?E= O = @A = EIJ= GKA IA JH=J= m AI A IK> @E?A GKA ?KF= A KC=H ?A JH=

) / 416

5 ,- * 537-,) ; ,-

4,- )+1

'!

- JH=@= a1 , ..., an a ? a1 a2 ... an  i := 1 j := n MDE A i < j a = a(i+j )/2 m := (i + j )/2 EB am < a JDA i := m + 1 A IA j := m 1 EB ai = a JDA r :=5 A IA r := 5= E@= r = > IGKA@= @A = C HEJ I ? @ELE@EH A FH > A FH > A =I @A J= J ? E?= @A @ELEIE F=H=H @ I AH >E =HE= AI K A A F @A K = B H = @A => H@=H A @EIA ?E@ ? @ELE@A O LA ?AH I -IJA F=H=@EC = FH F A = A FH > A =I @A J= = I FAGKA A A A A F = = EJ=@ @A @A F=HJE@= O =F E?=H IK?AIEL= A JA AIJ= D=IJ= AC=H = FH > A =I JHELE= AI A KAIJH ?=I ? I GKA AI K = @A KAIJH=I FAH=?E AI > IE?=I

LAHA I IAH ? F AJ= A JA FHA?EI = ? J=H A = C HEJ FKAI L= I = ?A JH=H I A = A JA @AH GKA E =I =IEC =?E AI @A @A K = EIJ= CK=H@=@= A?AIEJ= ? IK

>IAHL=?E

 +

I =@A = JA HAIK J= E FHAI?E @E> A AH @A FAH=?E AI GKA HA= E = K A AIJK@E @A IK ? F A E@=@ 8= I = A JH=@= E A ? FKJ @A J= = EH ECK = FAH=?E = EIJ= @A I

- AH?E?E ! )F E?= I @ I = C HEJ

I F=H= >KI?=H A A A A J ' A 1 3 5 7 9 O ? F=H= =I FAH=?E AI GKA IA HA= E = A ?=@= K ?=I I JA EA @ A ?KA J= = >IAHL=?E = JAHE H

) C HEJ

I @A H@A =?E
AH I A JAH I @EIJE J I a1 , ..., an H@A =H = - JH=@=  $ " 5= E@=  " $ AH I A JAH I @EIJE J I

5A JH=J= @A HAI LAH = IECKEA JA ?KAIJE

2H > A = @=@= K = EIJ= @A

@A A H= ,=J I @A A JH=@= a1 , a2

=O H 2 H A A F

an 7 = EIJ= @A

) C HEJ

= E@A= A AIJA = C HEJ AI ? F= H=H @ I A A A J I IK?AIEL I @A = EIJ= O A ?=I @A GKA AIJ H@A =@ I =@A?K=@= A JA E JAH?= >E=H IKI L= HAI + A = I ? F=H= @ A FHE AH A A A J @A = EIJ= ? A IACK @ A E JAH?= >E= @ I L= HAI IE AI

H@A =?E

>KH>K =

'"

+)2 67

) / 416

A?AI=HE KAC A IACK @ ? A JAH?AH O =I D=IJ= =?=>=H = EIJ= +K= @ =?=>= I = EIJ= A L= H I CH= @A IA D= ? ?=@ A A JE KC=H GKA AI A GKA @A>A ?KF=H A = I= E@= F H GKA @A>A I HAFAJEH A FH ?AI ? = KAL= EIJ= HAIK J=@ @A I E JAH?= >E I FHAI?E @EA @ @A JE L= H 8A= I K A A F 6 = I = EIJ= a1 = 2 a2 = 1 a3 = 6 a4 = 4 + A FHE AH L= H a1 = 2 AI =O H GKA A IACK @ a2 = 1 A J E JAH?= >E= I L= HAI a1 = 1 a2 = 2 + A IACK @ L= H AI =D H= a2 = 2 A H GKA A JAH?AH D=?A =@= a2 = 2 a3 = 6 + A JAH?AH L= H a3 = 6 AI K E JAH?= >E @A L= HAI =O H GKA A ?K=HJ A J

?AI IA

A = C HEJ

?AI IA FH @K?A

a3 = 4
5A =?=>= = EIJ= O = KAL= EIJ= AI

a4 = 6

a1 = 1, a 2 = 2, a 3 = 4, a 4 = 6.
- AIJA ?=I = EIJ= O= AIJ D=>H = GKA HAFAJEH A FH ?AI ? 8EIJ A A A F AI?HE>= H@A =@= FAH F @H = = EIJ= a1 , a2 , a3 IAH =I ? GKA

I A = C HEJ

- JH=@= a1 , ..., an . H j =1 J n1 . H i=1 J nj EB ai > ai+1 JDA E JAH?= >E=H IKI L= HAI LAH >IAHL=?E IECKEA JA 5= E@= a1 , ..., an

HE=> AI ai O ai+1

>IAHL=?E

>IAHL= I GKA F=H= E JAH?= >E=H A L= H @A =I L= A?AIEJ= I D=?AH JHAI FAH=?E AI

) / 416

5 ,- * 537-,) ; ,-

4,- )+1

'#

c := ai ai := ai+1 ai+1 := c
2 HGKA IE IA ?E = A JA DE?E IA I

ai := ai+1 ai+1 := ai
- = FHE AH= A= = L=HE=> A ai J = A L= H @A ai+1 O A = IACK @= = =IEC =H = ai+i A L= H @A ai ? IJ= O= JEA A A L= H @A ai+1 A HA= E@=@ DA I DA?D =@= 2 H AIJ IA A?AIEJ= = L=HE=> A =KNE E=H c

- AH?E?E !! )F E?=H A = C HEJ

' # "

>KH>K = @A H@A =?E

= = EIJ=  !

= E@A= @A AIJA = C HEJ @A H@A =?E AI GKA A A F=I j IE EH= = EIJ= aj aj +1 an ?= ?K = A E O IE AI aj ? @A>EAH= IAH IE = EIJ= AIJKLEAH= H@A =@= E JAH?= >E= ? aj

) C HEJ

) C HEJ

@A IA A??E

- AH?E?E !" ,EIA =H K = C HEJ

a1 , a2 , ..., an A E @EGKA ?K
@A A

GKA J I AI A

A K = EIJ= @A E

AH I A JAH I

-I?HE>= I A = C HEJ KI= @ A A AH?E?E = JAHE H -IJ AI @A JH @A KAIJH = C HEJ L= I = = =H = JH = C HEJ @EC= I E GKA ?= ?K = A E @A K = EIJ= - JH=@= a1 , ..., an . H j =1 J n1 EB min(aj , aj +1 , ..., an ) = aj JDA E JAH?= >E=H IKI L= HAI 5= E@= a1 , ..., an 8A= I K A A 6 = I = + A L= HAI >JA E F EIJ= a1 = 2 a2 = 1 a3 = 6 a4 = 4 E @A = EIJ= AI a2 O a2 = a1 A J @ IA F H J= J

?AI E JAH?= >E= IKI

a1 = 1

a2 = 2.

'$

+)2 67

) / 416

- = EIJ= a2 = 2 a3 = 6 a4 = 4 A E AI a2 F H GKA IA HA= E = E CK = FAH=?E .E = A JA A = EIJ= a3 = 6 a4 = 4 A E AI a4 O F H J= J IA E JAH?= >E= I L= HAI @A I @ I A A A J I H@A @ IA @A AIJA @ J @= = EIJ=

- AH?E?E !# )F E?=H A = C HEJ

' # "

@A IA A??E

F=H= H@A =H = EIJ=  !

-IJA AI K A A F @A F=H=@EC = @A ? IJHK??E @A = C HEJ I @A E =@ = C HEJ L H= F HGKA L= ? IJHKOA @ K = IK> EIJ= H@A =@= ?=@= LA I CH= @A GKA = ? ? KEH ? JEA A = J @ I I A A A J I @A = EIJ= E E?E=

! +

F A E@=@

+ DA I IA = =@ A =I IA??E AI = JAHE HAI @A>A I D=?AH K AIJK@E @A = A ?EA ?E= @A K = C HEJ -IJ HAIK J= AIFA?E= A JA E JAHAI= JA ?K= @ ? ?A I @EIJE J I = C HEJ I F=H= => H@=H K EI FH > A = ? A = > IGKA@= O = H@A =?E  O @A>A I @A?E@EH ?K @A A I KI=H IAC K I ?HEJAHE I H= => AI O @ABA @E> AI -LE@A JA A JA D=O @ I F=H AJH I GKA IAH = E JAHAI= JA E E E =H A JEA F O A AIF=?E + A JEA F I HABAHE I = = ?= JE@=@ @A FAH=?E AI > IE?=I GKA = GKE = @A>A HA= E =H A K = C HEJ O ? A AIF=?E = = ?= JE@=@ @A A HE= GKA A = C HEJ KJE E = A IK BK ?E = EA J I ?A JH=HA I A A ? JH @A AH @A FAH=?E ABA?J = AIJ AI A A ? JH @A JEA F AI GKA A = C HEJ

,A

n ,A

E?E

= C HEJ

FAH=?E AI GKA HA= E = A = C HEJ =I F IE> AI A JH=@=I @A J= = n

A A FA H @A

I = BK ?E

!  5A= K = C HEJ
T (n)

AH @A FAH=?E AI GKA HA= E = A I ?=I I ? A L= H NE @A AH @A

A JHA J @=I =I =F E?=?E AI @A EI =

?KO I @=J I @A A JH=@= JEA A J= =

- J= = @A = A JH=@= A A @A ? FKJ=?E = 4)  GKA DA I A ACE@ AIJ=H HA =?E =@= ? = ?= JE@=@ @A AH I A JAH I GKA E L K?H=

2 - 1,),

'%

@E?D= A JH=@= =I FAH=?E AI = GKA IA HA AHA = @A E?E @A = BK ?E @A E =@= T (n) I =I FAH=?E AI > IE?=I @A KAIJH @A

= BK ?E
4AFH @K?E EIJ=

T (n) F=H= A A A F
I A = C HEJ

@A ? ?K

@A

NE
NE @A K =

GKA JA =

I F=H= ?= ?K =H A

,=J I @A A JH=@= a1 , ..., an a := a1 i := 1 MDE A i n 1 i := i + 1 1B a < ai JDA a := ai 5= E@= a ,A E I A J= = @A = A JH=@= ? = CEJK@ @A = EIJ= -I @A?EH A L= H @A n ) = E?A I A AH @A FAH=?E AI F=H= K = EIJ= @A CEJK@ n - A FH FE = EIEI EHA I LEA @ ?K AI A FA H @A I ?=I I - = C HEJ ? EA = ? @ I =IEC =?E AI a A i O @AJAH E = @ A L= H @A n 1 F H A@E @A K = @EBAHA ?E= HA? H@= I GKA A = >IAHL=?E  @A? = I GKA A ? FKJ @A n FHA?EI= @A E CK = FAH=?E F=H= IAH ABA?JK=@  ,AIFK I A JH= A K >K? A GKA IA HAFEJA n 1 LA?AI O A ?=@= HAFAJE?E IA D=?A K = ? F=H=?E GKA @AJAH E = IE A JH=H A A >K? A i ? n 1 K = =IEC =?E = = i O K = IK = i + 1 K = ? F=H=?E @A a ? ai O = A JA K = =IEC =?E GKA = LA?AI IA D=?A O = LA?AI - A FA H @A I ?=I I IA D=H 2 H J= J A A >K? A IA D=?A 5(n 1) FAH=?E AI ,AIFK I D=O K = ? F=H=?E i L= EA @ n ? n 1 GKA I I=?= @A >K? A O = =IEC =?E = = I= E@= 4AIK J=@ J J= A A FA H ?=I

T (n) = 3 + 5(n 1) + 2 = 5n.

- AH?E?E !$ ,AI?HE>EH ?

AI = EIJ= GKA @= A FA H ?=I A AIJA = C HEJ

'&

+)2 67

) / 416

5A F @H = @A EH JH JEF @A BK ?E ?= JE@=@ @A FAH=?E AI @A K = C HEJ F H A A F BK A@E M (n) GKA I @= A AH @A FAH=?E AI FH HEJ HA= E = ?K= @ HA?E>A K = A JH=@= @A J= = n 5A B H = ANFAHE A J= 
5 >HA = BK ?E

>IAHL=?E

AI F=H= A@EH = ?E AI @A JEA F A@E GKA A = C IKA A >JA AH @A

T (n) ?

LEA A D=?AH @ I FHA?EIE

AI

E IKA A IAH @EB ?E ?= ?K =H = AN=?J= A JA EE IE ?=@= FAH=?E A?AIEJ= K = BH=??E KO FAGKA = @A JEA F F=H= HA= E =HIA AI FHA?EI= K = AN=?JEJK@ J J= A A ? ?K @A T (n) F H A A F K AHH H @A K = FAH=?E A A ? ?K @A T (n) AI J J= A JA EHHA AL= JA -IJ=I @ I FHA?EIE AI I E LEJ= = = @A E?E @A = ? F A E@=@ @A ? K ? ?AFJ GKA HA? = = =JKH= A = =IE J JE?= @A = BK ?E T (n) O IK L= H AN=?J ,E?D= =JKH= A = GKA IA = = I @A>A @=H E B H =?E @A ? ?HA?A = BK ?E ?K= @ =K A J= A J= = n @A = A JH=@= AIFA?E= A JA F=H= L= HAI KO CH= @AI @A J= = n @A = A JH=@= 2=H= @=H AIJ= @A E?E FHA?EI= I ?EAHJ I ? ?AFJ I @A = EIEI =JA JE?

= C HEJ

! ! 5A= T, S : N R+ @ I IK?AIE AI HA= AI ? L= HAI F IEJEL I 5A @E?A GKA T (n) @ E = = S (n) IE ANEIJA @ I AH I HA= AI n0
O k > 0 @A @ GKA F=H= ?=@= n n0 IA LAHE GKA

,A

E?E

S (n) kT (n).
5A= O(T (n)) A ? K J @A =I IK?AIE AI @ E =@=I F H T (n) A J ?AI IE T (n) @ E = = S (n) AI?HE>EHA I S (n) O(T (n)) 5E S (n) O(T (n)) O T (n) O(S (n)) @EHA I GKA S (n) O T (n) I @A

EI

H@A

,A

@A IK BK ?E

E?E

! " 5A = = ? F A E@=@ @A K = C HEJ = H@A T (n) AH @A FAH=?E AI A A FA H @A I ?=I I

O(T (n))

= ? F A E@=@ @A K = C HEJ AI A J ?AI K = A@E@= @A AH @A FAH=?E AI GKA IJA HA= E = A A FA H @A I ?=I I F=H= J= = I KO CH= @AI @A = A JH=@= n O AIJ=> A?A K = AH=HGK = GKA FAH EJA @AJAH E =H IE K = C HEJ AI A H GKA JH 5E A = C HEJ A1 JEA A ? BK ?E AH @A FAH=?E AI A A FA H @A I ?=I I T1 O HAIFA?JEL= A JA A = C HEJ BK ?E T2 O T2 @ E = = T1 A J ?AI IAC AIJ= B H = @A A2 JEA A ?

2 - 1,),

''

? F=H=H A = C HEJ A1 AI A H  = A I ECK=  GKA A = C HEJ A2 - = EIEI =JA JE? AIJK@E=@ A = =IEC =JKH= @A *=IAI @A =JA JE?=I AI A E IJHK A J GKA FAH EJA AIJ=> A?AH AIJ= AH=HGK = IJ= AI = E?= B H = @A A@EH = A ?EA ?E= @A I = C HEJ I K?D=I ?=IE AI I = C HEJ I IA L= = KI=H F=H= A JH=@=I KO CH= @AI E F IE> A A JA L= = E JAHAI=H GKA ?KHHA A A FA H @A I ?=I I

-A F

I @A EI H@A O= GKA F=H= ?=@= n =JKH= IA JEA A GKA T (n) S (n) O GKA S (n) (1/2)T (n)

! # 5A= T (n) = n2 O S (n) = 2n2 IA LAHE ?= GKA T (n) O S (n)

- AH?E?E !% +
@E?E

FH >=H GKA J @ I I F E E I @A CH=@ s LAHE ?= @ AI @A = @A E?E @A @ E = ?E= @EC= I

=I

a0 + a1 x + ... + as xs
I @A EI H@A

as = 0

- AH?E?E !& 5A= a O b

GKA loga (n) O logb (n) I = @A E ? KIE AI

AH I HA= AI F IEJEL I @A EI H@A C=HEJ AFAHE= ,A

=O HAI GKA  ,A

IJH=H

- AH?E?E !' 5A= l(n) A

IJH=H = IECKEA JA ?=@A

O(1) O(l(n)) O(n) O(nl(n)) O(n2 ) O(en )

- AH?E?E " 5A= T O S GKA IE T @ E = = S A J ,A IJH=H KI= @ A ? BK ?E AH @A L= A JA K = C HEJ A2 ? F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ O(T + S ) = O(T )
= JAH E C=

IK?AIE AI HA= AI ? L= HAI F IEJEL I ,A IJH=H ?AI T @ E = = T + S =F=HJ=@ = JAHE H GKA IE K = C HEJ A1 JEA A FAH=?E AI A A FA H @A I ?=I I T O HAIFA?JE JEA A = BK ?E S O T @ E = = S A J ?AI = HAIK J=@ @A HA= E =H IK?AIEL= A JA A1 O A2 AI

I KI=@= AI = IECKEA JA EI EI H@A GKA = BK ?E

F A E@=@ E A=

IE T (n) AI @A

S (n) = n IA D=> = @A
I?

?K=@H JE?=

IE T (n) AI @A

H@A GKA S (n) = n2 @A?E

F A E@=@



+)2 67

) / 416

=I IK?AIEL= A JA ? F A E@=@ ? >E?= ?K HJE?= O A CA AH= ? F A E@=@ F E E= IE A H@A @A T (n) AI A @A K F E E IE T (n) AI @A EI H@A GKA l(n) IA D=> = @A ? F A E@=@

C=H J E?= A ?E=

IE T (n) AI @A

EI

H@A GKA en IA D=> = @A ?

F A E@=@ ANF

8 LA I = ? A J=H =GK = ?KAIJE @A I FH > A =I GKA I HA= A JA HAI K> AI A K @A ? FKJ=?E = -IJ= I A J ?AI FHA ?KF=@ I F H FH > A =I GKA FHA?EI= @A K JEA F H= => A F=H= IAH HAIKA J I 2 H A A F IKF C= I GKA K = C HEJ A1 JEA A ? F A E@=@ O(T1 ) = O(n) K = C HEJ A2 JEA A ? F A E@=@ O(T2 ) = O(n2 ) O K = C HEJ A3 JEA A 6 ? F A E@=@ O(T3 ) = O(n ) 5KF C= I GKA = FAH=?E > IE?= IA HA= E = A K = @ ?E = @A IACK @ 5E J = I K = A JH=@= @A J= = 103 A J ?AI HAIFA?JEL= A JA

T1 (103 ) = 103 ,

T2 (103 ) = 106

T3 (103 ) = 1018 .
E KJ I A IACK @ A F A= E AI @A = I A =F HJ=H

EA JH=I A FHE AH = C HEJ A F A= =FA =I @ I =C I @A K @ = O A JAH?AH A F A= I @A E = I= E@= ) = E?A I =? F A E@=@ @A I @ I = C HEJ

I @A > IGKA@=

+ F A E@=@ @A = > IGKA@= IA?KA ?E= - FA H @A I ?=I I AI GKA A GKA a AIJ A = EIJ= GKA IA I D= FH F H?E =@ + I E JAHAI= = ? F A E@=@ I FHA ?KF= I @A =I =IEC =?E AI GKA IA D=?A = FHE ?EFE O= = IE @A ?K J=I LA?AI IA HAFEJA A >K? A -IJ IA KIJE ?= A A DA?D @A GKA O(1 + T ) = O(T ) IE T @ E = = 1 + a AIJ A = EIJ= A >K? A IA HAFEJA n LA?AI O A ?=@= K = @A A =I D=O @ I ? F=H=?E AI K = =IEC =?E O K = IK = AI @A?EH D=O 4(n 1) FAH=?E AI 2 H J= J AIJA = C HEJ AI @A ? F A E@=@ E A= +
A ?=I A GKA a AIJ A = EIJ= GKA IA I D= FH F H?E =@ + IA = = I A A A A F = JAHE H F=H= ?= ?K =H = ? F A E@=@ I E JAHAI= ?K J=I LA?AI IA HAFEJA A >K? A 8A= I K = E@A= =?AH?= @A AIJA AH @A HAFAJE?E AI +=@= LA GKA IA HA= E = A >K? A A J= = @A = EIJ= GKA@= HA@K?E@ = = EJ=@ 6H=I A FHE AH F=I F H A >K? A JA A I K = EIJ= @A J= = n/2 JH=I A IACK @ F=I IAH K = EIJ= @A J= = n/4 O =I

F A E@=@ @A = > IGKA@= >E =HE= - FA H @A I ?=I I AI @A KAL

2 - 1,),



IK?AIEL= A JA A s F=I I F H A >K? A JA @HA I K = EIJ= @A J= = n/2s 2 H J= J ? A FH ?AI JAH E = ?K= @ = EIJ= AIJ B H =@= F H K E? A A A J IA JEA A 1 = n/2s , AI @A?EH

s = log2 (n).
,A AIJ=

C=H J E?=

= AH= A = C HEJ

@A > IGKA@= >E =HE= FHAIA J= ?

F A E@=@

2H FE= A JA I @ I = C HEJ I FKA@A IAH ? F=H=@ I O= GKA I @=J I @A A JH=@= @A K O JH I AN=?J= A JA ECK= AI A A IACK @ ?=I @A>A AIJ=H H@A =@ I )I FKAI =K GKA = IE F A LEIJ= A IACK @ = C HEJ HAIK J= A H HA? H@A I GKA O(l(n)) O(n) GKA FH FE= A JA IA @A>A ? F=H=H AI A = C HEJ @A > IGKA@= IA?KA ?E= ? K = C HEJ HAIK J=@ @A HA= E =H IK?AIEL= A JA K = C HEJ @A H@A =?E O = > IGKA@= >E =HE= GKA I IA FKA@A ? ? KEH @A = EIEI = JAHE H AI GKA ?K= @ I @=J I @A = EIJ= AIJ H@A =@ I A J ?AI = > I = C HEJ I IA FKA@A =F E?=H O HAIK J= I A ?EA JA = > IGKA@= >E =HE=

IA J=@ I

- AH?E?E " -IJK@E=H = ?

F A E@=@ @A

I = C HEJ

I @A H@A =?E

FHA

- AH?E?E " -IJK@E=H = ?

? ?=JA =H A = C HEJ >E =HE= + F=H=H ?

F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ @A > IGKA@= HAIK J=@ @A @A H@A =?E >KH>K = ? A = C HEJ @A > IGKA@= = ? F A E@=@ @A = > IGKA@= IA?KA ?E=
? A E JAHAI= JA ?

?AFJ @A ? F A E@=@ E A H = C HEJ GKA HAIKA LA K FH > A = IEA FHA @AI@A A FK J @A LEIJ= @A ? ?AFJ @A ? F A E@=@ FHAIA J=@ 

DAHA JA = K

6AH E =

I A ?=F JK

FH > A = 5A JH=J= @A A ? JH=H A

)I @EHA

I GKA K FH > A = AI @A ?

F A E@=@ O(T ) ?K= @

E D=O K = C HEJ GKA HAIKA LA @E?D FH > A = ?KO= BK ?E AH @A FAH=?E AI A A FA H @A I ?=I I AI @A EI H@A GKA T EE ?=@= = C HEJ GKA HAIKA LA A FH > A = ?KO= BK ?E AH @A FAH=?E AI A A FA H @A I ?=I I = @A J= I S LAHE ?= GKA T O(S ) -IJ AI ?K= GKEAH JH = C HEJ GKA HAIKA LA A FH > A = JEA A ? F A E@=@ ECK= =O H GKA A @A BK ?E T



+)2 67

) / 416

,A IJH=HA I ? AA F I =@A = JA ?K= @ D=> A I @A H> AI @A @A?EIE  GKA A FH > A = @A H@A =?E @A EIJ=I AI @A ? F A E@=@ O(nl(n))

" ) C HEJ
AH AI K @A

I @A > IGKA@= ?
AH I = O K I A A A J I @A = EIJ=

=F A
AH > @AJAH E =H IE @E?D

2H > A = @=@= K = EIJ= @A

"  * IGKA@= IA?KA ?E=

- FHE AH = C HEJ GKA FHAIA J= I J = K = EIJ= @A AH I = O K AH > O @ALKA LA K LA?J H @ @A ?=@= A JH=@= AI K K IE = A JH=@= @A = EIJ= ? HHAIF @EA JA AI ECK= = > O K ?AH A ?=I ? JH=HE
> > > > > > > > >

8A?J H FH ?= EIJ > ?= ? E ? IAG  FI= B H E BH  J FI= @ EB = E > JDA ? E  BE @ ? A @ 8A?J H   " # "

[0, 0, 0, 1, 0]
@A K = =F E?=?E = = JA H = @A AH I ,AJAH E =H IE !#$ AI A ?K=@H=@ @A K AH A JAH +   O  " A J ?AI IE !#$ BKAH= K ?K=@H=@ IAH = @A K AH A JHA  O ' J = @ = EIJ= @A @E?D I ?K=@H=@ I F @A I LAH IE !#$ AI K ?K=@H=@
>

-A F

8A?J H IAGN

N 

'

!#$

[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]
+ AIJ A = EIJ= FKAI = I= E@= @A FH ?A@E EA J 8A?J H AIJ B H =@= E?= A JA F H ?AH I FKA@A IAH K ?K=@H=@ ,=@ AIJA = C HEJ IA FKA@A HAIF @AH = @EIJE J=I FHACK J=I ? F H AA F

"

) / 416

5 ,- * 537-,) +

)2 -

!

= A A A A J > AIJ A = EIJ= = IE A HAIK J=@ @A =F E?=H A FH ?A@E EA J 8A?J H = = ? JEA A = C K > A AH @A K I @A 8A?J H= @E?A ?K J=I LA?AI AIJ > A = EIJ= = ? IE O= IA I=>A GKA IA JEA A K A A A J @A = EIJ= IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH K IA ?E = C HEJ GKA >JA C= J @ I I KC=HAI @ @A AIJ A A A A J > 2=H= HAIF
> > > > > >

@AH = =I FHACK J=I = O >

>

FHACK J=I=O> FH ?= ?= E ? =@@8A?J H= > E EB  JDA ?  A IA ? IE ? A @ =F E?= I = K A A F ? FHACK J=I=O>   !

EIJ > E  BE
?HAJ

FI8A?J H= >

  
[si , 3]



2=H= HAIF
> > > > > > > >

@AH = = FHACK J= ?

>

FHACK J=? FH ?= EIJ > ?= ? E ? IAG  FHACK J=I=O>= > B H E BH  J FI= @ EB 8A?J H= > E  JDA ? E  BE @ ? A @ =F E?= I = K A A F ? ?HAJ FHACK J=?   !    
[1, 3, 6]

- ?K= GKEAH ?=I AIJ I = C HEJ I JEA A ? F A E@=@ E A= O= GKA ?K= @ IA JEA A K = EIJ= @A J= = HA= E = AIA ?E= A JA FAH=?E AI ? ? IJ= JA + FH >= I AIJ= JE = = H =?E - FH ?A@E EA J LA?J H 8A?J H FH ?= EIJ > ?= ? E ? IAG  FI= IA D=?A =IEC =?E AI

"

+)2 67

) / 416

B H E BH J FI= @ K >K? A GKA IA HAFEJA LA?AI EB = E > JDA ? E  @ IA D=?A K = ? F=H=?E O K = =IEC =?E ? A @ 6 J= ! FAH=?E AI - FH ?A@E EA J FHACK J=I=O> FHACK J=I=O> FH ?= EIJ > ?= E ? =@@8A?J H= > E E  FI8A?J H= > IA D=?A A FH ?A@E EA J 8A?J H F H J= J ! FAH=?E AI KAC IA D=?A ? NE IK =I EB  JDA ?  K = ? F=H=?E O K = =IEC =?E  A IA ? IE ? A @ 6 J= " FAH=?E AI - FH ?A@E EA J FHACK J=? FHACK J=? FH ?= EIJ > ? IAG  FHACK J=I=O>= > CK J=I=O> F H J= J " FAH=?E AI =?E AI   =IEC =?E  B H E BH J FI= @ K >K? A IA HAFEJA D=?A ! FAH=?E AI EB 8A?J H= > E  JDA ? E @ ? A @ 6 J= & !

 IA D=?A A FH ?A@E EA J FHA KAC IA D=?A ? NE =IEC

GKA IA HAFEJA 

LA?AI O ?=@= LA GKA

-IJA = C HEJ

JEA A ?

F A E@=@ E A=

 

"

* IGKA@= >E =HE=

5A JH=J= @A K = C HEJ GKA J = K = EIJ= H@A =@= @A A H = =O H @A AH I O HA= E = = > IGKA@= ? F=H= @ > ? A A A A J GKA AIJ A A A@E @A = EIJ= 5E AI ECK= A = C HEJ JAH E = IE AI A H JH=>= = ? K = KAL= EIJ=  = @A I A A A J I A HAI GKA A A A A J E JAH A@E  A EJAH= A = C HEJ IE AI =O H JH=>= = ? K = KAL= EIJ=  = @A I A A A J I =O HAI GKA A A A A J E JAH A@E  O D=?A EI

"
> >

) / 416

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*E =HE= FH ?= EIJ > ?= ? E I > E  FI= ?  > B H I BH  J FI= MDE A E  @ > B HE   > EB > = JDA ?  I FI=  BE > EB > > = JDA E  BE > EB > = JDA  BE @ > EB ?  JDA > 4-674 IE A IA 4-674   BE > A @ + FH >A I A = C HEJ A = CK I A A F I
>

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no

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si

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*E =HE= ! " # $ % % # & '

si

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*E =HE= IAGN

N 


si

$'

- A

JE

AA F

= I= E@= AI IE F HGKA 169 = 132

2=H= AIJK@E=H = ? F A E@=@ AI HA AL= JA I=>AH ?K J=I LA?AI ? NE IA HAFEJA A >K? A O= GKA ?=@= LA GKA IA HAFEJA A AH @A FAH=?E AI GKA IA ABA?J = AI ? IJ= JA + = EIJ= IA L= @ELE@EA @ A K = EIJ= @A J= = = EJ=@ D=IJ= GKA GKA@= K = EIJ= ? K E? A A A J A >K? A IA HAFEJA ? NE C  @ @A C AI A C=HEJ A >=IA *E =HE= FH ?= EIJ > ?= ? E I E  FI= ?  JHAI =IEC =?E AI A >K? A IA HAFEJA C  LA?AI O ?=@= LA IA D=?A B H I BH J FI= MDE A E>  @ K = ? F=H=?E  HE   K = =IEC =?E 

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EB > = JDA ?  I FI=  K = ? F=H=?E O K = =IEC = ?E A A FA H @A I ?=I I A AH AIJ A = EIJ= EB >>= JDA E  EB ><= JDA  @ EB ?  JDA 4-674 IE A IA 4-674   K = ? F=H=?E O K = =IEC =?E  A @

6 J=

-IJA = C HEJ

" C  #

JEA A ?

F A E@=@

C=H J E?=

 C 

# ) C HEJ
# H@A =?E

I @A H@A =?E
*KH>K =

=F A

2HAIA J= I A = C HEJ >KH>K = F=H= H@A =H @A A H = =O H K = EIJ= AIJ AI I @=J I @A A JH=@= I K = EIJ= @A AH I A JAH I O = I= E@= AI K = EIJ= H@A =@= @A A H = =O H ? I EI I A A A J I GKA

1 JAH?= >E=H @ I A A A J I

7 = FAH=?E GKA D=?A B= J= A AIJA = C HEJ AI E JAH?= >E=H @ I A A A J I A E IE OA IE @A K = EIJ= GKA = = I EIJ= = E@A= GKA L= I = KJE E =H F=H= A ? IEIJA A E JH @K?EH K = KAL= L=HE=> A JH= IEJ HE= = =@= JA F O IACKEH I JHAI F=I I IECKEA JAI

2HE AH = J HE= JA F

=?A =HA

IA ?

JA E@ @A EIJ= E A

= L=HE=> A JH= IE

5ACK @ E JH @K?E I A ? JA E@ @A EIJ= EIJ= E O EIJ= ? JEA A A EI @=J 2 H JE EIJ=

? FE= I A ?

A A KC=H EIJ= E

)D H=

JA E@ @A = L=HE=> A JH= IEJ HE= JA F A

2 @H = I FA I=H GKA A ? @EC IECKEA JA I HAIKA LA A FH > A = FAH FHAIA J= K = @E ?K J=@ = =IEC =H L= HAI = = EIJ= @A A JH=@=

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5 ,-

4,- )+1

)2 -

%

?= >E=H FH ?= E  ?= J J = E = E = = J = A @ ?= >E=H  ! " # $  $

?= >E=H E AC= KIA B = B H = F=H= AJAH

-HH H E

- FH > A = LEA A @A = =IEC =?E =E = 6A A I GKA AI?HE>EH KI= @ A ? = @ IK>I F O AIJ=> A?EA @ K = ? FE= @A = EIJ= E E?E= =I
> > > > > > > > >

1 JAH?= >E=H FH ? EIJ= E  ?= ? EIJ= JA F ? EIJ= EIJ= JA F ? EIJ= E ? EIJ= IK>I FE ? EIJ= ? ? EIJ= IK>I F JA F ? EIJ= ? EIJ= A @ 1 JAH?= >E=H ! ! " #   $

EIJ=

>

[10, 2, 3, 4, 5, 3]
>

1 JAH?= >E=H  $ ! " % $

#

[1, 7, 3, 4, 6, 6]

H@A =?E
> > > > > > > > > >

)D H= O= F @A

BE

I AI?HE>EH A = C HEJ @A H@A =?E >KH>K = *KH>K = FH ?= ?= E = ? FI= = ? = B H E BH  J  @ B H BH  J E @ EB = ? = ?   JDA = ? 1 JAH?= >E=H= ?

>KH>K =



@ @ A @

4-674 =

?

&

+)2 67

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2H >=
>

I A = C HEJ

A K AA F

*KH>K = #

&

" ! % %  
[1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 7, 8]

H@A =?E

IA A??E

A?AIEJ= I K FH ?A@E EA J GKA ?= ?K A A KC=H GKA ?KF= A A A A J @A K = EIJ= GKA @= A E @A @E?D= EIJ=
> > > > > > > > > > > > >

E E FH ?= ?= ? E ? =  B H E BH J EB = E ? JDA ? @  MDE A = ? @  @ A @ E E  

FI= @ = E BE

! " #  # 
6

>

E E

  "  & $% # 
3

)D H= F @A I = =H = AIJA FH ?A@E EA J F=H= ? IJHKEH A = C HEJ @A IA A??E 0=O GKA ? IJHKEH K = EIJ= ?=@= LA I FAGKA = A EH ?= ?K = @ I E I F=H= E JAH?= >E=H I L= HAI IE AI A?AI=HE - KC=H @A ? IJHKEH EIJ=I ?=@= LA I FAGKA =I GKA L= I = D=?AH AI EH F EA @ A L= H E EJ A A ? HHAIF @EA JA J H E @A = EIJ= @A @ GKA ? E EJ AI =O H GKA ?K= GKEAH AH IA JA @H GKA = = D H= @A ?= ?K =H E I AIJA J H E L= = E JAHLA EH K ?=

$
> > > > > > > > > > > > > >

- -4+1+1 5

'

IA A??E FH ?= ?= > ? E > = ? = B H E BH  J FI= @ E E > EB > E > JDA > 1 JAH?= >E=H> E  ? 1 JAH?= >E=H? E  BE > E E BE EJO @ ? A @ IA A??E   ! $ # 
[1, 2, 3, 5, 6]

>

IA A??E

# " !   
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

- AH?E?E I
GKA IA FE@A =F E?=H =@ IAA

- J @ I I A AH?E?E I AI?HE>EH A = C HEJ F I O AIJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@

- AH?E?E "! ,=@= K = EIJ= @A

GKA ?= ?K A A =I FAH=?E K = C HEJ NE

AH I A JAH I ? @A IKI L= HAI =>I KJ I

IJHKEH K = C HEJ

- AH?E?E "" 5KF C=

I GKA GKEJ= I @A KAIJH @A ? FKJ=?E = AI > IE?=I @A FH @K?J O @ELEIE @A AH I A JAH I + IJHKEH F=H= @=@ I @ I AH I A JAH I ?= ?K =H IK FH @K?J
n

- AH?E?E "# + IJHKEH K = C HEJ

= F JA ?E= a

F=H= @=@ I @ I A JAH I a O n ? A@E= =HEJ

IJHKEH I

- AH?E?E "$ -I?HE>EH K = C HEJ

A A A J I @A K = EIJ= @A AH

F=H= ?= ?K =H = AH I A JAH I

JE?= @A

- AH?E?E "% -I?HE>EH K = C HEJ

O JH

GKA @=@= K = EIJ= @A AH I =JKH= AI =JKH= E @EGKA IE D=O = C JEF @A @E?D AH A JHA

 I A A A J I @A = EIJ= IA = A ?K F IE?E AI @A = EIJ= AIJ

+)2 67 J I @A AIJ I

) / 416 JEF I D=O O A

5 GK

- AH?E?E "& ,EIJ= ?E= @A 0=

E C ,=@=I @ I F= =>H=I @A = EI = CEJK@ ? IJHKE@=I ? ?AH I O K I = @EIJ= ?E= @A 0= E C A JHA A =I IA @A A ? A AH @A AJH=I @EBAHA JAI A JHA K = O JH= F= =>H=  AJH=I @EBAHA JAI IEJK=@=I A A EI KC=H F H A A F = @EIJ= ?E= @A 0= E C A JHA = F= =>H=  O = F= =>H=  AI K F HGKA = FHE AH= AJH= AI ECK= O = IACK @= @EIJE J= = @EIJ= ?E= @A 0= E C A JHA  O  AI @ I + IJHKEH K = C HEJ GKA @=@=I @ I F= =>H=I @A ?AH I O K I I @ALKA L= IK @EIJ= ?E= @A 0= E C

- AH?E?E "' ,=@= K = EIJ= H@A =@= @A A H = =O H @A

O JH AH A JAH ? IJHKEH K = C HEJ KC=H ? HHAIF @EA JA @A = EIJ= E E?E=

GKA E IAHJA @E?D

AH I A JAH I AH A A

,=@=I @ I EIJ=I a1 , .., an O b1 , ..., bm @A AH I A JAH I ? IJHKEH K = C HEJ F=H= ? IJHKEH A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= @A =I @ I EIJ=I AIJ AI A ? K J ? F AJ @A I F=HAI H@A =@ I @A = B H = (ai , bj )

- AH?E?E #

% - AH?E?E I HAIKA J I
- AH?E?E '
EIJ= @A 1 CHAI I # " " EIJ= @A /=IJ I " ! - JH=@= # " " " ! I := 5 i := 1 ? 1 2 A J ?AI i := 2 I := 5 + 4 ? 2 2 A J ?AI i := 3 I := 13 ? 3 > 2 I= A @A >K? A Ingresos := 13

G := 4 j := 1 ? 1 1 A J ?AI j := 2 G := 4 + 3 ? 2 > 1 I= A @A >K? A Gastos := 7 Balance := 13 7 = 6

- AH?E?E ! - = C HEJ
n 1 LA?AI
- JH=@=  

JAH E = F HGKA A >K? A IA HAFEJA AN=?J= A JA

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5



a := 1 i := 1 ? 1 2 A J ?AI i := 2 O = IAH 1 < 2 A J ? 2 2 A J ?AI i := 3 O = IAH 2 < 0 A J ? 3 > 2 I= A @A >K? A 5= E@= a = 2

?AI a := 2 ?AI a := 2

- AH?E?E ! - = C HEJ

HA= E = = IECKEA JA IK =
i n i=1 j =1 j.

- AH?E?E !

EIJ=  ! # % '

* IGKA@= IA?KA ?E= i := 1  FAH=?E  + 1 5 O 1 = 9 A J ?AI i := 2 " FAH=?E AI + 2 5 O 3 = 9 A J ?AI i := 3 " FAH=?E AI + 3 5 O 5 = 9 A J ?AI i := 4 " FAH=?E AI + 4 5 O 7 = 9 A J ?AI i := 5 " FAH=?E AI + 5 5 FAH 9 = 9 A J ?AI I= A @A >K? A  FAH=?E + 5 5 A J ?AI = I= E@= AI 5  FAH=?E AI 6 J= @A FAH=?E AI  * IGKA@= >E =HE= i := 1 j := 5  FAH=?E AI + 1 < 5 O 1 = 9 A J ?AI m := 3 " FAH=?E AI + 5 < 9 A J ?AI i := 4 j = 5 " FAH=?E AI + 4 < 5 A J ?AI m := 4 ! FAH=?E AI + 7 < 9 A J ?AI i := 5 j = 5 " FAH=?E AI + 5 = 5 A J ?AI I= A @A >K? A  FAH=?E  + a5 = 9 A J ?AI = I= E@= AI 5  FAH=?E AI 6 J= @A FAH=?E AI  ' # " E CK = FAH=?E =3 E CK = FAH=?E =9

AI

- AH?E?E !!
+ + + +

EIJ=  ! A A A A J J J J

a1 a2 a3 a4

< a2 > a3 < a4 > a5

?AI IA D=?A ?AI a2 = 2 O a3 ?AI IA D=?A ?AI a4 = 5 O a5



+)2 67

) / 416

+ a5 > a6 A J ?AI a5 = 4 O a6 = 9 ,A AIJA @ = EIJ= AI =D H=  ! # " ' - = C HEJ HA? EA = ? = EIJ=  ! # " ) HA? HHAH AIJ= KAL= EIJ= A NE GKA AI A # IA ? KC=H O = EIJ= GKA@= H@A =@= E @A K = EIJ= a1 @A = EIJ= a1 an A NE JA A I GKA - JH=@= a1 an . Hi=1J n bi := ai m := M (b1 , ...bn ) 5= E@= m

?= A A

JE

- AH?E?E !" 2=H= =FH LA?D=H A = C HEJ

@A NE >IAHL= I GKA A an AI A NE ?= >E=@ @A IEC  @A I L= HAI 2 H J= J IE = = I M = = C HEJ GKA ?= ?K =

- AH?E?E !# 5A= = EIJ= L

+ A E ?AI IA D=?A E CK = FAH=?E L :=! ' # " + A E @A = EIJ= L AI a3 A J ?AI a2 = 2 O a3 = 3 L :=! ' # " + A E @A = EIJ= L AI a3 A J ?AI IA D=?A E CK = FAH=?E L :=' # " + A E @A = EIJ= L AI a6 A J ?AI a6 = 9 O a4 = 4 L :=# ' + A E @A = EIJ= L AI a5 A J ?AI IA D=?A E CK = FAH=?E O A = C HEJ D= JAH E =@ 5= E@= L := ! " # ' = EIJ= AIJ H@A =@= @A A H=

 ! ' # " @A = EIJ= L AI a1 = 1 A J

- AH?E?E !$ - FA H @A I ?=I I AI GKA A GKA = =IEC =?E

D=?A IEA FHA AIJ AI ?K= @

a := ai IA =O H

a1 a2 ... an .

- AH?E?E !% ,A
H@A GKA xs

IJH= I GKA P (x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + as xs AI @A EI = >IAHL=?E BK @= A J= AI GKA K F E E @A CH=@

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

!

s JEA @A = + ?K= @ x JEA @A = + ?K= @ IK ? A ?EA JA FHE ?EF= A ? A ?EA JA @A E @A =O H CH=@  AI @A IEC F IEJEL 2 H J= J A J= ?=I IK IEC AI F IEJEL F=H= J @ x =O H ECK= GKA K ?EAHJ n0 F=H= A GKA IA =F HJ= K = ANFHAIE ANF ?EJ= - F E E xs @ E = = P (x) O= GKA IE J = I k > as IA JEA A GKA s kx P (x) = (k as )xs + ... + (a0 ) GKA IAC = >IAHL=?E = JAHE H AI F IEJEL F=H= J @ x n0 P (x) @ E = = xs O= GKA IE J = I k > 1/as A J ?AI kP (x) xs = (kas 1)xs + ... + ka0

- AH?E?E !& -I K = ? IA?KA ?E= @EHA?J= @A = B H K = @A ?= >E @A >=IA

loga (n) = loga (b)logb (n).

- AH?E?E !' )@ K J=
>IAHL=

I =I CH ?=I HAFHAIA J=@=I ? =I @EIJE J=I HA =?E AI @A @ E = ?E=

=F A @

@A IA

= BK ?E l(n) @ E = = = BK ?E  F HGKA l(n) > 1 F=H= ?=@= n 3 - ABA?J = BK ?E g (n) = l(n) 1 AI F IEJEL= F=H= ?=@= n 3 FKAIJ GKA g (3) > 0 O AI ?HA?EA JA IK @AHEL=@= g (n) = 1/n > 0 5A LAHE ?= GKA n > l(n) F=H= ?=@= n N - ABA?J IA= = BK ?E h(n) = n l(n) IA LAHE ?= GKA h(1) > 0 O GKA AI IEA FHA ?HA?EA JA O= GKA h (n) = 1 1/n > 0 =I @A I@ E = ?E=I I ? IA?KA ?E= @A GKA

r(n) = nl(n) n s(n) = n2 nl(n) t(n) = en n2

r(3) > 0 s(1) > 0 t(1) > 0

r (n) = l(n) > 0 s (n) = 2n l(n) 1 > 0 t (n) = en 2n > 0.

- AH?E?E " 5E T @

E ==S A J GKA F=H= ?=@= n n0 IA LAHE ?=

?AI ANEIJA n0 N O k R+ @A

S (n) kT (n).

"

+)2 67

) / 416

32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 3 x 4

2^x

x^2

xlog(x)

x ln(x) 5

.ECKH=

 /H

?=I ?

=F A

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5 ,A AIJA @ F=H= ?=@= n n0 IA LAHE ?=

#

S (n) + T (n) (k + 1)T (n).

GKA KAIJH= GKA T @ E = = S+T AI

= IACK @= ?KAIJE AI I >IAHL=H GKA = BK ?E AH @A FAH=?E A A FA H @A I ?=I I @A = C HEJ GKA ? ?=JA = A1 O A2 AI T + S

- AH?E?E " - = C HEJ

2

@A H@A =?E >KH>K = AI K = C HEJ @A ? F A E@=@ ?K=@H JE?= O(n ) - ABA?J ?=@= LA GKA IA A A?KJ= A >K? A A j A >K? A A i D=?A K = ?= JE@=@ ? IJ= JA @A FAH=?E AI O =I D=?A AN=?J= A JA n j LA?AI ?

1 + 2 + 3 + .. + n = n(n + 1)/2,
IA JEA A A HAIK J=@ ,A ECK= = AH= A = C HEJ @A IA A??E AI ?K=@H JE? FKAI A >K? A j IA HAFEJA n 1 LA?AI O ?=@= K = @A A =I = = = K = C HEJ = =@ min GKA AI E A=

- AH?E?E "

- = C HEJ @A H@A =?E >KH>K = AI ?K=@H JE? O A = C HEJ @A > IGKA@= >E =HE= AI C=H J E? F H J= J = ? ?=JA =?E @A = > I AI ?K=@H JE?= EA JH=I = > IGKA@= IA?KA ?E= AI E A= = C HEJ I IECKEA JAI A AH?E?E I @A = I = EIJ=I ? ?HAJ=I I = AIJK@E= JA = F=HJA @A =F E?=H I

- AH?E?E "! ,A E
@A K A JAH

I FHE AH K = C HEJ

GKA ?= ?K = A L= H =>I KJ

- JH=@= a 1B a < 0 JDA |a| := a A IA |a| := a 5= E@= |a| >IAHL=H GKA a = a (1) - J ?AI =F E?= I A = C HEJ I L= HAI =>I KJ I

M GKA ?= ?K = A

NE

= = EIJ= @A

$ - JH=@= a1 an . Hi=1J n ai := |ai | 5= E@= M (a1 , ..., an )

+)2 67

) / 416

- = C HEJ @A NE AI @A ? F A E@=@ E A= A ? ?K @A L= H =>I KJ AI @A ? F A E@=@ ? IJ= JA T (n) = 3 = HA=IEC =?E @A = EIJ= JEA A ? F A E@=@ E A= T (n) = 5n + 3 2 H J= J A = C HEJ AI @A ? F A E@=@ E A=

- AH?E?E "" - FH @K?J @A @ I A JAH I F IEJEL I

AI I GKA IK =H K @A A I J= J=I LA?AI ? E @E?= A JH + A FH @K?J AI ? KJ=JEL O = IK = K = FAH=?E > IE?= A ACE I A E @A I @ I F=H= @A?EH ?K J=I LA?AI D=O GKA IK =H K JEF E?= I A J ?AI I L= HAI =>I KJ I O @AIFK I =JA @A I = IEC - JH=@= a, b. a1 = E {|a|, |b|} a2 := NE {|a|, |b|} p := 0 i := 1 MDE A i a1 p := p + a2 i := i + 1 1B a > 0, b < 0 JDA p := p A IA EB a < 0, b > 0 JDA p := p 5= E@= p - J= = @A = A JH=@= AI =GK A L= H =>I KJ @A E @A = > I AH I AIJ AI n = a1  - ? ?K @A E OA NE I = C HEJ I @A ? F A E@=@ E A= A AIJA ?=I IA =F E?= = EIJ=I @A CEJK@ KAC HA= E = K = ?= JE@=@ ? IJ= JA @A FAH=?E AI - A = C HEJ GKA AIJ= I AIJK@E= @ D=O FHE AH @ I = C HEJ I ? IJ= JAI @AIFK I K >K? A GKA IA HAFEJA n = a1 LA?AI O GKA HA= E = ?=@= LA GKA IA A A?KJ= K = ?= JE@=@ ? IJ= JA @A FAH=?E AI .E = A JA K = =IEC =?E @A IEC GKA IA D=?A A@E= JA K = ?= JE@=@ ? IJ= JA @A FAH=?E AI )I A = C HEJ AI @A ? F A E@=@ E A=

- AH?E?E "#

- JH=@= a n 1B a = n = 0 JDA p :=E @AJAH E =?E A IA EB n 0 JDA

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

%

p := 1 i := 1 MDE A i n p := p a i := i + 1
A IA

p := 1 i := 1 MDE A i |n| p := p (1/a) i := i + 1

5= E@=

- J= = @A = A JH=@= AI |n| O = ? F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ AI E A= O= GKA A >K? A IA HAFEJA AN=?J= A JA J= J=I LA?AI ? A J= = @A = A JH=@=

- AH?E?E "$ 5K =HA

I J @ I I A A A J I @A = EIJ= O = IK = = @E LE@E I F H A AH @A A A A J I - FH > A = AIA ?E= A A @EIA @A AIJA = C HEJ AI GKA JA A I K = FAH=?E > IE?= GKA ?= ?K A @ELEIE AI O ANFHAIA A HAIK J=@ ? AH @A?E = = A I = AI= FAH=?E a div (a, b) O A HAIK J=@ AI b ? @EC= I 2 @A?E = AI - J ?AI KAIJH = C HEJ AI KO IE F A ,=J I @A A JH=@= a1 , a2 , ..., an c := 0 . H i := 1 J n c := c + ai media := div (c, n) 1 F A A JA I =D H= = FAH=?E

div (c, n) @A = IECKEA JA

= AH= c1 :=

|c|/n , r1 := |c| mod n c2 := (10 r1)/n, r2 := 10 r1 mod n c3 := (10 r2)/n, r3 := 10 r2 mod n

- = C HEJ ? F AJ F=H= ?= ?K =H = A@E= ? @ I @A?E = AI IAH = ,=J I @A A JH=@= a1 , a2 , ..., an c := 0 . H i := 1 J n c := c + ai c1 := |c|/n , r1 := |c| mod n

&

+)2 67

) / 416

c2 := (10 r1)/n, r2 := 10 r1 mod n c3 := (10 r2)/n, r3 := 10 r2 mod n EB c > 0 JDA A@E= c1 c2c3 A IA A@E=

c1 c2c3

+ F A E@=@ 0=O  7 = =IEC =?E  7 >K? A GKA IA HAFEJA n LA?AI O A ?=@= F=I IA D=?A K = IK = O K = =IEC =?E 6 J= 2n FAH=?E AI ! - ? ?K @A K ? ?EA JA O K HAIJ @ I K JEF E?=?E AI O @ I @ELE IE AI A ? ?K @A @ I HAIJ I O 6 =IEC =?E AI =@ I @A K = ? F=H=?E O F IE> A A JA K ?= >E @A IEC 6 J= 16 FAH=?E AI - J ?AI T (n) := 2n + 12 + F A E@=@ E A= 5E ?= ?K H= I = A@E= ? I @A?E = AI A AH @A FAH=?E AI IAH = =O H FAH = ? F A E@=@ IACKEH = IEA @ E A=

- AH?E?E "%

,=J I @A A JH=@= a1 , a2 , ..., an , a i := 0 , j := 0 9DE A i n 1 i := i + 1 b := ai mod a 1B b := 0 JDA j := j + 1 dj := ai O ej = i 5= E@= 0=O j JEF I @A a -IJ A =I F IE?E L= HAI I d1 , ..., dj

AI e1 , ..., ej O IKI

+= ?K A I = ? F A E@=@ 0=O  @ I =IEC =?E AI O A ? ?K @A n 1 6 J= ! FAH=?E AI  K >K? A GKA IA HAFEJA n LA?AI ,A JH @A >K? A D=O @ I =IEC =?E AI A ? ?K @A K HAIJ O K = IK = K = ? @E?E = ? K = ? @E?E O A A FA H @A I ?=I I JHAI =IEC =?E AI O K = IK = 6 J= 9n ! ,A >K? A IA I= A ?K= @ = ? F=H=?E AI B= I= 6 J= 7 = FAH=?E T (n) = 3 + 9n + 1 = 9n + 4 = ? F A E@=@ AI E A=

b1 , b2 , ..., bn =I @A

- AH?E?E "& 5A= a1 , a2 , ..., an =I ?EBH=I A >EJI @A K

JH ,=J I @A A JH=@= a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., an b1 , b2 , ..., bn c := 0 . Hi=1J n

@A

AH I O

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5 1B ai = bi JDA c := c + 1 5= E@= c

'

+= ?K = I = ? F A E@=@ 0=O  7 = =IEC =?E  7 >K? A GKA IA HAFEJA n LA?AI ,A JH @A O A A FA H @A I ?=I I D=O K = ? F=H=?E K = IK = O K = =IEC =?E 6 J= 3n FAH=?E AI - J ?AI T (2n) = 3n + 1 FAH=?E AI  JA I GKA D=O 2n @=J I @A 3 A JH=@= 2 H J= J T (n) = 2 n+1 =? F A E@=@ AI E A=

= E@A= @A AIJA = C HEJ AI AAH = EIJ= D=IJ= GKA ACKA I = FK J A A GKA @A>A I E IAHJ=H A AH @=@ a ) =?A =H A L= H @A = EIJ= A AIA FK J A K = L=HE=> A =KNE E=H F=H= FAH@AH  E JH @K?EH A L= H a O = F=HJEH @A = ? ?=H I @A I A A A J I @A = EIJ= -IJ I JE I A A A J I IA FKA@A HA A =H @AI@A A = @A = EIJ= D=IJ= A FK J A A GKA AIJ a FH >=H JH=I = JAH =JEL=I F=H= ? FH >=H GKA AI AIJ= = GKA A H BK ?E = ,=J I @A A JH=@= a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., an ; a i := 0 , p := 0 9DE A i n 1 = @ p 0 i := i + 1 p := a ai c := ai , ai := a . H j =0 J ni1 an+1j := anj ai+1 := c 5= E@= a1 , a2,....., an+1 + F A E@=@ 0=O  , I =IEC =?E AI O A ? ?K @A n 1 6 J= ! FAH=?E AI  7 >K? A GKA IA HAFEJA A A FA H @A I ?=I I n LA?AI - ?=@= F=I=@= @A >K? A JA @HA I @ I ? F=H=?E AI K = =IEC =?E O K = IK = JH= =IEC =?E O K = @EBAHA ?E= 6 J= 6n. ! ,A >K? A IA I= A ?K= @ K = @A =I ? F=H=?E AI IA= B= I= GKA @= KC=H = JH= FAH=?E " , I =IEC =?E AI 6 J= FAH=?E AI # - ? ?K @A n i 1 FAH=?E AI

- AH?E?E "'

 

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$ 7 >K? A GKA A A FA H @A I ?=I I IA HAFEJA n LA?AI O A A GKA D=O K = =IEC =?E O A ? ?K @A I IK> @E?AI 6 J= 4n FAH=?E AI % 7 = =IEC =?E O A ? ?K @A IK> @E?A JA I GKA AI E @A  O @A >K? A @A JAH E = A JH ? F AJ= A JA - ? IA?KA ?E= F IE> A GKA IA A A?KJA J @=I =I FAH=?E AI @A >K? A $ O= GKA A A L= H @A @E?A A A GKA JAH E = K A FA H @A I ?=I I AI A >K? A  A GKA IA A A?KJ= =? F A E@=@ AI E A=

- AH?E?E #

,=J I @A A JH=@= a1 , a2 , ..., an ; b1 , b2 , ..., bn . H i := 1 J n . H j := 1 J n cij := (ai , bj ) 5= E@= c11 , c12 , ..., c21 , c22 , ...., cn1 , ..., cnn

+ F A E@=@ 0=O @ I >K? AI = E@=@ I - FHE AH IA HAFEJA n LA?AI O A IACK @ JH=I n - AIJA IACK @ >K? A D=O K = =IEC =?E 2 H J= J 1 2 2 T (2n) = n 2 H J= J T (n) = 4 n + F A E@=@ ?K=@H JE?=

+=F JK )HEJ

! JE?= @K =H

- AIJA ?=F JK IA AIJK@E=H I AH I A JAH I IKI FH FEA@=@AI O FAH= ?E AI E JH @K?EA @ J= >E =I ?E AI > IE?=I @A = =HEJ JE?= @K =H 5A FHAJA @A GKA = = @A ?=F JK A = K

+ ?= =I FH FEA@=@AI > IE?=I @A B=?J HE =?E  2KA@= ?= ?K =H A -K? E@AI 4A= E?A ? 4AIKA L= ?
?@ @A @ I AI A

AH I A JAH I  FAH=?E

AI @A

AH I A JAH I F H A = C HEJ = =HEJ JE?= @K =H CHKA ?E=I

I JKH= FAH=?E

CHKA ?E=I E A= AI O IEIJA =I @A ?

!

I H I

AH I =JKH= AI O

AH I A JA

I AH I =JKH= AI O I AH I A JAH I I > AJ I ? ?E@ I - A?J H AIJ B= E E=HE =@ ? @E?D I > AJ I O ? IKI FAH=?E AI

N = {1, 2, 3, 4....} Z = {0, 1, 1, 2, 2, ...}.

5 ? @A?E I > AJ I ? I GKA AIJ= I D=>EJK=@ I = JH=>= =H O @A DA?D A A ?=F JK  DA I KI=@ K = @A IKI FH FEA@=@AI BK @= A J= AI  

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F=H= FHAIA J=H K = J ? E?= F JA JA @A @A IJH=?E GKA AI A FHE ?EFE @A E @K??E KAIJH FHE AH > AJEL AI E JH @K?EH @A B H = HECKH I= AIJ I > AJ I -NEIJA L=HE=I = AH=I @A D=?AH K = @A A =I  = GKA L= I = A ACEH AI = =NE JE?= + IEIJA A ?=H=?JAHE =H A ? K J N @A I AH I =JKH= AI F H = CK =I @A IKI FH FEA@=@AI GKA IA E F A ? =NE =I @A = AH= GKA ?K= GKEAH JH= FH FEA@=@ IA @A@K?A KI= @ =I HAC =I @A = CE?= @A AIJ I =NE =I 2 @A I KI=H F H A A F = ?=H=?JAHE =?E @A N ? K J GKA LAHE GKA I = =@ I )NE =I @A 2A= ?K= GKEAH ? I

- N D=O K A A A J @EIJE CKE@ GKA @A

E =

E?= A IECKEA JA @A n 5A 2=H= ?=@= n N IA @A A @A = AH= @A J= s(n) -I K A A A J @A N O LAHE ?= GKA s(n) = 1 F=H= ?=@= nN

5E s(n) = s(m) A J

?AI n = m

2HE ?EFE @A E @K??E IE K IK>? K J A N LAHE ?= GKA 1 A O GKA n A E F E?= s(n) A A J ?AI IA JEA A GKA A = N -IJ= FH FEA@=@ AI = GKA IA KI A A ?=F JK  

>IAHL=?E !   I =NE =I @A 2A= IACK @ O JAH?AH I AGKEL= A JAI = = ANEIJA ?E= @A K = =F E?=?E E OA?JEL= s : N N @A @ GKA A  AIJ A = E =CA @A s
AIJA ? K J IA FKA@A @A EH K = FHE AH= FAH=?E @A E =@= = AH= GKA @=@ I @ I =JKH= AI ?K= AIGKEAH= a, b N IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH A AH =JKH= a + b N GKA AI = IK = @A I @ I -IJ= FAH=?E IA @A A F H =I HAC =I

IK = @A

2=H= ?=@= a N IA @A 2=H= ?=@= a, b N IA @A

A a + 1 = s(a) A a + s(b) = s(a + b)

-I ? IA?KA ?E= @A FHE ?EFE @A E @K??E GKA =I DA I @A E@ ?K= GKEAH IK = a + b ? a, b N - ABA?J IA= a N K AH =JKH= 5A= A A ? K J @A I AH I =JKH= AI b N F=H= I GKA a + b AIJ @A E@

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-4 5 - 6-4 5

 !

IJH=H F H E @K??E GKA A = N ? GKA =I HAC =I = JAHE HAI EH a + b F=H= ?=@= F=H @A AH I =JKH= AI a, b N *=IA @A E @K??E 5A JEA A GKA 1 A O= GKA = FHE AH= HAC = E @E?= GKA a + 1 = s(a) 2=I @A E @K??E ,A>A I @A IJH=H GKA IE b A A J ?AI s(b) A + F H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E b A A J ?AI a + b AIJ @A E@ 7I= @ = HAC = IACK @= I=>A I GKA a + s(b) = s(a + b) ? GKA a + s(b) AIJ @A E@ O F H J= J s(b) A ? GKAH = I @A IJH=H -IJK@EA I = AIJHK?JKH= = CA>H=E?= @A F=H (N, +) AI @A?EH =I FH FEA @=@AI GKA LAHE ?= I AH I =JKH= AI ? AIJ= FAH=?E @A IK = 5A JEA A =I IECKEA JAI E FH FEA@=@ =I ?E=JEL= (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) F=H= ?K= AIGKEAH= a, b, c N EE FH FEA@=@ ? KJ=JEL= F=H= ?K= GKEAH F=HA = a, b N IA JEA A GKA a+b=b+a

8= I = @A FAH EJA @A

- AH?E?E # ,A
I= @

IJH=H F H E @K??E I >HA c = FH FEA@=@ =I ?E=JEL= K =I HAC =I @A = @A E?E @A = IK =

6= >E IA FKA@A @A EH K = IACK @= FAH=?E A N GKA AI A FH @K?J =IEC = @ = ?=@= F=H a, b N A FH @K?J @A = > I a b  a b IE F A A JA ab KI=HA I =I JHAI J=?E AI E @EIJE J= A JA ,A = EI = = AH= GKA A A ?=I @A = IK = AI K = ? IA?KA ?E= @A FHE ?EFE @A E @K??E GKA =I HAC =I GKA IA FHAIA J= = ? JE K=?E I IK ?EA JAI F=H= @A EH A FH @K?J @A @ I AH I =JKH= AI a, b N

2=H= ?=@= a N IA JEA A GKA a 1 = a 2=H= ?=@= a, b N IA JEA A GKA a s(b) = a b + a

- AH?E?E # ,A

IJH=H KI= @ A FHE ?EFE @A E @K??E = JAHE HAI FAH EJA @A EH A FH @K?J @A ?K= GKEAH F=H @A

GKA =I HAC =I AH I =JKH= AI

I AH I =JKH= AI ? AIJ= FAH=?E @A FH @K?J (N, ) JEA A =I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI GKA IA FKA@A @A IJH=H KI= @ A FHE ?EFE @A E @K??E O =I HAC =I @A @A E?E @A FH @K?J  FH FEA@=@ =I ?E=JEL= (a b) c = a (b c) F=H= ?K= AIGKEAH= a, b, c N

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 ANEIJA ?E= @A A A A J AKJH ANEIJA 1 N J= GKA F=H= ?K= GKEAH AH =JKH= a N IA JEA A GKA a 1 = 1 a = a ! FH FEA@=@ ? KJ=JEL= F=H= ?K= GKEAH F=HA = a, b N IA JEA A GKA ab=ba =I @ I FAH=?E AI = IK = O A FH @K?J FH FEA@=@ @EIJHE>KJEL= GKA@= HA =?E =@=I F H =

" FH FEA@=@ @EIJHE>KJEL= F=H= ?K= AIGKEAH= a, b, c N IA JEA A GKA a (b + c) = a b + a c 7 = LA @A E@ I I AH I =JKH= AI I AH I A JAH I IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH = F=HJEH @A I =JKH= AI @A = IECKEA JA = AH= 6 = I @ I ? FE=I @A ? K J @A I AH I =JKH= AI =H?= @ I A A A J I @A + K = @A A =I ? K IEC A I = = I N = {1, 2, 3, 4, ...} = = FHE AH= ? FE= O N = {1, 2, 3, 4, ...} = = IACK @= I AH I A JAH I I = K E @A N+ N O K ? K J B H =@ F H K A A A J @EIJE CKE@ GKA AI?HE>E I ? {0}

Z = {1, 2, 3, ...} {0} {1, 2, 3, ...} = N+ {0} N .

6= J N+ ? N LEA A @ J=@ I @A IK HAIFA?JEL ? ?AFJ GKA @A J= I HAIFA?JEL= A JA s+ O s )I IA JEA A F H s+ (5) = 6 O GKA s (5) = 6 -IJ=I @ I ?E AI FAH EJA ? K J @A I AH I A JAH I K ? ?AFJ @A IECKEA JA @A O K ? ?AFJ @A = JAHE H @A J=@ ? a @A @ GKA @A IECKEA JA AA F GKA @A EH A A J=@ ? s

2=H= ?=@= n N+ IA JEA A GKA s(n) = s+ (n) s(0) = 1 s(1) = 0 F=H= ?=@= n N n = 1 ANEIJA m N @A - J ?AI s(n) = m 2=H= ?=@= n N IA JEA A GKA a(n) = s (n) a(0) = 1 a(1) = 0
@ GKA n = s (m)

!

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-4 5 - 6-4 5

 #

F=H= ?=@= n N+ n = 1 ANEIJA m N+ @A - J ?AI a(n) = m

@ GKA n = s+ (m) K J L=?

J=?E

7I=HA

IA I

>

F=H= HAFHAIA J=H A ?

; ? O= IA = = I ?K= @ D=> = I @A = E @K??E AIJHK?JKH= IA LAHE ?= GKA IE A Z LAHE ?= GKA A = O F=H= ?=@= n A IA JEA A GKA s(n) A O a(n) A A J ?AI A = Z = FAH=?E IK = @A AH I A JAH I IA ? IJHKOA =F O @ IA A = IK = @A I AH I =JKH= AI @A @ GKA =I IECKEA JAI HAC =I I IK ?EA JAI

2=H= ?=@= n Z IA @A 2=H= ?=@= n Z IA @A

A n + 1 = s(n) A n 1 = a(n) A n + s(m) = s(n + m) A n + a(m) = a(n + m)

2=H= ?=@= n, m Z IA @A 2=H= ?=@= n, m Z IA @A

- AH?E?E #! ,A
HE HAI IA @A

IJH=H F H E @K??E AIJHK?JKH= GKA ? A n + m F=H= ?=@= n, m Z

=I HAC =I = JA

; I AH I A JAH I ? = FAH=?E @A IK = =I ? IJHKE@= (Z, +) LA HE ?= =I IECKEA JAI FH FEA@=@AI GKA IA FKA@A @A IJH=H KI= @ =I HAC =I @A @A E?E @A = IK = O A FHE ?EFE @A E @K??E AIJHK?JKH= E FH FEA@=@ =I ?E=JEL= (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) F=H= ?K= AIGKEAH= a, b, c Z EE FH FEA@=@ ? KJ=JEL= F=H= ?K= GKEAH F=HA = a, b Z IA JEA A GKA a+b=b+a EEE ANEIJA ?E= @A A A A J AKJH ANEIJA K A JAH 0 Z J= GKA F=H= ?K= GKEAH AH A JAH a Z IA JEA A GKA a + 0 = 0 + a = a EL ANEIJA ?E= @A A A A J E LAHI F=H= ?K= GKEAH A JAH a Z ANEIJA JH A JAH @A E =@ a Z J= GKA a + (a) = (a) + a = 0 - = FH @A a 5A FKA@A @A A J ?AI a AI IK ? A J ?AI a AI IK ?

J=?E

FEA@=@ EL F=H= ?=@= a Z @A J= I ? a A E LAHI IJH=H GKA IE a = 0 A J ?AI a = 0 GKA IE a N+ HHAIF @EA JA F=HA = =H?=@= A N O GKA IE a N HHAIF @EA JA F=HA = A N+ GKEJ @ A = =H?= 2 H

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A A F (5) = 5 0 = 0 (5) = 5 -I?HE>EHA = ANFHAIE a + (b) ,A?E I A J ?AI GKA K J ? K = FAH=?E ? KJ=JEL  >IAHL= F E=@ A ? K J @A I IEA FHA IA JE@ 2 H A A ?KO HAIK J=@ AI K

I a b F=H= IE F E ?=H

(Z, +) AI K CHKF ? KJ=JEL ?K= GKEAH ? LAHE ?= @ =I FH FEA@=@AI E = EL AI K CHKF I GKA = ? IJHKEH I AH I A JAH I DA I = AH I =JKH= AI F=H= GKA = FAH=?E HAIJ= JA C= F 5 7 AI K = @EBAHA ?E= @A AH I =JKH= AI AH =JKH= FAH I K AH A JAH 2 Z
= FAH=?E @A = IK = =JA @EA @ = = EH JH= FAH=?E I >HA I AH I A JAH I AH I A JAH I a, b Z IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH A

,A = EI = = AH= GKA ? ?=IK IJE?= @A IEC IA FKA@A @A GKA AI A FH @K?J @=@ I @ I FH @K?J @A = > I a b Z

K J @A HAC =I IK ?EA JAI F=H= @A EH A FH @K?J ab @A ?K= GKEAH F=H @A AH I A JAH I a, b Z =JA @EA @ = =I @EIJE J=I F IE>E E@=@AI F=H= I IEC I @A a O b
- AIJ= FAH=?E IA JEA A =I EI =I FH FEA@=@AI GKA A N  FH FEA@=@ =I ?E=JEL= (a b) c = a (b c) F=H= ?K= AIGKEAH= a, b, c Z  ANEIJA ?E= @A A A A J AKJH ANEIJA K A JAH 1 Z J= GKA F=H= ?K= GKEAH AH A JAH a 1 = 1 a = a ! FH FEA@=@ ? KJ=JEL= F=H= ?K= GKEAH F=HA = @A A JAH I a, b Z IA JEA A GKA a b = b a 2AH AI ? =H GKA A CA AH= ANEIJA A A A J E LAHI F H A A F A E LAHI @A AH A JAH 2 @A>AH = IAH A AH 1/2 GKA AI K AH A JAH  = IK?AIEL= = F E=?E @A Z F=H= GKA = @ELEIE IA= K = FAH=?E GKA JA C= IA JE@ AI ? IJHKEH A ? K J @A I AH I H=?E = AI Q  =I @ I FAH=?E AI = IK = O A FH @K?J HA =?E =@=I F H = FH FEA@=@ @EIJHE>KJEL= GKA@= ECK= GKA A

- AH?E?E #" ,AI?HE>EH K ?

" FH FEA@=@ @EIJHE>KJEL= F=H= ?K= AIGKEAH= a, b, c Z IA JEA A GKA a (b + c) = a b + a c - J ?AI @A?E I GKA (Z, +, ) AI K = E ? KJ=JEL @A KAL ?K= GKEAH ? K J ? @ I FAH=?E AI LAHE ?= @ =I FH FEA@=@AI E = EL O  = " AI K = E ? KJ=JEL 

6- 4- ) ,- ) ,18151

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- AIJK@E @A =I AIJHK?JKH=I = CA>H=E?=I AI E F HJ= JA O =>HA J @ A ?= F @A =I =JA JE?=I ? ?E@ ? CA>H= +=FJ= = AIJHK?JKH= FH BK @= @A I ? K J I @ J=@ I @A FAH=?E AI O FAH EJA @AI?HE>EH IKI FH FEA@=@AI O AIJK@E=H ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I CA AH= AI - CA>H= AI A J ?AI A AIJK@E @A =I HAC =I @A KAC ? A AI I KAC I @A AI= GKA IA FHAIA J= ? @EIJE J =IFA?J FAH = AAH IKI HAC =I @AI?K>HE I K KAC O= ? ?E@

FH >=H GKA =I =JHE?AI @A J= = 2 2 ? ? A ?EA JAI A JAH I I K = E ? KJ=JEL AIJ AI A FH @K?J AI ? KJ=JEL  ? = IK = O A FH @K?J D=>EJK= AI @A =JHE?AI

- AH?E?E ## +

6A HA = @A = @ELEIE

)K GKA A A = E @A I AH I A JAH I IA FKA@A @ELE@EH F HGKA I ? ?EA JAI I A JAH I I IA FKA@A D=?AH K = @ELEIE A JAH= >JA E @ IA K ? ?EA JA O K HAIJ -IJ= @ELEIE I L= = FAH EJEH F H K =@ ? IJHKEH K = C HEJ F=H= A ? ?K @A NE ? @ELEI H @A @ I AH I IE A?AIE@=@ @A B=?J HE =H I O F H JH AIJ=> A?AH K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= = ? CHKA ?E= @K K A JAH ? E JAHAI= JAI KJE E@=@AI F=H= JH=>= =H A = E I F=HA?E@ I = I A JAH I FAH ? K = ?= JE@=@ EJ= @A AA A J I ) JAI @A K A J AI O I @A = I A K ?E=H O @A IJH=H A JA HA = @A HAIJ @A>A I @AJA AH I = HA ANE =H I >HA A H@A GKA FHAIA J= I AH I =JKH= AH I A JAH I )K GKA L LAHA I I >HA A =I A A ?=F JK $ GKA AI K = HA =?E @A H@A

K J IA @A A K = HA =?E A A ? K J A? K IK>? K J R @A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= A A = {(a, b) : a, b A} @A @ GKA @ I A A A J I a, b A AIJ HA =?E =@ I IE O I = A JA IE = F=HA = (a, b) AIJ A R

,A

E?E

 5A= A K ?

{1, 2, 3, 4} ?

-A F I!

2 @A

I @A

EH K = HA =?E

A ?

K J

EJ A =

R = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (1, 2)},

AI @A?EH A  IA HA =?E = ? A  = LA?AI AI?HEJ 1R1 O ? A IA HA =?E = ? A   4 A 1R2 O

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7 = HA =?E D=>EJK= AI = GKA @A A I AH I H=?E = AI 6 A I A ? K J @A =I BH=??E AI F = {p/q : p, q Z, q = 0} O @A E I = HA =?E R @A @ GKA p/q IA HA =?E = ? r/s IE O I = A JA IE ps = qr FH @K?J @A A@E I AI ECK= = FH @K?J @A ANJHA I

R F=H= ?=@= a @A A EE ) JEIE JHE?= IE (a, b) R O (b, a) R A J ?AI a = b EEE 6H= IEJEL= IE a IA HA =?E = ? b O b IA HA =?E = ? c A J ?AI a IA HA =?E = ? c AI @A?EH IE (a, b) R O (b, c) R A J ?AI (a, c) R
- A ? K J @A I AH I =JKH= AI D=O K = HA =?E @A H@A @A J=@= ? A IEC F H = GKA F H A A F 5 3 O 100 34 O GKA IA FKA@A @A EH @A = IECKEA JA = AH= @=@ I a, b N IA @E?A GKA b a IE >EA b = a >EA ANEIJA K AH =JKH= c J= GKA b = a + c -IJA H@A = EA J @A I AH I =JKH= AI IA IKA A HAFHAIA J=H I >HA K = IA EHHA?J= D=?E= = @AHA?D= I L= HAI =O HAI

,A E?E ! ! 5A= A K ? K J K = HA =?E R A A IA @E?A GKA AI @A H@A IE LAHE ?= =I FH FEA@=@AI E 4A ANEL= a IA HA =?E = ? a F=H= ?K= GKEAH a A A AIJ AI (a, a)

... ...

+ IE@AHA I N+ Z = LA?AI @EHA I IA ?E = A JA N Z =I H@A =@ IAC A H@A = JAHE H A JA @AI?HEJ 8= I = ANJA @AH @E?D H@A = I AH I A JAH I @A = AH= GKA IA HAIFAJA A H@A GKA JA A I A + N = HA =?E @A H@A IA @A EH @A = IECKEA JA = AH= IA= a, b Z A J ?AI a b IE O I = A JA IE a b N+ {0} -IJA H@A I >HA A ? K J @A I AH I A JAH I IA IKA A HAFHAIA J=H A K = HA?J= D=?E= = @AHA?D= I L= HAI =O HAI

... ...

... ...

7 JA HA = BK @= A J= I >HA A ?

K J N AI A IECKEA JA

" +=@= IK>? K J L=? A @A N JEA A K A A A J E m A @A = AH= GKA F=H= ?=@= A A A J n A IA JEA A GKA n m ,E?D A A A J m AI =@A I E?

6A HA = !

6- 4- ) ,- ) ,18151

 '

,A IJH=?E 5KF C= I GKA A JEA A E A J ?AI @A IJH= I F H E @K??E ? F AJ= GKA N A = N GKA GKEAHA @A?EH GKA A AI A ? K J L=? + A JEA A E A J ?AI 1 / A AIJ AI 1 N A 5A JEA A = >=IA @A E @K??E )D H= >EA IE 1 / A 2 / A n / A A J ?AI s(n) / A FKAI IAH = E ,A AIJA @ IA JEA A A F=I @A E @K??E O F H J= J A = 0A I @A IJH=@ = ANEIJA ?E= @A K E LA= I IK K E?E@=@ 5E m O m I E I A J ?AI IA JEA A GKA m m O m m F H GKA m = m 2 H J= J A E AI E?
5E a b O a = b AI?HE>EHA = AH= @A AI?HE>EH a b

J=?E

Ia>b

= ANFHAIE

b a AI JH=

>IAHL=?E ! # - 1 O A 1 I I E? I AH I A JAH I GKA JEA A E LAHI F=H= A FH @K?J 1 1 = (1) (1) = 1 -IJ I @ I AH I IA @A E = K E@=@AI @A = E @A I A JAH I ) F=HJEH @A =D H= JH=>= =HA I IEA FHA ? AH I F IEJEL I 2=H= ?= >E=H A IEC = K AH >=IJ= K JEF E?=H F H  K FH ?AI B ?E A JA HALAHIE> A -IJ E @E?= GKA JH=>= =H ? AH I F IEJEL I F=H= = @ELEIE AI K = CH=LA HAIJHE??E
;= AIJ= IA ? @E?E AI @A A K ?E=H O @A IJH=H A JA HA = @A HAIJ

$ 5A= a O b @ I AH I A JAH I F IEJEL I A J ?AI ANEIJA @ I A JAH I q ? ?EA JA O r HAIJ  E? I J= AI GKA q 0 0 r < b O IA JEA A = ANFHAIE a = bq + r
AIJ AI @ELE@A @ AI ECK= = @ELEI H F H ? ?EA JA ,A I HAIJ

6A HA = !

IJH=?E + A = I @A IJH= @ = ANEIJA ?E= @A q O r 5E a < b A J ?AI q = 0 O r = a LAHE ?= =I DEF JAIEI 5E a = b A J ?AI q = 1 O r = 0 LAHE ?= =I DEF JAIEI 5E a > b A J ?AI J = I A ? K J A = {a nb : n N} (N+ {0}) GKA AI K IK>? K J L=? @A N+ {0} 2 H J= J 0 A O AI K AA A J E 0 / A O A JA HA = = JAHE H C=H= JE = GKA A JEA A K AA A J E ,A E = I r A = E ,A AIJA @ ANEIJA q N J= GKA a qb = r

! GKA AI EI

+)2 67

)416

61+)

,7 )4

a = qb + r.
2=H= @A IJH=H GKA r < b IA H= = F H HA@K??E + A J ?AI r = b + l ? l N {0} @A @ GKA = =>IKH@ 5E r b

a = (q + 1)b + l
A J ?AI l AI K A A A J @A A AIJHE?J= A JA A H GKA r A ? JH=@E??E ? GKA r AI A E @A A = K E?E@=@ AI ? IA?KA ?E= A I FHE AH I ?=I I @A = @AIECK= @=@

ab
O A A JE @A = K E?E@=@ @A @A A @E AHA A K JEF @A b E O @A DA?D @A GKA @ I A A A J I

! ! ,ELEIE>E E@=@
+

?@ O B=?J HE =?E

O= DA I IA = =@ = ANEIJA ?E= @A E LAHI F=H= A FH @K?J @A AH I A JAH I D=?A GKA = FAH=?E @A @ELEIE IA FKA@= HA= E =H IEA FHA ECK= GKA IA FKA@A ABA?JK=H IEA FHA = HAIJ= A I AH I =JKH= AI )K GKA IA FKA@A @ELE@EH " A JHA O >JA AH K AH A JAH IE A >=HC = @ELEIE # A JHA ! IA FKA@A ABA?JK=H I F @A I >JA AH K ? ?EA JA O K HAIJ IAC A JA HA = = JAI @A IJH=@  -IJ @= KC=H = K = ?E E JAHAI= JA GKA AI = @A @ELEIE>E E@=@

! !  ,A
,A E?E

E?E

AI > IE?=I

AH I A JAH I IA @E?A GKA a @ELE@A = b O IA AI?HE>A a|b IE ANEIJA K AH A JAH c J= GKA b = a c 6= >E @A?E I GKA b AI JEF @A a GKA a AI K B=?J H @A b
-I @A?EH A A ?=I @ELEIE> A IA FKA@A ABA?JK=H = @ELEIE b A JHA a O IA >JEA A K AH A JAH AIJ AI = D=?AH = @ELEIE A JAH= A JHA b O a A HAIJ AI 

! !  5A= a, b @ I

-A F

@ELE@A = !"

!!

AH A JAH 12 @ELE@A = 60 F HGKA 60 = 5 12 FAH 12

!!

,18151*1 1,),

+, ; .)+6 41 )+1

!

F H 1 O F H 1

>IAHL=?E

!!! 6@

AH A JAH a Z AI @ELEIE> A F H a F H a AH A JAH K a Z AIJ AI F=H= ?=@= x Z IA

LAHE ?= |d| |a| @ @A |x| AI A L= H =>I KJ JEA A |x| = x IE x 0 O |x| = x IE x < 0

>IAHL=?E

! ! " +=@= @ELEI H d @A K

AH FHE E?E ! ! # 7 A JAH F IEJEL a = 1 IA @E?A GKA AI K IE IKI E? I B=?J HAI F IEJEL I I a O 1 5E a JEA A K B=?J H F IEJEL @EIJE J @A a @A 1 IA @E?A GKA AI ? FKAIJ ,A -A F
? FKAIJ I

!!$

I A JAH I 5 13 O 19 I

AH I FHE

I 125 O 258 I

!!

) C HEJ

@A -K? E@AI F=H= ?= ?K =H A

?@

+ IA @A@K?A @A =I @ I >IAHL=?E AI @A F HH=B = JAHE H A ? K J @A @ELEI HAI F IEJEL I @A K AH =JKH= a AI K ? K J L=? O= GKA = A I a O 1 I @ELEI HAI @A a O EJ O= GKA AIJ ? JA E@ A A ? K J {a, a + 1, ..., a 1, a} F H GKA JEA A IA JE@ = IECKEA JA @A E?E

,A

NE ? @ELEI HAI ?

E?E

! ! % ,=@ I @ I

AH I A JAH I F IEJEL I a O b IA @A A A @ELEI H @A a O b O IA AI?HE>A mcd(a, b) ? A =O H @A I K AI @A a O b

8= I = @AI=HH =H K = C HEJ F=H= ?= ?K =H A ?@ @A @ I AH I -I K = C HEJ ? IE? ? ?E@ ? = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI A?AIEJ=HA I F=H= AIJ= ? IJHK??E A IECKEA JA A =

mcd(a, b) = mcd(b, r) @

A = ! ! & ,=@ I @ I

AH I A JAH I F IEJEL I a O b a > b A J @A r AI A HAIJ @A @ELE@EH a A JHA b

?AI

,A IJH=?E 8= I = @A IJH=H GKA A ? K J @A @ELEI HAI ? K AI = = O > AI ECK= GKA A ? K J @A @ELEI HAI ? K AI = > O = H -IJ E F E?= GKA mcd(a, b) = mcd(b, r) - ABA?J IE p @ELE@A = a O = b A J ?AI ANEIJA AH I A JAH I s, t Z J= AI GKA a = ps b = pt,

!

+)2 67

)416

61+)

,7 )4

@A @ GKA = ECK= @=@ GKA @= A JA HA = @A HAIJ a = qb + r IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH ? r = a qb = ps qpt = p(s qt) GKA @A KAIJH= GKA p @ELE@A = = r 4A? FH ?= A JA IE p @ELE@A = b O = r A J ?AI

b = pt
? ?K=

r = pu,

a = qb + r = qpt + pu = p(qt + u),

GKA @A KAIJH= GKA p @ELE@A = a -IJ = E = = @A IJH=?E @A A =

2 H J= J IE @ELE@E I a A JHA b A FH > A = @A ?= ?K =H A mcd(a, b) IA HA@K?A = ? ?K @A mcd(b, r) GKA I =D H= AH I I FAGKA I F H A JA HA = @A = @ELEIE KAL= A JA F @A I @ELE@EH b A JHA r O >JA AH K HAIJ r1 F H GKA A FH > A = AI ?= ?K =H A mcd(r, r1 ) )I IK?AIEL= A JA IA L= ?= ?K = @ r2 r3 GKA I AH I A JAH I F IEJEL I GKA L= @A?HA ?EA @ r1 > r2 > r3 ... AC=H A J ?AI K A J A A GKA rn = 0 AIJ E F E?= GKA rn1 @ELE@A = rn2 A HAIJ @A = @ELEIE AI rn = 0 O A J ?AI A mcd(a, b) = mcd(rn2 , rn1 ) = rn1

-A F
,ELE@E

! ! ' += ?K =H A

NE

@ELEI H @A  # O &&%

I &&% A JHA  # F=H= >JA AH

8872 = 125 70 + 122

GKA E @E?= GKA

mcd(8872, 125) = mcd(125, 122).

,ELE@E I  # A JHA 

125 = 122 1 + 3.
2 H J= J

mcd(125, 122) = mcd(122, 3)

!!

,18151*1 1,),

+, ; .)+6 41 )+1

!!

,A KAL

122 = 3 40 + 2,
O F H J= J

mcd(122, 3) = mcd(3, 2).

JH= LA

3 = 2 1 + 1,
GKA IEC E ?=

mcd(3, 2) = mcd(2, 1).

- HAIJ @A @ELE@EH F H  AI IEA FHA  F H IA IKA A E @E?=H ? GKA &&% O  # I FHE I GKA A mcd(8872, 125) = 1 -IJ FHE I A JHA I  HA =JEL= A JA

,A

E?E ! !  5E @ I mcd(a, b) = 1 IA @E?A FHE

I A JHA I  HA =JEL= A JA FHE

AH I A JAH I F IEJEL I a, b Z LAHE ?= GKA I @A -K? E@AI A mcd(247, 9981)

@A J=HA I a mod b ?

- AH?E?E #$ += ?K = F H A = C HEJ
IA = =

J=?E

) HAIJ @A @ELE@EH a A JHA b I A A ?=F JK = JAHE H

- AH?E?E #% -I?HE>A A FIAK@ ? @EC A = C HEJ A = ! !  @A *A KJ 5A= a, b Z @ I A JAH I s O t J= AI GKA

@A -K? E@AI

AH I A JAH I F IEJEL I ANEIJA

mcd(a, b) = sa + tb.
,A IJH=?E -I K = ? IA?KA ?E= @A = C HEJ GKA IKF EA @ GKA a b JA = I K = ANFHAIE
@A -K? E@AI HA? H@A @A = B H = I

a = q0 b + r0 b = q1 r 0 + r 1 r0 = q2 r1 + r2

!"

+)2 67

)416

61+)

,7 )4

rn3 = qn1 rn2 + rn1 rn2 = qn rn1

@ @A rn1 = mcd(a, b) 8= I = @A IJH=H GKA F=H= ?=@= ri i 0 ANEIJA A JAH I si O ti @A @ GKA ri = si a + ti b.

-IJ ? ? KOA A A = F HGKA rn1 = mcd(a, b) = @A IJH=?E GKA L= I = FHAIA J=H AI @A = CK = = AH= ? IJHK? JEL= 5E @AIFA = I rn1 A = FA JE = ECK= @=@ ANFHAI= I A mcd(a, b) ? ? >E =?E E A= A JAH= @A rn3 O rn2 AIJ GKEAHA @A?EH GKA ANEI JA @ I AH I A JAH I A O B @A @ GKA mcd(a, b) = Arn3 + Brn2  5E L= I @AIFA = @ rn2 A = IECKEA JA ECK= @=@ rn3 A = = JAHE H O HA?KHHA JA A JA L= I IKIJEJKOA @ A =I ANFHAIE AI = JAHE HAI = = ANFHAI= I mcd(a, b) ? ? >E =?E E A= A JAH= @A a O b GKA AI KIJ= A JA GKA GKAHA I . H = E = I A H= = EA J F H E @K??E ? F AJ= A i - ?=I i = 0 AI ?EAHJ FKAIJ GKA

r0 = a q0 b.
2 H J= J s0 = 1 O t0 = q0 . - ?=I i = 1 AI J= >E ?EAHJ FKAIJ GKA r1 = b q1 r0 ,A AIJA IKIJEJKOA @ = ECK= @=@ = JAHE H JA A I @

r1 = b q1 (a q0 b) = (1 + q1 q0 )b q1 a.
2 H J= J s1 = q1 O t1 = 1 + q1 q0 8A= I =D H= GKA IE A A = AI ?EAHJ F=H= ?K= GKEAH L= H AIJHE?J= A JA A H GKA i J= >E AI F=H= i - ABA?J JA A I ri = ri2 qi ri1 . 7I= @ = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E F=H= ri1 O ri2 IA >JEA A

ri = (si2 a + ti2 b) qi (si1 a + ti1 b).

2 H J= J

ai = si2 qi si1

!! O

,18151*1 1,),

+, ; .)+6 41 )+1

!#

bi = ti2 qi ti1
D=?A GKA IA LAHE GKA A A =

-A F


! !  -NFHAI=H A mcd(35, 20) ?

AI @A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI

>E =?E

E A= @A !# O

=I ANFHAIE

35 = 20 1 + 15 20 = 15 1 + 5
- J ?AI @AIFA = @ A # A = IACK @= ECK= @=@ >JA A I 5 = 20 15 1 ,AIFA = @ A # A = FHE AH= ECK= @=@ 15 = 35 20 1 5KIJEJKOA @ A IACK @ L= H A = FHE AH= ECK= @=@ 5 = 20 (35 20 1 AI @A?EH

5 = 2 20 + (1) 35.

+ H =HE ! ! ! 5A= a, b Z @ I

AH I AC=JEL I 5E 1 < p < ab AI K A JAH F IEJEL GKA @ELE@A = FH @K?J ab O mcd(a, p) = 1 A J ?AI p @ELE@A = b
A = @A *A KJ IA @A@K?A GKA

,A IJH=?E + mcd(a, p) = 1 @A ANEIJA A JAH I s, t Z @A @ GKA

1 = sa + tp.
K JEF E?= @ F H b IA >JEA A GKA

b = sab + tpb.
+

p @ELE@A = ab IA JEA A GKA ANEIJA c Z J= GKA ab = pc @A AIJA b = spc + tpb = p(sc + tb).

; F H J= J p @ELE@A = b

+ H =HE ! ! " 5A= p p1

p1 ...pn A J

pn AH I FHE I 5E p @ELE@A = FH @K?J ?AI ANEIJA i J= GKA 1 i n O p = pi

!$

+)2 67

)416

61+)

,7 )4

,A FHE

IJH=?E 4= = I F H E @K??E A n GKA AI A AH @A B=?J HAI I 5E n = 1 A ? H =HE AI JHELE= F H @A E?E @A AH FHE 5E p @ELE@A = p1 ...pn pn+1 A J ?AI = = @ a = FH @K?J p1 ...pn JA A I GKA p @ELE@A = FH @K?J apn+1 5E mcd(a, p) = 1 A J ?AI F H A ? H =HE = JAHE H p AI K AH FHE GKA @ELE@A = pn GKA J= >E AI FHE 2 H J= J ? ? KE I GKA p = pn 2 @A I A J ?AI IKF AH r = mcd(a, p) = 1 - F=HJE?K =H r @ELE@A = p O ? r = 1 O p AI FHE A J ?AI r = p ,A AIJA @ r = p @ELE@A = a = p1 ...pn O IA ? ? KOA F H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E

! ! ! .=?J HE =?E
.E = E = I AIJ= IA??E ? K = FH FEA@=@ BK @= A J= @A I AH I A JAH I = @A = B=?J HE =?E E?= ? FH @K?J @A AH I FHE I -IJ AI ?=@= AH A JAH IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH @A B H = E?= ? FH @K?J @A AH I FHE I

AH A JAH a 2 FKA@A AI?HE>EHIA @A B H = I= L F IE> AI HA H@A = EA J I ? FH @K?J @A AH I FHE I

a2 an 1 a = pa 1 p2 ...pn

6A HA = ! ! # 6 @

E?=

@ @A pn I

AH I a1 an I AH I =JKH= AI K I O p1 p2 AH I FHE I @EIJE J I ) = ANFHAIE @A a @A =HHE>= IA A = = B=?J HE =?E FHE = @A a @AI? F IE?E A B=?J HAI FHE I @A a ,A IJH=?E 4A= E?A I K = C HEJ F=H= B=?J HE =H A AH A JAH a 2 -IJA = C HEJ HA? CA A FH ?A@E EA J ? IE? @A EH FH >= @ ? I AH I FHE I A HAI GKA A AH GKA GKAHA I B=?J HE =H D=IJ= A ? JH=H >EA GKA AC= I D=IJ= a GKA AI F H J= J FHE >EA GKA >JA A I K B=?J H p GKA A?AI=HE= A JA AI FHE FKAI AI A FHE AH GKA A ? JH= I - AIJ= IACK @= F IE>E E@=@ @ELE@E I a/p F H O A FA = I @A KAL A FH ?AI ? A ? ?EA JA a/p
- JH=@= a a > 2 i := 2 MDE A a mod i = 0 i := i + 1 1B i < a JDA r :=E AI B=?J H @A a A IA r :== AI FHE

!!

,18151*1 1,), 5= E@= r - ?=I @A GKA a

+, ; .)+6 41 )+1

!%

BKAH= FHE

HAFAJE

I A FH ?AI ?

A ? ?EA JA a/i

-A F

! ! $ += ?K A

I = B=?J HE =?E

@A !#

+ !# AI F=H AI @ELEIE> A F H 5E @ELE@E I A JHA ! >JA A I GKA 135 = 3 45 2 H J= J ! AI K B=?J H FHE @A !# 4AE E?E= I A = C HEJ ? "#  D=?A B= J= FH >=H ? I FHE I GKA @ELE@ = = AH @A F=HJE@= F HGKA FKA@A @ELE@EH = ? ?EA JA LAH A AH?E?E IECKEA JA ,A KAL AI @ELEIE> A A JHA ! AIJ AI 45 = 3 15 - ? ?EA JA @A KAL AI @ELEIE> A A JHA ! 15 = 3 5 ; 5 AI K AH FHE 135 = 33 5

- AH?E?E #& 5A= a, b, c A JAH I F IEJEL I 5KF C=

,A b IJH=H GKA IE a @ELE@A = c A J ?AI a

I GKA b @ELE@A = c @ELE@A = ? ?EA JA @A c A JHA

- = C HEJ FHAIA J=@ KAIJH= = ANEIJA ?E= @A = B=?J HE =?E @A>A I ? FH >=H =D H= = K E?E@=@ @A = EI = 4= = I F H HA@K??E = =>IKH@ 5KF C= I GKA = B=?J HE =?E AI E?= A J ?AI
a2 b1 an bm 1 a = pa 1 p2 ... pn = q1 ... qm .

2 H J= J >EA ANEIJA qi @EIJE J = ?K= GKEAH= @A I pj GKA AI K = ? JH=@E??E F HGKA A J ?AI F H K =@ qi @ELE@A = a O F H A JH qi @ELE@A = a =GK IA AIJ KI= @ A ? H =HE ! ! " >EA n = m O HA H@A = @ IE AI A?AI=HE p1 = q1 pn = qn O ANEIJA ai = bi 5KF C= I GKA ai > bi IE BKAH= =I A H= = EA J IA D=H = i ?= >E= @ I F=FA AI @A = a O = b A J ?AI J = @ A ? ?EA JA c := a/pb i IA JEA A GKA F H K =@ pi @ELE@A = c O F H A JH pi @ELE@A = c O= GKA c AI FH @K?J @A FHE I @EIJE J I @A pi =GK @A KAL IA AIJ KI= @ A ? H =HE ! ! " GKA AI K = ? JH=@E??E 2 H J= J ? ? KE J= J = ANEIJA ?E= ? I = @A IJH=?E @A JA HA = = D=>AH @A = K E?E@=@ @A = B=?J HE =?E @A a IJH=@

!& = IECKEA JA FH F IE?E @A B=?J HE =?E

+)2 67 =K A J=

)416

61+)

,7 )4

J=> A A JA = A ?EA ?E= @A = C HEJ

2H F IE?E
p=1
A

! ! % 6 @
ECK= GKA

AH A JAH ?

FKAIJ a JEA A K B=?J H FHE

I GKA J @ I + a AI

,A IJH=?E 4= = I F H HA@K??E = =>IKH@ 5KF C= I B=?J HAI FHE I @A a I AIJHE?J= A JA =O HAI GKA a ? FKAIJ JA A I an 1 a = pa 1 ... pn

@ @A >EA a1 > 1 >EA n > 1  = >=I ? I=I - ?K= GKEAH= @A I ?=I I ? DA I IKFKAIJ GKA pi > a F=H= ?=@= i = 1...n IA JEA A GKA a > ( a)2 > a GKA AI K = ? JH=@E??E 8A= IK AA F @ @A IA KAIJH= = KJE E@=@ @A A =

-A F

! ! & .=?J HE?A

I &&%

+ AI K AH F=H 8872 = 2 4436 - ? ?EA JA AI @A KAL F=H 8872 = 22 2218 O @A KAL 8872 = 23 1109 + 1109 = 33.3001 @A>A I FH >=H ? I FHE I A HAI ECK= AI GKA ! GKA I ! # %  ! % ' ! ' O ! -I K = ? FH >=?E LAH GKA E CK @A A I @ELE@A F H J= J ' AI FHE O = @AI? F IE?E AI

8872 = 23 1109.
? >IAHL=H = A H= GKA D= E JH @K?E@ A DA?D @A I I FHE I D=IJ= = H= @A ' JA AH GKA FH >=H

- AH?E?E #' .=?J HE = $#!

= HA =?E @A @ELEIE>E E@=@ O I >HA J @ = FHE = E@=@ @A AH I A JAH I I ? ?AFJ I FH BK @= A JA EC=@ I = = IACKHE@=@ E B H JE?= A GKA IA @A E = ?HEFJ CH=B = HABAHA JA = = JH= I EIE @A A I= AI ? @E ?=@ I F=H= F @AH IAH @AI?EBH=@ I F H K = A = IEIJA = = E@A= BK @= A J= AI GKA I = C HEJ I GKA IA ? ?A F=H= I=>AH IE K AH AI FHE FHA?EI= @A =IE=@ JEA F -IJ F=HA?A E @E?=H GKA IE IA A L = K AH FHE  ? FKAIJ  IK ?EA JA A JA CH= @A K F IE> A HA?AFJ H E @AIA=@

!"

4- )+1

-5 ,- +

/47- +1)

!'

@A A I= A L= = IAH ?=F= @A I=>AH IE A AH AI FHE ANJH=AH IKI B=?J HAI - FH > A = @A = @EIJHE>K?E @A I FHE I A A ? K J @A I A JAH I AI @A?EH A @A ? ?AH A FHE A IE FAH = A?A EIJAHE I = FAI=H @A IAH K = ?KAIJE GKA D= B=I?E =@ = =JA JE? I @A J @=I =I F ?=I = @ELEIE A JAH= I =>HA A ?= F @A = =HEJ JE?= @K =H GKA AI A HAIK J=@ @A AIJ=> A?AH K =I HA =?E AI @A AGKEL= A ?E= A I A JAH I F=H= ? IJHKEH JH I = E I ? K AH EJ @A A A A J I O FH FEA@=@AI KO E JAHAI= JAI

!"

4A =?E

AI @A ?

CHKA ?E=
JE ?=F JK @A =

)K GKA L LAHA I I >HA A =I A FH BK @E@=@ A A I GKA AI K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E=

R F=H= ?=@= a @A A EE 5E JHE?= IE a IA HA =?E = ? b A J ?AI b IA HA =?E = ? a AIJ AI IE (a, b) R A J ?AI (b, a) R EEE 6H= IEJEL= IE a IA HA =?E = ? b O b IA HA =?E = ? c A J ?AI a IA HA =?E = ? c AI @A?EH IE (a, b) R O (b, c) R A J ?AI (a, c) R

,A E?E ! "  5A= A K ? K J K = HA =?E R A A IA @E?A GKA AI @A AGKEL= A ?E= IE LAHE ?= =I FH FEA@=@AI E 4A ANEL= a IA HA =?E = ? a F=H= ?K= GKEAH a A A AIJ AI (a, a)

,A

E?E ! " 5A= Z A ? K J @A I AH I A JAH I O p Z K AH A JAH p > 1 ,A E I = HA =?E @A ? CHKA ?E= @K p GKA @A J= I a b mod p @A = IECKEA JA = AH= a AI ? CHKA JA ? b @K p IE O I = A JA IE a b AI JEF @A p
A JA IE a mod p

>IAHL=?E

! " ! 5E a O b I
b mod p

F IEJEL I A J

?AI a b mod p IE O I = = JAHE H E@= AI K = HA =

- AH?E?E $ ,A 2H F IE?E
?E @A AGKEL= A ?E=

IJH=H = LAH=?E@=@ @A = >IAHL=?E @A ?

! " " = HA =?E

CHKA ?E= = JAI @A

"

+)2 67

)416

61+)

,7 )4

,A

IJH=?E

,A>A

I?

FH >=H =I JHAI FH FEA@=@AI

LAHE ?= a a = 0 = 0 p 5E JHE?= 5E a b mod p A J ?AI ANEIJA K A JAH c @A @ GKA a b = pc @A AIJA @ b a = p(c) ? GKA b a mod p 6H= IEJEL= 5E a b mod p O b c mod p A J ?AI ANEIJA q, r Z J= AI GKA a b = pq

4A ANEL= 5A JEA A = FH FEA@=@ HA ANEL= O= GKA F=H= ?=@= a Z IA

b c = pr.
5K = @ = >=I HA =?E AI IA >JEA A

a c = (a b) + (b c) = pq + pr = p(q + r).
+ GKA a c mod p ? GKAH = I @A IJH=H

- AH?E?E $ +

FH >=H =I IECKEA JAI HA =?E

AI @A ?

CHKA ?E=

2 4 mod 2 13 2 mod 5 15 3 mod 3.

= IECKEA JA FH F IE?E >IAHL= GKA =I FAH=?E AI @A = =HEJ JE?= A JAH= AIJ AI IK = O FH @K?J HAIFAJ= AIJ= HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= 2 H J= J IA FKA@A D=> =H @A =HEJ JE?= @K =H -I @A?EH IA FKA@A D=?AH IK =I O FH @K?J I @K K ?EAHJ A JAH

2H F IE?E

AH I A JAH I ? GKA a c mod p O b d mod p 5A LAHE ?= GKA E a + b c + d mod p EE ab cd mod p.

! " # 5A= a, b, c, d, p Z

p > 1 J= AI

- AH?E?E $ 7I=H = @A E?E

?E = JAHE H

@A ?

CHKA ?E= F=H= @A

IJH=H = FH F IE

-A F
I ! A ?

A I = HA =?E @A ? CHKA ?E= @K # - FA?A I EH= @ I AH I F IEJEL I + a b mod 5 IE O = A JA IE A HAIJ @A @ELE@EH a b A JHA # AI A EI F H = >IAHL=?E " ! I E JAHAI= I=>AH ?K J=I F IE>E E@=@AI ANEIJA F=H= @E?D HAIJ 2 H JA HA = @A = @ELEIE A JAH= A L= H @A HAIJ @A @ELE@EH F H # AI K AH FHA @E@ A JHA  O " ,A AIJ= = AH= =F=HA?A = JH=>= =H @K # I

!"$ 6

!"

4- )+1

-5 ,- +

/47- +1)

"

AH I GKA @= HAIJ  = @ELE@EH F H # AI @A?EH I JEF I @A # I GKA @= HAIJ  I GKA @= HAIJ ! " - AIJA IA JE@ = J =H HA =?E @K # IA JEA A # A A A J I I GKA IA HA =?E = ? A  ? A  ? A "

0 5 10 15 20... 1 6 11 16 21... 2 7 12 17 22... 3 8 13 18 23... 4 9 14 19 24...

AH I AC=JEL I J= >E

mod mod mod mod mod

I

5 5 5 5 5
@A = CK @A AI I JEF I

4 1 6 11 16... mod 5 3 2 7 12 17... mod 5 2 3 8 13 18... mod 5 1 4 9 14 19... mod 5 0 5 10 15 20... mod 5

-IJ E @E?= GKA F=H= D=?AH FAH=?E AI ? K A JAH a @K K ?EAHJ AH p F @A I KJE E =H A HAIJ @A @ELE@EH a F H p -IJ= A A??E IE F E ?= =I FAH=?E AI 2 H A A F IE GKAHA I K JEF E?=H @K # I AH I %"  O  "#' A KC=H @A D=?AH = K JEF E?=?E @EHA?J= A JA J = I I HAIJ I @K # O =I 7421 124592 1 2 2 mod 5.

- AH?E?E $!

FAH=

@K

>JA EA @ K HAIK J=@ A JHA  O $

2345 + 214 432,

2419 + 987.
IA A

= B H = E =?E @A AIJ I ? ?AFJ I I >HA = GKA FH BK @E =HA ?=F JK $ IA A ?KA JH= A =I IECKEA JAI @A E?E AI

E?E ! " % 5A= A K ? K J O K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= A A 2=H= ?=@= A A A J a A IA @A A = ? =IA @A AGKEL= A ?E= @A a O A ? K J @A J @ I =GKA I A A A J I @A IA @A J= F H C (a) F H a ? A GKA IA HA =?E = ? a
a = {b A : b a}.

,A

"

+)2 67

)416

61+)

,7 )4

,A
?

! " & 5A= A K ? K J O K = HA =?E A 5A @A A A ? K J ? ?EA JA @A A F H = HA =?E

A ? K J @A =I ? =IAI @A AGKEL= A ?E=

E?E

@A AGKEL= A ?E= A @A AGKEL= A ?E=

A/ = {a : a A}.
- J ?AI = =HEJ JE?= @K K A JAH F IEJEL p I =I FAH=?E AI GKA IA HA= E = A A ? K J ? ?EA JA @A Z F H = HA =?E @A ? CHKA ?E= @K p ) AIJA ? K J ? ?EA JA @A J=HA I Zp O =JA @EA @ = =I ? IE@AH=?E AI = JAHE HAI

Zp = {0, 1, ..., p 1}.

-A F

! " ' -IJK@EA

I =I FAH=?E

AI @A IK = O FH @K?J A Z7

-IJ B H =@ F H % ? =IAI @A AGKEL= A ?E=

Z7 = {0, 1, ..., 6}.

- = ? =IA @A AGKEL= A ?E= @A 0 AIJ I JEF I @A % - = ? =IA @A AGKEL= A ?E= @A 1 AIJ J @ I I AH I F IEJEL I GKA @= HAIJ  = @ELE@EH F H % F H A A F & # )@A I A $ !  ; =I A ?=@= ? =IA @A AGKEL= A ?E= 2=H= IK =H >=IJ= I=>AH GKA ?KHHA = D=?AH =I IK =I @K % @A I AH I @A  = $ O EI F=H= A FH @K?J HAFHAIA J= I A @ I J=> =I

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 0

2 2 3 4 5 6 0 1

3 3 4 5 6 0 1 2

4 4 5 6 0 1 2 3

5 5 6 0 1 2 3 4

6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5

!#

5156- )5 ,- -+7)+1

-5

,7

- 6-4 5

"!

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
=I J=> =I @A =I IK =I O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

2 0 2 4 6 1 3 5

3 0 3 6 2 5 1 4

4 0 4 1 5 2 6 3

5 0 5 3 1 6 4 2
I

6 0 6 5 4 3 2 1
AH I

I FH @K?J I @A

0, 1, ..., p 1
? JEA A J @ I ?EAHJ A JAH p I FH @K?J I O IK =I @A = =HEJ JE?= @K =H F=H= K

0A I =>EAHJ A J ?AI A ?= F @A = =HEJ JE?= @K =H 2 @A I ABA?JK=H FAH=?E AI D=?AH IK =I O FH @K?J I @K K ?EAHJ AH p 6EA A A J ?AI IA JE@ F = JA=H A?K=?E AI D=?AH JH=I FAH=?E AI JH=J=H @A HAI LAH IEIJA =I @A A?K=?E AI

!#

5EIJA =I @A A?K=?E

AI

@K

A JAH I

+ @A? = I = = E =H = IA??E = JAHE H =I FAH=?E AI @A = =HEJ JE?= @K =H I FAH EJA F = JA=H A?K=?E AI IEIJA =I @A A?K=?E AI )I F @A I D=> =H @A K = ? CHKA ?E= E A= ? K = A?K=?E E A= @A = B H = ax + b c mod p @ @A a, b, c, p I A JAH I =@ I p > 1 O x AI K = E @AJAH E =@=

-A F

= ? CHKA ?E= 3x + 3 4 mod 5 5A JH=J= @A >KI?=H J @ I =GKA I AH I A JAH I x J= AI GKA = K JEF E?=H I F H ! O IK =H AI ! I ? CHKA JAI ? " @K #

! #  5A= F H A A F

5E H= = I? IE BKAH= A?K=?E AI @A FHE AH CH=@ JH=@E?E = AI GKA D=?A I FHE AH AI F=I=H A ! HAIJ= @ = JH EA >H F=H= AI?HE>EH 3x 1 mod 5 -IJ AI IK =H !  O= GKA 3 2 mod 5 = = > I =@ I @A = AGKEL= A ?E= -IJ= FAH=?E IKF A E C FH > A = F HGKA A A

""

+)2 67

)416

61+)

,7 )4

= E @A I AH I A JAH I F @A I HAIJ=H ANEIJA A E LAHI F=H= = IK = O IA HAIFAJ= =I HA =?E AI @A ? CHKA ?E= )D H= GKA GKAHH = I AI F=I=H A ! @ELE@EA @ GKA A I AH I A JAH I F @A I D=?AH F HGKA A E LAHI @A ! AI = BH=??E  ! GKA AI K AH A JAH = ?KAIJE =JKH= AI I=>AH IE = JH=>= =H @K #  @K JH I AH I A JAH I A ! JEA A E LAHI F=H= A FH @K?J @K p 2=H= I=>AH ?K @ ?KHHA AIJ A?AIEJ= I A A = @A *A KJ @A IJH=@ = JAHE H A JA

6A HA = ! #

5A= a, p Z AH I A JAH I F IEJEL I K I 5E mcd(a, p) = 1 A J ?AI ANEIJA A E LAHI @A a F=H= A FH @K?J AI @A?EH K A JAH b J= GKA a b 1 mod p ,A IJH=?E + mcd(a, p) = 1 A A = @A *A KJ C=H= JE = = ANEIJA ?E= @A @ I AH I A JAH I s, t Z @A @ GKA

1 = sa + tp
O F H J= J = JH=>= =H @K F JA A I

1 sa mod p,
2 H J= J s AI A E LAHI @A a F=H= A FH @K?J @K

GKA ba 1 mod p A J

>IAHL=?E

! # ! 5A= a O p A JAH I ?
?AI b AI E?

@K

p > 1 5E ANEIJA b A JAH J= p

,A

IJH=?E 5KF C= I ab 1 mod p - J ?AI ab ab 0 mod p AIJ AI p @ELE@A = a(b b ) 5E mcd(a, p) = 1 F @A I KI=H A + H =HE ! ! ! O =I p @ELE@A = b b GKA ? ? KOA = @A IJH=?E 5E r = mcd(a, p) = 1 A J ?AI ANEIJA A JAH I s O t J= AI GKA a = rs O p = rt 1 < t < p ,A AIJA @ abt 0 mod p + ab 1 mod p A J ?AI t AI K JEF @A p GKA AI K = ? JH=@E??E O= GKA 1 < t < p
r=1

>IAHL=?E

=I EI =I ? @E?E ANEIJA b Z J= GKA ab 1 mod p

!#" -

AI @A JA HA = IE mcd(a, p) =

,A

+ mcd(a, p) = r = 1 A J ?AI ANEIJA A JAH I s, t Z J= AI GKA a = rs O p = tr ? 1 < t < p ,A AIJA @ at 0 mod p 5KF C= I GKA ANEIJA b Z J= GKA ab 1 mod p - J ?AI

IJH=?E

bat t mod p

!#

5156- )5 ,- -+7)+1 @

-5

,7

- 6-4 5

"#

O @A AIJA

t 0 mod p
GKA AI K = ? JH=@E??E FKAI 1 < t < p

,A AIJ= = AH= A JA HA = = JAHE H O =I >IAHL=?E AI IK>IECKEA JAI ?= H=?JAHE = ?K= @ ANEIJA A E LAHI F=H= A FH @K?J @K p O =@A I A JA HA = E @E?= ? ?= ?K =H 0=O GKA KI=H A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI F=H= AC=H = = E@A JE@=@ @A A = @A *A KJ

-A F

! # # 5A= I AH I # O  8= I = ?= ?K =H A E LAHI @A 5 @K 11 + I FHE I A JHA I A J ?AI ANEIJA a Z J= GKA 5a 1 mod 11 += ?K = I A L= H @A a - = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI @= = E@A JE@=@ @A *A KJ 1 = 11 + 5 (2).
2 H J= J @K 

1 5 (2) mod 11.

2 H GKA a = 9 AI A E LAHI @A # 9 mod 11 
-IJ FAH EJA HAI LAH = ? CHKA ?E= GKA F

@K
=



 >I HLAIA GKA 2

= JAHE H

IA K AA F

3x + 3 4 mod 5.
5A = = I GKA @E?D= ? CHKA ?E= AH= AGKEL= A JA F=I= @ A ! HAIJ= @ =

3x 1 mod 5.
2 H A JA HA = = JAHE H ? ! O # I FHE I A JHA I ANEIJA A E LAHI @A ! @K # ) JH=>= =H @K # J @ AH AI ? CHKA JA ? K @A ? K J {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} 2 @A I A J ?AI >KI?=H A E LAHI FH >= @

3 0 0 mod 5 3 1 3 mod 5 3 2 1 mod 5 3 3 4 mod 5 3 4 2 mod 5

-I @A?EH A E LAHI @A ! AI A O= GKA 3 2 1 mod 5

"$ K JEF E?= I =?

+)2 67 CHKA ?E= F H O JA A

! I

)416

61+)

,7 )4

3x 2 1 2 mod 5,
AI @A?EH

x 2 mod 5.
2 H J= J J @ I @A = B H = I AH I A JAH I x GKA I I K?E @A = ? CHKA ?E= I

x = 5K + 2

K Z.

>IAHL=H GKA DA I FH FKAIJ @ I = AH=I @A ?= ?K =H A E LAHI @A K AH a @K p 2 H K =@ KI=H = E@A JE@=@ @A *A KJ F H JH =@ EH FH >= @ ? I @EIJE J I FH @K?J I a 1 a 2 a (p 1) D=IJ= A ? JH=H A FH @K?J GKA L= C= 

-A F

!#$ +
3 1 3 mod 6 3 2 0 mod 6 3 3 3 mod 6 3 4 0 mod 6 3 5 3 mod 6 3 0 0 mod 6

A J ?AI ! JEA A E LAHI @K $ @A JA HA = O= GKA mcd(3, 6) = 3

>I HLAIA GKA CHKA ?E= E A=

IA JEA A

=I DEF JAIEI

- AH?E?E $" ,A

IJH=H GKA = ?

3x + 4 5 mod 6
JEA A I K?E

- AH?E?E $# 0= =H J @=I =I I K?E AI A JAH=I @A = ? CHKA ?E=

5x + 2 5 mod 7.
5E IA FKA@A F = JA=H A?K=?E AI E A= AI AI =JKH= =D H= F = JA=H A FH > A = @A HAI LAH IEIJA =I @A ? CHKA ?E=I E A= AI AI @A?EH ANFHAIE AI @A JEF

x a1 mod p1

!#

5156- )5 ,- -+7)+1

-5

,7

- 6-4 5

"%

x a2 mod p2 ... x an mod pn

- 6A HA = ?DE @A I HAIJ I AI A E IJHK A J =@A?K=@ F=H= I=>AH IE K IEIJA = @A AIJA JEF JEA A I K?E O FAH EJA ?= ?K =H =

AH I A JAH I O p1 , p2 , ..., pn A JAH I F IEJEL I LAHE ?= @ E pi > 1 F=H= ?=@= i = 1, n EE mcd(pi , pj ) = 1 F=H= ?=@= i, j = 1 n? i=j - J ?AI A IEIJA =

6A HA = ! # % 5A= a1 , a2 , ..., an

x a1 mod p1 x a2 mod p2 ... x an mod pn

JEA A I K?E E?= @K A FH @K?J P = p1 p2 ...pn

,A IJH=?E 5A= P = p1 ...pn O Pi = P/pi ? i K A JAH A JHA  O n 2 H DEF JAIEI I pi I FHE I A JHA I ? ?K= mcd(Pi , pi ) = 1 i = 1 n + DA I LEIJ = JAI 6A HA = ! #  F=H= ?=@= E ANEIJEH qi J= GKA

qi Pi 1 mod pi .
5A= A J ?AI

x0 = a1 P1 q1 + a2 P2 q2 + ... + an Pn qn
@A @ GKA = J IE j = i A J IE j = i A J =H ? CHKA ?E= @K

pi IA >JEA A

?AI Pj AI @ELEIE> A F H pi F H J= J Pj 0 mod pi ?AI Pi qi 1 mod pi

F H J= J x0 ai mod pi i = 1 I AH I @A = B H =

n ?

GKAH =

I @A

IJH=H )I J @ I

x = x0 + KP

"& ? =@A

+)2 67

)416

61+)

,7 )4

KZI
,A

I K?E

@A IEIJA =

IJH= I =D H= = K E?E@=@ @A = I K?E @K P -IJ FHKA>= I GKA J @= I K?E @A IEIJA = AI @A = B H = x = x0 + KP ? K Z AI @A IEIJA = A J ?AI AI I K?E @A

6 A I O @ I I K?E IEIJA = @A ? CHKA ?E=I

x 0 mod p1 x 0 mod p2 ... x 0 mod pn

AI @A?EH mod P O= GKA AI @A KAIJH= = K E?E@=@ @A = I K?E @K JEF @A pi F=H= ?=@= i GKA

-A F

! # & 4AI LAH A IEIJA =

x 2 mod 3 x 3 mod 5 x 2 mod 7

+ ! # O % I FHE I A JHA I A JA HA = ?DE ?= ?K =H = E?= I K?E @K 3 5 7 = 105 5ECKEA @ = J=?E @A JA HA =

@A

I HAIJ I FAH EJA

P1 = 105/3 = 35 P2 = 105/5 = 21 P3 = 105/7 = 15

A J )D H= q1 AI A E LAHI @A !# @K ! + ?AI q1 = 2 O= GKA 2 2 1 mod 3 ,A = EI = = AH= q2 AI A E LAHI @A  @A  @K # F H J= J q2 = 1 .E = A JA q3 = 1 2 H J= J

35 2 mod 3 A J
@K

?AI

# AI @A?EH A E LAHI

x = 2 35 2 + 3 21 1 + 2 15 1 = 233

!# AI = I

5156- )5 ,- -+7)+1 E?= I K?E @K

-5

,7

- 6-4 5

"' AI @A IEIJA =

# @A

@ GKA J @=I =I I K?E

x = 23 + 105K

K Z.

7 = =F E?=?E GKA F @H = I FHAIA J=H @A JA HA = ?DE @A I HAIJ I AI = >IAHL=?E @A GKA I HAIJ I @K K ? K J @A AH I FHE I A JHA I FAH EJA @AJAH E =H K L ?= A JA K AH ,A AIJ= = AH= AH I @A CH= J= = IA F @H = HAFHAIA J=H F H IKI HAIJ I @K K I ?EAHJ I FHE I O =I HA@K?EH IKIJ= ?E= A JA IK J= = + AIJ I HAIJ I IA FKA@A D=?AH FAH=?E AI O = HA?KFAH=?E @A AH A ?KAIJE F=I= F H = HA I K?E @A K IEIJA = @A ? CHKA ?E=I -IJ HAI LAH = F=H?E= A JA ? LAHA I A A A A F IECKEA JA = E EJ=?E @A @ CEJ I @A K = GKE =

-A F

I GKA JA A I K = ?= ?K =@ H= @A & @ CEJ I O GKA HA I D=?AH = IK = @A I AH I #&&&&#!#& O #'$! "% 6 = I F H AA F I AH I FHE I A JHA I  '' O '% ?KO FH @K?J P AI '$ ! A H @A & ?EBH=I - FHE AH AH LAHE ?=

! # ' 5KF C=

5888851358 58 mod 100 5888851358 72 mod 99 5888851358 78 mod 97.

- IACK @ LAHE ?=

259632147 47 mod 100 259632147 93 mod 99 259632147 7 mod 97.

; F=H= D=?AH = IK = >=IJ= D=?AH = IK = @A I HAIJ I O @AIFK I HAI LAH A IEIJA = x 47 + 58 mod 100 x 72 + 93 mod 99 x 78 + 7 mod 97 - AIJA JE F=I F=H= HA?KFAH=H A AH D=O GKA D=?AH FAH=?E AI ? A JAH I @A I @A & @ CEJ I F H GKA FH FE= A JA ? & @ CEJ I I F @A I D=?AH =HEJ JE?= ? =I HAFHAIA J=?E AI F H IKI HAIJ I @K  '' O '%

# 6= >E CH= @AI

+)2 67

)416

61+)

,7 )4 AH I

FKA@A KI=HIA AIJA JA HA = F=H= D=?AH HA?KA J I ?

-A F

! #  5KF C= I GKA JA A I K = = EBAIJ=?E GKA I=>A I GKA D= ? CHAC=@ = A I @A K E @A FAHI =I O GKAHA I @AI@A = HC= E =?E I=>AH A AH AN=?J @A ? CHAC=@ I AI FA@E I GKA IA =CHKFA @A  A  O =FK J= I A HAIJ 2 C= I GKA I ! -IJ E @E?= GKA A AH x @A F=HJE?EF= JAI LAHE ?=
x 30 mod 100.
,AIFK I AI FA@E I GKA IA =CHKFA A CHKF I @A '' O I >H= # O A CHKF I @A '% O I >H= ! -I @A?EH IA JEA A A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A ? CHKA ?E=I

x 30 mod 100 x 25 mod 99 x 13 mod 97

+  '' O '% I FHE I A JHA I A IEIJA = JEA A I K?E + 100 99 97 = 960.300 A J ?AI = E?= I K?E F IEJEL= O A H GKA AIA AH AI A AH @A F=HJE?EF= JAI A = = EBAIJ=?E

- AH?E?E $$ ,AJAH E =H A
BAIJ=?E

AH @A F=HJE?EF= JAI A

= = JAHE H

= E

! $ 5EIJA =I @A K AH=?E
6AH E = I AIJA JA = ? AIJ= IA??E @A@E?=@= = I IEIJA =I @A K A H=?E AI @A?EH = =I B H =I @A HAFHAIA J=H I AH I A JAH I = >=IA AI? CE@= F=H= = K AH=?E AI =H>EJH=HE= O AIJ K ELAHI= A JA =@ EJE@= = >=IA  IEIJA = @A K AH=?E @A?E =  GKE I @A>E@= = KAIJH= FH FE= = = J = GKA FHAIA J=  @A@ I F=H= F @AH ? J=H ? A I 2AH JH=I >=IAI @A K AH=?E I J= >E E F HJ= JAI = >=IA @ I IEIJA = @A K AH=?E >E =HE= AI BK @= A J= A = E B H JE?= O =I JA A? K E?=?E AI @ @A = E B H =?E AIJ ? FKAIJ= @A ?AH I O K I = >=IA $ AI J= >E E F H J= JA A = CK I ?= F I F A A@E@= @A CK I @A>E@ = CH= AH @A @ELEI HAI @A $  ! " # $   #  ! $ J= >E = >=IA  AI HA AL= JA A A@E@=I JA F H= AI F H H= AI IE E =HAI = = >=IA $ 8= I = LAH GKA J @ I AIJ I IEIJA =I FAH EJA HAFHAIA J=H A@E= JA J=?E F IE?E = ?K= GKEAH AH A JAH O D=?AH FAH=?E AI ? AIJ= J=?E

!$

5156- )5 ,-

7 -4)+1

#

+K= @ AI?HE>E I A AH  !"# A >=IA  AIJ= I KI= @ GKA IA = = J=?E F IE?E = O ?=@= @ CEJ JEA A K IEC E ?=@ F H A KC=H GKA ?KF= )I A FA = @ F H = @AHA?D= = FHE AH= ?EBH= AI = @A =I K E@=@AI = IECKEA JA = @A =I @A?A =I AI @A?EH

12345 = 5 100 + 4 101 + 3 102 + 2 103 + 1 104 .

; AIJ GKA IA D=?A ? = >=IA  ANFHAI=H A AH ? ? >E =?E E A= @A =I F JA ?E=I @A = >=IA IA FKA@A D=?AH F=H= K L= H =H>EJH=HE @A = >=IA

6A HA = ! $  5A= a O b
K I L= HAI

E? I a0 , a1 , ...an

AH I A JAH I F IEJEL I ? b > 1 -NEIJA ? 0 ai < b O ? an = 0 @A @ GKA

a = a0 b0 + a1 b1 + a2 b2 + ... + an bn .
,A IJH=?E
,ELE@E I a A JHA b F=H= >JA AH

a = q0 b + r0 .
-IJ KAIJH= GKA a0 = r0 F HGKA 0 r0 < b )@A I KAIJH= = K E?E@=@ @A a0 O= GKA A JA HA = @A HAIJ C=H= JE = GKA A HAIJ AI E? 5E @ELE@E I =D H= q0 A JHA b IA >JEA A

q0 = bq1 + r1
OA J ?AI

a = b2 q1 + br1 + a0 ,
? ?K= a1 = r1 @A KAL D=IJ= GKA A ? ?EA JA qn IA= E? F HGKA AI K HAIJ  O =I IK?AIEL= A JA A H GKA b

- AH?E?E $% ,EIA =H K = C HEJ

 A >=IA = ,EIA =H K = C HEJ 10 ,EIA =H K = C HEJ b

F=H= AI?HE>EH K

AH AI?HEJ A >=IA

F=H= AI?HE>EH K F=H= AI?HE>EH K

AH AI?HEJ A >=IA = A >=IA AH AI?HEJ A >=IA a A >=IA

#

+)2 67

)416

61+)

,7 )4

- AH?E?E $& -I?HE>EH A >=IA  I IECKEA JAI

! O # HAIFA?JEL= A JA

AH I AI?HEJ I A >=IA

101001001

12101

342104
#O%

- AH?E?E $' -I?HE>EH A

AH "$# A >=IA

; = A JA IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH = C HEJ I F=H= D=?AH FAH=?E AI @A IK = O FH @K?J @A AH I AI?HEJ I A ?K= GKEAH >=IA @A K AH=?E IE I GKA JA AH A ?KA J= GKA GKA JH=@E?E = A JA IA ANFHAI= ? A AL K = GKA A >=IA  IA D=?A ?K= @ IA AC= =  A K = >=IA @A K AH=?E ?K= GKEAH= IA D=?A ?K= @ IA AC= = L= H @A = >=IA

-A F

!$

5K =

I A >=IA

AH I  O 

1101 1001 10110

- = FHE AH= ?EBH= DA I IK =@   GKA @= J= J @=  O A AL  GKA = ?= = = = >=IA F H AH I  O 

-A F

!$!

K JEF E?=

I A >=IA

1101 11 1101 1101 100111

- AH?E?E % -I?HE>EH = C HEJ

A >=IA

I F=H= IK =H A >=IA

O F=H=

K JEF E?=H

!%

- -4+1+1 5

#!

!%
E EE EEE EL L

- AH?E?E I
AH I ? CHKA JAI ? @K ! AH I ? CHKA JAI ? # @K % AH I ? CHKA JAI ?  @K # AH I K I @K  J= GKA IK FH @K?J @K  IA= K AH I @EIJE J I @A  @K # J= GKA IK FH @K?J IA=  @A -K? E@AI

- AH?E?E % 2 AH @ I A A F I @A

- AH?E?E %

+= ?K =H KI= @ A = C HEJ E mcd(10223, 33341) EE mcd(385, 1729).

- AH?E?E %! ,A

IJH=H = HAC = @A @ELEIE>E E@=@ F H ' IE = IK = @A IKI ?EBH=I AI @ELEIE> A F H ' E ! # " & 9 8 841234 "# !  @K # 1234 EE " # "" & 9 8 84 "# !  @K EEE ! %# !" "#& 9 8 841234 "# !  @K IJH=H GKA A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A ?

AI @ELEIE> A F H '

- AH?E?E %" 4A= E = =I IECKEA JAI FAH=?E AI

% CHKA ?E=I JEA A

- AH?E?E %# ,A
I K?E

x 2 mod 6 x 3 mod 9

- AH?E?E %$ ,A
LAH I E

IJH=H GKA

I IECKEA JAI IEIJA =I JEA A I K?E

O HAI

x 3 mod 5 x 5 mod 7
EE

y 5 mod 11 y 7 mod 13

#"

+)2 67

)416

61+)

,7 )4

! & - AH?E?E I 4AIKA J I

- AH?E?E # +
IK = IA JEA A A = I ?

c = 1 - J

?AI KI= @

=I HAC =I @A =

(a + b) + 1 = s(a + b) = a + s(b) = a + (b + 1).

)D H= IKF C= @A = IK = IA JEA A I GKA (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) ,A KAL @A =I HAC =I

(a + b) + s(c) = s((a + b) + c) = s(a + (b + c)) = a + s(b + c) = a + (b + s(c)).

.E = I n N 6 = I A ? K J A = {m N : nm AIJ @A E@ } = FHE AH= HAC = @A FH @K?J C=H= JE = GKA 1 A = IACK @= HAC = @E?A GKA IE m A A J ?AI s(m) A ,A AIJA @ A = N F H A FHE ?EFE @A E @K??E

- AH?E?E #

- AH?E?E #! .E =

I n Z 6 = I A ? K J A = {m Z : n + m AIJ @A E@ } + 1 A A J ?AI A = 5E m A =I HAC =I JAH?AH= O ?K=HJ= C=H= JE = GKA s(m) A O GKA a(m) A 2 H J= J A = Z F H E @K??E AIJHK?JKH=

- AH?E?E #" *=IJ= JA AH A ?KA J= A IEC

A

O KI=H A FH @K?J GKA JA A I I AH I A JAH I AC=JEL I N+ ,A E I ? AI D=>EJK= A L= H =>I KJ @A n Z ? |n| = n IE + n N |0| = 0 O |n| = n IE n N

a0=0a=0 a b = |a| |b| IE

>EA a > 0 O b > 0 I ?=I I >EA a < 0 O b < 0

a b = |a| |b| A A HAIJ @A

- AH?E?E ## ,=@=I @ I

=JHE?AI IA @A A = IK = ? = IK = @A ?=@= K = @A IKI A JH=@=I + ?=@= A JH=@= AIJ B H =@= F H K AH A JAH = =I ?E=JELE@=@ @A = IK = @A =JHE?AI AI ? IA?KA ?E= @A = =I ?E=JELE@=@ @A = IK = @A I AH I A JAH I 1@A = ? KJ=JELE@=@ - A A A J AKJH AI = =JHE K = ?KO=I A JH=@=I I K =I

!&

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

##

0 0 0 0
- A A A J E LAHI F=H= = IK = @A K = =JHE A AI = =JHE A HAIK J=@ @A ?= >E=H @A IEC ?=@= A JH=@= @A A @A E =@= ? = AJH= a O IK ? HHAIF @EA JA IK> @E?A

A =

a11 a12 a21 a22

5A= @ I =JHE?AI A O B ?KO=I A JH=@=I I @A E =@=I HAIFA?JEL= A JA ? =I AJH=I a O b O IKI ? HHAIF @EA JAI IK> @E?AI - FH @K?J @A =JHE?AI IA @A A

AB =

a11 b11 + a12 b21 a11 b12 + a12 b22 a21 b11 + a22 b21 a21 b11 + a22 b21

+ FH >= I GKA AI =I ?E=JEL AIJ AI (AB )C = A(BC ) @ @A =I A JH=@=I @A C AIJ @A E =@=I ? = AJH= c D=?A I F=H= = A JH=@= @A IK> @E?A  @A FH @K?J @A ECK= = AH= IA D=H = F=H= =I JH=I JHAI A JH=@=I - A FH @K?J (AB )C IA JEA A GKA @E?D= A JH=@= AI

(a11 b11 + a12 b21 )c11 + (a11 b12 + a12 b22 )c21 .
- A FH @K?J A(BC ) IA JEA A GKA @E?D= A JH=@= AI

a11 (b11 c11 + b12 c21 ) + a12 (b21 c11 + b22 c21 ).
; AI K = ? - AA A J B H =@= F H K FH >=?E LAHE ?=H GKA = >=I ANFHAIE AI I ECK= AI = @E=C =

AKJH F=H= A FH @K?J AI = I O A HAIJ ?AH I

=JHE E@A JE@=@ ?

1 0 0 1
6 = @ F HAA F =I =JHE?AI

M=

1 1 0 1

#$

+)2 67

)416

61+)

,7 )4

N=

1 0 1 0
GKA A FH @K?J @A =JHE?AI

IA FKA@A ? FH >=H GKA M N = N M ? AI ? KJ=JEL

- AH?E?E #$ - HAIJ @A @ELE@EH ''& A JHA "% AI  - HAIJ @A @ELE@EH

"% A JHA  AI "# - HAIJ @A @ELE@EH  A JHA "# AI  - HAIJ @A @ELE@EH "# A JHA  AI  2 H J= J

mcd(9981, 247) = mcd(247, 101) = mcd(101, 45) = mcd(45, 11) = mcd(11, 1) = 1.

- AH?E?E #%

- JH=@= a, b N a b i := a j := b MDE A j = 0 r := i mod j i := j j := r 5= E@= i

- AH?E?E #& 5KF C=

I GKA a @ELE@A = ? ?EA JA q = c/b Z A J ?AI ANEIJA K A JAH s @A @ GKA as = q -IJ E F E?= c = abs A ? JH=@E??E ? A DA?D @A GKA a @ELE@A = c AH $#! AI F=H FAH I AI JEF @A ! - J ?AI @ELE@EA @ A JHA ! IA >JEA A 1653 = 3 551 )D H= >EA 232 = 529 O 242 = 576 2 H J= J ## D= @A JA AH K B=?J H A H ECK= GKA ! - ' @ELE@A = ## 5A JEA A GKA 551 = 19 29 + ' AI FHE IA JEA A

- AH?E?E #' -

1653 = 3 19 29.

- AH?E?E $ 5E r = a mod p = b mod p A J ?AI IA JEA A GKA ANEIJA

A JAH I AC=JEL I q O q J= AI GKA a = pq + r O b = pq + r 5A IECKA GKA a b = p(q q ) ? GKA a b mod p

!&

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

#% @A HAIJ = pq + r rr = A J ?AI

5E FAH@E@= @A CA AH= E@=@ IKF C= I a b 2 H A JA HA = q, q N {0} O A JAH I r O r J= AI GKA 0 r < p 0 r < p O a O b = pq + r - J ?AI a b = p(q q ) + (r r ) ,A AIJA @ (a b) p(q q ) AI K JEF @A p + p < r r < p A?AI=HE= A JA r = r ? GKAH = I @A IJH=H

- AH?E?E $ 2 4 mod 2 F HGKA 2 4 = 2

13 2 mod 5 F HGKA 13 + 2 = 5 3 15 3 mod 3 F HGKA 15 3 = 4 3
5E a c mod p A J

- AH?E?E $

?AI ANEIJA K A JAH s J= GKA

a c = sp.
5E b d mod p A J ?AI ANEIJA K A JAH t J= GKA

b d = tp.
5K = @ = >=I ECK= @=@AI IA JEA A

(a + b) (c + d) = p(t + s).
,A @ GKA a + b c + d mod p =@ K JEF E?= @ F H b = FHE AH= ECK= @=@ IA JEA A

2 H JH

ab bc = spb.
K JEF E?= @ F H c = IACK @= ECK= @=@ IA JEA A

bc dc = tpc.
5K = @ =I @ I ECK= @=@AI IA JEA A GKA ab dc = p(ab + tc) ? GKAH = I @A IJH=H

- AH?E?E $! 2345 + 214 432 6 mod 7

2419 + 987 4 mod 7

- AH?E?E $" 5E ANEIJA x Z J= GKA 3x + 4 5 mod 6 A J ?AI 3x

1 mod 6 @A
@ GKA ANEIJA K A JAH k J= GKA

3x = 6k + 1

#& GKA @= K = ? JH=@E??E

+)2 67 FKAI  AI

)416 @A !

61+)

,7 )4

JEF

5x + 2 5 mod 7 F=I= I A @ I HAIJ= @ F=H= 5x 3 mod 7 + A mcd(5, 7) = 1 A J ?AI ANEIJA A E LAHI @A # FH @K?J @K % - ABA?J @E?D E LAHI AI ! O= GKA 5 3 1 ,A AIJA @ K JEF E?= @ F H ! >JA A I x 2 mod 7 - J I K?E AI I @A = IECKEA JA B H = @ @A k Z x = 7 k + 2.

- AH?E?E $# +

>JA AH F=H= A mod 7 ?AI =I

- AH?E?E $$
JA HA = ?DE

@A

=I ? CHKA ?E=I E A= AI F = JA=@=I JEA A I K?E I HAIJ I ,E?D= I K?E AI !$ !! =F A

F H A

I A AH?E?E I $% $& $' O % 5A FHAIA J= DA?D I ?

! &  *=IAI @A K AH=?E

8A= I ? ?= >E @A >=IA

=F A
=F A @EIJE J I = C HEJ I @A

+= >E I @A >=IA @A IEIJA = @A K AH=?E

IA FKA@A E F A A J=H A

= A JH=@= AI A AH A JAH O = >=IA = - = C HEJ @A>A EH ?= ?K = @ =I ?EBH=I @A AH A >=IA = D=?EA @ @ELEIE AI IK?AIEL=I F H = OJ = @ I HAIJ I = I= E@= IAH K = EIJ= a0 a1 am @A @ GKA n IA AI?HE>A ? am ...a1 a0 A >=IA =
> > > > > > > > > >

- AH?E?E $% ,A >=IA  = >=IA =

?= >E = FH ? = ?= > E I E I  MDE A E  @ > I E @ = I I  E B HE = @ IAG>  I  A @

I = CK IAA F I

8A=

!&
>

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

#'

?= >E =&


0, 0, 0, 1

>

?= >E =% " $

4, 0, 2, 3

+
>

FH >A

I GKA A ABA?J

IJA AI A HAIK J=@

" $   $ 
JH A A F O IK ?

! $ !
724
FH >=?E

>

?= >E = !" &

2, 2, 3, 2

>

& 

&  ! &

& !
1234

- AH?E?E $'
>

?= >E ="$# 
1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1

>

?= >E ="$# #
0, 3, 3, 1, 2

>

?= >E ="$# %
2, 6, 1, 4

2 H J= J "$# A >=IA  !! O "$

>=IA # O A

>=IA % AI HAIFA?JEL= A JA

,A >=IA = = >=IA 

$

+)2 67 - FH ?A@E EA J AI A IECKEA JA

> > > > > > > > >

)416

61+)

,7 )4

?= >E = FH ? = ?= I E I  B H E BH J FI  @ I I E = E  @ I A @

IAA F I

8A=
>

?= >E =#$% !
0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 2

>

?= >E = ?= >E =#$% !

567

!

>

?= >E =     


23

- AH?E?E $&
>

?= >E =         
329

>

?= >E =   

!
145

>

?= >E = "  

" !

%
60764

,A >=IA = = >=IA >

D=?A >=IA  I KI= @ I FH ?A@E EA J I = JAI @A E@ I F=I= @ F H =

!&
> > > > >

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

$

?= >E ?= JA F ?= >E A @

=> FH ? = > JA F ?= >E = = =JA F >

-A F I
>

?= >E =>    

!
2, 0, 1

> >

?= >E =      ?= >E =   !

11 11

5K =I O FH @K?J I A >=IA
- A FH ?A@E EA J IECKEA JA A
> > > > > > > > > > > >

AH

I =HC L= A FHE AH KC=H

IK = FH ?  ?= J E J IAG E E  FI  H   E  MDE A E FI   @ I E  E J E H E   H E B H E J E H E E E  @ I E H E  IAGI  FI   A @ IK =    

I H IAG E 

FI 

FI 

@  

[0, 1]
>

IK =   

 
[1, 1, 0]

,= D=?AH

II = E@A= F=H= ? IJHKEH A = C HEJ IECKEA JA L= I = K JEF E?=H = EIJ=

@A ?

K JEF E?=?E 5A @A>A FI  A A A J I O =

$ EIJ= ? FI  A A EIJ= 5E = A JH=@= FHE = A JH=@= IACK @= AI  = 5K = = FHE AH= O

+)2 67 A J I AH= AI D=?A = IACK

)416

61+)

,7 )4

0=O GKA ? IJHKEH K >K? A GKA HA? HHA = K  D=?A =@= IE J = = EIJ= 5E =@= IE J = = EIJ= O A = =@A K  = @= EIJ= O =I FH ?A@A IK?AIEL= A JA

- AH?E?E %

E A ! #O ! & EE A # %  O A # % ' EEE A  # $ O A  #  EL ! O " 3 4 = 12 0 mod 12 O $ 2 6 = 12 0 mod 12 L O & 2 8 = 16 1 mod 15 " O " 4 4 = 16 1 mod 15 E

- AH?E?E %
mcd(10223, 33341) = mcd(33341, 10223)
+

33341 mod 10223 = 2672 mcd(33341, 10223) = mcd(10223, 2672)

10223 mod 2672 = 2207 mcd(10223, 2672) = mcd(2672, 2207)

2672 mod 2207 = 465 mcd(2672, 2207) = mcd(2207, 465)

2207 mod 465 = 347 mcd(2207, 465) = mcd(465, 347)

465 mod 347 = 118 mcd(465, 347) = mcd(347, 118)

347 mod 118 = 111 mcd(347, 118) = mcd(118, 111)

118 mod 111 = 7, mcd(118, 111) = mcd(111, 7)

!& +

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

$!

111 mod 7 = 6 mcd(111, 7) = mcd(7, 6)

.E =

A JA ?

7 mod 6 = 1 mcd(7, 6) = mcd(6, 1) = 1

I@ I EE +

AH I @=@ I I

FHE

I A JHA I

mcd(385, 1729) = mcd(1729, 385) 1729 mod 385 = 189 mcd(1729, 385) = mcd(385, 189)
+

385 mod 189 = 7 mcd(385, 189) = mcd(189, 7)

189 mod 7 = 0 mcd(189, 7) = mcd(7, 0)

O KAIJH

NE

@ELEI H AI A 7 AH n @A F C= I m ?EBH=I IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH ?

- AH?E?E %! 7

n = a0 + a1 10 + a2 102 + a3 103 + ... + am 10m

IEA @ ai = ?EBH= i IE = @A AH + 10 1 mod 9 A J ?AI 10n 1 mod 9 F=H= ?=@= n N ,A AIJA @ = JH=>= =H @K ' IA JEA A

n a0 + a1 + ... + an mod 9.
GKA IEC E ?= GKA n AI ... + an JEF @A ' IE O I = A JA IE AI a0 + a1 +

- AH?E?E %"

E 3 + 5 = 8 8 mod 5 = 3 mod 5 4 + 8 = 12 = 2 mod 5

$"

+)2 67

)416

61+)

,7 )4

9 8 mod 5 = (1) (2) mod 5 = 2 mod 5 841234 mod 5 = (1)1234 mod 5 = 1 mod 5 DA I KI=@ GKA 84 mod 5 = (1) mod 5 (245 + 1321) mod 5 = (0 + 1) mod 5 = 1 mod 5 EE (4 + 5) mod 2 = (0 + 1) mod 2 = 1 mod 2 (1044 + 8) mod 2 = (0 + 0) mod 2 = 0 mod 2 (9 8) mod 2 = (1 0) mod 2 = 0 mod 2 841234 mod 2 = 01234 mod 2 = 0 mod 2 (245 + 1321) mod 2 = (1 + 1) mod 2 = 0 mod 2 EEE (3 + 75) mod 7 = (3 + (2)) mod 7 = 1 mod 7 (234 + 458) mod 7 = (3 + 3) mod 7 = 6 mod 7 (9 8) mod 7 = (2 1) mod 1 = 2 mod 1 841234 mod 7 = 01233 mod 7 = 0 mod 7 (245 + 1321) mod 7 = (0 + 5) mod 7 = 5 mod 7.

- AH?E?E %# - FHE ?EFE

JEA A F H GK D=>AH I K?E O= GKA $ O ' I FHE I A JHA I O A JA HA = ?DE @A I HAIJ I IA =F E?= 8AHA I GKA A ABA?J AIJA AI K A A F @A ANEIJA ?E= @A I K?E 5E x 2 mod 6 A J ?AI x IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH @A = IECKEA JA B H = @ @A K1 Z x = 2 + 6 K1 O IE x 3 mod 9 A J @ @A K2 Z ?AI A J ?AI x IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH @A = IECKEA JA B H =

x = 3 + 9 K2
6A A I FKAI

2 + 6K1 = 3 + 9K2
GKA E F E?=

6K1 9K2 = 1
2AH 6K1 9K2 = 3(2K1 3K2 ) GKA E F E?=

3(2K1 3K2 ) = 1
AI @A?EH 1 AI @ELEIE> A F H 3 ?K= FHE AI ?EAHJ I A JHA I  @A I HAIJ I 5 O

- AH?E?E %$ - = > I ?=I I IA =F E?= A JA HA = ?DE

7I
FHE I A JHA I 11 O 13 I

!&

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5 E p1 = 5 p2 = 7 P = 35 P1 = 7, P2 = 5 *KI?=

$# I q1 O q2 J= AI GKA

q1 7 1 mod 5 q2 5 1 mod 7
2H >= I I @ELAHI I L= HAI F IE> AI @A q1 O LA A?K=?E 0=?A I EI ? q2 O ? FH >= A?K=?E - J ?AI A AH >KI?=@ AI I GKA q1 = 3 I=JEIB=?A = I GKA q2 = 3 I=JEIB=?A =

x = (3 3 7 + 5 3 5) mod 35 = 138 mod 35 = 33 mod 35

,A AIJA @ J @=I =I I K?E AI I @A = B H = IECKEA JA ?

kZ

x = 33 + 35k
EE p1 = 11 p2 = 13 P = 143 P1 = 13, P2 = 11 *KI?= GKA I q1 O q2 J= AI

q1 13 1 mod 11 q2 11 1 mod 13
2H >= I I @ELAHI I L= HAI F IE> AI @A q1 O LA A?K=?E 0=?A I EI ? q2 O ? FH >= A?K=?E - J ?AI A AH >KI?=@ AI I GKA q1 = 6 I=JEIB=?A = I GKA q2 = 6 I=JEIB=?A =

x = (5 6 13 + 7 6 11) mod 143 = 852 mod 143 = 137 mod 143

,A AIJA @ J @=I =I I K?E AI I @A = B H = IECKEA JA ?

kZ

x = 137 + 143k.

$$

+)2 67

)416

61+)

,7 )4

+=F JK +

"

>E =J HE=

= ? >E =J HE= AI A =HJA @A ? J=H AI @A?EH @A ?= ?K =H E JA ECA JA A JA ?=H@E = AI @A ? K J I O @A A K AH=H AIJ AI @AJAH E =H I A A A J I @A K ? K J @AI?HEJ F H = CK = FH FEA@=@ -I K = @EI?EF E = ? IE?= GKA ? >H= KAL =KCA ? = =F=HE?E @A I H@A =@ HAI F H @ I H= AI F H K =@ F H = F IE>E E@=@ @A ? ?K GKA IJ I =F HJ= O F H JH F HGKA A A AIJK@E @A = C HEJ I A A = EIEI @A FH CH= =I I FH > A =I @A JEF ? ?K @A AH @A FAH=?E AI K E@=@AI @A A HE= GKA IA FHA?EI= F=H= HA= E =H K = ?EAHJ= FAH=?E AIJK@E @A = ? F A E@=@ I FH > A =I @A JEF ? >E =J HE 5A FHAJA @A GKA A = K = = E =H A ?=F JK ? >E =J HE

E A =I HAC =I BK @= A J= AI @A ? ?K

- JEA @= O KJE E?A I ? ?AFJ I @A L=HE=?E AI ? >E =?E AI O FAH KJ=?E AI O I FKA@= =F E?=H F=H= ?= ?K =H ?=H@E = AI @A ? K J I 2KA@= =F E?=H AIJ=I ?E AI F=H= AIJK@E=H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A IK?AI I @A ANFAHE A J I ? K = ?= JE@=@ EJ= @A HAIK J=@ I F IE> AI

"
+ JH=J= J I @A ? K

1 JH @K??E
DA I IA = =@ A A F HH=B E JH @K?J HE A FHE AH FH > A = GKA I @A => H@=H AI A @A ? J=H AI @A?EH ? FKJ=H A AH @A A A A K ? K J ; =@A I D=?AH @A = AH= E JA ECA JA + A ?A I AA F $%

$&

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-A F

FAJE?E = A@HA? IJE?= ? $" F=HJE?EF= JAI GKA IA KAC= F H A IEIJA = @A A E E =J HE= AI @A?EH A ?=@= F=HJE@= A C= =@ H F=I= = = IECKEA JA B=IA O A FAH@A@ H GKA@= A E E =@ ,AJAH E =H A AH @A F=HJE@=I GKA IA D= @A KC=H F=H= >JA AH K ?= FA
2=H= K = FAHI = =? IJK >H=@= = IEIJA = @A A E E =J HE=I A FH > A = IA HAIKA LA B ?E A JA - FA = I ? =I ! F=HJE@=I @A I ! =L I @A = 2H IACKE I ? =I $ @A I @EA?EIAEI=L I @A = ,AIFK I I & ?J=L I @A = I ?K=JH ?K=HJ I @A = =I @ I IA E = AI ; = =

"   5A= K = ?

T otal : 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 63.
- FH > A = J= >E IA FKA@A HAI LAH @A K = = AH= I E JA ECA JA O I B ?E @A CA AH= E =H = K AH ?K= GKEAH= @A F=HJE?EF= JAI = E@A= ? =LA AI = IECKEA JA A ?=@= F=HJE@= IA A E E = K KC=@ H 2=H= GKA IA JA C= K C= =@ H D=O GKA A E E =H = J @ I I KC=@ HAI I= L = K A C= =@ H F H J= J A AH @A F=HJE@=I AI

T otal : 64 1 = 63.
; EA JH=I = FHE AH= B H K = =F E?=@= F H A A F = # KC=@ HAI AI

256 + 128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 511.

= IACK @= B H K = AI IA ?E = A JA

512 1 = 511.
+ AIJA A A F DA I GKAHE@ IJH=H GKA IA FHAJA @A = @AI=HH =H = ? >E =J HE= I ? J=H J @ I I A A A J I GKA ? B H = K ? K J EJ IE D=?AH @A B H = E JA ECA JA F=H= GKA IA FKA@= >JA AH B H K =I CA AH= E => AI = IEJK=?E AI = AI =@ J= >E = ? >E =J HE= FHAIA J= K = B=?AJ= @EIJE J= = @A A K AH=H I A A A J I @A K ? K J EJ -I @A?EH @=@ K ? K J @A E@ F H K = ?EAHJ= FH FEA@=@ @EIA =H = C HEJ I GKA FHAIA JA J @ I I A A A J I @A ? K J 2 H JH

"

1 64 ,7++1

$'

-A F

- ? IA @A>A A ACEH = @ I @A IKI A BHE?= IK>I=D=HE= = =? ?K J=I F IE> AI F=HA =I @A

"

@A E EIJH I F C= I GKA I # FAHI =I EA >H I F=H= A LE=H I = K = EIE @A F= A F= = @ = E EIJH @A ANJAHE HAI ,AJAH E =H =? F= = JAI D=O

5E A ? IA @A E EIJH I AIJ B H =@ F H # FAHI =I O D=O GKA A ACEH F=H= =? F= =H = E EIJH @A ANJAHE HAI A J ?AI D=O " ?= @E@=J I A A CE> AI GKA F @A I K AH=H ? =I ?EBH=I @A  = " AI @A?EH IA FKA@A AIJ=> A?AH K = BK ?E >EOA?JEL= HA? H@=HA I IK @A E?E A = FH NE = IA??E  A JHA A ? K J @A F IE> AI E EIJH I =? F= = JAI O A ? K J

N14 = {1, 2, 3, 4, ..., 13, 14}.

- FH > A = AI @A?EH ?K J I O ?K AI I A J I @A N14 D=?A I H@A =@= A JA I IK>? K J I @A @ I A A I ! IK>? K J I

I IK>? K J I GKA ? JEA A = A A A J  I B H =@ I F H A  O JH E EIJH ?K= GKEAH= AIJ AI

{1, 2}, {1, 3}, ..., {1, 14}.

2=H= A A A A J >=IJ= A ACEH A JHA  =? F= = JAI @A ! = " F HGKA O= DA I JA E@ A ?KA J= = F=HA = {1, 2} )I I 

{2, 3}, {2, 4}, ..., {2, 14}.

-IJA FH ?AI IA FKA@A EH HAFEJEA @ O AI?HE>EH = EIJ= ? IEHLA F=H= @A IJH=H GKA =I F=HA =I F IE> AI I F AJ= =@A I

13 + 12 + 11 + 10 + 9 + ... + 1.
; F H = B H K = @A = IK = @A I ! FHE AH I AH I =JKH= AI

(14 13)/2.
2 H J= J FHE ?EF= JEL I @A ?=F JK A JA ?

J=H FAH J= >E

A K AH=H I

I >A

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"
8=

6 ? E?=I @A ?
I = FHA?EI=H =I @A E?E

JA
AI @A I? ?AFJ I GKA DA I FHAIA J=@

,A

K J I IA @A A K = BK ?E @A A A B O IA @A J= f : A B = K IK>? K J @A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= A B @A = B H = {(a, f (a)) : a A} A B A B

E?E

"

 5A= A O B ?

,A

E?E

"

5A= A O B @ I ?

K J I O f : A B K = BK ?E

@A A

5A @E?A GKA f AI E OA?JEL= IE F=H= ?=@= F=H @A A A A J I a, b A GKA LAHE ?= f (a) = f (b) IA JEA A GKA a = b 5A @E?A GKA f AI I >HAOA?JEL= IE F=H= ?=@= b B ANEIJA K A A A J a A @A @ GKA b = f (a) 5A @E?A GKA f AI >EOA?JEL= IE AI E OA?JEL= O I >HAOA?JEL=

-A F I"

! 5A= A = B = R O f : R R GKA =IEC = = ?=@= x R A L= H @A IK ?K=@H=@ f (x) = x2 5A JEA A GKA f AI E OA?JEL= F HGKA @ I AH I HA= AI @EIJE J I F H A A F A 2 O A 2 LAHE ?= f (2) = f (2) = 4 6= F ? AI I >HAOA?JEL= F HGKA D=O AH I HA= AI J @ I I AC=JEL I GKA IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH ? A ?K=@H=@ @A K AH HA= + AI E OA?JEL=  E J= F ? I >HAOA?JEL= AI >EOA?JEL= ,A E?E " " 5A= A O B @ I ? K J I IA @E?A GKA A ?=H@E = @A A AI ECK= GKA A ?=H@E = @A B O IA AI?HE>A |A| = |B | IE ANEIJA K = BK ?E
 A JHA A O B K J A IA @E?A EJ IE >EA L=? >EA ANEIJA n N O K = >EOA??E f : A Nn IEA @ Nn A ? K J @A I AH I =JKH= AI A HAI Nn = {1, 2, ..., n} 5E A AI A ? K J L=? A = @A E I A ?=H@E = @A IA @A J= || = 0.

>EOA?JEL=  >EOA??E

,A

E?E

AI "

# 7 ?

AI A ? K J A JHA A O Nn ECK= AI GKA n

A?

 AIJ

5E A AI K ? K J EJ K = >EOA??E f : A Nn O @A

L=? A J ?AI F=H= K ?EAHJ n N ANEIJA E I A ?=H@E = @A A ? n

|A| = n.

"

6 + 1+)5 ,- +

6-

% E@= F HGKA IE ANEIJA

>IAHL= K = >EOA??E

I GKA = ?E @A ?=H@E = AIJ >EA @A A JHA Nn O Nm A J ?AI n = m

= $ E 5A= A A ? K J @A =I AJH=I @A = B=>AJ AIF= H@A =?E = B=> JE?= @AJAH E = K = >EOA??E A JHA A O N29 2 H J= J |A| = 29 EE - ?=H@E = @A ? K J @A I AH I =JKH= AI N FKA@A IAH EJ F HGKA D=O E CK = =F E?=?E >EOA?JEL= A JHA N O K IK>? K J IKO @A = B H = Nn
8= I = = = E =H = CK =I @A =I FH FEA@=@AI @A I ?=H@E = AI @A ? EJ I 5A= A ?=@= ?=I A O B @ I ? K J I @A ?=H@E = EJ K J I

-A F I"

2H FEA@=@  5E A B = A J ?AI |A B | = |A| + |B | 2H FEA@=@

,=@ A IK>? K J B A @A E I A ? F A A J=HE @A B A A AI?HEJ B ? A B = {x A : x / B } A J ?AI

|B | = |A | | B |.

2H FEA@=@ ! 5E A B A J ?AI |A| |B |. 2H FEA@=@ " |A B | = |A| + |B | |A B |. 2H FEA@=@ # |A B | = |A| |B |.

-IJ= FH FEA@=@ # IA IKA A @A E =H HAC = @A FH @K?J -IJ=> A?A IECKEA JA IE A AH @A F IE>E E@=@AI F=H= K = IEJK=?E F C= I = FHE AH= AJH= @A K = F= =>H= AI n O A AH @A F IE>E E@=@AI F=H= JH= IEJK=?E F C= I = IACK @= AJH= @A K = F= =>H= AI m A J ?AI =I F IE>E E@=@AI @A =I @ I IEJK=?E AI ? K J= A JA @EC= I F= =>H=I @A @ I AJH=I AI nm

2H FEA@=@ $ 2HE ?EFE @A F=

BK ?E E OA?JEL= @A A A B

=H 5E |A| > |B | A J ?AI

D=O K =

- AH?E?E %% ,A >IAHL=?E

IJH=H GKA =I FH FEA@=@AI ! O $ I JH=H =I FH FEA@=@AI  = # FKA@A CA AH= E =H

AGKEL= A JAI ,A K J I

AI "

% E = FH FEA@=@

=F E?=@= = JHAI ?

EJ I IA

|A B C | =

%

+)2 67

"

*1 )6 41)

= |A| + |B | + |C | |A B | |B C | |A C | + |A B C |.
; IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH B H K =I = C=I F=H= ?=@= K E EJ= @A ? K J I EJ I EE - 2HE ?EFE @A 2= =H IA FKA@A CA AH= E =H @A = IECKEA JA = AH= 5A= m, n AH I =JKH= AI ? m > n 5E GKAHA I ? ?=H m > AJ I A n ?= =I A = CK = @A A = D=>H A?AI=HE= A JA K = ?= JE@=@ @A > AJ I =O H ECK= GKA = F=HJA A JAH= @A ? ?EA JA m/n EEE 6= >E = FH FEA@=@ @A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= IA CA AH= E =

|A1 A2 ... An | = |A1 | |A2 | ... |An |.

-A F I"

@A =I FH FEA@=@AI E 5A= A A ? K J @A = K I =JHE?K =@ I A = CK = =IEC =JKH= @A FHE AH B A ? K J @A = K I =JHE?K =@ I A = CK = =IEC =JKH= @A IACK @ - ? K J A JEA A ?=H@E = # O A ? K J B JEA A ?=H@E =  0=O AN=?J= A JA # = K I GKA JEA A = CK = =IEC =JKH= @A FHE AH O = CK = @A IACK @ - J ?AI A AH J J= @A = K I @A FHE AH O IACK @ IAH = =F E?= @ = 2H FEA@=@ "

& @A =F E?=?E

|A B | = 250 + 220 50 = 420.

EE 5A= P A ? K J @A F= =>H=I @A ?K=JH = B=>AJ AIF= IA JEA A AJH=I 5E = = I A =

P = A A A A.
+ ?K= KI= @ HAEJAH=@= A JA = 2H FEA@=@ #

|P | = 294 .
EEE 5E = = IACK @= AJH= A FA@E I GKA IA= L ?= A J ?AI A ? K J R @A =I F= =>H=I @A ?K=JH AJH=I ?KO= IACK @= AJH= AI K = L ?= AI A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= R = A V A A, @ @A V AI A ? K J @A =I L ?= AI F H J= J

|R| = 293 5.
EL - ?K= GKEAH ? K J @A !$& FAHI =I D=O @ I ?KO I ?K F A= I I A EI @ = - ABA?J ? A ? K J @A FAHI =I P JEA A ?=H@E = =O H GKA A @A @ =I @A = D 368 > 365 = |D| A J ?AI F H A FHE ?EFE @A F= =H ?K= GKEAH BK ?E @A P A D AI E OA?JEL= AI @A?EH D=O @ I FAHI =I GKA ?K F A = I A EI @=

"!

8)41)+1

-5

%!

"!
2=HJE

8=HE=?E

AI

I @A IECKEA JA FH > A =

2H > A = ,=@= K = ?=HHAH= ?

#" F=HJE?EF= JAI @AJAH E =H ?K J I F IE> AI HAIK J=@ I FKA@A FH @K?EHIA F=H= A F @EK  H F =J= O >H ?A . H = A JA F @A I AI?HE>EH A FH > A = @A K = B H = AGKEL= A JA IA= A A ? K J @A F=HJE?EF= JAI GKA B H = K ? K J @A #" A A A J I O F H J= J =@ EJA K = >EOA??E ? N154 = ?=@= ? HHA@ H K @ HI= K AH=@  5A= B A ? K J @A =I JHAI A@= =I GKA =@ EJA K = >EOA??E ? N3 F H A A F A H =  = F =J= = O A >H ?A = ! 5A JH=J= @A @AJAH E =H A AH @A BK ?E AI E OA?JEL=I @A N3 A N154

2H > A = AGKEL= A JA += ?K =H A
A N154

AH @A BK ?E

AI E OA?JEL=I @A N3

- ABA?J = > I FH > A =I I AGKEL= A JAI f @A N3 A N154 ? IEIJA A @=H f (1) = a f (3) = c N154 GKA I JHAI AH I @A @ HI= KIJ= A JA I GKA IK>A = F @EK  = FAHI = @A @ HI= b = F =J= O = @A c A >H ?A

F HGKA K = BK ?E E OA?JEL= N154 f (2) = b N154 O @EIJE J I O= GKA f E OA?JEL= = ? A @ HI= a C= = A H

>IAHL= I GKA F=H= A C= =@ H @A H D=O #" F IE>E E@=@AI ?K= GKEAH ? HHA@ H K = LA GKA IA D= AIJ=> A?E@ GKE D= C= =@ A H F=H= A C= =@ H @A = A@= = @A F =J= D=O #! F IE>E E@=@AI O I=>EA @ A C= =@ H @A H O = F =J= JA A I # HAIK J=@ I F IE> AI F=H= A >H ?A ,A AIJA @ D=O 154 153 152 F IE> AI HAIK J=@ I @A = ?=HHAH= AGKEL= A JA A JA D=O 154 153 152 BK ?E AI E OA?JEL=I @A N3 A N154

L=HE=?E
Nn A A ?

-IJ

AI

I FAH EJA F = JA=H A FH > A = CA AH= GKA =J= A = ? AH Vm,n @A BK ?E

?AFJ @A K J

2H > A = ,AJAH E =H A
K J Nm

AI E OA?JEL=I @A ?

>IAHL=?E

D=O J= AI BK ?E

" !  - 2HE ?EFE @A F=

=H IA = = GKA IE n > m A J AI E OA?JEL=I AIJ AI Vm,n = 0

?AI

%" 7 = CA AH= E =?E GKA IE m n IA ?E = @A I H=

+)2 67

"

*1 )6 41) = JAHE H E @E?=

= EA J I @A A A F

Vm,n = m (m 1) ... (m n + 1) = m!/(m n)!.

-A F

"! A JHA N5 O N10 AI

AH @A BK ?E

AI E OA?JEL=I GKA IA FKA@A AIJ=> A?AH

V10,5 = 10 9 8 7 6.
AH Vm,n @A BK ?E AI E OA?JEL=I A JHA K ? K J ,A E?E " ! ! ) @A ?=H@E = n O JH @A ?=H@E = m ? m n IA A = = AH @A L=HE=?E AI @A m A A A J I J =@ I @A n A n O IA JEA A

Vm,n = m (m 1) ... (m n + 1).

- A F I " ! "  ,AJAH E =H @A ?K J=I IE@A JA O A LE?AFHAIE@A JA @A K = =I ?E=?E E OA?JEL=I @A N2 A N300 

= AH=I IA FKA@A A ACEH A FHA @A ! EA >H I BK ?E AI

V300,2 = 300 299

,A ?K J=I = AH=I IA FKA@A A ACEH K AGKEF @A ?K=JH HA ALEIJ=I F=H= ? HHAH A = ?=HHAH= @A 4 100 A JHA I  IA A??E =@ I A JA @EA @ GKA D=O GKA E @E?=H A H@A A A GKA IA ? HHA

V10,4 = 10 9 8 7
! 5E A ? HHA@ H I H FE@ @A A A F = JAHE H JEA A GKA ? HHAH A?A I=HE= A JA A FHE AH KC=H A J ?AI A FH > A = AI ?= ?K =H I AGKEF I @A JHAI HA ALEIJ=I A JHA I ' IA A??E =@ I GKA GKA@=

V9,3 = 9 8 7
,A AIJ= = AH= @A =I @A E?E AI O @A = >IAHL=?E @A I A A F I IA @A@K?A GKA ?K= @ ?= ?K = I Vm,n AIJ= I ? J= @ AN=?J= A JA =I IA A??E AI H@A =@=I @A n A A A J I A K ? K J @A m A A A J I

4AIK EA @
-

AI

EI AI E OA?JEL=I @A Nn A Nm

AH @A =F E?=?E

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8)41)+1

-5 AI H@A =@=I @A n A A A J I A K ? AI @A m A A A J I J

%# K J @A

AH @A IA A??E mAA A J I AH @A L=HE=?E

=@=I @A n A n AIJ AI

Vm,n = 0 si m < n Vm,n = m(m 1)...(m n + 1) si m n.

@E GKA IK F ? =I @A E?E AI

A Nm O IA JEA A

,A E?E " ! # 5A = = AH @A L=HE=?E AI ? HAFAJE?E @A m A A A J I J =@ I @A n A n = AH V Rm,n @A BK ?E AI @A Nn

V Rm,n = mn .

,A @ GKA = DEF JAIEI GKA D= L=HE=@ ? HAIFA?J = = @A E?E = JA HE H @A Vm,n  AI = E OA?JELE@=@ 8A= I K A A F @ @A IA =F E?= AIJA ? ?AFJ

-A F
? ?

" ! $ ,AJAH E =H ?K J=I F= =>H=I B H =@=I F H " >OJAI IA FKA@A IJHKEH AGKEL= A JA A JA ?K J I AH I A JAH I IA FKA@A = =?A =H " >OJAI

- ? K J @A =I F= =>H=I B H =@=I F H ?K=JH >OJAI AI @A?EH F H ?K=JH A A A J I @A ? K J B = {0, 1} AI

BBBB
O F H J= J KI= @ 24 = 16 F= =>H=I = FH FEA@=@ @A ?=H@E = @A K FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= I

IJHA I GKA A ABA?J K = F= =>H= @A " >OJAI A N2 6 A I K = >EOA??E b A JHA B O N2 F b(1) = 2 - J ?AI K = BK ?E f @A N4 A N2 =IEC f (3) O f (4) A N2 ,A AIJ= = AH= f (1) E @E?= = FHE O HAIFA?JEL= A JA f (2) = IACK @= f (3) = JAH?AH= A A F IA= = BK ?E f : N4 N2

AI K = BK ?E @A N4 H AA F b(0) = 1 O = L= HAI = f (1) f (2) AH= AJH= @A = F= =>H= O f (4) = ?K=HJ= 2 H

%$

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"

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f (0) = 2 f (1) = 2 f (2) = 1 f (3) = 1

+ HHAIF @A = = F= =>H= 1100 + A AIJA ?=I IA FAH EJA F= =>H=I ? AJH=I HAFAJE@=I =I BK ?E AI GKA AIJ= I ? J= @ JEA A F H GK IAH E OA?JEL=I 2 H A A F = F= =>H= 0000 HAIF @A = = BK ?E ? IJ= JA g : N4 N2 @A E@= ? g (a) = 1 F=H= ?=@= a N4

IA A??E AI H@A =@=I @A n A A A J I F IE> A A JA HAFAJE@ I @A K ? K J @A m A A A J I

-I @A?EH =D H= GKA AIJ= I? J= @ I

- AH?E?E %& +

A = B=>AJ AIF=

@A ' AJH=I

E ,AJAH E =H A AH @A F= =>H=I @A # AJH=I EE ,AJAH E =H A AH @A F= =>H=I @A # AJH=I IE E CK = HAFAJE@= EEE ,A ? K J @A F= =>H=I @A E @AJAH E =H ?K J=I @A A =I ? JEA A = = AJH= > EL 1@A GKA EEE ? A ? K J @A F= =>H=I @A EE L ,AJAH E =H ?K J=I F= =>H=I @A ? K J E A FEA = F H L ?= 1@A F=H= =I @A ? K J EE LE ,AJAH E =H A AH @A F= =>H=I @A E GKA A FEA = F H L ?= O JAH E = F H 1@A ? EE LEE ,AJAH E =H A AH @A F= =>H=I @A E ?KO=I JHAI FHE AH=I AJH=I I L ?= AI 1@A ? EE

- AH?E?E %' E ,AJAH E =H = ?= JE@=@ @A

EE ,AJAH E =H ?K J I @A A I I F=HAI EEE +K J I I E F=HAI EL +K J I I JEF I @A # L +K J I ? JEA A = ?EBH= LE +K J I ? JEA A = ?EBH= = ?EBH= !
AI EI AI @A Nn A Nm

AH I @A " ?EBH=I GKA ANEIJA

4AIK EA @
-

AH @A =F E?=?E

""

2-4 76)+1

-5

%%

JE?E

AH @A IA A??E AI H@A =@=I @A n A A A J I =@ EJEA @ HAFA AI A K ? K J @A m A A A J I AI ? HAFAJE?E @A m A A A J I J =@=I @A n

AH @A L=HE=?E A n AIJ AI

V Rm,n = mn .

""

2AH KJ=?E

AI

7 ?=I F=HJE?K =H @A =I L=HE=?E AI HAIK J= ?K= @ m = n AI @A?EH ?K= @ JH=J= I @A ? J=H A AH @A BK ?E AI E OA?JEL=I @A Nn A Nn = >IAHL=?E IECKEA JA KAIJH= GKA A J ?AI @A>A I ? J=H =I BK ?E AI >E OA?JEL=I  >EOA??E AI @A Nn A Nn

>IAHL=?E " "  +=@= =F E?=?E E OA?JEL= f : Nn Nn AI K = >EOA? ?E - ABA?J IE f : Nn Nn AI K = =F E?=?E E OA?JEL= A J ?AI A ? K J E =CA @A f AIJ AI I A A A J I GKA IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH ? f (a) F=H= a Nn AI K IK>? K J @A Nn @A ?=H@E = n F H J= J AI J @ Nn -A F
@A ?E= ?

""

,A ?K J=I = AH=I IA FKA@A IA J=H A K = ?E ? IE =I I ?E ? EA >H I @A = ? EIE

AI= FHAIE

- ABA?J AI K A A F @A = IEJK=?E = JAHE H F HGKA IE =I IE =I AI J K AH=@=I @A  = # A J ?AI A ? K J @A IE =I IA FKA@A LAH ? N5 O IE I ? A I= AI AIJ K AH=@ I @A  = # J= >E A ? K J @A ? A I= AI IA FKA@A E JAHFHAJ=H ? N5 5A JH=J= A J ?AI @A AIJ=> A?AH ?K J=I BK ?E AI E OA?JEL=I = ?=@= ? A I= IK IE = O = @ I ? A I= AI = EI = @A N5 A N5 IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH ) = F IJHA IE = ?=@= ? A I= IA A =IEC = K = IE = @EIJE J= = =F E?=?E IAH >EOA?JEL= AI I >HAOA?JEL= F HGKA I >H= IE =I - J ?AI

V5,5 = 5 4 3 2 1.

-A F

" " ! 5A= A ? K J @A I JHAI ?= @E@=J I A = {Alicia, Ernesto, Sara} = I JHAI ?=HC I GKA I B = {presidente, secretario, vocal} += ?K =H @A ?K J=I = AH=I IA FKA@A @=H AIJ I JHAI ?=HC I = AIJ=I JHAI FAHI =I

%&

+)2 67

"

*1 )6 41)

+=@= >EOA??E A JHA A O B =IEC = = ?=@= FAHI = K ?=HC @EIJE J 2 H A A F @A J= @ I >HAI ? IK E E?E= A ECK= A JA I ?=HC I JA A I =I 6 F IE> AI >EOA??E AI

f1 (A) = p, f1 (E ) = s, f1 (S ) = v f2 (A) = p, f2 (E ) = v, f2 (S ) = s f3 (A) = s, f3 (E ) = p, f3 (S ) = v f4 (A) = s, f4 (E ) = v, f4 (S ) = p f5 (A) = v, f5 (E ) = s, f5 (S ) = p f6 (A) = v, f6 (E ) = p, f6 (S ) = s,

GKA E JAHFHAJ=@=I ? =I EIJ=I H@A =@=I @A =I E F IE> AI H@A =?E AI @EIJE J=I @A ? K J B CA AI I @= =I $

{p, s, v } {p, v, s} {s, p, v } {s, v, p} {v, s, p} {v, p, s}.

,A

AH Pn ?=H@E = @A ? K J @A >EOA??E AI @A ? K J Nn A A ? K J Nn IA @A E = AH @A FAH KJ=?E AI @A n A A A J I O IA JEA A

E?E

""" -

Pn = Vn,n = n! = n(n 1)...1.

A AI K = FAH KJ=?E

=H K ?

; KIJ= A JA

GKA AIJ= I ? J= @ I =I @EIJE J=I B H =I @A H@A K J @A n A A A J I +=@= F IE> A H@A =?E @A K ? K J @A A

>IAHL=?E

" " # 2 H @A E?E

0! = 1

""

2-4 76)+1

-5

%'

- AH?E?E & ,A ?K J=I = AH=I IA FKA@A IA J=H $ FAHI =I A K = AI=

@A $ IE =I -IJK@E=H GKA ?KHHA IE = AI= AI HA@ @= O E? GKA GKAHA I JA AH A ?KA J= AI = F IE?E HA =JEL= AI @A?EH GKE AIJ = = @AHA?D= O GKE = = E GKEAH@= E @AFA @EA JA A JA @A = IE = GKA IA ?KF=

4AIK EA @
-

AI

EI AI >EOA?JEL=I @A Nn A Nn AI @EIJE J=I @A K ? AI @A K ? K J @A n A A A J I

AH @A =F E?=?E AH @A H@A =?E

AH @A FAH KJ=?E

K J @A n A A A J I

Pn = n!. AH @A L=HE=?E AI @A n A A A J I J =@=I @A n A n

2 @A I E JH @K?EH =D H= K = FAGKA = L=HE= JA A A FH > A = @A ? ?K @A =I @EIJE J=I H@A =?E AI

2H > A = -IJK@E=H ?K J I
= @ =I ?EBH=I @A  

AH I @EIJE J I IA FKA@A ?

IJHKEH HA H@A AH @A FAH K AH I >JA E@ I

-I ? =H GKA A FH > A = IA HAIKA LA ?= ?K = @ A J=?E AI @A ! A A A J I O= GKA P3 = 6 O IE A >=HC I ? HAIK J=@ @A HA H@A =H =I ?EBH=I @A   I

121,
AIJ AI I I = A JA !

211,

112

= H= F H = GKA I $ =I FAH KJ=?E AI AI F HGKA A AH  AIJ HAFAJE@ LA?AI O F H J= J ?K= @ FAH KJ= I I K I A JHA I A AH L=H = -I @A?EH IE A A AH 121 E JAH?= >E= I = FHE AH= O = JAH?AH= ?EBH= >JA A I A EI AH GKA @A>A I ? J=HIA K = LA ,A AIJ= = AH= ? =I = AH=I @A HA H@A =H I K I I AN=?J= A JA @ I IA @A>A @ELE@EH F H F=H= ? J=H =I I K = LA

T otal := P3 /2 = 3.
; CA AH= E = @ = K = EIJ= @A n A A A J I @ @A D=O s A A A J I @EIJE JA A I J I GKA IA L= HAFEJEA @ n1 LA?AI A FHE AH ns LA?AI A JE

&

+)2 67

"

*1 )6 41)

,A E?E " " $ - =I ? @E?E AI @A F HH=B = JAHE H @A E I A AH @A FAH KJ=?E AI ? HAFAJE?E @A n A A A J I @ @A D=O s A A A J I GKA IA HAFEJA n1 > 1 n2 > 1 ns > 1 LA?AI HAIFA?JE n1 ,n2 ...,ns L= A JA ? A AH P Rn @A @EIJE J=I H@A =?E AI @A AI= EIJ=
? A A A J I HAFAJE@ I 5A ?= ?K = A@E= JA = B H K =
n1 ,...,ns P Rn =

n! . (n1 )!...(ns )!
- HAIK J=@ AI

-A F

HAIK J=@ @A H@A =H =I AJH=I @A = F= =>H= ? ? @HE

2,3 P R9 =

" " % ,AJAH E =H =I F= =>H=I @A ' AJH=I GKA IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH

9! 2!3!

@A A

FH LEA A @A =I @ I ?AI O A JHAI @A =I JHAI AI

- AH?E?E & K =

KAL IEIJA = @A =JHE?K =?E @A =KJ LE AI AIJ=> A?A =JH ?K = B H =@= F H JHAI ? I = JAI IACKE@=I @A " ?EBH=I AH @A =JH ?K =I @EBAHA JAI GKA ANEIJA J=I =JH ?K =I D=O ? =I EI =I AJH=I O AH I

E ,AJAH E =H A EE ,AJAH E =H ?K GKA = =JH ?K =

BBK

1224

EEE ,AJAH E =H ?K J=I =JH ?K =I A FEA = F H C O JAH E = F H  EL ,AJAH E =H ?K J=I =JH ?K =I I ?=FE? =I A = F=HJA @A I @ CEJ I L ,AJAH E =H ?K J=I =JH ?K =I D=O ? IKI JHAI AJH=I ECK= AI LE 1@A GKA EE ? = =JH ?K =

BBC
# ?EBH=I FAH EJEA @ # ?EBH=I O IA FHA E= ?EBH=I GKA A AH J= >E A 21345 IE

1122.

- AH?E?E & -IJ=> A?A

I K KAC @A = =H A A GKA IA LA @A > AJ I @A GKA A FEA?A F H  O A A GKA IA ANJH=A K AH @A J @ I I > AJ I GKA ? JEA A AN=?J= A JA =I EI =I ANJH= @ 2 H A A F IE I= A A 12345 AI FHA E=@ I= A A 22345 J= >E IA FHA E= A 23245 AH @A > AJ I FHA E=@ I IE I= A A 12345 AH @A > AJ I FHA E=@ I IE I= A A 22344 AH @A > AJ I FHA E=@ I IE I= A A 11222

E ,AJAH E =H A EE ,AJAH E =H A EEE ,AJAH E =H A

"#

*1 )+1

-5

&

EL 5E A IEIJA = @A FHA E I IA AIJ=> A?A A FH F H?E = @E AH HA?=K@=@ F H A A F = JAH?AH= F=HJA @A = HA?=K@=?E IA HAF=HJA A JHA I C= =@ HAI ,AJAH E =H ?K AI A JEF @A > AJ I GKA JEA A A I F IE>E E@=@AI @A I= EH O ?K AI A JEF GKA I >IAHL=H GKA ?K= @ = @E ?K J=@ @A I= EH =K A J= J= >E D=?A A F IE> A FHA E

4AIK EA @

AI

EI

AH @A H@A =?E AI @A K = EIJ= @A n A A A J I ? s A A A J I HAFAJE@ I n1 > 1 LA?AI A FHE AH ns > 1 LA?AI A JE AH @A FAH KJ=?E AI ? HAFAJE?E AI GKA IA E @E?=
HAFAJE?E @A n A A A J I ? =I

n1 ,...,ns Pn =

n! . n1 !...ns !

"#

>E =?E

AI
EH AI A @A ? J=I

- JE ? ?AFJ @A ? >E =J HE= GKA L= I = @A AI GKA D=?A HABAHA ?E= = IECKEA JA FH > A =

>E =?E

2H > A = ,=@= K = ? =IA @A &# = K

A ACEH A JH GKA EH = =I HAK E

I @A ?K AI @A ? =KIJH

= AH=I IA FKA@A AI F H A A F

>I HLAIA GKA = @EBAHA ?E= @A FH > A = @A =I L=HE=?E A A??E @A @A AC=@ IK>@A AC=@ O L ?=  =D H= I JH I

{M anuel, Juan, F elipe}

O

{Juan, M anuel, F elipe}

I A EI  I=K I A ACE@ I F=H= EH = ? =KIJH I I EI I JHAI AIJ AI E KOA A H@A  EA JH=I GKA A A FH > A = @A = A A??E @A @A AC=@ A JH FHE AH E @E?= GKA M anuel AI A @A AC=@ O A A IACK @ IE A >=HC AI Juan A @A AC=@ F H GKA I @EIJE J I

& . H =

+)2 67

"

*1 )6 41)

A JA IA FKA@A F = JA=H A IECKEA JA FH > A = AGKEL= A JA K J I @A ! A A A J I JEA A K ?

2H > A = ,AJAH E =H ?K J I IK>?

K J @A &# A A A J I AI @A?EH @A N85

5E A KC=H @A HAI LAH A FH > A = F = JA=@ ?= ?K = I V85,3 A J ?AI AIJ= I ? FKJ= @ I IK>? K J I IE =I IA A??E AI H@A =@=I @A JHAI A A A J I ,A AIJ= = AH= ?=@= IK>? K J @A ! A A A J I AIJ= I ? J= @ I @A K = LA -N=?J= A JA ? J= I J= J=I LA?AI ? = AH=I @EIJE J=I D=O= @A HA H@A =H AI @A?EH P3 LA?AI + K A A F I IAEI JHE I IECKEA JAI {M anuel, Juan, F elipe}

{M anuel, F elipe, Juan} {Juan, M anuel, F elipe} {Juan, F elipe, M anuel} {F elipe, Juan, M anuel} {F elipe, M anuel, Juan}
I A EI IK>? K J @A ! A A A J I H@A =@ I IKI A A A J I @A J @=I =I = AH=I F IE> AI 2 H J= J A FH > A = IA HAIKA LA ? FKJ= @

T otal :
2=H= ABA?JEL= A JA I ?

V85,3 . P3
K J K = LA

J=H ?=@= IK>?

,A E?E " #  = = I AH @A ? >E =?E AI @A m A A A J I J =@ I @A n A n GKA AI?HE>E I Cm,n = AH @A IK>? K J I

@A n A A A J I A Nm IA ?= ?K =

Cm,n =

m! Vm,n = . Pn n!(m n)!

m n

J=?E >IAHL=?E

-I?HE>EHA

I Cm,n ?

"#

2 H @A

E?E

0! = 1 O

m 0

=1

"#

*1 )+1

-5

&!

,A E?E " # ! ) m I >HA n - AH?E?E &! +

AH

m n

IA A @A

E =

AH ?

>E =J HE

FH >=H = B H K = = JAHE H A JA AI?HEJ=

m n
#

m! . n!(m n)!
AH @A F IE> AI AGKEF I @A >=  FAHI =I ?AIJ

- A F I " # "  ,AJAH E =H A

C10,5 =

EA >H I GKA IA FKA@A B H =H ?

10 9 8 7 6 V10,5 = . P5 5432
I KAC= A KC=@ H = =@ =HJ 5

 ,AJAH E =H A ?K J I @A A KC=@ H IA = = =HJ 

C10,5 C9,5 =

9 10 5 5
AH @A AGKEF I A

GKA AI ?= ?K =H A AH J J= @A AGKEF I O HAIJ=H A I GKA KAC= =HJ

4AIK EA @
-

AI

EI K J I @A n A A A J I @A Nm AI H@A =@=I @A n A A A J I A K ? AI @A m A A A J I J K J

AH @A IK>?

AH @A IA A??E @A m A A A J I AI
AH @A ?

>E =?E

=@=I @A n A n AIJ

Cm,n = 0 si m < n Cm,n = m n = Vm,n Pn si m n.

) CK =I FH FEA@=@AI @A
5A= m O n

AH I ?
?AI

>E =J HE I

AH I A JAH I m n A J

&"

+)2 67

"

*1 )6 41)

1) 2) 3) m n

m n =

m . mn

m1 m1 + . n1 n = 2n .

n n n + ... + + n 1 0

= FH FEA@=@  LEA A @A >IAHL=H A IECKEA JA DA?D E JAHFHAJA I A AH ? >E =J HE m ? A AH @A IK>? K J I @A n A A A J I n @A K ? K J A @A m A A A J I - ACEH K @A AIJ I IK>? K J I B A ? IEIJA A @AJAH E =H I n A A A J I GKA ? B H = B AGKEL= A JA A JA IA = =H I m n A A A J I GKA ? B H = A B 2 H J= J A A D=O AN=?J= A JA J= J I IK>? K J I @A n A A A J I ? @A m n A A A J I = FH FEA@=@  IA @A@K?A @A IECKEA JA 1 JAHFHAJA I @A KAL m n ? A AH @A IK>? K J I @A n A A A J I A A |A| = m .E = I K AA A J aA I IK>? K J I @A n A A A J I @A A IA @ELE@A A J ?AI A I GKA ? JEA A = a O I GKA ? JEA A AH @A IK>? K J I @A n A A A J I @A A GKA ? JEA A = a AI AN=?J= A JA m1 n1 O= GKA FKA@A E JAHFHAJ=HIA ? A AH @A IK>? K J I @A n1 A A A J I @A A {a} AH @A IK>? K J I @A n A A A J I @A A GKA ? JEA A = a AI AN=?J= A JA m1 n O= GKA FKA@A E JAHFHAJ=HIA ? A AH @A IK>? K J I @A n A A A J I @A A {a} 2 H J= J = ?= JE@=@ J J= @A IK>? K J I @A n A A A J I AI

m n

m1 m1 + . n1 n

"#

*1 )+1

-5

&#

= FH FEA@=@ ! IA FKA@A @A@K?EH @A = B H K = @A >E GKA HA? H@= I

E @A

AMJ

(a + b)n =
AI @A?EH

n n n n1 n n n a + a b + ... + abn1 + b , 0 1 n1 n
n

(a + b) =
k=0

n nk k a b . k
=I FH FEA@=

-IJ= B H K = IA FKA@A @A IJH=H F H E @K??E I >HA n KI= @ @AI @A I AH I ? >E =J HE I 5E =F E?= I AIJ= B H K = = a = 1 O b = 1 JA A I

(1 + 1)n = 2n =

n n n n + + ... + + . 0 1 n1 n

-IJ= E@A JE@=@ KAIJH= GKA IE = = I F=HJAI @A A @A J=@ P (A) = ? K J B H =@ F H J @ I I IK>? K J I @A A A ?=H@E = @A =I F=HJAI @A A LAHE ?= |P (A)| = 2|A| . 2 HGKA A ? K J J J= @A IK>? K J I IA FKA@A AI?HE>EH ? K E @A I IK>? K J I @A  A A A J I ? I @A K A A A J ? I @A D=IJ= AC=H = E? IK>? K J @A A @A |A| A A A J I GKA AI A FH FE A -IJ= JE = B H K = J= >E IA FKA@A @A IJH=H F H E @K??E I >HA A ?=H@E = @A A ? 7 = LA LEIJ=I AIJ=I FH FEA@=@AI @A I IA FKA@A @E ?=H A FH > A = @A =I ? AH I ? >E =J HE I LA= >E =?E AI I

2H > A = 5A= x y z JHAI E @AJAH E =@=I

= = I E @A CH=@ d = K = ANFHAIE @A JEF xa y b z c ? a + b + c = d ,AJAH E =H A AH @A E I @EBAHA JAI @A CH=@ # A @E?D=I JHAI E @AJAH E =@=I

>IAHL= I GKA K E @A CH=@ # AI F H A A F x3 yz GKA F @H = J= >E AI?HE>EHIA ? x2 yxz @A ?K= GKEAH JH= = AH= F IE> A HAIK J=@ @A HA H@A =H =I L=HE=> AI IEA FHA J = @ JHAI LA?AI = x K = LA = y O K = LA = z  -IJ KAIJH= GKA A H@A @A =I IA A??E AI AI HA AL= JA

&$ 8A= I ? ? J=H AIJ I I HA H@A =H =I L=HE=> AI F @A AIJ AI?HEJ ? A = @A E?E

+)2 67

"

*1 )6 41)

E I @A B H = E JA ECA JA + F @A I IKF AH GKA ?=@= E @A CH=@ #

xa y b z c

a+b+c=5
I O ?AH I @A =

@A @ GKA IA A FKA@A =IEC =H K = F= =>H= B H =@= F H K IECKEA JA = AH= x3 yz 1110101.

AH @A K I D=IJ= A FHE AH  E @E?= ?K AI A ANF A JA @A = x @AIFK I @A FHE AH  O D=IJ= A IACK @  D=O K  GKA E @E?= A ANF A JA @A = y O A JE  A @A = z JH A A F

x4 y 1111010
- FH > A = AI F H J= J @ @A ? ?=H AI I ?E ? K I GKA ? HHAIF @A = GKA A CH=@ @A E AI ?E ? 0=O GKA A ACEH ?E ? KC=HAI A JHA % F IE> AI F=H= ? ?=H I K I AIJ AI AIJ= I ? FKJ= @ I IK>? K J I @A ?E ? A A A J I @A K ? K J @A % A A A J I

T otal :
I F @A I AI?HE>EH

7 5

= 21

x5 , x4 y, x3 y 2 , x2 y 3 , xy 4 , y 5 , y 4 z, y 3 z 2 , y 2 z 3 , yz 4 , z 5 , x4 z, x3 z 2 , x2 z 3 , xz 4 , x3 yz, xy 3 z, xyz 3 , x2 y 2 z, xy 2 z 2 , x2 yz 2 .
-IJA EI H= = EA J FAH EJA ?= ?K =H = B H K = CA AH=

,A E?E " # # 5A= K ? K J @A m A A A J I @A E I A AH @A ? >E =?E AI ? HAFAJE?E @A m A A A J I J =@ I @A n A n =

AH @A IA A??E AI H@A =@=I @A n A A A J I ? F IE> AI HAFAJE?E AI A K ? K J @A m A A A J I 5A @A J= CRm,n O IA ?= ?K = A@E= JA = B H K=

CRm,n =

m+n1 n

"#

*1 )+1

-5

&%

?AH = = =H JHAI @=@ I E @EIJE CKE> AI IE K J

- A F I " # $  ,AJAH E =H ?K J I F IE> AI HAIK J=@ I FKA@A =? JA

A= A JA

CR6,3 =

8 3

= 56.
=I

 5E IA ANJH=A IE K J A= A JA ?E ? ?=HJ=I @A ?E ? >=H= =I AIF= " ?=HJ=I A AH @A F IE>E E@=@AI AI

CR40,5 =

44 . 5

@A A I AIJ = E A=@ I @AJAH E =H A AH @A JHE CK I @EIJE J I GKA IA FKA@A B H =H ? @E?D I FK J I  5E A JHA I FK J I @A  ANEIJA # FK J I GKA AIJ = E A=@ I ? FKJ=H ?K J I JHE CK I IA FKA@A B H =H

- AH?E?E &"  ,=@= K = K>A @A ! FK J I @EBAHA JAI @ @A K ?= JHAI

- AH?E?E &#  5A= $ >

> I GKA ? JEA A ?=@= K @A A I # > =I K AH=@=I @A  = # @A @ GKA =I > =I @A > > I @EIJE J I ? A EI AH I E @EIJE CKE> AI A JHA I 2 H K FH ?AI A? E? ?=@= > > @AF IEJ= A K = ?AIJ= K = > = IE K J A= A JA ? A HAIJ @A > > I ,AJAH E =H A AH @A HAIK J=@ I F IE> AI  ,AJAH E =H ?K J I @A AIJ I HAIK J=@ I ? JEA A = A I K = > = K AH=@= ? A #

4AIK EA @

AI

EI A A A J I HAFAJE@ I @A n

AH @A IA A??E AI H@A =@=I ? A A A J I A K ? K J @A m A A A J I A n

AH @A ? >E =?E AI ? HAFAJE?E

mAA A J IJ

=@ I @A n

CRm,n =

m+n1 . n

&&

+)2 67

"

*1 )6 41)

" $ 2H >=>E E@=@

7 = @A =I =F E?=?E AI BK @= A J= AI @A = ? >E =J HE= AI A ? ?K @A FH >=>E E@=@AI AI @A?EH AIJE =H ? GK IACKHE@=@ L= = ?KHHEH K IK?AI = HAC = > IE?= F H = GKA IA HECA I ANFAHE A J I GKA JEA A K = ?= JE@=@ EJ= O AGKEFH >=> A @A HAIK J=@ I AI GKA = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA ?KHH= K IK?AI @AJAH E =@ AI A ? ?EA JA @A AH @A ?=I I A I GKA ?KHHA AIJA IK?AI A JHA = ?= JE@=@ J J= @A ?=I I F IE> AI )I = JEH=H K @=@ = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA I= C= K $ AI 1/6 F HGKA I F IE> AI HAIK J=@ I I A ? K J {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} O A ?=I GKA I E JAHAI= A $ AI K @A AIJ I $ F IE> AI HAIK J=@ I = E@A= @A B @ AI GKA IE K JEH=H= K @=@ K = ?= JE@=@ KO = J= @A LA?AI A I= @H =  I A I = EI = ?= JE@=@ @A HAIK J=@ I  GKA GKA $ -IJ= AO IA IKA A ? ?AH ? AO @A I CH= @AI AH I 2AH L LEA @ = DA?D @A GKA = FH >=>E E@=@ AI K ?= F @A =F E?=?E @A = ? >E =J HE= F @A I ? F E?=H A FH > A = O FA@EH = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = JEH=H @ I @=@ I ? IA?KJEL= A JA IA >JA C= K = F=HA = @A IAEIAI 2 H A A F AIJA JEF @A AIJK@E AI BK @= A J= F=H= =IEC =H FHA E I A KAC I @A = =H F=H= AIJ=> A?AH A FHA?E @A K = F E = @A IACKH I = ?= JE@=@ J J= @A HAIK J=@ I AI V R6,2 = 36 A HAIK J=@ (6, 6) AI K @A A I F H J= J IK FH >=>E E@=@ AI 1/36 >IAHLA I IE A >=HC GKA = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA I= C= K ! O K AI KIJ= A JA A @ > A O= GKA I @ I I HAIK J=@ I F IE> AI (2, 3) O (3, 2) ,A = I? FHA?EIE I? ?AFJ I

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,A

?E

AI > IE?=I

E?E " $  7 ANFAHE A J = A=J HE AI K FH ?A@E EA J ?KO I F IE> AI HAIK J=@ I B H = K ? K J ? ?E@ O = ABA?JK=H A ANFAHE A J A HAIK J=@ >JA E@ @AFA @A @A = =H
IK J=@ = = > > =

-A F I"$

= =H K @=@ AI K ANFAHE A J = A=J HE F HGKA A HA K AH @A  = $ @A = = EA J @AFA @A @A = =H ANJH=??E @A K = ?=HJ= @A K = >=H= = ANJH=??E ? IA?KJEL= O IE HAF IE?E @A @ I > =I K AH=@=I @A K GKA ? JEA A ?K=JH > =I ? I AH I  = " A A??E @A JHAI >HAI F H I HJA A K CHKF @A  FAHI =I

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,A

HE O IA @A = A=J HE

E?E

" $ ! 5A = = AIF=?E
J= = ?

K J @A F IE> AI HAIK J=@ I @A @E?D ANFAHE A J

KAIJH= @A K ANFAHE A J = A=J

- A F I " $ " - A ANFAHE A J = A=J HE @A = = EA J @A K @=@ IK AIF=?E KAIJH= AI = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} - = ANJH=??E @A K = ?=HJ= @A K = >=H= = @EC= I AIF= = ? " ?=HJ=I A AIF=?E KAIJH= AI K ? K J @A ?=H@E = " B H =@ F H ?=@= K = @A =I ?=HJ=I @A = >=H= = - = ANJH=??E @A =I > =I K AH=@=I A AIF=?E KAIJH= AI ECK= = =I F=HA =I H@A =@=I IE A A A J I HAFAJE@ I @A K ? K J @A " A A A J I AIJ AI || = 4 3 - ? K J @A JH I @A K ? K J @A  FAHI =I AI A AIF=?E KAIJH= @A JE ANFAHE A J = A=J HE @A I A A F I O JEA A ?=H@E = || =
100 3

E = IK?AI = ?=@= IK>? JH= @A K ANFAHE A J = A=J HE JH= AI K ?

,A

E?E

" $ # 5A @A "$$

K J @A AIF=?E

KAI KAI

>IAHL=?E

K J

EJ

I ?A JH=HA

I A ANFAHE A J I ?KO AIF=?E

- A F I " $ % - A AIF=?E
A ACEH A IK?AI S I=?=H K K {1} A IK?AI S I=?=H K

KAIJH= @A = = EA J @A @=@ F @A I ? HHAIF @EA JA = IK>? K J K EJ=HE S = AH F=H ? HHAIF @EA JA = S = {2, 4, 6}

,A E?E " $ & 5A= E K ANFAHE A J = A=J HE IK AIF=?E KAIJH= @A ?=H@E = EJ O @A @ J @ I I A A A J I @A I ECK= A JA F IE> AI 5A @A A = FH >=>E E@=@ @A K IK?AI S ? A ? ?EA JA
p(S ) = |S |/||.
-I = 4AC = @A @= A ? ?EA JA @A

=F =?A GKA E @E?= GKA = FH >=>E E@=@ @A K IK?AI = AH @A ?=I I B=L H=> AI A JHA A @A ?=I I F IE> AI

- A F I " $ '  ,AJAH E =H ?K AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A =?AHJ=H " A =I GKE EA =I AH @A ?=I I B=L H=> AI AI  A @A I HAIK J=@ I @A I F=HJE@ I O A AIF=?E KAIJH= AI A ? K J @A EIJ=I @A CEJK@ " @ @A

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?=@= A A A J @A = EIJ= AI K  K = N K K = GKE EA = AI 1 . 314

)I = FH >=>E E@=@ @A =?AHJ=H

 +K AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A C= =H A = JAH = JH=@E?E = A FHA E C H@ - AIF=?E KAIJH= I I AH I @A # ?EBH=I F H J= J I   =I = FH >=>E E@=@ @A C= =H AI

1/105 .
! - = JAH = FHE EJEL= IA JEA A GKA A ACEH $ J= J = FH >=>E E@=@ @A C= =H AI AH I A JHA "' F H

1/

49 . 6

" 5A ANJH=A ! ?=HJ=I @A K = >=H= = AIF= = " F= I K AH=@=I ? =I ?EBH=I @A  = % O I J= ?=>= O HAO @A ?=@= F=  @AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA =I JHAI ?=HJ=I ANJH=E@=I IA= = EI = ?=HJ= A @EIJE J F= 40 AH @A ?=I I F IE> AI AI 3 I ?=I I B=L H=> AI IA ?= ?K = @A = IECKEA JA = AH= IKF C= I GKA A AH   I =IAI - J ?AI = >=H= = ? JEA A " =IAI F H J= J AN=?J= A JA D=O 4 = 4 F IE> AI JH I @A 3 =IAI + JA A I  F IE> AI AH I D=O 10 4 = 40 ?=I I B=L H=> AI F H J= J 40 40/ . 3

- AH?E?E &$ += ?K =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A =?AHJ=H ! O

1@A F=H= =?AHJ=H # O $A = JAH = FHE EJEL=

" A

=I GKE EA =I

2 @A I A J ?AI KI=H =I FH FEA@=@AI @A I ?=H@E = AI @A ? K J I EJ I F=H= ?= ?K =H FH >=>E E@=@AI @A IK?AI I @A E@ I ? K E AI E JAH IA??E AI O ? F A A J=HE I

AI @A?EH J @ A AIF=?E

2H FEA@=@  - IK?AI + IE@AHA

I A IK?AI @=@ F H A ? KAIJH= IA LAHE ?=

K J

p() = ||/|| = 1.

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'

2H FEA@=@

|| = 0 2 H J= J

5K>?

K J I 5E S T A J ?AI |S | |T | || O
0 p(S ) p(T ) 1.

= FH >=>E E@=@ @A ?=@= IK?AI AI A J @ A JHA  O  2H FEA@=@ ! 7 E @A IK?AI I 6 A 2H FEA@=@ " +

?AI K

AH ?

FHA @E
?AI

I @ I IK?AI I S O T A J

p(S T ) = p(S ) + p(T ) p(S T ).

A J ?AI A IK?AI ?

F A A J=HE @A K IK?AI
F A A J=HE AI

5A= S K IK?AI

S = S = {x : x / S}
O IK FH >=>E E@=@ AI

P (S ) = 1 P (S ).
-IJ= FH FEA@=@ " AI ? IA?KA ?E= @A =I = JAHE HAI O= GKA

SS =

S S = .

- A F I " $  E 5A= A ANFAHE A J = A=J HE ? IEIJA JA A

= =H @ I @=@ I IK?AIEL= A JA ?= ?K =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = IK = @A I HAIK J=@ I IA= " - IK?AI S @ I ?EBH=I GKA IK = " IA FKA@A F AH ? K E @EI K J= @A IK?AI S I=?=H @ I @ IAI O S I=?=H K  O K ! S S =  ,A @ GKA 1 2 p(S ) = + . 36 36 EE 5A= K AGKEF @A CE =IE= @A  EA >H I @A I ?K= AI I K IA =FA E@= K ,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA A K AGKEF @A # EA >H I A ACE@ I A JHA I  AIJ K 5A= A IK?AI S K AIJ A A AGKEF ? F A A J=HE @A IK?AI @A GKA GKAHA I ?= ?K =H IK FH >=>E E@=@ A AH @A AGKEF I A I GKA AIJ K AI A AH @A AGKEF I B H =@ I ? I KC=@ HAI HAIJ= JAI A J ?AI

1 p(S ) = 1

9 5

10 . 5

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>IAHL=

I GKA

9 5

10 5

= 1/10

GKA IA FKA@A E JAHFHAJ=H ? GKA = D=>AH  KC=@ HAI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K @A A I AIJ A A AGKEF AI A ? ?EA JA @A 1/10 A KC=@ H GKA AIJ A JHA I KC=@ HAI GKA D=O

"$

)IEC =?E

@A FH >=>E E@=@AI

= HAC = @A =F =?A D= BK ?E =@ F=H= =IEC =H FH >=>E E@=@AI A K AI F=?E KAIJH= @ @A J @ I IKI A A A J I I AGKEFH >=> AI FAH =@A I D= IJH=@ ? =IEC =H FH >=>E E@=@AI A K AIF=?E KAIJH= @ @A I A A A J I @A IA= A?AI=HE= A JA AGKEFH >=> AI )I IA= A AIF=?E GKA KAIJH= EJ @A K ANFAHE A J = A=J HE @A @

= {a1 , a2 , ..., as }.
5E J @ I I A A A J I @A AIF=?E KAIJH= I AGKEFH >=> AI F @A I =IEC =H A BK ?E @A >IAHL=?E AI F H A A F  FH >=>E E@=@AI = ?=@= A A A J @A AIF=?E KAIJH= O @A>A LAHE ?=H E 1 p(ai ) 0 F=H= ?=@= i {1, ..., s} EE p(a1 ) + p(a2 ) + ... + p(as ) = 1 ? ; =@A I HAIFAJ=H =I FH FEA@=@AI @A F A A J=HE I I IK>? K J I =I K E AI O I

>IAHL=?E " $  - I ?=I I @ FH >=> AI F=H= ?=@= ai IA JEA A

@A J @ I

I A A A J I @A I

AGKE

p(ai ) = 1/||.

-A F

" $  ,KH= JA L=HE I @ =I >IAHL= I GKA A K KAC @A @=@ I A HAIK J=@  I= A A @ > A @A LA?AI GKA A HAIK J=@ A I= A A @ > A @A LA?AI GKA I @A I EA JH=I I JH I HAIK J=@ I I= A J @ I I A I = EI = ?= JE@=@ @A LA?AI A J ?AI F @A I =IEC =H =I FH >=>E E@=@AI @A = IECKEA JA B H = p(3) = a
p(4) = a

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'!

p(5) = a p(6) = a p(2) = 2a p(1) = 4a

+ ,A AIJA

1 a 0 O 4a + 2a + a + a + a + a = 10a = 1 A J @ p(1) = 4/10 p(2) = 2/10 p(i) = 1/10 i = 3, 4, 5, 6.

?AI a = 1/10

; F=H= ?= ?K =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A ?K= GKEAH IK?AI S >=IJ=H AI?HE>EH ? K E @EI K J= @A IKI IK>? K J I K EJ=HE I 2 H A A F IA= S A IK?AI A HAIK J=@ IA= F=H A J ?AI S = {2, 4, 6} F H GKA

p(S ) = p(2) + p(4) + p(6) = 2/10 + 1/10 + 1/10 = 4/10.

K J @A # ?=HJ=I @A >=H= =I ECK= AI J @=I @A EI F= D=O ! =IAI ! @ IAI  JHAI " ?K=JH I ?=>= I O HAOAI 5A= A ANFAHE A J = A=J HE ANJH=AH K = ?=HJ= = = =H @A =I # ,AJAH E =H A AI F=?E KAIJH= O =IEC =H FH >=>E E@=@AI H= => AI = ?=@= A A A J @A += ?K =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A IK?AI = ?=HJ= ANJH= @= IA= K = CKH=

- AH?E?E &% 5A= K ?

" $ ! 2H >=>E E@=@ ?

- AIJ= IA??E ?K= @ JA A

@E?E

=@=

L= I = = = E =H ? IA @E ?= = FH >=>E E@=@ @A IK?AI I I K = E B H =?E =@E?E = 2 H A A F

>=H= = AIF= = IA= K ?=>= AI 4/40 = 1/10 O= GKA = >=H= = @A " ?=HJ=I ? JEA A " ?=>= I 2AH IKF C= I GKA HA?E>E I = E B H =?E =@E?E = @A GKA = ?=HJ= ANJH= @= AI K = CKH= -IJ= I A J ?AI E JAHAI=@ I A = FH >=>E E@=@ @A ANJH=AH K ?=>= I=>EA @ GKA D= I= E@ K = CKH= = >=H= = ? JEA A  CKH=I @A =I ?K= AI " I ?=>= I F H J= J = KAL= FH >=>E E@=@ AI 4/12 = 1/3 ?K= E @E?= GKA A AIJA ?=I A DA?D =@E?E = @A IAH K = CKH= D=?A =K A J=H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A IK?AI

-A F

" $ ! = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = ANJH=AH K = ?=HJ= = = =H A K =

'"

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,A
?

" $ " 5A= S O S IK?AI I @A K AIF=?E GKA p(S ) > 0 ,A E I = FH >=>E E@=@ ? @E?E
p(S |S ) = p(S S )/p(S ).
; AI K ? ?AFJ GKA HA? CA = E@A= GKA IA = >= IE L= A = HAC = @A =F =?A A J ?AI

E?E

KAIJH= @A @ =@= @A S F H S

IA A AA F

F HGKA

p(S S )/p(S ) =

|S S | |S | |S S | : = . | | || |S |

5A FKA@A E JAHFHAJ=H ? GKA A DA?D =@E?E = @E ?= A AIF=?E KAIJH=  HA@K?A = S  O J= >E A ? K J @A I ?=I I B=L H=> AI  HA@K?A = SS 

A@= IK?AIE L= A JA " LA?AI IA >JA C= AN=?J= A JA ! ?HK?AI I=>EA @ GKA = FHE AH= JEH=@= BKA ?HK
- AIF=?E KAIJH= AI = A A A A @ @A A AI A ? K J A = {cara, cruz } F H J= J || = 16 - IK?AI S >JA AH AN=?J= A JA JHAI ?HK?AI JEA A ?=H@E = "  =I " F IE> AI JEH=@=I A =I GKA I= E = ?=H= IK?AI S = FHE AH= JEH=@= BKA ?HK JEA A ?=H@E = 8 IA FKA@A E JAHFHAJ=H ? {cruz } A A A ; A IK?AI S S JEA A ?=H@E = ! - J ?AI

-A F

" $ # +K AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = JEH=H K =

p(S |S ) =

(3/16) . (8/16)

,A

GKA

E?E

" $ $ , I IK?AI I S O S IA @E?A E @AFA @EA JAI IE LAHE ?=

p(S S ) = p(S )p(S ).

I K = ?=HJ= = = =H A K = >=H= = AIF= = I IK?AI I S IA= CKH= O S IA= @A H I I E @AFA @EA JAI F HGKA p(S ) = 12/40 p(S ) = 10/40 O p(S S ) = 3/40 ; ABA?JEL= A JA

-A F

" $ % -NJH=A

12 10 3 = . 40 40 40

- AH?E?E && +

FH >=H IE I IK?AI I S K = B= E E= ? JHAI DE I JA C= DE I @A I @ I IAN I O S K = B= E E= ? JHAI DE I JA C= = A I K ?DE? I E @AFA @EA JAI

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- AIJK@E @A = FH >=>E E@=@ @EI?HAJ= ? IJEJKOA K E JAHAI= JA ?= F @A =I =JA JE?=I O ANEIJA FH BK @ I JA HA =I GKA L= I = @AI=HH =H JA HA = @A *=OAI @A = FH >=>E E@=@ J J=  )@A I A AIF=?E KAIJH= FKA@A IAH EJ ? GKA IA @A>A ?= >E=H = HAC = @A =F =?A = B H = @A =IEC =H FH >=>E E@=@AI F H E IJHK A J I =@A?K=@ I GKA FH LEA A @A ) EIEI =JA JE?  6 @ AIJ ? IJEJKOA =JAHE= @A ?KHI @A -IJ=@ IJE?= GKA IA E F=HJA A IACK @ 6AH E = I A ?=F JK FHAIA J= @ @ I ? ?AFJ I I HABAHE@ I = AIJA ?= F @A = FH >=>E E@=@ @EI?HAJ= GKA IAH @A KJE E@=@ A A @AI=HH F IJAHE H @A = -IJ=@ IJE?=

" $ " -NFAHE A J I @A *AH

,A E?E

K E
K E AI K ANFAHE A J ?KO

AIF=?E KAIJH= JEA A @ I A A A J I = {e, f } @A = AH= GKA p AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A e IA IKA A A JA @AH ? FH >=>E E@=@ @A NEJ  O 1 p = FH >=>E E@=@ @A f FH >=>E E@=@ @A BH=?=I 

" $ & 7 ANFAHE A J @A *AH

- A F I " $ '  = =H K =

A@= JHK?=@= GKA I=?= ?=H= ? FH >= >E E@=@  ! O ?HK ? FH >=>E E@=@ !  = =H K @=@ GKA JEA A =I ?=H=I ? HA=@=I @A @ I ? HAI # @A A =I A H K = @A A =I A ACH A H JEA A FH >=>E E@=@ # $ O A ACH FH >=>E E@=@  $

6 A I A J ?AI K ANFAHE A J @A *AH K E ? FH >=>E E@=@AI p @A NEJ O 1 p @A BH=?=I @A J= = AH= GKA ?=@= HAFAJE?E @A ANFAHE A J IA= E @AFA @EA JA @A = HAFAJE?E = JAHE H ,A>A I IA = =H GKA F H A A F IE J = I A ANFAHE A J @A ANJH=AH K = > = @A K = KH = ? > =I > = ?=I O ACH=I F=H= GKA = HAFAJE?E @A ANFAHE A J IA= E @AFA @EA JA @A = HAFAJE?E = JAHE H = > = ANJH=E@= @A>A IAH HAE JH @K?E@= A = KH =

2H > A =  ,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = HAFAJEH A ANFAHE A J

n LA?AI IA JA C= AN=?J= A JA k NEJ I 5E k > n = FH >=>E E@=@ AI  O IE k n A HAIK J=@ AI n k p (1 p)nk . k

- ABA?J F H DEF JAIEI @A E @AFA @A ?E= I IK?AI I JA AH K NEJ A = HAFAJE?E a IE = HAIF K BH=?=I  O JA AH K NEJ A = HAFAJE?E

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b IE = ? a = b I E @AFA @EA JAI F H J= J =I FH >=>E E@=@AI IA L= ? IJHKOA @ K JEF E?= @ )I F H A A F A IK?AI @=@=I @ I HAFAJE?E AI >JA AH @ I NEJ I JEA A FH >=>E E@=@ p2 ,A AIJ= = AH= A IK?AI >JA AH AN=?J= A JA k NEJ I A =I FHE AH=I k HAFAJE?E AI @A =I n J J= AI JEA A FH >=>E E@=@ pk (1 p)nk .
2AH I k NEJ I FKA@A =? JA?AH A ?K= AIGKEAH= k HAFAJE?E AI @A A JHA =I n LA?AI GKA IA D= ABA?JK=@ A ANFAHE A J F H GKA AIJ= FH >=>E E@=@ @A>A EH K JEF E?=@= F H A AH @A IK>? K J I @A k A A A J I @A K ? K J @A n A A A J I GKA I AN=?J= A JA

n . k
2 H J= J IA JEA A = B H K = >KI?=@=

2H > A =

,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = HAFAJEH A ANFAHE A J n LA?AI IA JA C= = A I k NEJ I

n

i=k

n i p (1 p)ni . i

-IJ= B H K = I= A @A A JA @AH A IK?AI = A I k NEJ I ? =K E @A I IK?AI I @EI K J I AN=?J= A JA k NEJ I AN=?J= A JA k + 1 NEJ I AN=?J= A JA n NEJ I ; HAIK J= >LE GKA IA FKA@A ?= >E=H A F=FA @A BH=?=I I I NEJ I O @A I

- AH?E?E &'   ! " ,AJAH ,AJAH ,AJAH ,AJAH E E E E =H =H =H =H

=I = = = = FH FH FH FH

EI =I ? >=>E E@=@ >=>E E@=@ >=>E E@=@ >=>E E@=@

@E?E

AI @A

I FH > A =I  O

@A >JA AH ? NE k BH=?=I I @A >JA AH E C NEJ @A JA AH AN=?J= A JA k BH=?=I I @A GKA J @ I IA= NEJ I E AI 0.4 E =I

- AH?E?E ' 5KF C=

I GKA = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = ?= K EA JH=I = @A GKA = ?= K = E = AI 0.6 ,AJAH E =H

 = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA A JHA  KAL I =?E EA J I J @ I IA=  0=O= = A I # E I ! 0=O= ? NE ! E I

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) F=HJEH @A =D H= ? IE@AH=HA I ANFAHE A J I = A=J HE I J= AI GKA IK AIF=?E KAIJH= JEA A IEA FHA ?=H@E = EJ

JH= @A K ANFAHE A J = A=J HE A

,A

E?E

" $  7 = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= AI K = BK ?E

I AH I HA= AI

@A AIF=?E

KAI

-A F

= A=J HE ? J= J AI H ? = AA F I I =JHE?K =@

"$  6

= I K ? K J @A  FAHI =I 5A= A ANFAHE A J IEIJA JA A IA A??E =H K = @A AIJ=I  FAHI =I = = =H F H A ? K J @A =I  FAHI =I ,A E I = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= BK ?E H : R GKA =IEC = = ?=@= FAHI = IK = JKH=  JH I = =IEC =?E @A FAI @A AH @A =IEC =JKH=I A GKA AIJ 

+ AIJ= @A E?E @A L=HE=> A = A=J HE= F @A I IJH=H @ I E IJHK A J I @A = AIJ=@ IJE?= @AI?HEFJEL= = AIFAH= = =JA JE?= GKA D=?A HABAHA ?E= = L= H AIFAH=@ GKA J = = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= O = L=HE= = GKA AI K = A@E@= @A = @EIFAHIE @A I L= HAI GKA J = = L=HE=> A

,A

AI " $ 5A= X : R K = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= 5A @A A = AIFAH= = =JA JE?= @A X ?

E (X ) =
s

E?E

p(s)X (s).

5A @A

A = L=HE=

= @A X ?
p(s)(X (s) E (X ))2 .
s

V (X ) =
5A @A A = @AILE=?E

J FE?= @A X ?
(X ) = V (X ).

-IJ=I A@E@=I @AI?HE>A = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= E @E?= @ IK L= H AIFAH=@ A@E A E @E?= @ @EIFAHI I ? ?A JH=@ I GKA AIJ IKI L= HAI

-A F

AN= A @A 

" $ ! 5A= K ?
=JA

K J @A " = K I ?KO I HAIK J=@ I A K JE?=I AI A IECKEA JA  = J= AI K AH A JAH @A  =

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J=

AH @A = K
 ! ! !   ! 

I 2H >=>E E@=@
 " " ! " ! " ! " "  "  " ! " "  "

! " # $ % & ' 

= J= AI K = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= ?KO @ E E AI A ? K J @A I = K ? IE@AH=@ ? A AIF=?E KAIJH= @A ANFAHE A J A ACEH K = K A A ? K J @A I AH I A JAH I @A  =  )CHKF= @ I =K GKA JEA A = EI = J= IA >JEA A ? I @=J I @A = J=> =

I  I

E (X ) = 0(1/40) + 1(2/40) + 2(3/40) + 3(3/40) + 4(3/40) + 5(2/40)+ +6(10/40) + 7(10/40) + 8(3/40) + 9(2/40) + 10(1/40) = 5.52. V (X ) = (0 5.52)2 (1/40) + (1 5.52)2 (2/40) + (2 5.52)2 (3/40)+ +(3 5.52)2 (3/40) + (4 5.52)2 (3/40) + (5 5.52)2 (2/40)+ +(6 5.52)2 (10/40) + (7 5.52)2 (10/40) + (8 5.52)2 (3/40)+ +(9 5.52)2 (2/40) + (10 5.52)2 (1/40) = 5.54. (X ) = 2.35.

? IA?KJEL= A JA O X = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= GKA =IEC = = ?=@= HAIK J=@ @A ANFAHE A J = IK = @A I HAIK J=@ I @A = > I @=@ I E -I?HE>EH A AIF=?E KAIJH= @A ANFAHE A J EE -I?HE>EH = BK ?E X : R EEE += ?K =H = AIFAH= = = L=HE= = O = @AILE=?E

- AH?E?E ' 5A= A ANFAHE A J = A=J HE ? IEIJA JA A JEH=H @ I @=@ I

J FE?= @A X

"%

- -4+1+1 5

''

"%

- AH?E?E I

- AH?E?E '

,AJAH E =H @A ?K J=I = AH=I IA FKA@A A ACEH K ?K=@H=@ > = ? O JH ACH A K J=> AH @A = A@HA @A @ GKA I @ I ?K=@H=@ I AIJ A = EI = = E A = EI = ? K = FKA@A A FA =H F H ?AH AH I @A JA B @A % ?EBH=I GKA = CK = @A =I ?EBH=I AIJ HAFAJE@=

- AH?E?E '! ,AJAH E =H A ?K J I

- AH?E?E '" 7 = =LA IA B=>HE?= D=?EA @ E ?EIE AI @A FH BK @E@=@ L=

HE=> A A ?EAHJ=I F IE?E AI =@=I @A K = =LA EI= 5E =I FH BK @E@=@AI F IE> AI I ?K=JH @AJAH E =H A AH @A E ?EIE AI GKA @A>A AL=H = =LA F=H= GKA A AH @A =LAI F IE> AI IA= =O H GKA  

- AH?E?E '# ,=@ A ?

I

K J @A I #" = K I @A K = ? =IA @ @A ! ?DE? I O " I ?DE?=I @AJAH E =H E AH @A AGKEF I @A " = K I GKA IA FKA@A B H =H EE AH @A AGKEF I @A " = K I GKA ? JA C= = A I K = ?DE?= EEE AH @A AGKEF I B H =@ I F H @ I ?DE?=I O @ I ?DE? I E 6EA A AN=?J= A JA JHAI ?AH I EE 6EA A = A I K ?AH EEE 6EA A A EI AH @A K

- AH?E?E '$ ,AJAH E =H ?K J=I F= =>H=I @A  >OJAI

I O ?AH I

- AH?E?E '% +K J=I F= =>H=I @A  AJH=I IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH HA H@A = @

=I AJH=I @A = F= =>H= @ @A?=A@H

- AH?E?E '& 6A A

I  =EFAI @A I ?K AI I ! =IAI @A H I " ?=>= I @A >=IJ I O JH=I ! ?=HJ=I @EBAHA JAI A JHA I O = =I = JAHE HAI 5E F A I =I  ?=HJ=I A = @AJAH E =H A AH @A @EIJE J=I =I GKA IA FKA@A B H =H JHAI EI AH I IACKE@ I @A JHAI AJH=I AH JHAI LA?AI ? JEA A = EI = AJH= @ I LA?AI

- AH?E?E '' ,AJAH E =H ?K J=I E?A ?E=I @A KI @A K FH CH= = B H =@=I

? EA

- AH?E?E  5A JEA A A JH=@=I F=H= % AIFA?J ?K I @EIJE J I @AJAH E

=H ?K J I F IE> AI HAC= I @A JHAI A JH=@=I F IE> A A JA F=H= A AIFA?J ?K  IA FKA@A D=?AH EI



+)2 67

"

*1 )6 41)

- AH?E?E  ,AJAH E =H GK IK?AI AI

@ I @=@ I I=?=H K & = JEH=H JHAI @=@ I

I FH >=> A I=?=H K & = JEH=H AH #

- AH?E?E 

,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K = KC=@= @A F ?=HJ=I A K = >=H= = BH= ?AI= ? # ?=HJ=I IE ? @E AI E + JA C= = A I K =I EE >JA C= K F AH ?K=JH ?=HJ=I ECK= AI

- AH?E?E ! - K ANFAHE A J @A *AH KE E ?

NEJ O 0.6 @A BH=?=I @AJAH E =H ?K J I = F=H= GKA = FH >=>E E@=@ @A >JA AH = A I K &

FH >=>E E@=@ 0.4 @A = EA J I D=O GKA HA= E =H NEJ IA= =O H ECK= GKA

E E AI A AIF=?E KAI JH= @A = =H K @=@  LA?AI ? IA?KJEL=I =IEC = @ = ?=@= A A A J @A A AH @A IAEIAI GKA D= I= E@ += ?K =H = AIFAH= = =JA JE?= @A X GKA AI A AH @A IAEIAI AIFAH=@ = = =H  LA?AI A @=@

- AH?E?E " 5A= = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= X ?KO @

- AH?E?E # +K
A H

AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA AI? CE@ K A JAH = = =H ECK= GKA  IA= FHE

- AH?E?E $ 5E S O S I

@ I IK?AI I ? p(S ) = 0.8 O p(S ) = 0.6 @A KAIJH= GKA p(S S ) 0.4 - CA AH= F=H= ?=@= F=H @A IK?AI I IA LAHE ?= p(S S ) p(S ) + p(S ) 1 A A EI AIF=?E IJH=H GKA F=H= @ I L=HE=> AI = A=J HE=I X A Y @A KAIJH= = AIFAH= = =JA JE?= LAHE ?= E@=I

- AH?E?E % ,A

E (X + Y ) = E (X ) + E (Y ),
IEA @ X + Y = BK ?E IK = @A =I BK ?E AI X A Y

" & - AH?E?E I HAIKA J I

- AH?E?E %% 2H FEA@=@  5E |A| = n A J ?AI ANEIJA K = =F E?=?E >EOA?JEL= f : A Nn 5E |B | = m A J ?AI ANEIJA K = =F E?=?E >E OA?JEL= g : B Nm = =F E?=?E >EOA?JEL= GKA AIJ= I >KI?= @ AI F : A B Nn+m @A E@= ? F (a) = f (a) IE a A O F (b) = g (b) + n IE bB

"&

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5



-I I >HAOA?JEL= O= GKA IE s Nn A J ?AI ANEIJA a A @A @ GKA s = f (a) = F (a) O IE n < s n + m A J ?AI s n Nm @A @ GKA ANEIJA b B J= GKA g (b) = s n F H GKA F (b) = s -I E OA?JEL= O= IE a = b A J ?AI F (a) = F (b) - ABA?J J= J f ? g I E OA?JEL=I F H GKA A HAIK J=@ AI ?EAHJ IE a, b A IE a, b B A ?=I a A O b B IA LAHE ?= GKA F (a) n O F (B ) > n F H GKA I @EIJE J I A?AI=HE= A JA 2H FEA@=@ IA =F E?= =  = B O B 2H FEA@=@ ! +

AB A J

?AI B = A (B A) O IA ?

? KOA F H 

2H FEA@=@ " *=IJ= KI=H =I FH FEA@=@AI = JAHE HAI AI?HE>EA @ A B = A (B (A B )) 2H FEA@=@ # 2 H E @K??E I >HA A ?=H@E = @A B 5E |B | = 0 A J ?AI B AI L=? @A @ GKA A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= J= >E AI 5E |B | = n + 1 A J ?AI B = B B ? |B | = n O |B | = 1 ,A AIJA @ ? A B = (A B ) (A B ) O (A B ) (A B ) = IA ? ? KOA F H = FH FEA@=@  O = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E 2H FEA@=@ ! E F E?= FH FEA@=@ $ 5E DK>EAH= K = BK ?E E OA?JEL= f : A B A J ?AI = E =CA @A f AI K IK>? K J @A B @A ?=H@E = AIJHE?J= A JA =O H GKA |B | GKA AI K = ? JH=@E??E 2H FEA@=@ $ E F E?= FH FEA@=@ ! 5E A B A J ?AI D=O K = =F E?=?E E OA?JEL= @A A A B  = E ? KIE  @A @ GKA |A| < |B | E + IA E @E?= =@= =I AJH=I IA FKA@A HAFAJEH V R29,5 = 295 EE V29,5 = 29 28 27 26 25 EEE =I F= =>H=I GKA ? JEA A = = AJH= b I 285 F H GKA = 5 5 ? JEA A 29 28 EL 4= = @ ? A EEE I V29,5 V28,5 L 5E A FEA = F H L ?= O IA FKA@A HAFAJEH I 5 294 5E IA FKA@A HAFAJEH I 5 V28,4 LE 5E IA FKA@A HAFAJEH I 5 293 5E IA FKA@A HAFAJEH I 5 V27,3 3 2 LEE 5E IA FKA@A HAFAJEH I 5 29 5E IA FKA@A HAFAJEH I 5 4 3 26 25

- AH?E?E %&

- AH?E?E %'

+)2 67

"

*1 )6 41)

E = FHE AH= ?EBH= FKA@A IAH  O =I ?EBH=I IA FKA@A HAFAJEH 9 103 EE 5 F=HAI IE IK JE = ?EBH= AI  " $ K & A J ?AI 9 102 5 AN=?J= A JA = EJ=@ @A E EEE 5 E F=HAI = JH= EJ=@ EL 5 JEF I @A # IE IK JE = ?EBH= AI K  K # 9 102 2 L 5E ? JEA A = I 8 93 F H J= J I GKA ? JEA A = I 9 103 8 93 LE 5 ? JEA A E = = ?EBH= E = = ?EBH= ! I 7 83 A J ?AI I 3 3 GKA ? JEA A = = ! == > II 9 10 7 8 = AH=I O IE I E F HJ= = F IE?E HA =JEL= A K = AI= ?EH?K =H A J ?AI A HAIK J=@ D=O GKA @ELE@EH F H $ AIJ AI 6!/6 = 5! ,ELE@E I F H $ GKA I =I $ F IE?E AI HA =JEL=I ECK= AI HAIK J=@ @A LAHIA J @ I K = IE = @ I IE =I $ IE =I D=?E= = @AHA?D=

- AH?E?E & 5A FKA@A IA J=H @A 6!

- AH?E?E &

E 243 104 2 2 EE P R3 P R4 = 3 4!/2 2 3 EEE 24 10 EL 5E I ?=FE? =I = FHE AH= ?EBH= AI ECK= GKA = ?K=HJ= O = IACK @= AI ECK= GKA = JAH?AH= 2 H J= J D=O 102 @ CEJ I - J J= 243 102 L 24 104 2,2 2 LE P R3 P R4 = 3 3!

- AH?E?E &

E 5! EE 5!/4 EEE 5!/12 EL I > AJ I ? J @=I IKI ?EBH=I ECK= AI I I A I FH >=> AI @A IAH FHA E=@ I O I GKA JEA A J @=I IKI ?EBH=I @EIJE J=I I GKA I

Vm,n (m n)! @A

- AH?E?E &!

Vm,n = m(m 1)...(m (n 1)) A J @ GKA m n = m! Vm,n = . n! n!(m n)!

?AI m! =

- AH?E?E &"

"&

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

! H@A =@= @A FK J I 312 3 @= K JHE CK IA B H = A ECEA @ ! @A

 7 JHE CK AI K = JAH =  =I JAH =I @A FK J I GKA I # FK J I = E A=@ I F H J= J

312 5 . 3 3

- AH?E?E &#

 CR5,6 = 10 . 6  5E GKEJ= I A # @A ?=@= > > JA A ? JEA A = # I GKA ? JEA A I

I CR4,6 F IE> AI HAIK J=@ I GKA F H J= J

CR5,6 CR4,6 .

- AH?E?E &$ )?AHJ=H ! A =I GKE EA =I JEA A FH >=>E E@=@ 14/314 )?AHJ=H

#A = FHE EJEL= 6/
49 6

- AH?E?E &% = {as, 2, 3, 4, caballo, rey }

p(as) = 3/15 p(2) = 3/15 p(3) = 1/15 p(4) = 4/15 p(caballo) = 2/15 p(rey ) = 2/15 p(f igura) = p(caballo) + p(rey ) = 4/15

- IK?AI S JA AH DE I @A I @ I IAN I JEA A ?=H@E = $ O= GKA D=O GKA @AI? J=H I ?=I I A GKA D=O JHAI L=H AI JHAI K AHAI - IK?AI S JA AH = A I K DE L=H JEA A ?=H@E = % O= GKA D=O GKA @AI? J=H I A ?=I A GKA I JHAI K AHAI - J ?AI p(S ) = 6/8 O p(S ) = 7/8 2 H JH =@ |S S | = 6 F HGKA S S @A @ GKA I IK?AI I I E @AFA @EA JAI

- AH?E?E && 5A JEA A GKA || = 8

- AH?E?E &'

n i ni  k i=0 i (1 p) p n  (1 p) ! n (1 p)k pnk k

" " pn

+)2 67

"

*1 )6 41)

- AH?E?E '

 (0.6)100 100 i 100i  100 i=50 i (0.4) (0.6) 100 i 100i ! 30 i=0 i (0.4) (0.6)

- AH?E?E '

E ) JEH=H @ I @=@ I ? IA?KJEL= A JA = N6 N6 EE X : R =IEC = a + b = = JEH=@= (a, b) EEE -I?HE>EA @ =I B H K =I O D=?EA @ =I HAIFA?JEL=I ?KA J=I IA >JEA A E (X ) = 7 V (X ) = 6.16 (x) = 6.16 = 2.48

- AH?E?E '

6 = I K ?K=@H=@ > = ? @A I 64/2 ?K=@H=@ I > = ? I GKA D=O -I? CA I K ?K=@H=@ ACH @A I 64/2 8 F IE> AI  I ACH I GKA AIJ A = EI = = A = EI = ? K = - HAIK J=@ AI A FH @K?J %$&

- AH?E?E '! *KI?=

I A ? F A A J=HE @A ? K J @A J @ I H I @A % ?EBH=I J= AI GKA E CK = @A A =I AIJ HAFAJE@=

107 V10,7 .

- AH?E?E '"
AI K = IK?AIE AI n = 9

=I F IE>E E@=@AI ? n E ?EIE AI I 4n + {4n : n N} ?HA?EA JA >KI?= I A FHE AH n GKA LAHE GKA GKA 4n > 105 O

- AH?E?E '#
=K

E -I A AH @A IK>? K J I @A " A A A J I A K ? K J @A #" I 54 4 EE 5AH A AH J J= @A AGKEF I @A " = K I A I A AH @A AGKEF I ? IJEJKE@ I I F H ?DE? I

30 54 . 4 4
EEE AH @A IK>? K J I @A @ I ?DE? I K J I @A @ I ?DE?=I F H A AH @A IK>?

30 24 . 2 2

"&

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

#

- AH?E?E '$

3,7 E P R10 = 10 3 EE 6 @ I A I A B H =@ F H J @ I K 5,5 = 10 EEE P R10 5

I 210 1

- AH?E?E '%
6 J=

3,2,2 P R10

= d IA HAFEJA ! LA?AI = o IA HAFEJA @ I LA?AI O = e JH=I I =IAI IA HAFEJA ! LA?AI O I ?=>= I " 6 J=
3,4 P R10

- AH?E?E '& - AH?E?E '' -

AH @A E?A ?E=I >KI?=@ IAH A J J= @A F IE> AI A I =GK =I ? = EI = AJH= @ I LA?AI O A EI AH ! LA?AI 6 J= 103 293 3 29 28 10 5EA @ 29 28 A AH @A F=HA =I @A AJH=I F IE> AI ! A AH @A @ I @A H@A =H =I JHAI AJH=I @ I ECK= AI O K = @EIJE J= O  I F IE> AI JH I @A AH I

- AH?E?E  CR17,3 =

A

19 3

- AH?E?E  5E JEH=

I @= ? IK = &

I @ I @=@ I 0=O 62 F IE> AI = I IECKEA JAI

= EA J I

,A

(2, 6), (6, 2), (3, 5), (5, 3), (4, 4).
= FH >=>E E@=@ @A >JA AH K & AI 5/36 = 0.13889 5E JEH= I JHAI @=@ I 0=O 63 F IE> AI = = EA J I ,A A I @= ? 2,5 IK = & I IECKEA JAI P R7 E JAHFHAJ= @ ?=@= JEH=@= ? K = F= =>H= @A % ?=H ?JAHAI GKA I # K I O ?AH I F H A A F = JEH=@= 2, 2, 4 AI  I ?AH I IAF=H= =I JEH=@=I O F A I J= J I K I ? A L= H @A = JEH=@= A I K = K E@=@ - J ?AI = FH >=>E E@=@ AI 21/216 = 0.0722 A H GKA = = JAHE H

- AH?E?E 
=I

E = FH >=>E E@=@ IAH 

I = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA

JA C= E C

48 52 / . 5 5

EE 0=O ! F IE> AI F AHAI @A =IAI @A @ IAI  O F H ?=@= K FKA@A D=>AH K = GKE J= ?=HJ= GKA AI =H>EJH=HE= @A A JHA =I "& ?=HJ=I HAIJ= JAI "%

$ IE GKAHA I GKA IA= K HAF

+)2 67 AH 2 H J= J

"

*1 )6 41) AH AI

= FH >=>E E@=@ @A F

48 13/

52 . 5

- AH?E?E ! - IK?AI

>JA AH = A I K NEJ AI ? F A A J=HE = IK?AI JA AH E C NEJ 1 0.6n *KI?= I n J= GKA 1 0.6n 0.8 AGKEL= A JA A JA 0.6n 0.2 + = IK?AIE {0.6n : n N} AI @A?HA?EA JA AL= K= @ IA JEA A GKA A FHE AH GKA LAHE ?= = @AIECK= @=@ AI n = 4

- AH?E?E " - IK?AI

>JA AH AN=?J= A JA k IAEIAI = JEH=H A @=@  LA?AI JEA A = IECKEA JA FH >=>E E@=@

10 (1/6)k (5/6)10k . k
2 H J= J A AIF=?E KAIJH= AI = {0} N10 O F=H= ?=@= k N10 IA JEA A = FH >=>E E@=@ A ?E =@= @A @ GKA = AIFAH= = =JA JE?= AI

10 k=0 k

10 (1/6)k (5/6)10k . k
I A HAI GKA  F H J= J 26/100 ?AI

- AH?E?E # 0=O $ FHE - AH?E?E $ +

p(S S ) = p(S ) + p(S ) p(S S ) A J p(S S ) = p(S ) + P (S ) p(S S ).

5A ? ? KOA = B H K = CA AH= @A DA?D @A GKA p(S S ) 1 -IJ= B H K = IA =F E?= = A A F p(S ) = 0.8 O p(S ) = 0.6 + = L=HE=> A X + Y IA @A A ? (X + Y )(a) = X (a) + Y (a) F=H= ?=@= a A A AH?E?E AI ? IA?KA ?E= @A = FH FEA@=@ @EIJHE>KJEL=

- AH?E?E %

+=F JK /H=B I

= JA H = @A CH=B I JEA A IK HECA A K =HJ ?K FK> E?=@ F H -K AH A %!$ A A GKA IA @=>= I K?E = FH > A = @A I % FKA JAI @A = ?EK@=@ @A ECI>AHC =?JK= A JA = E E CH=@  FKA JAI GKA ? A?J=>= @ I EI =I ? =I HCA AI @A H 2HACA IAC A AIGKA = @A = CKH= GKA IA =@ K J= .ECKH= #  - FH > A = ? IEIJ = A HA= E =H K F=IA GKA =JH=LAI=IA ?=@= K @A I % FKA JAI K = E?= LA  I FKA JAI A A CH ? I I GKA K A =I HACE AI ) * + O , -K AH @A IJH GKA AIJ AH= F IE> A O AIJ AI E F HJ= JA IE ? FH >=H J @ I I F IE> AI F=IA I ,AI@A A J ?AI I HAIK J=@ I O =F E?=?E AI @A AIJ= JA H = D= E@ =K A J= @ O =?JK= A JA = JA H = @A CH=B I IA KJE E = F=H= HAI LAH FH > A =I A

.ECKH= #  2KA JAI @A

EI>AHC

%

&

+)2 67

/4). 5

H= =I @A = ?EA ?E= KO @EBAHA JAI 2 H A A F I CH=B I IA KJE E = F=H= ? IJHKEH @A I @A HA@AI @A H@A =@ HAI O @AJAH E =H IE @ I H@A =@ HAI AIJ ? A?J=@ I A K = HA@ F=H= @AJAH E =H IE K ?EH?KEJ FKA@A IAH E F A A J=@ I >HA K J=> AH F = F=H= @EIJE CKEH ? FKAIJ I GK E? I ? = EI = B H K = A?K =H F=H= A ? JH=H A ?= E I ? HJ A JHA @ I ?EK@=@AI A K = HA@ @A JH= IF HJA 5A FHAJA @A GKA A = K = = E =H A ?=F JK

- JEA @=

I?

?AFJ I O @A

E?E

AI > IE?=I @A = JA H = @A CH=B I AI @A CH=B I ?AH IE @ I CH=B I I EI H

7JE E?A =I @EIJE J=I HAFHAIA J=?E 7JE E?A @EBAHA JAI B I
J @ I F=H= HA?

+ ?= I ? ?AFJ I @A CH=B ? AN AK AHE= O D= E J E= =I J ? E?=I F=H= HA? ?AH I IKI FH FEA@=@AI O = CK I HAIK J=@ I HA = ?E =@ I ? A I )F EGKA = @A H>
E?E I =@A?K=@= F=H= LAHE ?=H IE K CH=B AI K

#  /H=B I @ECH=B I O

K JECH=B I

I CH=B I I AIJHK?JKH=I @EI?HAJ=I GKA ? IJ= @A L HJE?AI O =HEIJ=I GKA ? A?J= AIJ I L HJE?AI 0=O @EBAHA JAI JEF I @A CH=B I GKA @E AHA A = ? =IA O AH @A =HEIJ=I GKA ? A?J= K F=H @A L HJE?AI - AIJ= IA??E E JH @K?EHA I = CK I ? ?AFJ I @A = JA H = @A CH=B I O = CK I JEF I @A CH=B I @A F=HJE?K =H E JAH I

E?E #   7 CH=B IE F A G AI K F=H G = (V, E ) B H =@ F H K ? K J EJ @A L HJE?AI V O K ? K J E @A F=HAI H@A =@ I @A L HJE?AI @EIJE J I AI @A?EH
E {{u, v } |u, v V u = v }.
)

,A

J=@=I

I A A A J I @A E IA AI @A

E = =HEIJ=I 

@EHECE@=I

HEA

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/4). 5 ,1/4). 5 ;

7 61/4). 5

'

O =I =HEIJ=I {u, v } ? @A CH=B

>IAHL=?E

#

2 @A

I HAFHAIA J=H I L HJE?AI ? FK J I @A F = A IAC A J uv @= @ K = HAFHAIA J=?E CH ?= K J

,A

EJ @A L HJE?AI V O K = B= E E=

E?E

#! 7

K JECH=B AI K F=H (V, E ) B H =@ F H K ?

EJ= E @A =HEIJ=I HEA J=@=I

E = {ei }iI
@ @A I AI K ui , v i V ? K J EJ O i I IA LAHE ?= GKA ei = {ui , vi } ?

JAIA GKA A K K JECH=B @ I =HEIJ=I @EIJE J=I FKA @A ? A?J=H I EI I L HJE?AI AIJ AI GKA E AI K = B= E E= O K ? K J FK@EA @ JA AH A A A J I HAFAJE@ I JAIA J= >E GKA AIJ= I FAH EJEA @ =HEIJ=I @A JEF {u, u} @A E =@=I = I >K? AI

>IAHL=?E

#"

,A

EJ O E (V V ) IEA @ = {(x, x) : x V } ) V IA AI @A E = L HJE?AI O = I @A E =HEIJ=I @EHECE@=I K HEA J=@=I

E?E

#  # 7 @ECH=B AI K F=H (V, E ) @ @A V AI K ?

K J I A A A J I @A

-A F

#  $  = > ? = > = ? > ? ? >  AI K @ECH=B GKA F @A I HAFHAIA J=H KJE E = @ FK J I F=H= HAFHAIA J=H I L HJE?AI O A?D=I F=H= HA FHAIA J=H =I =HEIJ=I IAC = CKH= # >IAHL=H GKA = =HEIJ= (b, c) AI @EIJE J= @A = =HEIJ= (c, b) ,A E?E #% 7 K JE@ECH=B AI K F=H (V, E ) B H =@ F H K ? EJ @A L HJE?AI V O K = B= E E= EJ= E @A =HEIJ=I HEA J=@=I
E = {ei }iI
@ @A I AI K ?
4AIK E

K J

K J

EJ O i I IA LAHE ?= GKA ei V V
C = GKA A F A= I

I A K = J=> = = JAH E

/H=B IE F A K JECH=B ,ECH=B K JE@ECH=B

6EF

@EHECE@=I @EHECE@=I ,EHECE@=I ,EHECE@=I

)HEIJ=I

=HEIJ=I
5 5

JEF AI

= I
5 5



+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= #

IK?AIEL A J H E CH=B IA A F A=H A IA JE@ CA AH= F=H= @AI?HE>EH CH=B I ? =HEIJ=I @EHECE@=I @EHECE@=I ? IE = I O ? IE =HEIJ=I JEF AI 2 H JH =@ A J H E CH=B @EHECE@ IA A JA @AH ? IE E @A K JECH=B =@ EJEA @ F H J= J = ALA JK= ANEIJA ?E= @A =HEIJ=I JEF AI O = I ,A ECK= = AH= A J H E CH=B @EHECE@ IA A JA @AH ? K JE@ECH=B

,A

#  & 5A @E?A GKA @ I L HJE?AI u O v @A K CH=B @EHECE@ G = (V, E ) I =@O=?A JAI IE {u, v } E - AIA ?=I IA @E?A GKA = =HEIJ= e = {u, v } ? A?J= I L HJE?AI u O v, GKA AI E ?E@A JA ? I L HJE?AI u O v, O GKA I L HJE?AI u O v I I ANJHA I @A = =HEIJ= e. ,A
@EHECE@ AI A AH @A =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI ? JA EA @ A ?KA J= GKA K = A K L HJE?A ? JHE>KOA @ I LA?AI = CH=@ @A AIA L HJE?A ,A J=HA I A CH=@ @A K L HJE?A u F H gr(u)

E?E

E?E

#  ' - CH=@ @A K L HJE?A A K CH=B

/ IA LAHE ?= GKA gr(a) = 3 = gr(c), gr(b) = 2 = gr(e) O gr(d) = 4. - A CH=B 0 IA LAHE ?= GKA gr(f ) = 3, gr(g ) = 2 O gr(h) = 5.

-A F

#   + IE@ HA IA I CH=B I / O 0 @A = CKH= # ! - A CH=B

#

/4). 5 ,1/4). 5 ;

7 61/4). 5



.ECKH= # ! 5E K L HJE?A JEA A CH=@ ?AH IA @E?A GKA AI K L HJE?A =EI =@

6A HA = #   5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B

gr(v ) = 2 |E | .
v V

@EHECE@

5A LAHE ?= GKA

,A IJH=?E = @A IJH=?E AI E A@E=J= @A>E@ = GKA ?=@= =HEIJ= ? JHE>KOA @ I LA?AI = IK =J HE = JAHE H O= GKA K = =HEIJ= AI E ?E@A JA ? AN=?J= A JA @ I L HJE?AI GKA ALA JK= A JA FKA@A IAH ECK= AI JE?AI @A CH=@ E F=H

+ H =HE #   +K= GKEAH CH=B

@EHECE@ JEA A K

AH F=H @A L H

,A IJH=?E 5A= V1 O V2 I ? K J I @A L HJE?AI @A CH=@ F=H A E F=H HAIFA?JEL= A JA @A CH=B G = (V, E ). - AIA ?=I

2 |E | =
v V

gr(v ) =
v V1

gr(v )

+
v V2

gr(v ) .

2KAIJ GKA F=H= ?=@= v V1 IA JEA A GKA gr(v ) AI K AH F=H A FHE AH IK =J HE @A I @ I GKA =F=HA?A = = @AHA?D= @A = ECK= @=@ AI K

+)2 67 AH F=H ; FKAIJ GKA A HAIK J=@ @A = IK = AI A

/4). 5

AH F=H 2|E |

A?AI=HE= A JA

gr(v )
v V2

AI K

AH F=H

,A

E?E #  ! 5E G = (V, E ) AI K CH=B @EHECE@ O (u, v ) E, IA @E?A GKA u AI A L HJE?A E E?E= @A = =HEIJ= (u, v ) O GKA v AI A L HJE?A = @A @E?D= =HEIJ= )IE EI @=@ u V IA @A E = CH=@ @A A JH=@= @A u = AH @A =HEIJ=I GKA JEA A = u ? L HJE?A = ) CH=@ @A A JH=@= @A u IA A @A J= F H gr+ (u). ,A EI @ IA @A E = CH=@ @A I= E@= @A u = AH @A =HEIJ=I GKA JEA A = u ? L HJE?A E E?E= ) CH=@ @A I= E@= @A u IA A @A J= F H gr (u).
OK

>IAHL=?E

= CH=@ @A I= E@=

#  " 7 =

A K L HJE?A u IK = K

= CH=@ @A A JH=@=

gr (a) = 0 gr+ (c) = 1 gr (c) = 2 gr (d) = gr+ (d) = 2 gr (b) = gr+ (b) = 1 gr+ (e) = 0, gr (e) = 2 2 H JH= F=HJA A A CH=B 0 JA A I GKA gr (f ) = 1 gr+ (f ) = 2 gr+ (g ) = 2 gr (g ) = 0, gr (h) = 2, gr+ (h) = 3.

-A F

#  # - A CH=B / @A = CKH= # " IA LAHE ?= GKA gr+ (a) = 3

6A HA = #  $ - ?K= GKEAH CH=B ?

LAHE ?= GKA

=HEIJ=I @EHECE@=I G = (V, E ) IA

|E | =
v V

gr+ (v ) =
v V

gr (v ).

,A IJH=?E -I ? IA?KA ?E= @A DA?D @A GKA ?K= GKEAH =HEIJ= @EHECE@= JEA A K L HJE?A E E?E= O K L HJE?A =

#
8=

/H=B I IE F AI AIFA?E= AI
I = @=H = @A E?E @A = CK I CH=B I F=HJE?K =H A JA E JAHAI= JAI

,A

E = CH=B ? F AJ @A n L HJE?AI = CH=B IE E?E #  5A @A F A Kn GKA contiene K = =HEIJ= A JHA ?=@= F=H @A L HJE?AI @EIJE J I LAH CKH= # #

/4). 5 51 2 -5 -52-+1) -5

!

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.ECKH= # #

"

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.ECKH= # $

,A

E?E # - ?E? @A n L HJE?AI Cn n 3 AI A CH=B IE F A GKA JEA A ? ? K J @A L HJE?AI V = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn }, O ? ? K J @A =HEIJ=I E = {{v1 , v2 }, {v2 , v3 }, ..., {vn1 , vn }, {vn , v1 }} 8AH CKH= # $  ,A E?E # ! = HKA@= Wn IA >JEA A = =@EA @ K L HJE?A =@E?E =
A?JA @E?D L HJE?A =@E?E = ?

= ?E? Cn O = =@EA @ n =HEIJ=I GKA ? J @ I I @A Cn .

- AH?E?E & ,E>K =H =I HKA@=I W3 , W4 , W5 O W6 .  >I HLAIA GKA = HKA@=

Wn JEA A n + 1 L HJE?AI

,A E?E # " ?K> Qn IEHLA F=H= HAFHAIA J=H =I IA?KA ?E=I @A n A A A J I @A ? K J {0, 1} AI @A?EH =I IA?KA ?E=I @A n >EJI )I Qn JEA A 2n L HJE?AI K F H ?=@= IA?KA ?E= @A n >EJI O K = =HEIJ= A JHA ?=@= F=H @A L HJE?AI GKA I=JEIB=C= = ? @E?E @A GKA IK IA?KA ?E= =I ?E=@= @E AHA A K E? >EJ 8AH CKH= # % - AH?E?E ' ,E>K =H A ?K> Q3 .

/4). 5 51 2 -5 -52-+1) -5

#

.ECKH= # %

) CK =I LA?AI K CH=B JEA A = FH FEA@=@ @A GKA IK ? K J @A L HJE?AI IA FKA@A @ELE@EH A @ I IK>? K J I @EI K J I @A = AH= GKA J @=I =I =HEIJ=I I=JEIB=?A = ? @E?E @A ? A?J=H K L HJE?A @A K @A I @ I IK>? K J I ? K L HJE?A @A JH 2 H A A F ? IE@AHA I A CH=B GKA HAFHAIA J= I =JHE E I @A K = @AJAH E =@= ?EK@=@ I L HJE?AI I =I FAHI =I ?=I=@=I @A AI= ?EK@=@ O IA AIJ=> A?A K = =HEIJ= A JHA I @ I EA >H I @A ?=@= =JHE E - CH=B =I >JA E@ JEA A = FH FEA@=@ @AI?HEJ=

,A
?

K J @A L HJE?AI V IA FKA@A ANFHAI=H ? = K E @A @ I IK>? K J I L=? I @EI K J I V1 O V2 @A = AH= GKA ?=@= =HEIJ= @A CH=B ? A?J= K L HJE?A @A V1 ? K L HJE?A @A V2 . JH=I F= =>H=I ANEIJA E CK = =HEIJ= A JHA @ I L HJE?AI @A V1 E A JHA @ I L HJE?AI @A V2  8AH CKH= # & 

E?E

# 5A @E?A GKA K CH=B IE F A G = (V, E ) AI >EF=HJE@ IE IK

- AH?E?E  +

FH >=H GKA K3

AI >EF=HJE@

O GKA C6 AI >EF=HJE@ CH=B @A m + n = K E @A @ I @A = AH= GKA V2 . 8AH CKH=

,A E?E # $ - CH=B >EF=HJE@ ? F AJ Km,n AI A L HJE?AI ?KO ? K J @A L HJE?AI IA FKA@A ANFHAI=H ? IK>? K J I @EI K J I V1 @A m L HJE?AI O V2 @A n L HJE?AI ?=@= L HJE?A @A V1 AIJ ? A?J=@ ? J @ I I L HJE?AI @A #'

$

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%

- AH?E?E  ,E>K =H I CH=B I >EF=HJE@ I ?

=H A AH @A =HEIJ=I @A CH=B Km,n .

F AJ I K2,5 O K3,4 . ,AJAH E

O ? @EBAHA JAI FAHEB HE? I ? E FHAI H=I I?= AHI AJ? ) CK =I @A AIJ=I HA@AI AIJ @EIA =@=I ? IE@AH= @ K = J F C = JEF AIJHA = ?=H=?JAHE =@= F H A DA?D @A GKA J @ I I @EIF IEJEL I AIJ ? A?J=@ I = K @EIF IEJEL @A ? JH ?A JH= - K = HA@ @A AIJA JEF I A I= AI GKA IA A L = @A K @EIF IEJEL = JH F=I= IEA FHA F H A @EIF IEJEL @A ? JH ?A JH= 7 = HA@ @A HA= ?= @A AIJA JEF IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H KJE E = @ K CH=B ? F AJ K1,n JH=I HA@AI @A HA= ?= AIJ >=I=@=I A K = J F C = JEF = E A = GKA ?=@= @EIF IEJEL AIJ ? A?J=@ E?= A JA ? JH I @ I O I A I= AI IA A L = @A K @EIF IEJEL = JH = HA@A@ H @A ?E? D=IJ= GKA A A I= A A ?KAIJE AC= = IK HA?AFJ H =I HA@AI @A HA= ?= @A AIJA JEF IA @A E = KJE E = @ I n ?E? I Cn JH=I HA@AI @A HA= ?= I @A K JEF D >HE@ @A =I @ I J F C =I = JAHE HAI 6= IAH = A ?=I @A =I HA@AI GKA @A E =H = I KJE E = @ A CH=B Wn .

-A F

% 7 = HA@ @A HA= ?= FAH EJA ? A?J=H H@A =@ HAI A JHA I

#!
,A

IJHK??E

@A CH=B I = F=HJEH @A CH=B I

E?E # !  7 IK>CH=B HAIFA?JEL= A JA IK>@ECH=B  @A K CH=B IE F A @A K @ECH=B  G = (V, E ) AI K CH=B HAIFA?JEL= A JA @ECH=B  H = (V , E ) J= GKA V V O E E.
>I HLAIA GKA AIJ= @A E?E IA ANJEA @A @A B H = =JKH= = K JE@ECH=B I IEA @ E K = IK>B= E E= @A E K JECH=B I

,A

E?E # ! = K E @A @ I CH=B I IE F AI G1 = (V1 , E1 ) O G2 = (V2 , E2 ) AI A CH=B IE F A (V1 V2 , E1 E2 ) CH=B GKA IA @A J= F H G1 G2 . -A F

=K E @A

# ! ! - CH=B H @A = CKH= #  AI K IK>CH=B @A CH=B K3,3 , O

I CH=B I G1 O G2 @A = CKH= AI A CH=B G1 G2 = IJH=H =I = H =?E AI @A A A F HAFHAIA J=@ = JAHE H

- AH?E?E  ,A ,A E?E

(V , E ) AI A CH=B IE F A

# ! " - FH @K?J @A @ I CH=B I IE F AI G = (V, E ) O G =

G G = (V V , E )

&

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # 

@ @A E AI A ? K J B H =@ F H J @=I =I =HEIJ=I @A = B H = {(a, b), (a , b )} J= AI GKA >EA a = a O {b, b } AI K = =HEIJ= @A G >EA b = b O {a, a } AI K = =HEIJ= @A G

-A F

# ! # = CKH= # 

KAIJH= K FH @K?J @A CH=B I

AI gr((v, v )) = gr(v ) + gr(v ) , @A gr(v ) AI A CH=@ @A L HJE?A v @A G O gr(v ) AI A CH=@ @A L HJE?A v A G

>IAHL=?E

# ! $ - CH=@ @A K L HJE?A (v, v ) A A CH=B FH @K?J G G

- AH?E?E ! ,A

IJH=H GKA A FH @K?J @A K CH=B IE F A G ? n L HJE ?AI O m =HEIJ=I O JH G ? n L HJE?AI O m =HEIJ=I AI K CH=B IE F A ? nn L HJE?AI O nm + mn =HEIJ=I

,A

E?E # ! % 5A= K CH=B G = (V, E ) @EHA I GKA G = (V , E ) AI K = F=HJE?E @A G IE AI K CH=B GKA IA >JEA A @ELE@EA @ = CK =I @A =I

=HEIJ=I @A G -IJA FH ?AI @A @ELEIE ? IEIJA A E JH @K?EH K L HJE?A a /V = ? K J @A L HJE?AI O IKIJEJKEH K = =HEIJ= {u, v } E HAIFA?JEL= A JA (u, v ) IE G AI @EHECE@  F H @ I =HEIJ=I KAL=I @A = B H = {u, a} {a, v } HAIFA?JEL= A JA (u, a) (a, v )

#"

15

4.15

,- /4). 5

'

.ECKH= # 

-A F

# ! & 5A= G = ({1, 2, 3}, {{1, 2}, {2, 3}}) A J ?AI

G = ({1, 2, 3, 4}, {{2, 3}, {1, 4}, {4, 2}})

AI K = F=HJE?E

@A G

#"

1I

H I

@A CH=B I

- 3K E?= F H A A F I CH=B I IA A F A= F=H= HAFHAIA J=H O @A E =H ? FKAIJ I GK E? I , I ? FKAIJ I @EBAHA JAI FKA@A JA AH = EI = B H K= A?K =H FAH @EBAHA JA AIJHK?JKH= - AIA ?=I @E?D I ? FKAIJ I IA @A E =H F H CH=B I GKA IA FKA@A ANFHAI=H @A = EI = B H = I CH=B I GKA HAFHAIA J= ? FKAIJ I ? ?E@ I FKA@A KJE E =HIA F=H= @A JAH E =H IE K IKFKAIJ= A JA KAL ? FKAIJ GK E? D= IE@ AIJK@E=@ = JAI , I CH=B I GKA JEA A = EI = AIJHK?JKH= @EHA I GKA I EI HB I =JA E @ I = = IECKEA JA @A E?E

,A

(V2 , E2 ) I

E?E

# "  5A @E?A GKA @ I CH=B I IE F AI G1 = (V1 , E1 ) O G2 = EI HB I IE ANEIJA K = BK ?E >EOA?JEL= f : V1 V2 J= GKA

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # 

u, v V1 {u, v } E1 {f (u), f (v )} E2 .
,A = BK ?E

@A CH=B I A JHA I CH=B I G1 O G2

f GKA I=JEIB=?A @E?D= ?

@E?E

IA @E?A GKA AI K EI

H I

- JH=I F= =>H=I @ I CH=B I I EI HB I IE JEA A A EI AH @A L HJE?AI O ANEIJA K = BK ?E >EOA?JEL= A JHA I @ I ? K J I @A L HJE?AI GKA FHAIAHL= =I =@O=?A ?E=I

-A F

#" I @ I CH=B I @A = CKH= #  I EI HB I 2=H= LAH >=IJ= ? FH >=H GKA = BK ?E f : {a, b, c, d} {u, v, w, p} J= GKA f (a) = u, f (b) = v, f (c) = w, f (d) = p AI K EI H I @A CH=B I
>I HLAIA GKA A A A A F =HEIJ=I @A CH=B @A = @AHA?D= AI K L HJE?A

>IAHL=?E

#"!

= JAHE H A ?HK?A @A =I @ I

FH >=H GKA A ?K> Q3 AI EI HB = CH=B FH @K?J @A ?K> >E@E A IE = Q2 O A ?K> K E@E A IE = Q1 . - CA AH= IA FKA@A @A IJH=H GKA Qn = Qn1 Q1

- AH?E?E " +

#"

15

4.15

,- /4). 5

.ECKH= # !

) A K@ AI @EB ?E @AJAH E =H IE @ I CH=B I IE F AI I EI HB I ,A DA?D ? LE I A A ?=F JK = JAHE H D=O n! = n(n 1)(n 2)...1 =F E?=?E AI >EOA?JEL=I A JHA I ? K J I @A L HJE?AI @A @ I CH=B I ? n L HJE?AI F H GKA ? FH >=H K = F H K = IE @E?D=I >EOA??E AI FHAIAHL= = =@O=?A ?E=I AI K >KA J @ I >HA J @ IE n AI K AH CH= @A 2 H JH= F=HJA ANEIJA = CK I ?HEJAHE I F=H= @AJAH E =H IE @ I CH=B I IE F AI I EI HB I I -IJ I ?HEJAHE I IA =F O= A A DA?D @A GKA D=O ?EAHJ=I FH FEA@=@AI @A E =@=I E L=HE= JAI GKA IE K CH=B F IAA ?K= GKEAH JH CH=B EI HB = @A>A J= >E F IAAH 2 H A A F @ I CH=B I EI HB I @A>A JA AH A EI AH @A L HJE?AI O A EI AH @A =HEIJ=I 2 H JH= F=HJA IE f : V1 V2 AI K EI H I A JHA I CH=B I @EHECE@ I G1 = (V1 , E1 ) O G2 = (V2 , E2 ), JEA A GKA LAHE ?=HIA GKA u V1 gr(u) = gr(f (u)). -IJA HAIK J=@ IEHLA F=H= ? FH >=H ? ?EAHJ= B=?E E@=@ GKA = CK I CH=B I I EI HB I

I @ I CH=B I @A = CKH= # ! I EI HB I FKAI =K GKA = > I JEA A A EI AH @A L HJE?AI O @A =HEIJ=I A A FHE AH gr(a) = 4, EA JH=I GKA A A IACK @ D=O E C L HJE?A ?KO CH=@ IA= "

-A F

#""

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # "

- AH?E?E # 8AHE ?=H IE = CK

HB = = CK @A

@A I CH=B I @A = IECKEA JA EIJ= AI EI I HAIJ= JAI K4 , W3 O K1,3 .

6= >E = ANEIJA ?E= @A ?EAHJ I IK>CH=B I F H A A F = ANEIJA ?E= @A K IK>CH=B EI HB = Cm  FKA@A IAHLEH F=H= ? ? KEH GKA @ I CH=B I @=@ I FKA@A IAH EI HB I

- AH?E?E $ -IJK@E=H IE I CH=B I @A = CKH= # " I

F=H= = CKH= # #

EI

HB I 1@A

# # 4AFHAIA J=?E

@A CH=B I
A I

- AIJ= IA??E LAHA I @EIJE J=I = AH=I @A HAFHAIA J=H CH=B I 5AC FH > A = GKA IA GKEAH= => H@=H K =I K JH=I HAFHAIA J=?E AI HAIK J= =@A?K=@=I

##

A@E= JA K =

=JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I

A@E= JA K = @A IKI

7 = @A =I B H =I @A HAFHAIA J=H K CH=B IE F A AI

=JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=I

##

4-24-5- 6)+1

,- /4). 5

.ECKH= # #

,=@ K CH=B G = (V, E ), F=H= ? IJHKEH K = @A IKI =JHE?AI @A =@ O=?A ?E=I A?AIEJ= I ? IE@AH=H IKI L HJE?AI A K = EIJ= H@A =@= 5E A CH=B JEA A n L HJE?AI |V | = n O I H@A = I ? V = {v1 , v2 , ..., vn } = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E= @A G ? HAIFA?J = AI= H@A =?E @A I L HJE?AI AI = =JHE A = (aij ) @A n =I O n ? K =I @AJAH E =@= F H = IECKEA JA ? @E?E 1 si {vi , vj } E aij = 0 si {vi , vj } / E.

K CH=B IE F A AI K = =JHE IE JHE?= aij = aji F=H= ?K= AIGKEAH= i O j ) O GKA I A A A J I @A = B H = aii I J @ I ECK= AI = ?AH

>IAHL=?E

# #  -I E F HJ= JA >IAHL=H GKA = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A

-A F

# # 5A= F H A A F A CH=B K3 + JEA A ! L HJE?AI ?K= GKEAH =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A K3 @A>A IAH @A J= = 3 3 5EA @ A CH=B ? F AJ J @= =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I AIJ B H =@= F H K I I= L A = @E=C = @ @A D=O ?AH I  >I HLAIA GKA A AIJA A A F = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I AI E @AFA @EA JA @A = H@A =?E @A I L HJE?AI

"

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # $

0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

- AH?E?E % + IJHKEH K = - AH?E?E & 7JE E =H K =

B I @A = CKH= # $

=JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I F=H= ?=@= K IECKEA JAI CH=B I K4 , C4 , W3 O K3,2 . =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I F=H= HAFHAIA J=H

@A

I CH=

>IAHL=?E # # ! =I =JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=I J= >E IA FKA@A KJE E =H F=H= HAFHAIA J=H CH=B I @EHECE@ I ? = I O =HEIJ=I JEF AI )I K = A A L HJE?A vi LEA A HAFHAIA J=@ F H K 1 A = F IE?E aii @A = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E= 5E IA JH=J= @A K JECH=B I A = F IE?E aij @A = =JHE ? ?=HA I A AH @A =HEIJ=I GKA ? A?J= A L HJE?A vi O A vj . )I IE JA A I ! =HEIJ=I A JHA A L HJE?A vi O A vj , F @HA I aij = 3. - ?K= GKEAH ?=I J @ I I CH=B I @EHECE@ I JEA A =I ?E=@=I =JHE?AI IE JHE?=I

##

4-24-5- 6)+1

,- /4). 5

AI IE E =H - = F IE?E aij =F=HA?AH K 1 IE D=O K = =HEIJ= @EHECE@= ?KO L HJE?A E E?E= AI vi O ?KO L HJE?A = AI vj O K ?AH A ?=I ? JH=HE >I HLAIA GKA =I =JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=I =I ?E=@=I = CH=B I @EHECE@ I I A?AI=HE= A JA IE JHE?=I

>IAHL=?E

# # " - A ?=I @A I CH=B I @EHECE@ I = IEJK=?E

##

A@E= JA K =

=JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I

JH @ KIK= @A HAFHAIA J=H CH=B I AI KJE E = @ =JHE?AI @A E ?E@A ?E=I 5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B @EHECE@ ? |V | = n O |E | = m 5A= K = H@A =?E @A I L HJE?AI @A G @EC= I v1 , v2 , ..., vn O K = H@A =?E @A =I =HEIJ=I @A G @EC= I e1 , e2 , ..., em = =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I @A G ? HAIFA?J = AI= H@A =?E @A I A A A J I @A V O E AI = =JHE B = (bij ) @A n =I O m ? K =I @A E@= F H = IECKEA JA ? @E?E

bij =

1 si vi ej 0 si vi / ej .

-A F

# # # 5EA @ G = ({a, b, c, d}, {{a, b}, {b, c}, {c, d}, {d, a}, {d, b}}), = =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I @A G ? HAIFA?J = = H@A =?E a, b, c, d @A IKI L HJE?AI O {a, b} {b, c} {c, d} {d, a} {d, b} @A IKI =HEIJ=I AI = =JHE
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 . 0 1

>IAHL=?E # # $ ,A = AH= = C= = =I =JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=I = @A E?E @A =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I IA FKA@A =F E?=H  KJ=JEI KJ= @EI = CH=B I @EHECE@ I ? = I
HB I A?AI=HE= A JA ANEIJA K = H@A =?E @A I L HJE?AI HAIFA?JEL= A JA @A L HJE?AI O =HEIJ=I @A = > I @A = AH= GKA = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I HAIFA?JEL= A JA @A E ?E@A ?E=I AI = EI = F=H= I @ I CH=B I -IJ GKEAHA @A?EH IE A >=HC GKA ?=@= =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A G IA= ECK= = ?=@= K = @A G EI

>IAHL=?E

# # % -I E F HJ= JA >IAHL=H GKA IE @ I CH=B I G O G I

+)2 67

/4). 5

# $ += E
CH=B

I ?E? I O CH=B I ?
@A

AN I

,A

E?E

@EHECE@ AI K = IK?AIE

# $  7 ?= E

EJ= (e0 , ..., en1 ) @A =HEIJ=I @A CH=B

CEJK@ n A JHA I L HJE?AI a O b @A K

e0 = {v0 , v1 }, e1 = {v1 , v2 }, ..., en1 = {vn1 , vn }

@A = AH= GKA v0 = a vn = b O ?=@= =HEIJ= IK?AIEL= A FEA = @ @A JAH E = = JAHE H 5E A CH=B AI IE F A A ?= E (e0 , ..., en1 ) GKA@= FAHBA?J= A JA @AJAH E =@ F H = IK?AIE @A L HJE?AI

(a, v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , b).

,EHA I GKA A ?= E = JAHE H F=I= F H  =JH=LEAI= I L HJE?AI a v1 v2 vn1 b 5A @E?A GKA K ?= E AI K ?EH?KEJ IE AI ?AHH=@ AIJ AI A FEA = O JAH E = A A EI L HJE?A AI @A?EH IE a = b. 5A @E?A GKA K ?= E AI IE F A IE ? JEA A = = EI = =HEIJ= I @A K = LA 7 ?EH?KEJ GKA F=I= @ I LA?AI F H A EI L HJE?A I= L A E E?E= F H A GKA F=I= @ I LA?AI IA = = ?E?

-A F

# $ - A CH=B IE F A @A = CKH= # % (a, b, g, d, c, a) AI K ?EH ?KEJ IE F A @A CEJK@ 5 O (a, b, d, c, e, f, d) AI K ?= E IE F A @A CEJK@ 6 A JHA I L HJE?AI a O d.
= @A E?E K JE@ECH=B I = JAHE H IA FKA@A ANJA @AH = CH=B I @EHECE@ I @ECH=B I O

,A

K JECH=B @EHECE@ AI K = IK?AIE CH=B @EHECE@

E?E

# $ ! 7 ?= E

@A

CEJK@ n A JHA I L HJE?AI a O b @A K

EJ= (e0 , ..., en1 ) @A =HEIJ=I @A

K JE

e0 = (v0 , v1 ), e1 = (v1 , v2 ), ..., en1 = (vn1 , vn )

@A = AH= GKA v0 = a vn = b O ?=@= =HEIJ= IK?AIEL= A FEA = @ @A JAH E = = JAHE H +K= @ IA JH=J= @A K @ECH=B A ?= E (e0 , ..., en1 ) GKA@= FAHBA?J= A JA @AJAH E =@ F H = IK?AIE @A L HJE?AI

(a, v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , b).

#$

+) 1

5 +1+

5 ; /4). 5 +

-: 5

.ECKH= # %

,EHA I GKA A v1 v2 vn1 b. 5A @E?A GKA K JAH E = A A EI ) ECK= GKA A AI IE F A IE ?

?= E

= JAHE H F=I= F H  =JH=LEAI=

I L HJE?AI a

?= E AI K ?EH?KEJ IE AI ?AHH=@ AIJ AI A FEA = O L HJE?A AI @A?EH IE a = b. A ?=I @A I CH=B I @EHECE@ I IA @E?A GKA K ?= E JEA A = = EI = =HEIJ= I GKA K = LA IE F=H=

,A

@EHECE@ G AI ? AN ?K= GKEAH F=H @A L HJE?AI a O b @A G ANEIJA K ?= E A JHA a O b

E?E

# $ " 5A @E?A GKA K CH=B

-A F

# $ # - CH=B G @A = CKH= # & ?KO ?

V = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}

K J @A L HJE?AI AI

AI ?

AN FKAI F H A A F

ANEIJA E C

?= E

A JHA a O g.

5E K CH=B AI ? AN IA FKA@A ANFHAI=H ? = K E @A @ I I IK>CH=B I ? AN I @A = AH= GKA I ? K J I @A L HJE?AI O @A =HEIJ=I @A ?=@= F=H @A AIJ I IK>CH=B I I @EI K J I A JHA I ) AIJ I IK>CH=B I IA AI @A E =? F A JAI ? AN=I @A CH=B @=@ ,A AIJ= = AH= K CH=B AI ? AN IE O I IE JEA A K = E?= ? F A JA ? AN=

&

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # &

-A F

F A JAI ? AN=I = GKA JEA A ? L HJE?AI = ? K J {a, b, c, e, f } O =I ? HHAIF @EA JAI =HEI J=I O = GKA JEA A ? ? K J @A L HJE?AI {g, h, d} O =I ? HHAIF @EA JAI =HEIJ=I

# $ $ - CH=B @A = CKH= # & JEA A @ I ?

6A HA = # $ % -NEIJA K ?= E
JE J I @A K CH=B ? AN

IE F A A JHA ?K= GKEAH F=H @A L HJE?AI @EI @EHECE@

,A IJH=?E @A IJH=HA I F=H= CH=B I IE F AI IE D=O =HEIJ=I JE F AI A EI H= = EA J AI L E@ @A EA @ I ?= E I F H =I =HEIJ=I O F H I L HJE?AI GKA HA? HHA 5A= a O b @ I L HJE?AI ?K= AIGKEAH= @A K CH=B IE F A G = (V, E ). 2KAIJ GKA G AI ? AN ANEIJA = A I K ?= E A JHA a O b. 5A= v0 v1 v2 vn1 vn K ?= E A JHA a O b @A = A H CEJK@ F IE> A AIA ?=I @E?D ?= E AI IE F A - ABA?J @A IJH= I F H HA@K??E = =>IKH@ 5E BKAH= IE F A A F=HJE?K =H JA @H = I GKA vi = vj F=H= = CK I i, j {1, ..., n}, i < j. 2AH A J ?AI A ?= E v0 vi1 vj vj +1 vn AI K ?= E A JHA = O > @A CEJK@ AIJHE?J= A JA A H GKA n FKAIJ GKA IA D= >JA E@ A E E = @ K = L=HE=I =HEIJ=I @A ?= E = JAHE H A ? JH=@E??E ? GKA A ?= E ? IE@AH=@ HECE = A JA A JHA a O b IA= @A = A H CEJK@ F IE> A

#$

+) 1

5 +1+

5 ; /4). 5 +

-: 5

'

ANE

A EI

H I
ANE I FH F H?E EI HB I = KAL I E

I ? ?AFJ I HA =?E =@ I ? =? L=HE= JAI F=H= =LAHECK=H IE @ I CH=B I I

>IAHL=?E
A JAI ?

AN=I

# $ & , I CH=B I EI

HB I JEA A

EI = ?= JE@=@ @A ?

,A

E?E # $ ' 5A @E?A GKA K L HJE?A a V @A K CH=B G = (V, E ) AI K L HJE?A @A ? HJA IE A CH=B >JA E@ = A E E =H @A CH=B G A L HJE?A a
K J ? =I =HEIJ=I CH=B HECE = ,A @A ? HJA @A G IE A I ? F A JAI ? E ?E@A JAI ? JEA A I ? F A JAI ? AN=I GKA A EI @ IA @E?A GKA K = =HEIJ= e E AI K = =HEIJ= IK>CH=B >JA E@ = A E E =H e @A CH=B HECE = JEA A AN=I GKA A CH=B HECE =

I FK J I @A ? HJA O =I =HEIJ=I @A ? HJA I E L=HE= JAI GKA I FKA@A FAH EJEH ? ? KEH GKA @ I CH=B I I EI HB I 5E K CH=B FHAIA J= K L HJE?A @A ? HJA O JH I @ I CH=B I FKA@A IAH EI HB I

-A F

I CH=B I G O H @A = CKH= # ' FKA@A IAH EI HB I FKAI =K GKA = > I JEA A $ L HJE?AI O IEAJA =HEIJ=I A CH=B H JEA A E C IK>CH=B EI HB = C3 EA JH=I GKA A CH=B G I JEA A 2 H JH= F=HJA E G E H I EI HB I = CH=B L FKAI L JEA A K = =HEIJ= @A ? HJA OGOH JEA A E CK =

# $ 

ANE

=JHE?AI

6A HA = # $  5A= G K CH=B @EHECE@

@EHECE@ ? =HEIJ=I JE F AI O = I  O IA= A = (aij ) IK =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I ? HAIFA?J = H@A v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , vn @A IK ? K J @A L HJE?AI - AIJ=I ? @E?E AI A AH @A ?= E I @A CEJK@ m A JHA A L HJE?A vi O A L HJE?A vj AI ECK= = ? A ?EA JA IEJK=@ A A KC=H (i, j ) @A = F JA ?E= m IE = @A = =JHE A ? HAIFA?J = FH @K?J @A =JHE?AI KIK= 

,A IJH=?E = D=?A I F=H= CH=B I @EHECE@ I  = @A IJH=?E AI IE E =H F=H= CH=B I @EHECE@ I 4= = I F H E @K??E I >HA = CEJK@ @A ?= E A JHA @ I L HJE?AI ?K= AIGKEAH= vi O vj @A K CH=B G

!

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # '

AH @A ?= E I @A CEJK@ 1 A JHA @ I L HJE?AI ?K= AIGKEAH= vi O vj AI A ? A ?EA JA (i, j ) @A = =JHE A, O= GKA @E?D ? A ?EA JA AI A AH @A =HEIJ=I A JHA vi O vj . 2=I @A E @K??E 5KF C= I GKA A AH @A ?= E I @A CEJK@ m A JHA @ I L HJE?AI ?K= AIGKEAH= vi O vj AI A ? A ?EA JA (i, j ) @A = =JHE Am . 6A A I GKA ? FH >=H GKA A AH @A ?= E I @A CEJK@ m + 1 A JHA vi O vj AI A ? A ?EA JA (i, j ) @A = =JHE Am+1 . + Am+1 = Am A, IEA @ Am = (bij ) O A = (aij ), A ? A ?EA JA (i, j ) @A = =JHE Am+1 AI

*=IA @A E @K??E

bi1 a1j + bi2 a2j + ... + bin anj .

2 H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E bik AI A AH @A ?= E I @A CEJK@ m A JHA vi O vk . 7 ?= E @A CEJK@ m + 1 A JHA vi O vj AI K ?= E @A CEJK@ m A JHA vi O K L HJE?A =@O=?A JA = vj = GKA @A J= I F H vk , IACKE@ @A = =HEIJ= GKA K A vk O vj . 2AH A AH @A ?= E I A JHA vi O vk AI bik , O A AH @A =HEIJ=I A JHA vk O vj AI akj , F H GKA A AH @A ?= E I @A CEJK@ m + 1 A JHA vi O vj LEA A @=@ F H = ANFHAIE

bi1 a1j + bi2 a2j + ... + bin anj .

+ GKAH = I @A IJH=H

#$

+) 1

5 +1+

5 ; /4). 5 +

-: 5

! =H O

= >IAHL=?E IECKEA JA AI K = ? IA?KA ?E= @A 2HE ?EFE @A 2= = @A IJH=?E AI E@ JE?= = = @A JA HA = # $ %

>IAHL=?E # $  5A= A CH=B G = (V, E ) ? |V | = n 5E u, v V u = v AIJ K E@ I F H K ?= E A G A J ?AI u O v AIJ K E@ I F H K ?= E @A CEJK@ A H ECK= GKA n 1 A G
,A = >IAHL=?E IECKEA JAI ? H =HE I = JAHE H O I HAIK J=@ I = JAHE HAI IA ? ? KOA I

A = (aij ) K = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E= @A G IA LAHE ?= GKA ANEIJA K ?= E A JHA vi O vj IE O I IE = =JHE C = (cij ) @A E@= ? C = In + A + A2 + .... + An1 ,
I=JEIB=?A GKA A ? A ?EA JA cij = 0.

+ H =HE # $ ! ,=@ K CH=B G = (V, E ) J= GKA |V | = n, O IEA @

+ H =HE # $ " ,=@ K CH=B G = (V, E ) J= GKA |V | = n, IA LAHE ?= GKA

G AI ?
AN IE O I IE = =JHE

In + A + A2 + .... + An1
JEA A J @ I I ? A ?EA JAI @EIJE J I @A ?AH =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I AI 0 1 0 A := 1 0 1 . 0 1 0

-A F

# $ # 5A= G K CH=B ?KO=

- J

?AI IK ?K=@H=@ AI

1 0 1 A2 := 0 2 0 . 1 0 1
? 2 H J= J I + A + A2 JEA A J @=I IKI A JH=@=I AN K =I O A CH=B AI

+)2 67

/4). 5

- ? H =HE = JAHE H I FAH EJA >JA AH K = C HEJ IE K CH=B G = (V, E ) J= GKA |V | = n AI ? AN

F=H= @AJAH E =H

= =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E= A @A CH=B j := 1, B := In MDE A j n 1 B := B + Aj j := j + 1 1B B JEA A J @ I IKI A A A J I @EIJE J I @A ?AH JDA s :=? s := ? AN 5= E@= s

- JH=@=

AN A IA

- AH?E?E ' -IJK@E=H = ?

F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ = JAHE H A A FA H @A I ?=I I F=H= ?K= D=O GKA => H@=H A FH > A = @A ? FKJ=H = ? F A E@=@ @A = FAH=?E FH @K?J @A =JHE?AI

# % /H=B I AK AHE=
,A E?E # %  7 ?= E

I O D= E J
AK AHE=

E=

A K CH=B @EHECE@ G AI K ?= E IE F A GKA ? JEA A = J @=I =I =HEIJ=I @A G. 7 ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= A G AI K ?EH?KEJ IE F A GKA ? JEA A J @=I =I =HEIJ=I @A CH=B G K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE=

,A

E?E

#%

5A @E?A GKA K CH=B

@EHECE@ AI AK AHE=

IE ?

JEA A

,A = @A E?E @A CH=B AK AHE= IA IECKA GKA >EA A CH=B AI ? AN >EA D=O K = ? F A JA ? AN= GKA ? JEA A J @=I =I =HEIJ=I IEA @ A HAIJ @A =I ? F A JAI ? AN=I L HJE?AI =EI =@ I

6A HA = # % ! 7 CH=B G = (V, E ) ?
IE O I IE J @=I =I =HEIJ=I AIJ I L HJE?AI JEA A CH=@ F=H A

=HEIJ=I EI = ?

@EHECE@=I AI AK AHE= F A JA ? AN= O J @ I

,A IJH=?E 5E A CH=B G AI AK AHE= A J ?AI ? JEA A K ?EH?KEJ AK A HE= GKA F H @A E?E ? JEA A = J @=I =I =HEIJ=I - ? IA?KA ?E= J @=I =I =HEIJ=I AIJ A = EI = ? F A JA ? AN= 2 H JH= F=HJA J @ I I L HJE?AI JEA A CH=@ F=H FKAI ?=@= LA GKA A ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= F=I= F H K L HJE?A D=?A K = LA F=H= A JH=H O JH= F=H= I= EH ? GKA A CH=@

#%

/4). 5 -7 -41)

5 ; 0) 1 6

1)

!!

@A ?=@= L HJE?A AI F=H >I HLAIA GKA I L HJE?AI =EI =@ I JEA A CH=@  K AH F=H 2=H= = @A IJH=?E @A HA? FH ? A IECKEA JA = C HEJ KAIJH= K FH ?A@E EA J ? IJHK?JEL F=H= CA AH=H K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= A K K JECH=B ? AN A A GKA J @ I I L HJE?AI JEA A CH=@ F=H 2 H DEF JAIEI J @=I =I =HEIJ=I AIJ A = EI = ? F A JA ? AN= F H GKA IA FKA@A IKF AH GKA A CH=B AI ? AN 5A= A J ?AI G K K JECH=B ? AN ? J @ I I L HJE?AI @A CH=@ F=H )@A I F @A I FHAI?E @EH @A I F IE> AI = I IE G K JECH=B ? AN JEA A = I AI AGKEL= A JA G AK AHE= GKA G AK AHE= IEA @ G A CH=B HAIK J= JA @A GKEJ=H I = I = G 2 H J= J G AI K K JECH=B ? AN IE = I

C :=?K= GKEAH ?EH?KEJ IE F A @A G H :=A CH=B >JA E@ A E E = @ @A G =I =HEIJ=I @A C O I L HJE?AI GKA GKA@A =EI =@ I = GKEJ=H @E?D=I =HEIJ=I MDE A H JEA A =HEIJ=I C :=?K= GKEAH ?EH?KEJ IE F A @A H H := A CH=B >JA E@ A E E = @ @A H =I =HEIJ=I @A C O I L HJE?AI GKA GKA@A =EI =@ I = GKEJ=H @E?D=I =HEIJ=I C := C ? C E IAHJ=@ A A L HJE?A =@A?K=@ 5= E@= C K ?EH?KEJ -K AHE= 
2=H= GKA A = C HEJ BK ?E A A?AIEJ= I =IACKH=H = ANEIJA ?E= @A ?EH?KEJ IE F A @A E =@ C -IJ AI GKA @=@ K K JECH=B ? AN ? J @ I IKI L HJE?AI @A CH=@ F=H ANEIJA K ?EH?KEJ IE F A C 6 = I K L HJE?A ?K= GKEAH= u 8= I ? IJHKOA @ K ?= E IE F A T = (u0 = u, u1 , ..., un ) @A CEJK@ NE = 5E ANEIJA i, j {0, ..., n} J= AI GKA ui = uj DA I ? ? KE@ - ?=I ? JH=HE ? un JEA A CH=@ F=H ANEIJA v / {u0 , ..., un } =@O=?A JA ? un ? JH=@E?EA @ GKA T AI @A CEJK@ NE = 2 H J= J A = C HEJ BK ?E = 8A= I ? IA =F E?= A = C HEJ = JAHE H A K A A F ? ?HAJ

- JH=@= G = (V, E ) ? AN O IE

= I

-A F

# % " 7 ?=HJAH JEA A GKA HAF=HJEH IKI ?=HJ=I A = HA@ @A ?= AI HAFHAIA J=@= F H A CH=B @A = CKH= #  2=H= HA= E =H A HAF=HJ A ?=HJA H @A>A A FA =H O JAH E =H A = AIJ=BAJ= @A ? HHA I GKA IA A ?KA JH= A A L HJE?A i 6A EA @ A ?KA J= GKA J @ I I L HJE?AI JEA A CH=@ F=H A ?=H JAH I=>A GKA FKA@A ABA?JK=H A HAF=HJ IE HA? HHAH @ I LA?AI = EI = ?= A

!"

+)2 67

/4). 5

.ECKH= # 

? IJHKOA @ F=H= A K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= + A = I ? A ?EH?KEJ (i, j, h, i) O > HH= I IKI =HEIJ=I @A CH=B K J ? A L HJE?A i GKA GKA@= =EI =@ LAH CKH= #  ) ? JE K=?E ? IJHKE I K KAL ?EH?KEJ A A CH=B GKA GKA@= F H A A F (j, m, l, k, j ) E IAHJ= I A A ?EH?KEJ = JAHE H A A KC=H =@A?K=@ L HJE?A j  >JA EA @

(i, j, m, l, k, j, h, i).
* HH= I =I =HEIJ=I O L HJE?AI =EI =@ I 8AH CKH= #  2H IECKEA @ ? A = C HEJ ? IJHKE I A ?EH?KEJ (m, n, a, m) O E IAHJ= I A A KC=H =@A?K=@ L HJE?A m >JA EA @

(i, j, m, n, a, m, l, k, j, h, i).
.E = A JA I GKA@= K A ?EH?KEJ (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, a) GKA E IAHJ=@ A A KC=H =@A?K=@ @= KC=H = IECKEA JA ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= @A CH=B E E?E=

(i, j, m, n, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, a, m, l, k, j, h, i).
GKA AIJ J @=I A ?= =@=I 1 @E?=?E O LAHE ?=H GKA AI AK AHE= O ? AN

- AH?E?E   -I F IE> A @EIF AH J @=I =I ?D=I @A K @

KJE E =H K

E K JECH=B ?

@A = AH= % L HJE?AI

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.ECKH= #

!$ - IECKEA JA HAIK J=@ E AK AHE= ?AHH=@ I @= K = ? @E?E

+)2 67

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F=H= = ANEIJA ?E= @A K ?=

2H F IE?E

# % # 7 CH=B G = (V, E ) ? =HEIJ=I @EHECE@=I J= GKA J @=I IKI =HEIJ=I AIJ A = EI = ? F A JA ? AN= =@ EJA K ?= E AK AHE= ?AHH=@ IE O I IE ? JEA A AN=?J= A JA @ I L HJE?AI @A CH=@ E F=H
5KF C= I GKA G = (V, E ) =@ EJA K ?= E AK AHE=

,A IJH=?E ?AHH=@

a, v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , b
IEA @ a O b I ANJHA I @A ?= E 5A= w K KAL L HJE?A FAHJA A?EA JA = V O G = (V , E ) @ @A V = V {w} O E = E {{w, a}, {b, w}}. -I ALE@A JA GKA G =@ EJA A ?EH?KEJ AK AHE=

w, a, v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , b, w
O A ? IA?KA ?E= J @ I I L HJE?AI @A G I @A CH=@ F=H ) A E E =H =I =HEIJ=I {w, a} O {b, w} O A L HJE?A w @A G F=H= >JA AH G ? ? KE I GKA J @ I I L HJE?AI I @A CH=@ F=H I= L a O b. 4A? FH ?= A JA IE J @ I I L HJE?AI @A G = (V, E ) I= L @ I a O b, JEA A CH=@ F=H ? IJHKOA @ A CH=B G = (V , E ) @ @A V = V {w} O E = E {{w, a}, {b, w}} ? w K KAL L HJE?A FAHJA A?EA JA = V, >JA @HA I K CH=B A A GKA J @ I I L HJE?AI I @A CH=@ F=H 5EA @

w, a, v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , b, w
K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE=

a, v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , b
AI K ?= E AK AHE= ?AHH=@ GKA ? A?J= a O b.

)D H= O= AIJ= I A ? @E?E AI @A @A IJH=H GKA AI F IE> A A ? JH=H K ?EH?KEJ GKA HAIKA L= A FH > A = @A I FKA JAI @A ECI>AHC FKAI A CH=B GKA HAFHAIA J= A FH > A = JEA A I @A @ I L HJE?AI @A CH=@ E F=H

- AH?E?E   + IJHKEH A CH=B GKA HAFHAIA J= = ?

JAI @A EI>AHC ,A ?= E -K AHE= IJH=H GKA @E?D CH=B

CKH=?E AI -K AHE=

@A I FKA E =@ EJA K

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!%

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,A

E = ?= E D= E?E # % $ 5A @A =HEIJ=I HEA J=@=I G = (V, E ) = ?K= GKEAH = J @ I I L HJE?AI @A G F=I= @ K = I = LA FAH EJEA @ GKA A L HJE?A E E?E= @A @E?D ?= E A ?= E D= E J E= AI ?AHH=@ = @E?D ?=

D= E J

E=

E J E= A K CH=B ? ?= E IE F A GKA ? JA C= F H ?=@= K @A A I FAH IA= ECK= = L HJE?A = 5E E IA A @A E = ?EH?KEJ

,A E?E # % % 5A @E?A GKA K CH=B @EHECE@ G = (V, E ) AI D= E J E= IE ? JEA A K ?EH?KEJ D= E J E=

I CH=B I D= E J E= I JEA A IK HECA A A IECKEA JA KAC FH FKAIJ F H 0= E J A ? JH=H K ?EH?KEJ GKA F=I= @ F H J @ I I L HJE?AI @A @ @A?=A@H = JH=L I @A =I =HEIJ=I JAH E A A A @A L HJE?A @A F=HJE@= IE F=I=H @ I LA?AI F H A EI L HJE?A I= L A @A F=HJE@= 2AIA = = =F=HA JA IE E EJK@ ? = @A E?E @A I CH=B I AK AHE= I A K ?=I A B=IEI @A AIJK@E AIJ FKAIJ A I L HJE?AI O A A JH A =I =HEIJ=I A ? JH=H K ?EH?KEJ D= E J E= A K CH=B FKA@A IAH J=HA= B ?E FKAI IA ? ?A K = ?=H=?JAHE =?E @A I CH=B I D= E J E= I 8A= I = CK I HAIK J=@ I IA ?E I HA =?E =@ I ? I CH=B I D= E J E= I = CK @A A I IE @A IJH=?E 

!&

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.ECKH= # "

6A HA = # % & - ?K> Qn AI D= E J E=
,A IJH=?E
4= =

F=H= ?=@= n 2

I F H E @K??E I >HA n *=IA @A E @K??E Q2 AI D= E J E= (0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 0), (0, 0) AI K ?E? D= E J E= @A Q2  2=I @A E @K??E 5KF C= I GKA Qn AI D= E J E= 5E A Qn D=O K ?EH?KEJ D= E J E= >=IJ= ? IE@AH=H @ I ? FE=I @A Qn ?=@= K = ? IK ?EH?KEJ D= E J E= O = =@EH =I =HEIJ=I F HJK =I F=H= >JA AH Qn+1 = F=HJEH @A =I @ I ? FE=I @A Qn . - E E = @ K = =HEIJ= A ?=@= K @A I ?EH ?KEJ I D= E J E= I @A =I @ I ? FE=I @A Qn O ?AHH= @ A ?EH?KEJ = =@EA @ =I =HEIJ=I GKA ? A?J= I ANJHA I @A I ?= E I IE F AI HAIK J= JAI  =I =HEIJ=I ? A?D= @A = CKH= # " >JA A I K ?EH?KEJ D= E J E= @A Qn+1 . I ?EH?KEJ I @A D= E J JEA A =F E?=?E = @A E =@ FH > A = @A I ? @EC I @A /H=O ? IEIJA JA A @AJAH E =H IE D=O K = H@A =?E @A =I F= =>H=I @A n >EJI @A = AH= GKA IEJK= @ K = F= =>H= A ?=@= K = @A =I IA??E AI ?EH?K =HAI GKAIEJ I A I GKA DA I @ELE@E@ K ? H?K @ I IA??E AI ? JECK=I @E AH= A K E? >EJ 8A= I ? IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH ? @EC I @A /H=O = F=HJEH @A ?EH?KEJ I D= E J E= I A Qn

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!'

.ECKH= # #

IE@AHA I I L HJE?AI @A Qn E A =I F= =>H=I @A n >EJI IAC E @E ?= I A IK ? IJHK??E E A @A B H = GKA @ I L HJE?AI =@O=?A JAI @E AH= A K E? >EJ +K= GKEAH ?EH?KEJ D= E J E= I >HA A ?K> Qn @= KC=H = K ? @EC @A /H=O 2 H A A F A IECKEA JA ?= E D= E J E= @A Q3 @= KC=H = K ? @EC @A /H=O F=H= A AI IK ?EA JA HAFHAIA J=H @A B H = ?EH?K =H IAC IA D= E @E?=@ 

(0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1), (0, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 0).

-A F

?EH?KEJ D= E J

# % ' - CH=B @A = CKH= # # AI D= E J E=

E=

5A

KAIJH= K

+ IA ? A J IEA FHA AI IA ?E @AJAH E =H IE K CH=B IE F A O ? AN @=@ AI D= E J E= FKAI F=H= A A E? ?HEJAHE GKA JA A I = FHE HE AI KAIJH= D=>E E@=@ F=H= A ? JH=H K ?EH?KEJ D= E J E= A A CH=B @=@ = IECKEA JA FH F IE?E I =F HJ= K HAIK J=@ GKA FAH EJA ? ? KEH GKA ?EAHJ I CH=B I I D= E J E= I

5E G AI D= E J

2H F IE?E

# %  5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B IE F A ? AN J= GKA |V | 3

E= A J ?AI U V A CH=B

>JA E@ = A E E =H @A V

"

+)2 67

/4). 5

I L HJE?AI @A U O =I =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI ? |U | ? F A JAI ? AN=I ,A IJH=?E D= E J E=

5E A CH=B G AI D= E J E=

@E?D I L HJE?AI JEA A =

A J ?AI ?

IK

JEA A K ?EH?KEJ

a, v1 , v2 , ..., vn1 , a.
5A= H A CH=B B H =@ F H I L HJE?AI O =HEIJ=I @A ?EH?KEJ = JAHE H O IA= U V.  >I HLAIA GKA I L HJE?AI @A H I I EI I GKA I @A CH=B HECE = G). 5A= k A AH @A ? F A JAI ? AN=I @A CH=B (V U, E ) @ @A E AI A IK>? K J @A =HEIJ=I @A G ?=H=?JAHE =@ F H A DA?D @A GKA IKI ANJHA I FAHJA A?A = V U O IA= k A AH @A ? F A JAI ? AN=I @A IK>CH=B @A H >JA E@ = A E E =H @A H I L HJE?AI FAHJA A?EA JAI = U K J ? =I =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI ? A I -LE@A JA A JA k k 2KAIJ GKA A CH=B H IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H ? A = CKH= # $ AI >LE GKA = A E E =H K FK J O =I =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI ?  A KAL CH=B =I >JA E@ AI ? AN AI @A?EH JEA A K = E?= ? F A JA ? AN= = A E E =H @ I FK J I O =I =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI ? A I A KAL CH=B =I >JA E@ JEA A ? K?D @ I ? F A JAI ? AN=I O =I IK?AIEL= A JA - CA AH= IE GKEJ= I p L HJE?AI  K J ? IKI =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI >JA A I K CH=B ? = IK p ? F A JAI ? AN=I 2 H ? IECKEA JA k k p = |U | - HAIK J=@ = JAHE H I @A IJH=H GKA = CK I =F HJ= K = KAL= DAHH= EA J= ? I CH=B I I D= E J E= I = GKA F @A

-A F

IA E? L HJE?A @A CH=@ # GKA JEA A O IKI =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI A CH=B HAIK J= JA JEA A ! ? F A JAI ? AN=I F H J= J AI D= E J E=

# %  5E = CH=B G @A = CKH= # % A GKEJ=

- AH?E?E 

,AJAH E =H IE A CH=B H @A = CKH= # % AI 0= E J

E=

# & /H=B I AJEGKAJ=@ I O = C HEJ

@A ,E IJH=
= GKA

,A E?E # &  7 CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ AI K = ! JKF = (V, E, d), A (V, E ) AI K CH=B IE F A O d AI K = BK ?E

d : E R.
) = E =CA @A K = =HEIJ= A@E= JA d IA A @A = =HEIJ= 8AH ? A A F = CKH= # & E = AJEGKAJ=

FAI @A

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.ECKH= # %

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.ECKH= # &

- IECKEA JA = C HEJ ? ?E@ ? @A E =@ FH > A = @A ?= E E

= C HEJ

@A ,E IJH= HAIKA LA A

2H > A = ,=@ I K CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ O @ I L HJE?AI u O v @AJAH E =H A

?= E A JHA u O v J= GKA = IK = @A =I AJEGKAJ=I @A =I =HEIJ=I GKA ? F A IA= E = ) @E?D= IK = IA A @A E = CEJK@ @A ?= E A A CH=B AJEGKAJ=@

IECKEA JA IA I >HAA JEA @A GKA AI =O H GKA ?K= GKEAH AH HA= GKA G AI K CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ ? AN O GKA F=H= ?=@= F=H @A L HJE?AI =@O=?A JAI x, y IA JEA A GKA d({x, y }) =

J= - A = C HEJ

) C HEJ

@A ,E IJH=

- JH=@= G = (V, E, d) u, v V
L(u) := 0 L(x) := F=H= ?=@= x = u T := MDE A v /T

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"! E

x := a IEA @ a K L HJE?A GKA AIJ A T ? T := T {x} B Hy /T EB L(x) + d({x, y }) < L(y ) JDA L(y ) := L(x) + d({x, y }), f (y ) := x 5= E@= L(v ) AI = CEJK@ @A ?= E E (v, f (v ), f (f (v )), ..., u) AI A ?= E E

L(a)

@A v = u

7 @ FH ?JE? @A A A?KJ=H A = C HEJ @A ,E IJH= ? IEIJA A AI?HE>EH I >HA ?=@= L HJE?A A L= H =?JK= @A L, A EH @E ?= @ @E?D I L= HAI O > HH= @ I L HJE?AI GKA L= I E ? HF H= @ = ? K J T

*KI?= I F H AIJA = C HEJ A A CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ @A = CKH= # &

+ EA = A = C HEJ L HJE?AI ,A AIJA @ )D H= IA ?K F A GKA

-A F

#&

A ?= E

A JHA a O d

=IEC = @ L(a) = 0 O L(x) = F=H= A HAIJ @A

T = {a}.

L(a) + 2 = 2 < L(b) =

+ GKA I E? I L= HAI F=H=

L(a) + 5 = 5 < L(h) = .

I GKA L ?= >E= I

L(b) = 2
; =@A I

L(h) = 5.

f (b) = f (h) = a.
)D H= A L= H E @A L JEA A A L HJE?A b O b /T ? GKA

T = {a, b}.
)D H= IA ?K F A GKA

L(b) + 3 = 5 < L(c) =

L(a) + 1 = 3 < L(i) = .

"" + GKA I E? I L= HAI F=H=

+)2 67 I GKA L ?= >E= I

/4). 5

L(c) = 5
; =@A I

L(i) = 3.

f (c) = f (i) = b.
)D H= A L= H E @A L JEA A A L HJE?A i ? GKA

T = {a, b, i}.
)D H= IA ?K F A GKA

L(i) + 3 = 6 < L(d) =

+ GKA I E? I L= HAI F=H=

L(i) + 2 = 5 < L(f ) = .

I GKA L ?= >E= I

L(d) = 6
; =@A I

L(f ) = 5.

f (d) = f (f ) = i.
)D H= A L= H E @A L JEA A I L HJE?AI c f O h ? K @A A I F H A A F A f @A @ GKA GKA A E

T = {a, b, i, f }.
)D H= IA ?K F A GKA

L(f ) + 1 = 6 < L(e) =

+ GKA I E? I L= HAI F=H=

L(f ) + 3 = 8 < L(g ) = .

I GKA L ?= >E= I

L(e) = 6
; =@A I

L(g ) = 8.

f (e) = f (g ) = f.
)D H= A L= H E @A L @A A I F H A A F A c @A JEA A I L HJE?AI c O h ? @ GKA GKA A E K

T = {a, b, i, f, c}.

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IA ?K F A K ?= = ? @E?E F=H= GKA D=O= ?= >E I - L= H @A L JEA A A J ?AI A L HJE?A h ? GKA

T = {a, b, i, f, c, h}.
6= F ? =D H= IA ?K F A K ?= = ? @E?E F=H= GKA D=O= ?= >E I )D H= A L= H E @A L JEA A I L HJE?AI d e ? GKA A E K @A A I F H A A F A d =I A = C HEJ JAH E =H A A F=I IECKEA JA @A @ GKA T = {a, b, i, f, c, h, d}. 6= F ? =D H= IA ?K F A K ?= = ? ,A AIJ= = AH= A ?= E @E?E F=H= GKA D=O= ?= >E I CEJK@ $ O AI

I ? HJ A JHA a O d JEA A

(d, f (d) = i, f (i) = b, f (b) = a).

E J= >E

- AH?E?E  ! 7JE E =H A = C HEJ

@A ,E IJH= F=H= A ? JH=H A ?= E A JHA I L HJE?AI a O e @A CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ @A = CKH= # & 0= =H A ?= E I ? HJ A JHA I L HJE?AI g O c.

I ?= E I E I I KO JE AI A HA@AI @A ? K E?=?E HA@AI @A JH= IF HJA F=H= FJE E =H = = AH= @A A LE=H E B H =?E ?=HC= A JHA @ I FK J I ? A?J=@ I F H K = HA@ I FAI I FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H @EIJ= ?E=I FKA@A HA? CAH JH JEF @A E B H =?E JEA F ? IJA @E ?K J=@ H CH ?=

#'

H> AI

-IFA?E= A JA JE A GKA = =F E?=?E AI E B H JE?=I IA HA AHA AI K ?EAHJ JEF @A CH=B IE F A = =@ H> GKA IA A F A= A JHA JH=I ? I=I F=H= ? IJHKEH = C HEJ I A ?EA JAI @AIJE =@ I = ?= E =H EJA I A K = EIJ= F=H= ? IJHKEH HA@AI @A H@A =@ HAI ? A E ? IJA F=H= ? IJHKEH ? @EC I A ?EA JAI @AIJE =@ I = = =?A =H O JH= I EJEH @=J I F=H= = = E =H = C HEJ I @A H@A =?E

,A

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#'

+ JEF AI

K H> = I F H

JEA A ?EH?KEJ I IE F AI J= F ? FKA GKA ?K= GKEAH H> AI K CH=B IE H> AI

-A F

#'!

I CH=B I @A = CKH= # ' I

2H F IE?E # ' " 5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B IE F A I = A JA IE F=H= ?=@= F=H @A L HJE?AI u, v V ANEIJA K K EA @ u ? v

G AI K H> IE O E? ?= E IE F A

,A IJH=?E 5E G AI K H> A J ?AI AI ? AN F H GKA ANEIJA K ?= E IE F A K EA @ u ? v 5E ANEIJEAH= @ I ?= E I IE F AI @EIJE J I K EA @ u ? v @EC= I C1 = (u0 = u, ..., un = v ) O C2 = (v0 = u, ..., vm = v) + C1 = C2 ANEIJA i {1, ..., n} E J= GKA ui = vi 2AH ? C1 O C2 JAH E = A v ANEIJA j1 > i O j2 > i E I J= AI GKA uj1 = vj2 2 H J= J IA B H = K ?EH?KEJ IE F A

(ui1 , ui , ui+1 , ...uj1 = vj2 , vj2 1 ..., vi1 = ui1 )

@= @ K = ? JH=@E??E

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.ECKH= # !

5E F=H= ?=@= F=H @A L HJE?AI u O v D=O K ?= E GKA AI ? AN F H @A E?E @A ? ANE 5E G ? JKLEAH= K J = @ K F=H @A L HJE?AI @A ?EH?KEJ u O v ANEIJA @ @EIJE J I GKA I K A A ? JH=@E??E ? = DEF JAIEI JH= E F E?=?E K?D=I =F E?=?E = GKA IA @A E = H=

I K A A J ?AI G ?EH?KEJ IE F A C I ?= E I IE F AI -IJ @A KAIJH= =

AI @A I H> AI IA IKA A AI? CAH K L HJE?A F=HJE?K =H )I FKAI

,A

E?E # ' # 7 H> ? H= AI K F=H (T, r) @ @A T AI K H> O r K L HJE?A @EIJE CKE@ @A T = =@ H= = GKA IA IKA A ? ?=H A = HAFHAIA J=?E CH ?= A = F=HJA IKFAHE H ? A = CKH= # ! >IAHL=?E # ' $ -I E F HJ= JA >IAHL=H GKA K

H> FKA@A @=H KC=H = L=HE I H> AI ? H= @AFA @EA @ @A L HJE?A = GKA IA @EIJE C= @A HAIJ ? H= = A A??E @A K = H= AL= =F=HA =@= = JH=IB H =?E @A H> ? IE@AH=@ A K H> ? =HEIJ=I @EHECE@=I A A GKA = @EHA??E @A =I =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI ? = H= AI = GKA F=HJA @A = H= D=?E= I L HJE?AI K E@ I = O = F=HJEH @A AIJ I IK?AIEL= A JA D=?E= A HAIJ @A I L HJE?AI @A H>

"& I H> AI ? H= AL= =I O CA A= CE? @=@ K H> ? = H= A F=@HA @A v AI A E? u = v. 5E u AI A F=@HA @A v, J= = JA?AI HAI @A K L HJE?A I ?= E GKA K A @E?D L HJE?A ? v I J @ I =GKA I L HJE?AI @A

+)2 67

/4). 5

?E=@= K = JAH E C = @A HECA > J E? H= T, IE v AI K L HJE?A @A T @EIJE J @A L HJE?A u @A T J= GKA D=O K = =HEIJ= @A >E @EHA I GKA v AI K DE @A u. I I L HJE?AI GKA I A ? JH= I A A E? = H= I @AI?A @EA JAI @A K L HJE?A I GKA v AI = JA?AI H

,A E?E # ' % ,=@ K H> ? H= (G, r) IA @A L HJE?AI @A G @EIJE J I @A r GKA JEA A CH=@ 

E = D =I =

-I B ?E @=HIA ?KA J= @A GKA =I D =I @A K H> @EHECE@ I GKA JEA A @AI?A @EA JAI ) I L HJE?AI @EIJE J I @A = H= D =I @A K H> ? H= IA AI @A E = L HJE?AI E JAH I

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I GKA JA A I & A@=I =F=HA JA A JA ECK= AI FAH J= AI GKA K = @A A =I FAI= K F ? A I GKA =I JH=I % +K AI A A H AH @A LA?AI GKA D=O GKA KJE E =H K = >= = = F=H= @AJAH E =H = A@= GKA FAI= A I -IJ=> A?AH K = C HEJ GKA I FAH EJ= ?= E =H @E?D= A@= 5 K?E 0=O JHAI F IE>E E@=@AI F=H= ?=@= FAI=@= GKA HA= E = I ? = >= = = 3KA A FAI IA= A EI GKA =I A@=I @A = >= @A = @A = E GKEAH@= FAIA I GKA FAIA I =I @A = >= @A = @AHA?D= 2 H ? IE CKEA JA A H> @A @A?EIE AI JAH =HE ! =HE  0=O = A I & D =I A A H> @A @A?EIE FKAIJ GKA D=O & F IE> AI I= E@=I O ?=@= F IE> A I= E@= @A>A AIJ=H HAFHAIA J=@= F H = A I K = D = AH @A FAI=@=I A?AI=HE F=H= @AJAH E =H = A@= GKA FAI= A I AI = = JKH= @A H> @A @A?EIE - HAIK J=@ GKA HA? CA A JE ? H =HE LEIJ I FAH EJA C=H= JE =H GKA = = JKH= @A H> @A @A?EIE AI = A I log3 (8). ,A AIJ= = AH= = A I @ I FAI=@=I I A?AI=HE=I 4A= A JA ? @ I FAI=@=I F @A I @AJAH E =H = A@= GKA FAI= A I IAC IA KAIJH= A = CKH= # ! I GKA JA A I 4 A@=I =F=HA JA A JA ECK= AI FAH J= AI GKA K = @A A =I FAI= @EBAHA JA @A =I @A I K F ? I K F ? A I +K AI A A H AH @A LA?AI GKA D=O GKA KJE E =H K = >= = = F=H= @AJAH E =H = A@= GKA FAI= A I -IJ=> A?AH K = C HEJ  A@E= JA IK H> @A @A?EIE =I ?E=@  GKA I FAH EJ= ?= E =H @E?D= A@=
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A K CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ ? AN AI K H> CA AH=@ H GKA I=JEIB=?A = FH FEA@=@ @A GKA = IK = @A =I AJEGKAJ=I @A IKI =HEIJ=I AI = I FAGKA = F IE> A

E?E

#'  7

H>

CA AH=@ H

8= I = FHAIA J=H @ I = C HEJ I F=H= ? IJHKEH H> AI CA AH=@ HAI E I ) > I = C HEJ I I @A JEF E ?HA A J= FKAI JH=J= @A ?HA=H K H> CA AH=@ H = =@EA @ =HEIJ=I O L HJE?AI = AIJH=JACE= FKAIJ= ? IEIJEH = A = F=HJEH @A CH=B @=@ EH A E E = @ =I =HEIJ=I @A =O H FAI JA EA @ ?KE@=@ @A GKA @E?D=I =HEIJ=I @AI? A?JA A CH=B HAIK J= JA ) > I = C HEJ I D=?A K = A A??E FJE = A ?=@= K @A IKI F=I I =K GKA AI E F HJ= JA IA = =H GKA FJE E =H ?=@= AJ=F= @A K = C HEJ C=H= JE = GKA = I K?E = >JA E@= IA= = FJE = - AIJA ?=I IA FKA@A @A IJH=H GKA = > I = C HEJ I FH @K?A I K?E AI C >= AI FJE =I - = > I = C HEJ I G AI K CH=B AJEGKAJ=@ ? AN

) C HEJ - JH=@= G = (V, E ) u V

@A 2HE

V (T ) := {u}, E (T ) := MDE A V (T ) = V ) =@EH = E (T ) K = @A =I =HEIJ=I @A L HJE?A @A V (T ) O I K  O = =@EH IK ANJHA 5= E@= (V (T ), E (T ))

A H FAI E ?E@A JA ? = V (T )

) C HEJ - JH=@= G = (V, E ) u V

@A

HKI =

V (T ) := {u}, E (T ) := MDE A V (T ) = V ) =@EH = E (T ) = =HEIJ= @A A H FAI IEA FHA GKA K ?EH?KEJ ? =I =HEIJ=I @A E (T ) O = =@EH IKI ANJHA I = V (T ). 5= E@= (V (T ), E (T ))

B H A

-I E F HJ= JA >IAHL=H GKA EA JH=I GKA A A = C HEJ @A 2HE A CH=B T = (V (T ), E (T )) AI K H> A J @ A J @A IK ? IJHK??E A A @A HKI = I F @A I =IACKH=H GKA AI ?K= @ JAH E = A = C HEJ O= GKA A ?=@= F=I AI A?AI=HE= A JA ? AN

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@A 2HE O A = C HEJ @A HKI = F=H= @EIA =H K = HA@ @A ? K E?=?E AI @A E ? IJA GKA ? A?JA J @ I I H@A =@ HAI HAFHAIA J=@ I A A CH=B @A = CKH= # &

- AH?E?E  & 7JE E =H A = C HEJ

# 

JH I =IFA?J I @A = JA H = @A CH=B I

0=O K?D I JH I ? ?AFJ I FH > A =I O DAHH= EA J=I E JAHAI= JA HA =?E =@ I ? = JA H = @A CH=B I - AIJ= IA??E FHAIA J=HA I I AH= A JA @ I @A A I = F = =HE@=@ O = ? H=?E @A CH=B I

,A

E?E #   5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B IE F A O C = {1, 2, ...m} K ? K J @A m ? HAI 7 = ? H=?E ? m ? HAI @A CH=B G AI K = BK ?E f : V C J= GKA IE u, v V O {u, v } E A J ?AI f (u) = f (v ).

= ? H=?E @A CH=B I JEA A =F E?=?E F H A A F = = ? BA??E @A D H=HE I IKF C= I GKA A K = K ELAHIE@=@ IA @AIA= HA= E =H K D H=HE F= H= =I @EIJE J=I =IEC =JKH=I FJ=JEL=I 5A @A>A JA AH ?KE@=@ @A GKA =GK =I GKA FKA@= E JAHAI=H = EI JEF @A = K I IA FH CH= A @A = AH= GKA ? E ?E@= IKI D H=I 2=H= ? ?AH A E AH @A D H=I A?AI=HE F=H= ?K F EH J @ I I HAGKEIEJ I F @A I ? IJHKEH A IECKEA JA CH=B = ?=@= =IEC =JKH= IA A =IEC = K L HJE?A O @ I L HJE?AI IA K A F H K = =HEIJ= IE E JAHAI= = EI JEF @A = K I AH E @A ? HAI A?AI=HE I F=H= ? HA=H I L HJE?AI @A CH=B AI A AH @A D H=I >KI?=@ ,A AIJ= = AH= IA FKA@A =IEC =H K AH ?H E AH @A ? HAI A?AI=HE I F=H= IK ? H=?E ?=H=?JAHE = I CH=B I ? AH ?H JE? - IECKEA JA A AH?E?E

JE? = K CH=B A

- AH?E?E  ' ,A
K =? H=?E ?
JH ? JANJ I @EH

IJH=H GKA K CH=B IE F A AI >EF=HJE@ IE O I @ I ? HAI

IE =@ EJA
I JH I

?AFJ E JAHAI= JA AI A @A CH=B

CH=B F = =H

F=

GKA A

= CK

,A E?E #  5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B 5A @E?A GKA G AI F = IE =@ EJA K = HAFHAIA J=?E CH ?= A A F = @A @ GKA =I =HEIJ=I E?= A JA IA ? HJ= A I L HJE?AI

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#'

AI @EB ?E ? FH >=H GKA A CH=B ? F AJ K4 AI F = =K GKA J= >E F @A I HAFHAIA J=H K4 @A = AH= GKA IKI =HEIJ=I I IA ? HJA A I L HJE?AI 5A FKA@A @A IJH=H =K GKA AI IA ?E O IA AI?=F= = I > AJEL I @A ?KHI = IECKEA JA ?=H=?JAHE =?E @A I CH=B I F = I

6A HA = #  ! @A KH=J MI E 7 CH=B AI F =

E C IK>CH=B GKA IA= EI HB = K = F=HJE?E
- F=HJE?K =H ?K= GKEAH CH=B GKA ? AI K CH=B F =

IE O I IE ? @A K5 @A K3,3 .
= K3,3 ?

JEA A

JA C= = K5

IK>CH=B I

- AH?E?E ! ,AJAH E =H IE I

K2,3 .

F=

I IECKEA JAI CH=B I Q3 , K2,2 O

>I HLAIA GKA I=>AH IE K CH=B AI F= JEA A =F E?=?E AI = = A A?JH E?= F=H= I=>AH IE K ?EH?KEJ IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH I >HA K F= A ALEJ= @ =I E JAHIA??E AI A JHA =I ? ANE AI ; D=O K B= I JA HA = GKA HA =?E == > I? ?AFJ I

6A HA = #  " @A I " ?

AI A H ECK= GKA "

HAI -

AH ?H

JE? @A K CH=B F =

= DEIJ HE= @A AIJA JA HA = AI >=IJ= JA ?KHE I= FKAI = =HC @A = DEI J HE= D= E@ =F=HA?EA @ @A IJH=?E AI B= I=I O ? JH=A A F I E ? HHA?J I = JA HA = 4ABAHE I = A?J H E JAHAI=@ = = IA??E % & @A 4

# 

- AH?E?E I
EA @ K = =HEIJ=

- AH?E?E ! ,E>K =H K CH=B GKA HAFHAIA JA =I @EIJE J=I =K =I O @AFA

@A ?E=I D= AJ?  @A A@E ?E A GKA IA E F=HJA ? =IA F A JHA ?=@= F=H @A @AFA @A ?E=I GKA AIJ ? K E?=@=I

- AH?E?E !
@A ?=@= K @A

,E>K =

I CH=B I K7 W5 K1,6 K4,4 O Q4 =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=

- AH?E?E !! 0= =H K =

=JHE @A =@O=?A ?E= O K = I CH=B I @A A AH?E?E = JAHE H

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- AH?E?E !" ,AJAH E =H IE ANEIJA = C

CH=B IE F A ? % L HJE?AI ?KO I CH=@ I IA= 3, 2, 2, 4, 3, 5, 4. ,AJAH E =H J= >E IE ANEIJA = C CH=B IE F A ? # L HJE?AI ?KO I CH=@ I IA= 3, 2, 2, 4, 3.

- AH?E?E !# 0= =H J @ I I IK>CH=B I @A K1,6 O @A W3 . - AH?E?E !$ 0= =H I L= HAI @A n F=H= =@ EJA K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= K n , C n O Wn - AH?E?E !% ,E>K =H I @ECH=B I ?
I =I IECKEA JAI I GKA I IECKEA JAI CH=B I =JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=

= I ?KO=I

0 2 2 0 2 1 2 1

2 1 0 1

2 1 3 3 0 1 , 1 2 1 0 0 2

2 1 0 1

0 2 , 1 0

0 0 3 0 0

1 0 0 0 1

2 1 0 1 1

2 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1 0

- AH?E?E !& ,EIA =H K = C HEJ

?KO= A JH=@= IA= = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E= @A K CH=B O GKA FAH EJ= @AJAH E =H A AH @A =HEIJ=I @A K CH=B -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@

- AH?E?E !' ,EIA =H K = C HEJ

?KO= A JH=@= IA= = =JHE @A =@O= ?A ?E= @A K CH=B O GKA FAH EJ= @AJAH E =H IE A CH=B AI AK AHE= -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@

- AH?E?E " 5A= K = HA@ @A $ H@A =@ HAI K AH=@ I @A  = $ @AI?HEJ=

F H K CH=B ?KO= =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 AI = IECKEA JA 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

5A= p = 0.1 = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K ?=> A GKA K A @ I H@A =@ HAI =@O=?A JAI IA @= A E +K AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA IA AIJH FAA = A I @ I ?=> AI

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EE +K AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K A I= A GKA F=HJA @A H@A =@ H K AH=@ ? K  ACKA = H@A =@ H K AH=@ ? K JA EA @ A ?KA J= = E B H =?E I >HA = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA IA @= A K = ? ANE

- AH?E?E " 5A= = IECKEA JA =JHE = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A K CH=B

IE F A G = (V, A)

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

E ,AJAH E =H A AH @A ? F A JAI ? AN=I @A CH=B EE ,AJAH E =H IE G AI K H> ,AJAH E =H IE = = =@EH = =HEIJ= {1, 5} KAL CH=B (V, A {{1, 5}}) AI K H> EEE ,AJAH E =H I CH=@ I @A J @ I I L HJE?AI @A G EL ,AJAH E =H IE A CH=B (V, A {{1, 5}}) AI -K AHE=

#

- AH?E?E I HAIKA J I

- AH?E?E &

=I HKA@=I GKA IA FE@A IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H ? K F C ?AHH=@ @A ! " # O $ =@ I HAIFA?JEL= A JA ? K L HJE?A =@E?E = A A E JAHE H O H=@E I @AI@A AIJA L HJE?A = ?=@= K @A I L HJE?AI @A F C LAH W5 A = CKH= # !' K ?K> JHE@E A IE =

- AH?E?E ' 5A FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H ? - AH?E?E  -I?HE>E

I K3 = ({1, 2, 3}, {{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 1}}) 5E BKAH= >EF=HJE@ IK ? K J @A L HJE?AI V IA F @H = AI?HE>EH ? K E @EI K J= @A @ I ? K J I L=? I @EC= I V1 O V2 5E BKAH= >EF=HJE@ F @A I IKF AH IE FAH@E@= @A CA AH= E@=@ GKA 1 V1 A?AI=HE= A JA I L HJE?AI O ! GKA I =@O=?A JAI ?  @A>A AIJ=H A V2 GKA @= K = ? JH=@E??E O= GKA I =@O=?A JAI

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C6 = ({1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, {{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 4}, {4, 5}, {5, 6}, {6, 1}}).
6 = I 1 V1 A J ?AI 2, 6 V2 ,A AIJA @ 3, 1 V1 )I V1 = {1, 3, 5} O V2 = {2, 4, 6} ?K F A =I ? @E?E AI F=H= GKA C6 IA= >EF=HJE@

- AH?E?E  *=IJ= J

=H HA?J=I F=H= A =I I >HA K = @A A =I =H?=H FK J I O I >HA = JH= =H?=H # FK J I HAIFA?JEL= A JA ! O " O HAFHAIA J=H J @ I I IAC A J I GKA K A K = =H?= @A K = @A =I HA?J=I ? K = =H?= @A = JH= LAH K4,4 A = CKH= # " + ?=@= L HJE?A @A V1 |V1 | = n D= @A K EHIA ? |V2 | = m A J J= @A =HEIJ=I AI mn ?=@= L HJE?A @A V2 ?AI

- AH?E?E 

*=IJ= AI?HE>EH V = {1, 2, 3} O V = {1 , 2 , 3 } A J

K3,3 = (V V , V V )

H = ({1, 2, 3, 1 , 2 , 3 }, {{1, 2 }, {2, 2 }, {3, 1 }, {3, 2 }, {3, 3 }})

; @A ECK= = AH= AI?HE>EH A ? K J @A L HJE?AI @A = CKH= GKA I HAIFA?JEL= A JA I CH=B I O =HEIJ=I @A

G = ({a, b, c, d, e}, {{a, b}, {c, b}, {c, d}, {d, e}, {a, e}}) G = ({a, b, f }, {{a, b}, {f, b}, {a, f }})
,A @ GKA G G AI A CH=B HAFHAIA J=@

G G = ({a, b, c, d, e, f }, {{a, b}, {c, b}, {c, d}, {d, e}, {a, e}, {f, b}, {a, f }})

- AH?E?E ! 5A= G = (V, E ) O G = (V , E ) ?

|V | = n |E | = m |V | = n O |E | = m - J ?AI A ? K J @A L HJE?AI @A G G AI V V @A @ GKA F H = HAC = @A ?=H@E = @A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= A AH @A L HJE?AI @A G G AI nn 5A= (v, v ) K L HJE?A @A CH=B FH @K?J 2 H @A E?E @A FH @K?J @A CH=B I IA LAHE ?= GKA gr((v, v )) = gr(v ) + gr(v ) @ @A gr(v ) AI A CH=@ @A v A G O gr(v ) AI A CH=@ @A v A G ,A AIJA @ (v,v )V V gr((v, v )) = n vV gr(v ) + nvV gr(v ).

# 5A ?

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$!

L HJE?AI @EC= I V3 =I F= =>H=I @A JHAI >EJAI - ?K> Q2 V2 =I F= =>H=I @A @ I >EJAI - ?K> Q1 V1 =I F= =>H=I @A K >EJ - FH @K?J Q1 Q2 JEA A ? L HJE?AI A FH @K?J V1 V2 AIJ AI IKI L HJE?AI I F=HAI @A = B H = (a1 , a2 a3 ) @ @A a1 , a2 , a3 {0, 1} - EI H I @A CH=B I IA AIJ=> A?A @A = IECKEA JA = AH= f : V1 V2 V3 @A @ GKA f ((a1 , a2 a3 )) = a1 a2 a3 ; = HA =?E @A =@O=?A ?E= A A FH @K?J IA AA (a1 , a2 a3 ) O (b1 , b2 b3 ) I =@O=?A JAI IE O I = A JA IE >EA a1 = b1 O a2 a3 AI =@O=?A JA ? b2 b3 A Q2 >EA a2 a3 = b2 b3 O a1 AI =@O=?A JA ? b1 A Q1 -IJ AI AGKEL= A JA = @A?EH GKA ANEIJA K E? L= H i {1, 2, 3} @A @ GKA ai = bi GKA C=H= JE = GKA f AI K EI H I @A CH=B I

- AH?E?E " - ?K> Q3 JEA A ?

- AH?E?E #
L HJE?A AIJ F IE> AI A - CH=B A?J=@ I A

I CH=B I K4 O W3 JEA A = FH FEA@=@ @A GKA ?K= GKEAH ? A?J=@ ? J @ I I @A I 6EA A A NE @A =HEIJ=I K CH=B @A 4 L HJE?AI 2 H J= J I EI HB I K1,3 JEA A K L HJE?A ? A?J=@ ? I JH I 3 GKA AIJ @AI? JHA I FKA@A IAH EI HB = I JH I @ I CH=B I

- AH?E?E $
LAH ?

I @A = CKH= # " I EI HB I O= GKA = > I IA FKA@A = K E @A @ I ?E? I C5 GKA ? F=HJA " L HJE?AI I @A = CKH= # # I EI HB I O= GKA A CH=B G JEA A AN=?J= A JA @ I IK>CH=B I EI HB I = C4 K E JAHE H O JH ANJAHE H EA JH=I GKA A H ? JEA A 3 IK>CH=B I EI HB I = C4  I @ I @A CH=B G IA H > = = E GKEAH@=

- AH?E?E % K4 :

0 1 A= 1 1 C4 : 0 1 A= 0 1

1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0

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W3 = HKA@= AIJ B H =@= F H A ?E? C3 O K L HJE?A ? A?J=@ ? J @ I I @A ?E? 5A= v1 @E?D L HJE?A O v2 , v3 , v4 I @A ?E? - J ?AI 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 A= 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 K3,2 : K ?EAHJ ? K J @A JHAI L HJE?AI v1 , v2 O v3  AIJ ? A?J=@ ? J @ I I A A A J I @A K ? K J @A @ I L HJE?AI v4 O v5  - J ?AI 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 A= 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

- AH?E?E & -IJ=> A ?=

@A L HJE?AI = > ? @ A - J

I F=H= A ?AI 0 1 1 0 A= 0 1 0 0 1 0 I

FHE AH CH=B

= IECKEA JA H@A =?E

0 1 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 0

- A IACK @ CH=B - J ?AI

H@A = 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 1 0 0 1

I L HJE?AI @A IECKEA JA 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

=>?@AB

- AH?E?E ' 0=O

 n2 + 1 =IEC =?E AI  K >K? A GKA IA HAFEJA n 1 LA?AI A A GKA IA D=?A

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@ I =IEC =?E AI A AL=H K = =JHE = = F JA ?E= j GKA AGKEL= A = K JEF E?=H = F H I EI = j LA?AI K JEF E?=H @ I =JHE?AI n n IKF A F H ?=@= = O ? K = GKA IA K JEF E?= n FH @K?J I O n 1 IK =I AI @A?EH K J J= @A n2 (2n 1) FAH=?E AI - ? ? KIE A AL=H = =JHE = = F JA ?E= j IKF A jn2 (2n 1) FAH=?E AI K = IK = @A @ I =JHE?AI nn GKA IKF A n2 IK =I @A I A A A J I @A = >=I =JHE?AI = IK = j + 1 1 2 5 - J J= IA HA= E = 3 + n2 + n j =1 jn (2n 1) O (n ) ! = LAHE ?=?E @A IE I n2 A A A J I @A = =JHE B I I ?AH 6 J= n2 FAH=?E AI - = C HEJ JEA A F H J= J ? F A E@=@ GK JE?=

- AH?E?E   7 = ?D= @A @

? @ I L= HAI A 3 O A 5 F H A A F  IA FKA@A LAH ? K = =HEIJ= A JHA @ I L HJE?AI v3 O v5 A A A A F  K J=H @E?D= ?D= ? JH= A K = KC=@= @A @ E F H A A F ? = GKA JEA A K 5 O K 1 AGKEL= A = ? IE@AH=H K ?= E A A CH=B F H A A F v3 , v5 , v1  + AIJA AIGKA = K = IAHEA @A KC=@=I @A @ E AI I GKA K ?= E A A CH=B ? F AJ K7 ,E?D CH=B AI ? AN JEA A 7 L HJE?AI O A CH=@ @A ?=@= L HJE?A AI 6 AN? KOA @ =I ?D=I @ > AI GKA I = IO @= E C FH > A = K AH F=H 2 @A I C=H= JE =H A J ?AI = ANEIJA ?E= @A = A I K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= - JH=I F= =>H=I JA A I C=H= JE =@ GKA AI F IE> A A ?= =H J @=I =I FEA =I @A @ E 2 H J= J FKA@A

- AH?E?E   ,A I ?K=JH L HJE?AI @A CH=B GKA HAFHAIA J=H = = I FKA

JAI JHAI JEA A CH=@ JHAI O A JH JEA A CH=@ ?E ? D=>AH E ?EH?KEJ I E ?= E I AK AHE= I

5E = CH=B H A GKEJ I @ I L HJE?AI @A CH=@ 4 GKA JEA A O IKI =HEIJ=I E ?E@A JAI I GKA@= JHAI ? F A JAI ? AN=I 2 H J= J A CH=B FKA@A IAH D= E J E= I L HJE?AI a O e JA A I = F=HJEH @A I ? ?K I A I =FK JAI GKA = CEJK@ E = @A a = f AI 5 O = @A a = d AI 6. 2 H J= J = CEJK@ E = @A a = g JEA A GKA IAH min{L(f )+1, L(d)+3} = 6 - A ?=I @A I L HJE?AI g O c JA A I GKA E F A A J=H A = C HEJ @A ,E IJH= @A KAL

- AH?E?E 

- AH?E?E  ! - A ?=I @A

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.ECKH= # !" - AH?E?E  "

5A= T = {g } L(f ) = L(g ) + 3 = 3 L(h) = L(g ) + 4 = 4 E @A L ?KHHA F=H= f 2 H J= J T = {g, f } L(e) = L(f ) + 1 = 4 L(i) = L(f ) + 2 = 5 E @A L ?KHHA F=H= e O h 2 H J= J T = {g, f, e, h} L(a) = L(h) + 5 = 9, L(i) = L(h) + 4 = 8 > 5, L(d) = L(e) + 3 = 7 E @A L ?KHHA F=H= i 2 H J= J T = {g, f, e, h, i} L(d) = L(i) + 3 = 8 > 7, L(b) = L(i) + 1 = 6 E @A L ?KHHA F=H= b 2 H J= J T = {g, f, e, h, i, b} L(a) = L(b) + 2 = 8 < 9, L(c) = L(b) + 3 = 9 E @A L ?KHHA F=H= d 2 H J= J T = {g, f, e, h, i, b, d} L(c) = L(d) + 5 = 12 > 9 E @A L ?KHHA F=H= a O L= A 8 - L= H @A L F=H= A JE L HJE?A GKA AI c AI 9 + ? KIE - ?= E E A JHA g O c JEA A CEJK@ 9 O HA? HHA I L HJE?AI g, f, i, b, c

- AH?E?E  " 8AH = CKH= # !" - AH?E?E  # AH NE @A ? F=H=?E AI AI A AH NE @A L HJE?AI GKA IA FKA@A HA? HHAH A K ?= E IE F A @A = H= = K = D = -I @A?EH h + 1 IEA @ h = = JKH= @A H> 5A= h = = JKH= @A H> I @=J I IA FKA@A H@A =H A@E= JA K = HA =?E GKA @A J= I F H < - JH=@= H> IK H= O K @=J

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5= E@= - @=J AI AJEGKAJ= @A E C L HJE?A A?JKH= H= 9DE A AC= I = K = D = = @ 5= E@= - @=J AI AJEGKAJ= @A E C L HJE?A 1B A?JKH=<@=J JDA I LA I = = H= = @AHA?D= @A ELA E BAHE H 1B A?JKH=>@=J JDA I LA I = = H= = E GKEAH@= @A ELA E BAHE H 1B A?JKH= @=J JDA 5= E@= A @=J AI AJEGKAJ= @A K L HJE?A 5= E@= - A FA H @A I ?=I I A @=J AI K = AJEGKAJ= A A H> O A H> >E =HE @A = JKH= h JEA A n = 1 + 2 + 22 + ... + 2h = 2h+1 1 @=J I 2=H= ?= E =H IE K @=J @=@ AIJ A A H> @A>A I D=?AH h + 1 A?JKH=I A ?= E I =HC GKA D=O A A CH=B JEA A h + 1 L HJE?AI 2 H J= J A AH NE @A A?JKH=I AI log2 (n + 1) O(log n) - ?=@= A?JKH= D=?A I K = ? F=H=?E = ? F A E@=@ AI F H J= J C=H J E?= AIJ AI O(log n)

- AH?E?E  $ 6

= I@ I A@=I O =I F A I A IA @ I F =JE I @A = >= = = 0=O @ I F IE>E E@=@AI GKA FAIA EI GKA 5E FAI= EI AI IEC E ?= GKA K = @A =I @ I AI = >KI?=@= 6 = I K = @A =I A@=I  = GKA AIJ = = @AHA?D= F H A A F  O K = @A =I GKA DA I FAI=@  E CK = @A =I ?K AI FKA@A IAH = >KI?=@= =I F A I A IA @ I F =JE I 5E FAI= EI AI IEC E ?= GKA = A@= GKA AIJ=>= A = FHE AH= FAI=@= A A F =JE E GKEAH@ AI = >KI?=@= 5E FAI= @EIJE J AI = GKA AIJ=>= A A F =JE @AHA?D = >KI?=@= 5E A = FHE AH= FAI=@= =I A@=I FAI=>= EI A J ?AI J K = @A A =I O K = @A =I GKA DA I FAI=@ 5E FAI= EI AI IEC E ?= GKA = A@= GKA DA FAI=@ A E CK = @A =I @ I FAI=@=I AI = >KI?=@= 5E FAI= EI AI E F E?= GKA = A@= GKA DA FAI=@ = IACK @= LA O = FHE AH= LA AI = >KI?=@= - HAIK A F @A I ?= E =H = A@= A @ I FAI=@=I - H> @A @A?EIE ? HHAIF @EA JA AI >E =HE O JEA A = JKH= I LAH A H> A = CKH= # !# =I F= =>H=I IA ? @E ?= @A = IECKEA JA = AH=

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IA I=J= 

- AH?E?E  & ) C HEJ

@A 2HE 2=HJE I @A a V (T ) = {a} E (T ) = ) =@E I = =HEIJ= @A a = b O V (T ) = {a, b} ) =@E I i O V (T ) = {a, b, i} ) =@E I f O V (T ) = {a, b, i, f } ) =@E I e O V (T ) = {a, b, i, f, e} ) =@E I c, g O d O V (T ) = {a, b, i, f, e, c, g, d} ) =@E I h O V (T ) = {a, b, i, f, e, c, g, d, h} ) C HEJ @A HKI = + ?= I =I =HEIJ=I @A CEJK@ 1 {b, i} , {f, e} + ?= I =I =HEIJ=I @A CEJK@ 2 {i, f } , {a, b} + ?= I =I =HEIJ=I @A CEJK@ 3 ? ?KE@=@ @A B H =H ?EH?KEJ I {e, d} , {b, c} , {f, g } .E = A JA ? ?= I K = @A =I =HEIJ=I @A CEJK@ 4 {g, h}

A J ?AI A ? K J @A L HJE?AI IA FKA@A F AH ? K E @EI K J= @A @ I IK>? K J I @EC= I V1 O V2 2 @A I A J ?AI ? HA=H ? ? HAI @EIJE J I ?=@= K @A I IK>? K J I Vi i = 1, 2 + AIJ= ? H=?E @=@ GKA A CH=B AI >EF=HJE@ D=O K ?= @ I L HJE?AI @A EI ? H K E@ I - IA JE@ FKAIJ IE A CH=B FKA@A IAH ? HA=@ I ? @ I ? HAI F @A I @ELE@EH I L HJE?AI @A CH=B A @ I IK>? K J I @EI K J I I L HJE?AI @A K ? H O I @A JH I L HJE?AI @A K ? H I A J A = =@ I ? I @A JH -I @A?EH A CH=B AI >EF=HJE@

- AH?E?E  ' - FHE AH KC=H IE A CH=B AI >EF=HJE@

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# !%

I JHAI CH=B I I

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=JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A K7 JEA A A IECKEA JA

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- CH=@ @A ?=@= K @A I % L HJE?AI AI $ F H J= J = IK = @A I CH=@ I AI " @A @ GKA K7 JEA A  =HEIJ=I 5E J I L HJE?AI K AH=@ I {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} F @A I AI?HE>EH =I =HEIJ=I ?

{{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 4}, {1, 5}, {1, 6}, {1, 7},

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@A W5

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@A K4,4

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7 = HAFHAIA J=?E

@A Q4

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{2, 3}, {2, 4}, {2, 5}, {2, 6}, {2, 7}, {3, 4}, {3, 5}, {3, 6}, {3, 7}, {4, 5}, {4, 6}, {4, 7}, {5, 6}, {5, 7}, {6, 7}}
2 H J= J 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 J=I K = =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I GKA IECKA AIJA H@A AI

1 0 1 0 0 0 0

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1 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 1

1 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 1 0 1

0 1 1 1 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 1

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0 0 0 0 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 1 1

- CH=B W5 JEA A $ L HJE?AI @EC=

I {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} O =I IECKEA JAI =HEI

{{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 4}, {4, 5}, {5, 1}, {1, 6}, {2, 6}, {3, 6}, {4, 6}, {5, 6}}
5ECKEA @ AIJA H@A @A L HJE?AI JA ?E=I A E ?E@A ?E=I HAIFA?JEL= A JA 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 A I =I IECKEA JAI =JHE?AI @A =@O=?A

0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0

0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

1 1 0 0 0 0

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0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 1 0

- CH=B K1,6 JEA A % L HJE?AI @EC=

I {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} O JEA A =I =HEIJ=I

{{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 4}, {1, 5}, {1, 6}, {1, 7}}

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=JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I O

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1 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 1

- CH=B K4,4 JEA A & L HJE?AI GKA FKA@A AI?HE>EHIA ? {1, 2, 3, 4, 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 } O $ =HEIJ=I GKA FKA@A AI?HE>EHIA ? A A @ @A A = {1, 2, 3, 4} O A = {1 , 2 , 3 , 4 } 5E H@A = I I L HJE?AI =I JA A I = IECKEA JA =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
; IE H@A = I =I =HEIJ=I A

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
H@A

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

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? IK =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I

ANE? CH

# IAH

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1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

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0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

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0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

- ?K> Q4 JEA A $ =HEIJ=I GKA ? HHAIF

@A = =I F= =>H=I @A " >EJAI

{0000, 0001, 0010, 0100, 1000, 0011, 0101, 1001, 1010, 1100, 0110, 0111, 1011, 1101, 1110, 1111}
+=@= K @A I L HJE?AI JEA A CH=@ " F H J= CH=@ I @= $" - J ?AI Q4 JEA A ! =HEIJ=I = @A = I = A?J H = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I IAC 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 = IK = @A J @ I I =JHE @A E ?E@A ?E=I = AIJA H@A AI 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 J

- AH?E?E !" - FHE AH @A

CH=@ I AI ! GKA AI K

I ?=I I AH E F=H A ?

AI F IE> A FKAI = IK = @A I JH=@E??E ? A DA?D @A GKA =

%$ IK = @A I CH=@ I @A AI F IE> A F H A A F I L HJE?AI AI LA?AI A

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AH @A =HEIJ=I - IACK @

({a, b, c, d, e}, {{a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {a, e}, {b, c}, {c, e}, {d, e}})
@ @A gr(a) = 4 gr(b) = 2 gr(c) = 3 gr(d) = 2 O gr(e) = 3

- AH?E?E !# - CH=B K1,6 = (V, E ) JEA A % L HJE?AI O $ =HEIJ=I

({1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 1 }, {{1, 1 }, {2, 1 }, {3, 1 }, {4, 1 }, {5, 1 }, {6, 1 }}).
- CH=B W3 = (V , E ) JEA A " L HJE?AI O $ =HEIJ=I

({1, 2, 3, 4}, {{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 1}, {1, 4}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}}).
- = > I ?=I I IA JEA A ? IK>CH=B I I CH=B I ?KO ? K J @A =HEIJ=I AI L=? -I @A?EH @A = B H = (A, ) @ @A A AI K IK>? K J ?K= GKEAH= @A V HAIFA?JEL= A JA @A V  0=O 27 O 24 CH=B I @A AIJA JEF HAIFA?JEL= A JA 5E J = I @ I L HJE?AI I KAL I CH=B I IA A??E =@ I A A F HH=B = JAHE H IA ? IJHKOA J = @ A F=H @A L HJE?AI O = =HEIJ= GKA I K A - J ?AI D=O J= J I ? =HEIJ=I AIJ AI $ A ?=@= ?=I 5E J = I JHAI L HJE?AI O I @A I @A FHE AH F HH=B A J ?AI FKA@A JA AH  @ I =HEIJ=I 5E JEA A =HEIJ=I AIJ=I A?AI=HE= A JA @A>A JA AH K ANJHA A ? 2=H= ? IJHKEH K CH=B ? ! L HJE?AI O K = =HEIJ= IA J = K = =HEIJ= IKI ANJHA I O JH L HJE?A ?K= GKEAH= @EIJE J @A IKI ANJHA I - A FHE AH ?=I D=O $ # ! @A AIJ I CH=B I A A IACK @  2=H= ? IJHKEH K CH=B ? @ I =HEIJ=I O ! L HJE?AI D=O GKA J =H @ I =HEIJ=I GKA ? F=HJ= K ANJHA O IKI JHAI L HJE?AI - A FHE AH ?=I ?=@= F=H @A =HEIJ=I ? F=HJA A ANJHA 1 F H J= J D=O 6 @A AIJ I CH=B I 2 A IACK @ ?=I ? ?=@= L HJE?A JEA A CH=@ ! A AH @A CH=B I @A AIJA JEF GKA ? F=HJA K L HJE?A =@ AI ! ,A AIJA @ D=O  CH=B I @A AIJA JEF 5E J = I " L HJE?AI A A IACK @ @A I ?=I I AIJ= I J = @ J @ I I L HJE?AI @A @ GKA ? ? K J @A =HEIJ=I IA FKA@A J =H ?K= GKEAH IK>? K J @A ? K J @A IKI =HEIJ=I )I D=O 26 1 A L=? O= DA I ? IE@AH=@  CH=B I @A AIJA JEF + ?K=JH L HJE?AI A A FHE AH @A I ?=I I I @A IECKEA JA JEF 5E ? JEA A = 1 O= AIJ ? IE@AH=@ I FKAI A ? K J @A =HEIJ=I AI L=?

#

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%%

5E ? JEA A = 1 A J ?AI F @A I J =H K = @ I JHAI @A =I =HEIJ=I GKA ? JEA A )I @A AIJA JEF D=O 7 6 CH=B I @A AIJA JEF 3 ,A EI @ F=H= # L HJE?AI ,A>A ? JA AH = 1 O IA FKA@A J =H  ! " @A =I =HEIJ=I GKA JEA A 0=O A J ?AI 15 6 4 + $ L HJE?AI @A>A ? JA AH = 1 O D=O GKA J =H @A  = # @A =I =HEIJ=I GKA ? JEA A D=O (25 1) 6 + % L HJE?AI D=O GKA ? IE@AH=H ?K= GKEAH IK>? K J @A ? K J @A =HEIJ=I I= L A L=? GKA O= AIJ ? IE@AH=@  - J ?AI D=O 26 1 CH=B I @A AIJA JEF

- AH?E?E !$

5AC A JA HA = @A -K AH K CH=B =@ EJA K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= IE J @ I IKI L HJE?AI AIJ A = EI = ? F A JA ? AN= O I CH=@ I @A IKI L HJE?AI I J @ I AH I F=HAI - A ?=I @A CH=B ? F AJ Kn ?=@= L HJE?A JEA A CH=@ n 1 A J ?AI IAH AK AHE= IE O I = A JA IE n E F=H - A ?=I @A ?E? Cn A CH=@ @A ?=@= L HJE?A AI F H GKA IEA FHA =@ EJA K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= - A ?=I @A Wn D=O L HJE?AI @A CH=@ ! F H GKA =@ EJA K ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= A E C ?=I JAIA GKA J @ I AIJ I CH=B I I ? AN I

- AH?E?E !% *=IJ= AI?HE>EH J= J I FK J I ?

=I  ? K =I JA C= = =JHE K AH @ I IAC A KC=H @A IK HAIFA?JEL= = - JHA ?=@= F=H @A FK J I i O j IA HAFHAIA J= J= J=I =HEIJ=I IAC A J I GKA K A A FK J K AH=@ ? = i ? A K AH=@ ? = j ? E @EGKA = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I A A IK J H E Aij

- AH?E?E !& 5A ? IE@AH= =

5A KI= A JA HA = F H A A AH @A =HEIJ=I + =@O=?A JAI ? A J A A A J I @A = = i IE

=JHE ? K = EIJ= ? @ I IK> @E?AI GKA = IK = @A I CH=@ I @A I L HJE?AI AI LA?AI A CH=@ @A K L HJE?A AI A AH @A L HJE?AI ?AI A CH=@ @A L HJE?A i IE AI = IK = @A I = @A = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A CH=B

- JH=@= a11 ann S := 0 . Hi=1J n . Hj=1J n S := S + aij 5= E@= S/2 5E A J= = @A = A JH=@= AI n A AH @A L HJE?AI @A CH=B = ? F A E@=@ AI ?K=@H JE?= FKAI A >K? A E JAHE H IA HAFEJA n LA?AI ?=@= LA GKA i

%& J = K ?EAHJ L= H

+)2 67

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- AH?E?E !' 2HE AH D=O GKA ?

FH >=H GKA J @=I =I =HEIJ=I @A CH=B AIJ A = EI = ? F A JA ? AN= LAH FH ?JE?= @A =F A 7 = LA DA?D AIJ L= I ? FKJ= @ I CH=@ I @A ?=@= L HJE?A O LEA @ IE AI F=H - JH=@= a11 ann S := 2 . H i = 1 J n MDE A Smod2 = 0 S := 0 . Hj=1J n S := S + aij 1B Smod2 = 0 JDA R :=-I AK AHE= 5= E@= R

A IA R :=

AI AK AHE=

+ IE@AH= @ n A J= = @A = A JH=@= O IE ? IE@AH=H A FH > A = @A = ? ANE A = C HEJ AI @A ? F A E@=@ ?K=@H JE?= FKAI D=O @ I >K? AI = E@=@ I GKA IA HA= E = n LA?AI ?=@= K O A ?=@= HAFAJE?E ABA?J = K = ?= JE@=@ ? IJ= JA @A FAH=?E AI

- AH?E?E " E 5A JH=J= @A K = HA@ ?

$ H@A =@ HAI L HJE?AI O $ ?=> AI =HEIJ=I = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA IA @= A K ?=> A AI 0.1 -I A J ?AI K ANFAHE A J @A *AH K E ? FH >=>E E@=@ @A NEJ 0.1 = FH >=>E E@=@ @A >JA AH = A I @ I NEJ I AI

6 k=2

6 (0.1)k (0.9)6k . k
ACKA ?KHHA ?K= @ IA @= = I ?=> AI @A ? K J

EE = E?= = AH= @A GKA = E B H =?E = = LA A ?=> A {1, 2} O = A I K @A

{{1, 5}, {5, 4}, {4, 3}, {3, 2}}.

2 H J= J =I ? HAIFA?JEL=I 0.1 O IE@AH=@ I I IK?AI I E @AFA @EA JAI @A FH >=>E E@=@AI

4 k=1

4 (0.1)k (0.9)4k . k

- HAIK J=@ FA@E@ AI A FH @K?J @A = >=I FH >=>E E@=@AI

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F A JAI ? AN=I = GKA B H = I L HJE?AI {1, 2, 3, 4} O IKI ? HHAIF @EA JAI =HEIJ=I O = GKA B H = I L HJE?AI HAIJ= JAI O IKI ? HHAIF @EA JAI =HEIJ=I ,A AIJA @ AI ? AN FKA@A IAH K H> 5E = =@E I = =HEIJ= {1, 5} A KAL CH=B AI ? AN FAH ? JEA A K ?E? B H =@ F H I L HJE?AI ! O " F H GKA IECKA IE IAH K H> 6 = @ I L HJE?AI A A H@A GKA E @E?= = =JHE = IK?AIE @A IKI CH=@ I AI JH= ? I= GKA = IK = @A I J H E I @A ?=@= = =I gr(1) = 1 gr(2) = 3 gr(3) = 2 gr(4) = 2 gr(5) = 1 gr(6) = 2 gr(7) = 2 gr(8) = 1 ) = =@EH = =HEIJ= {1, 5} A CH=@ @A I L HJE?AI  O # =K A J= A K = K E@=@ 2AH F H A A F A CH=@ @A L HJE?A & IECKA IEA @ E F=H F H GKA A CH=B FKA@A IAH AK AHE=

- AH?E?E " - CH=B G JEA A @ I ?

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$ AI

- AIJA ?=F JK HAJ =HA I JH=I A ? ?E EA J =@GKEHE@ @A = JA H = @A CH=B I A ? ?AFJ @A HA =?E E E?E=@ A A ?=F JK JAH?AH + O= IA = = I = O A = =IEC =JKH= @A *=IAI @A =JA JE?=I J= J =I HA =?E AI @A AGKEL= A ?E= ? =I HA =?E AI @A H@A I KO E F HJ= JAI A A @AI=HH @A =I =JA JE?=I = @A E?E @A AH H=?E = = H@A = ?E KIK= GKA IA AIJ=> A?A A A ? K J @A I AH I =JKH= AI @ @A ?=@= ? K J JEA A E  O A A ? K J @A I AH I HA= AI @ @A ?=@= ? K J =? J=@ JEA A IKFHA A  = =HEJ JE?= @K =H I ? ?AFJ I BK @= A J= AI A I GKA AIJ E L K?H=@= = ?E @A HA =?E 6= >E =I BK ?E AI I K ?=I AIFA?E= @A HA =?E AI O IK AIJK@E IA HA LA = ? BK @= A J= A A ) EIEI =JA JE? A =I ? ANE AI @A =I =JA JE?=I ? = B IE?= 2 H JH =@ =I HA =?E AI J= >E JEA A IK =F E?=?E A = E B H JE?= F H A A F A =I >=IAI @A @=J I HA =?E = AI O A FH > A =I HA =JEL I = ? =IE ?=?E 5A FHAJA @A GKA = = E =H A ?=F JK A =K

+ ?= =I FH FEA@=@AI @A K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= O @A K = HA =?E @A H@A O IAF= @EI?AH EH IE K = HA =?E @=@= AI @A K @A AIJ I JEF I 5AF= HAFHAIA J=H K = HA =?E A@E= JA K CH=B @EHECE@ O = = E =H FH FEA@=@AI @A = HA =?E A@E= JA = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A @ECH=B =I ?E=@ 2KA@= ?= ?K =H = ? =KIKH= HA ANEL= IE ?E
& JHE?= JH= IEJEL= @A K = HA =

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I = HA? H@=H A AIJA FHE AH F HH=

,A

E?E $   5A= A O B @ I ? K J I K = HA =?E A JHA A O B AI K IK>? K J R @A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= A B - A ?=I F=HJE?K =H A GKA A AI ECK= = B D=> =HA I @A K = HA =?E A A 5A @E?A GKA a A IA HA =?E = ? b B O IA @A J= aRb IE (a, b) R

,A

E?E $  5A= A O B ? K J I O R A B K = HA =?E A JHA A O B IA @A A @ E E @A 4 = ? K J @A A A A J I a A J= AI GKA ANEIJA K A A A J b B O (a, b) R 5A @A A A H= C @A R = ? K J @A A A A J I b B F=H= I GKA ANEIJA K A A A J a A @A @ GKA (a, b) R ,A E?E $  ! 5A= A K ?
K J O R A A K = HA =?E A A 5A @E?A GKA R AI HA ANEL= IE (a, a) R F=H= ?=@= a A 5A @E?A GKA R AI IE JHE?= IE F=H= ?=@= (a, b) R IA JEA A GKA (b, a) R 5A @E?A GKA R AI = JEIE JHE?= IE (a, b) R O (b, a) R E F E?= GKA a=b 5A @E?A GKA R AI JH= IEJEL= IE F=H= ?=@= (a, b) R O (b, c) R IA JEA A GKA (a, c) R

,A

E?E

$  " 5A= A K ?

K J O R A A K = HA =?E

A A

= HA =?E R AI K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= IE LAHE ?= =I FH FEA@= @AI HA ANEL= IE JHE?= O JH= IEJEL= = HA =?E R AI K ANEL= = JEIE JHE?= O H=> AI IE >EA (a, b) GKA J @ F=H @A A A A = HA =?E @A H@A IE LAHE ?= =I FH FEA@=@AI HA JH= IEJEL= , I A A A J I a, b A IA @E?A ? F= >EA (b, a) FAHJA A?A = R - A ?=I F=HJE?K =H A J I a, b A I ? F=H=> AI IA @E?A GKA R AI K = HA =?E @A H@A J J= 5E ANEIJA A A A J I a, b A ? F=H=> AI A J ?AI @EHA I GKA AI K = HA =?E @A H@A F=H?E=

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) K F=H (A, R) B H =@ F H K ? K J O K = HA =?E @A H@A F=H?E= A = =HA I ? K J F=H?E= A JA H@A =@ 5E = HA =?E AI @A H@A J J= @EHA I ? K J J J= A JA H@A =@ =?E

>IAHL=?E

$  # - CA AH= KI=HA I = J=?E   F=H= =I HA AI @A H@A O = J=?E F=H= =I HA =?E AI @A AGKEL= A ?E=

O= IA = = I A A ?=F JK JAH?AH I AH I =JKH= AI =@ EJA K = HA =?E @A H@A J J= GKA LEA A @A E@= F H @=@ I a, b N IA @E?A GKA b a IE >EA b = a >EA ANEIJA K AH =JKH= c J= GKA b = a + c EE 6= >E LE I GKA I AH I A JAH I =@ EJA K = HA =?E @A H@A J J= GKA AI K = ANJA IE =JKH= @A = HA =?E @A E@= A I AH I + =JKH= AI a b IE O I = A JA IE b a N {0} EEE I AH I HA= AI =@ EJA K = HA =?E @A H@A J J= @A E@= F H = ANEIJA ?E= @A = IA EHHA?J= HA= F IEJEL= R+ K IK>? K J @A R ? =I FH FEA@=@AI @A GKA F=H= ?=@= a R K >EA a >EA a FAHJA A?A = R+ IE a, b R+ A J ?AI a + b R+ ab R+ O 0 / R+  @A @ GKA a b + IE O I = A JA IE b a R {0} EL 5A= A ? K J F = {r/s : r, s Z s = 0} = HA =?E GKA IA @A A ? r/s u/v IE O I = A JA IE rv = su AI K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= A F L - A ? K J @A I AH I A JAH I DA I @A E@ = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= @K p a b mod p IE O I = A JA IE a b AI K JEF @A p LE ,=@ I @ I ? K J I A O B K = BK ?E @A A A B AI K = HA =?E R AB ? =I FH FEA@=@AI A @ E E @A R AI A F=H= ?=@= A A A J a A ANEIJA K E? A A A J b B J= GKA (a, b) R K J O K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= A A 2=H= ?=@= A A A J a A IA @A A = ? =IA @A AGKEL= A ?E= @A a O IA @A J= F H C (a) F H a ? A ? K J @A J @ I =GKA I A A A J I @A A GKA IA HA =?E = ? a

- A F I $  $ E +

,A

E?E

$  % 5A= A K ?

a = {b A : b a}.

- AH?E?E " +

J=?E

@A = @A

E?E

= JAHE H @A

IJH=H GKA

E F=H= ?=@= a A IA JEA A GKA a =

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EE F=H= ?=@= a, b A @A @ GKA a b IA JEA A GKA a = b EEE IE a = b A J ?AI a b = EL A = aA a

-IJ FAH EJA @A EH A IECKEA JA ? ?AFJ

,A
?

$  & 5A= A K ? K J O K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= A A 5A @A A A ? K J ? ?EA JA @A A F H @E?D= HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E=
A ? K J @A =I ? =IAI @A AGKEL= A ?E=

E?E

A/ = {a : a A}.

- A F I $  ' E +
K = HA =?E

O= LE I = HA =?E @A ? CHKA ?E= @A AGKEL= A ?E= A Z O A ? K J ? ?EA JA AI

@K

p AI

Zp = {0, 1, ..., p 1}.

EE - ? K J ? ?EA JA @A ? K J F @A A A F EL @A F HH=B = JAHE H F H = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= = @A E@= AI A ? K J Q @A I AH I H=?E = AI

- AH?E?E "! +

FH >=H IE I HA =?E IECKEA JAI HA =?E AI 5E I @A AGKEL= A ?E= AIJ=> A?AH A ?

AI @A H@A K J ? ?EA JA

@A AGKEL= A ?E= =I

E 5A= A5 A ? K J @A F= =>H=I @A # AJH=I DA?D=I ? A = B=>AJ AIF=  ' AJH=I 5A= = HA =?E @A E@= F H ? A =H F H = EI = AJH= AIJ AI @=@ I @ I A A A J I a, b A5 aRb IE O I = A JA IE = >=I F= =>H=I ? EA = F H = EI = AJH= EE 5A= A = {a, b, c, d} O

R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (a, b), (a, c), (b, c)}.
EEE 5A= Z {0} O = HA =?E aRb IE O I = A JA IE A IEC @A a AI ECK= = IEC @A b EL 5A= A ? K J R O = HA =?E aRb IE O I = A JA IE a b Z
? 8= I = ?A JH=H I @A =D H= A =@A = JA A HA =?E AI @A E@=I A K J I EJ I 8AHA I @EIJE J=I B H =I @A HAFHAIA J=H =I A@E= JA J=> =I CH=B I

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$
$ 

4AFHAIA J=?E
A@E= JA J=> =I

@A HA =?E

AI

7 = HA =?E R A K ? K J A AI K IK>? K J @A FH @K?J ?=HJAIE= A A 6 = I A J ?AI @ I A AI ? H@A =@ I @ @A A ?=@= K @A A I IA AIJ HAFHAIA J= @ I A A A J I @A A = HA =?E R AI A J ?AI K = K>A @A FK J I @A F = ? H@A =@ -IJ= K>A @A FK J I FAH EJA LAHE ?=H @A B H = IA ?E = = CK =I @A =I FH FEA@=@AI @A = HA =?E = HA =?E AI HA ANEL= IE O I = A JA IE J @= = @E=C =

= {(a, a) : a A}
AIJ ? JA E@= A = CH ?= JHE?= IE = CH ?= AI IE JHE?= ? HAIFA?J = @E?D= ?= = HA =?E @E=C = IE = HA =?E JHE? I ? AI IE

AI = JEIE JHE?= IE ANEIJA F=HAI @A FK J I @A = CH HAIFA?J = = @E=C = O BKAH= @A A =

-A F I$
@A?EH

 E 5A= = HA =?E

@A H@A KIK= I >HA A ?

K J N4 AI

R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)}.
5K J=> = AI = HAFHAIA J=@= A = .ECKH= $  ; I >HA A = IA LA ? =H= A JA GKA AI HA ANEL= O = JEIE EE 5A= A A ? K J N4 = HA =?E IECKEA JA JHE?=

S = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 4), (4, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 3)}.
5K J=> = AI = HAFHAIA J=@= A = .ECKH= $ ; I >HA A = IA LA ? =H= A JA GKA AI IE JHE?= O GKA AI HA ANEL=

A@E= JA CH=B I @EHECE@ I

8= I = LAH ? = HA =?E J= >E FKA@A IAH HAFHAIA J=@= F H K CH=B @EHECE@ GKA = =HA I CH=B @EHECE@ =I ?E=@ = = HA =?E -IJA K JE@ECH=B FKA@A JA AH = I A A A J I @A = B H = (a, a) O FKA@A JA AH ? NE @ I =HEIJ=I ? A?J= @ @ I L HJE?AI a O b  =I =HEIJ=I (a, b) O (b, a)

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2 x

.ECKH= $  6=> = 

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2 x

.ECKH= $

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A = =HA (A, R)

,A

E?E

EJ O R A A K = HA =?E A I CH=B @EHECE@ =I ?E=@ = = HA =?E = K JE@ECH=B G =

5A= A K ?

K J

-A F I$

! E - A A A F E = JAHE H A CH=B @EHECE@ =I ?E=@ AI

EE A CH=B @EHECE@ =I ?E=@ AI

(N4 , {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)}).
EE - A A A F

(N4 , {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 4), (4, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 3)}).
5 >HA A CH=B = FH FEA@=@ HA ANEL= ? I >HA ?=@= L HJE?A IEIJA A = ANEIJA ?E= @A K =

= FH FEA@=@ IE JHE?= ? IEIJA A GKA ?=@= F=H @A L HJE?AI =@O=?A JAI FHAIA J= @ I =HEIJ=I K = A ?=@= IA JE@  GKA I ? A?J= = FH FEA@=@ = JEIE JHE?= ? IEIJA A GKA ?=@= F=H @A L HJE?AI =@O=?A JAI @EIJE J I I FHAIA J= K = =HEIJ= GKA I ? A?J= = FH FEA@=@ JH= IEJEL= ? IEIJA A GKA ?=@= @ I L HJE?AI K E@ I F H K ?= E @EHECE@ @A CEJK@ @ I I A?AI=HE= A JA =@O=?A JAI - A A A F E IA LA GKA AI HA ANEL= K = I >HA ?=@= L HJE?A O = JEIE JHE?=  D=O @ I L HJE?AI ? A?J=@ I F H @ I =HEIJ=I - A A A F EE IA LA GKA AI IE JHE?= @ I =HEIJ=I A JHA ?=@= F=H @A L HJE?AI ? A?J=@ I O AI HA ANEL= F H A A F A L HJE?A AI =@O=?A JA ? EI 

I 4AFHAIA J=H =I @=@AI I=JEIB=?A E 5A= A ? K J N5 O = HA =?E IE a + b AI K JEF @A %

- AH?E?E "" 5A=

I IECKEA JAI ? K J I O HA =?E AI @A E@=I I >HA A A@E= JA J=> =I O CH=B I @EHECE@ I O LAHE ?=H GK FH FEA

R @A

E@= ?

aRb IE O I = A JA

EE 5A= A ? K J N10 O = HA =?E I = A JA IE a @ELE@A = b

@A @ELEIE>E E@=@ AI @A?EH aRb IE O A A @=@=

EEE 5A= A ? K J A = {, N1 , N2 , N3 , N4 , N5 } O = HA =?E F H aRb IE O I = A JA IE a b EL 5A= A ? (c, d) (a, d)}

K J B = {a, b, d, c} O R = {(b, b) (c, c) (d, d) (a, c),

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A@E= JA

=JHE?AI
=JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=I =I

2 @A I HAFHAIA J=H =I HA =?E AI KI= @ =I ?E=@=I = I CH=B I @EHECE@ I GKA =I HAFHAIA J=

,A E?E $ " ,=@= K = HA =?E JHE =I ?E=@= = = HA =?E M ?

@EHECE@ =I ?E=@ = = HA =?E

R A K ? K J A IA @A A K = = K = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A CH=B

K J N5 = HA =?E @A H@A D=>EJK= = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A CH=B @EHECE@ A ECEA @ A H@A A I L HJE?AI @=@ F H 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 AI K = =JHE JHE= CK =H ? = F=HJA IKFAHE H B H =@= F H K I O = F=HJA E BAHE H F H ?AH I

-A F

# 5A= A A ?

1 0 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 0

1 1 1 1 0

1 1 1 1 1

?E?E ""

- AH?E?E "# +

FKJ=H =I

=JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A

I CH=B I @A A AH

,A>A I HA? H@=H GKA = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I M @A K CH=B @EHECE@ JEA A K K A = A JH=@= (i, j ) mij = 1 IE O I = A JA IE (vi , vj ) R A ?=I ? JH=HE JEA A K  ,A AIJA @ K = HA =?E R I >HA K ? K J A AI HA ANEL= IE O I = A JA IE = @E=C = @A = =JHE =I ?E=@= M AIJ B H =@= F H K I AIJ AI mii = 1 F=H= ?=@= i = 1, ..., |A| = HA =?E AI IE JHE?= IE O I = A JA IE = =JHE AI IE JHE?= F HGKA A J ?AI = AGKEL= A ?E= (vi , vj ) R IE O I = A JA IE (vj , vi ) R IA FKA@A HAAI?HE>EH ? mij = 1 IE O I = A JA IE mji = 1 = HA =?E GKA mji = 0 5E = HA =?E AI = JEIE JHE?= IE F=H= ?=@= i = j J= AI GKA mij = 1 IA JEA A

AI JH= IEJEL= IA LAHE ?= A IECKEA JA JA HA =

'

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K J EJ R K = HA =?E A A O M K =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A CH=B @EHECE@ =I ?E=@ = = HA =?E = A (2) mij = =I A JH=@=I @A M O mij A @ I AI K IKFAH @E?A K ?K=@H=@ (2) 2 = =I A JH=@=I @A M - J ?AI R AI JH= IEJEL= IE O I = A JA IE mij = E F E?= mij = 0
(2)

6A HA = $

$ 5A= A K ?

= I  0

,A IJH=?E + FH >A I FHE AH GKA IE mij = 0 E F E?= mij = 0 A J ?AI R AI JH= IEJEL= 2=H= GKA R IA= JH= IEJEL= @A>A LAHE ?=H GKA ?=@= LA GKA (vi , vj ), (vj , vk ) R A?AI=HE= A JA (vi , vk ) R 5E i = j j = k D=O =@= GKA ? FH >=H - ?=I ? JH=HE ANEIJA (2) K ?= E @A CEJK@ @ I A JHA vi O vk F H GKA mik = 0 2 H DEF JAIEI IA JEA A mik = 0 ? GKA (vi , vk ) R ? GKAH = I @A IJH=H
2 H JH =@  = E F E?=?E A A JH IA JE@  IE R AI JH= IEJEL= O = 0 A J ?AI ANEIJA K ?= E @A CEJK@ A JHA vi O vj 2 H J= J ANEIJEH K L HJE?A vk @A @ GKA (vi , vk ) R O (vk , vj ) R 2 H = JH= IEJELE@=@ @A R IA JEA A GKA (vi , vj ) R AI @A?EH mij = 0 ? GKAH = I @A IJH=H
(2) mij

-IJ GKEAHA @A?EH GKA F=H= ? FH >=H = JH= IEJELE@=@ @A K = HA =?E >=IJ= LAH GKA M 2 JEA A A JH=@=I K =I KAL=I ? HAIFA?J = M

-A F

% 5A= A ?

K J A = {a, b, c, d} O = HA =?E

R = {(a, a), (b, b), (a, b), (b, a)}.

= HA =?E AI JH= IEJEL= F HGKA M 2 = 2M JH= IEJEL=I

- AH?E?E "$ +

FH >=H IE =I HA =?E AI @A A AH?E?E "" I A@E= JA AIJ= ?=H=?JAHE =?E @A = JH= IEJELE@=@

$ ! + =KIKH=I HA ANEL= IE @A K = HA =?E

- AIJ= IA??E FHAIA J=HA I = C HEJ

JHE?= O JH= IEJEL=

I F=H= HAI LAH A FH > A = IECKEA JA JH=H = E = I FAGKA @A

2H > A = @=@= K = HA =?E

HA =?E ? JA EA @ = R A

R A K ? K J A A ? A IA JE@ @A IK>? K J

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' = FH FEA@=@ = ? =KIKH=

A A GKA LAHE ?= K = ?EAHJ= FH FEA@=@ ? HA ANEL=  = IE JHE?= = JH= IEJEL=

-I K FH > A = GKA FHAIA J= @EIJE J=I =F E?=?E AI I >HA J @ JH= IEJEL= F H A A F A A ?= F @A =I ? K E?=?E AI

-A F
JA # ? ?

I K = HA@ @A H@A =@ HAI K AH=@ I @A  = # O A I ?=> AI @A ? K E?=?E @A  = @A = ! @A  = " O @A = )K GKA A  O A ! AIJ @EHA?J= A JA ? K E?=@ I A JHA I IA FKA@A K E?=H = F=HJEH @A I E JAHAI=H = ? ?AH I H@A =@ HAI GKA AIJ A?J=@ I A JHA I

$ !  6A A

,A = JA H = @A CH=B I F @A I ANJH=AH K = I K?E IE I GKA FHACK J=H I F H =I ? F A JAI ? AN=I @A CH=B ?KO I L HJE?AI I I H@A = @ HAI O IKI =HEIJ=I =I ? K E?=?E AI @EHA?J=I - A ? JANJ @A =I HA =?E AI F @A I @A EH K = HA =?E A N5 @A @ GKA (a, b) R IE O I = A JA IE A H@A =@ H ? AH a AIJ ? A? J=@ @EHA?J= A JA ? A GKA JEA A AH b  a = b D=O K ?=> A @EHA?J A JHA a O b -IJ= HA =?E AI ? =H= A JA HA ANEL= O IE JHE?= F H @A E?E - FH > A = @A A ? JH=H J @=I =I F=HA =I @A H@A =@ HAI ? A?J=@ I @E HA?J= E @EHA?J= A JA AI AGKEL= A JA = ? FKJ @A = ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL= AI @A?EH A E ? K J @A F=HA =I C ? JA EA @ = R GKA D=?A GKA C IA= JH= IEJEL=

,A E?E $ ! 5A= A K ? K J EJ O R A A K = HA =?E A A 5A @A A = ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL= HAIF IE JHE?= HAIF HA ANEL= = E ? K J Ct A A HAIF Cs HAIF Cr  J= GKA R Ct HAIF R Cs HAIF R Cr  O = HA =?E GKA @A A Ct AI JH= IEJEL= HAIF IE JHE?= HAIF HA ANEL=
? - ? FKJ @A = ? =KIKH= HA ANEL= AI IE F A 5A JH=J= @A K EH = R A K J = {(a, a) : a A} -I @A?EH

Cr = R .
@E=C = =JHE @A CH=B =I ?E=@ = Cr AI IE F A A JA ?= >E=H = @A = =JHE M @A R F H K I I ?AH I @A =

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K J N10 O I >HA = HA =?E @A A H AIJHE?J < -IJ= HA =?E AI HA ANEL= F HGKA IA LAHE ?= a < a 5A LAHE ?= GKA = ? =KIKH= HA ANEL= @A = HA =?E < AI = HA =?E

-A F

$ ! ! 5A= A ?

- AH?E?E "% ,=@=I =I HA =?E AI @A A AH?E?E "" GKA

? FKJ=H IK ? =KIKH= HA ANEL=
= ? =KIKH= IE JHE?= @A K = HA =?E S = {(b, a) : (a, b) R} AI @A?EH IA ?

HA ANEL=I
K J

FKJ= K EA @ = R A ?

Cs = R S.
= =JHE @A CH=B =I ?E=@ = Cs IA >JEA A J = @ = =JHE @A CH=B =I ?E=@ = R @EC= I M IK = @ AIJ= =JHE ? IK JH=IFKAIJ= M t AIJ AI N = M + M t O ? IJHKOA @ K = =JHE GKA JA C= K K @ @A N JEA A K AA A J K O K ?AH @ @A N JEA A K ?AH

-A F

? =KIKH= @A E?E AA A J ? JH=HE ? ? KOA ?

K J N10 O I >HA = HA =?E @A H@A = IE JHE?= @A @E?D= HA =?E AI Cs = N10 N10 - ABA?J F H Cs N10 N10 2=H= @A IJH=H A JH ? JA E@ IA= ?K= GKEAH (a, b) N10 N10 5E a b A J ?AI (a, b) R Cs A ?=I b < a O F H J= J (b, a) R GKA IEC E ?= (a, b) S Cs GKA = @A IJH=?E JHE?= I IE JHE?=I

$ ! " 5A= A ?

- AH?E?E "& ,=@=I =I HA =?E AI @A A AH?E?E "" GKA

FKJ=H IK ? =KIKH= IE
I = )> H@= A JA A ?

FKJ @A = ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL=

K J R K = HA =?E I >HA A O G A CH=B @EHE CE@ =I ?E=@ = = HA =?E 5A= a O b @ I A A A J I @A A J= AI GKA ANEIJA K ?= E (a, v1 ), (v1 , v2 ), ...(vm1 , b) A G K EA @ a ? b - J ?AI (a, b) FAHJA A?A = = ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL= Ct @A R ,A IJH=?E @A IJH= I F H E @K??E I >HA = CEJK@ @A ?= E 5E = CEJK@ @A ?= E GKA K A a O b AI K A J ?AI (a, b) R Ct 5E = CEJK@ AI @ I ? (a, v1 ), (v1 , b) R A J ?AI (a, b) Ct 5E = CEJK@ AI m + 1 A J ?AI F H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E (a, vm ) Ct O F H J= J ? (vm , b) R IA JEA A GKA (a, b) Ct
I F=HAI

A = $ ! # 5A= A K ?

5AC AIJA A = = ? =IKIKH= JH= IEJEL= @A>A ? JA AH J @ I (a, b) @A L HJE?AI J= AI GKA ANEIJA K ?= E K EA @ a ? b

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K J O R K = HA =?E A A @A @ GKA A CH=B @EHECE@ G =I ?E=@ = = HA =?E LAHE ?= GKA IE @ I L HJE?AI a O b AIJ K E@ I F H K ?= E A J ?AI (a, b) R - AIJ=I ? @E?E AI = HA =?E R AI JH= IEJEL= ,A IJH=?E F H K ?= E
5E JA A I GKA (a, b), (b, c) R A J @A CEJK@ O F H J= J (a, c) R ?AI a O c AIJ K E@ I

A = $ ! $ 5A= A K ?

I @ I A =I FHALE I KAIJH= GKA = ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL= @A K = HA =?E R A K ? K J A AI A J ?AI

Ct = T,
@ @A T AI A ? K J @A F=HAI (a, b) @A CH=B =I ?E=@ G K EA @ a ? b @ GKA ANEIJA K ?= E A A

4A? H@= I =D H= K = >IAHL=?E GKA O= ? A J= I A A ?=F JK = JAHE H  >IAHL=?E # $   ? IA?KA ?E= @EHA?J= @A 2HE ?EFE @A 2= =H

@A G 5E ANEIJA K ?= E K EA @ a ? b A J ?AI ANEIJA K ?= E @A CEJK@ A H ECK= GKA |V | K EA @ a ? b I= IE a = b O ANEIJA K ?= E K EA @ a ? b IA FKA@A A ? JH=H K ?= E @A CEJK@ A H ECK= GKA |V | 1
-IJ= >IAHL=?E JH= IEJEL= FAH EJA ? IJHKEH K = C HEJ F=H= ?= ?K =H = ? =KIKH=

>IAHL=?E

$ ! % 5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B @EHECE@ O a, b @ I L HJE?AI

) C HEJ

F=H= ?= ?K =H = ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL=

5A= A K ? K J R K = HA =?E A A G = (A, R) A CH=B @EHECE@ =I ?E=@ = R O M K = @A IKI =JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=I . Hi=2J n M := M + M i 5= E@= Ct GKA AI K = =JHE n n ? K K A JH=@= K = O ? K  @ @A M JEA A K ?AH

- JH=@= M K =

=JHE n n

@A M JEA A K =

>IAHLA I GKA = ? F A E@=@ @A AIJA = C HEJ AI ?K HJE?= - FH @K?J 3 @A @ I =JHE?AI n n A?AIEJ= 2n FAH=?E AI - ABA?J = K JEF E?=H K =

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= F H K = ? K = IA HA= E = n FH @K?J I O n1 IK =I 2n1 FAH=?E AI O AIJ IA D=?A n2 LA?AI - KAIJH = C HEJ IA ABA?J = n 1 F JA ?E=I @A M 5KF A I GKA KAIJH IEIJA = @A ? ?K ? =JHE?AI D=?A =I F JA ?E=I ? FH @K?J @A @ I =JHE?AI  = F JA ?E= = JAHE H K JEF E?=@= F H M  )I JA A I 2n3 (n1) FAH=?E AI = JE = A= @A FIAK@ ? @EC @A KAIJH = C HEJ = = = K = C HEJ GKA HA? HHA n EIJ=I @A CEJK@ n ?= >E= @ ?=@= L= H F H K IE AI K O F H ?AH IE AI K -IJA = C HEJ JEA A ? F A E@=@ ?K=@H JE?= 2 @A I A J ?AI ? ? KEH GKA A = C HEJ AI @A H@A O(n4 )

- AH?E?E "' ,=@=I =I HA =?E AI @A A AH?E?E "" GKA

? FKJ=H IK ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL=

JH= IEJEL=I

- AH?E?E # - JA @EA @ K =

=JHE ? K = IK> @E?AI A FHE AH = = O A IACK @ = ? K E AI?HE>EH K = C HEJ GKA K JEF E?= =JHE?AI EE AI?HE>EH K = C HEJ GKA J A K = =JHE ? IJHKO= K = =JHE N GKA JA C= =I A JH=@=I LAHE O nij = 0 A ?=I ? JH=HE

EIJ= @A AH I ? @ I = @A J= = n n M @A J= = nn O ?= @ nij = 1 IE mij = 0

6AH E = I AIJ= IA??E FHAIA J= @ JH = C HEJ F=H= ? FKJ=H = ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL= @A K = HA =?E ? ?E@ ? ) C HEJ @A 9=HID= GKA JEA A ? F A E@=@ ? >E?=

) C HEJ

@A 9=HID= F=H= A ?

FKJ @A = ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL=

5A= ? IEA FHA A K ? K J EJ |A| = n R K = HA =?E A A G = (A, R) A CH=B @EHECE@ =I ?E=@ = R O M K = @A IKI =JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=I KAIJH > AJEL AI ?= ?K =H = =JHE =I ?E=@= = Ct GKA I=>A I ? AI F H A = C HEJ = JAHE H 4A? H@= I GKA M IA >JEA A A@E= JA K = H@A =?E @A I L HJE?AI @A G AI @A?EH A = {v1 , ..., vn }

@EHECE@ G )

,A

E?E

$ ! & 5A= K ?= E

?= E

(x0 , x1 ), (x1 , x2 ), ..., (xn1 , xn ) A K CH=B I L HJE?AI x1 , ..., xn1 IA AI = = L HJE?AI E JAHE HAI @A

+ AIJ= @A E?E F @A I ? A =H A = C HEJ @A 9=HID= 5A JH=J= @A ? IJHKEH n + 1 =JHE?AI n n GKA = =HA I Wk k {0, 1, ..., n} @A @ GKA W0 = M O Wn IA = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A Ct =I ?E=@= = = H@A =?E @A A

$!

+ )7574)5 = = I wij = =I ? HHAIF

(k) wij (k)

'# @EA JAI A JH=@=I @A Wk = @A E?E @A

Wk AI ? IECKA = 1 IE ANEIJA K ?= E K EA @ vi ? vj A ? K J @A IKI L HJE?AI E JAHE HAI AIJ ? JA E@ A A ? K J (0) - A ?=I k = 0 IA E JAHFHAJ= ? wij = 1 IE ANEIJA K L HJE?AI E JAHE HAI K EA @ vi ? vj F H J= J W0 = M (n) - A ?=I k = n JA A I GKA wij = 1 IE ANEIJA K ?= E ? vj F HGKA A ? K J @A F IE> AI L HJE?AI E JAHE HAI AI A JEA A GKA Wn AI = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I >KI?=@=

@A @ GKA {v1 , ..., vk } ?= E IE K EA @ vi 2 H J= J IA

-A F

$ ! ' 5A= = HA =?E

IECKEA JA

A = {a, b, c, d, e, f } R = {(a, a), (a, b), (c, c), (c, d), (c, f ), (f, f ), (f, e), (f, a)}.
- ACE I A H@A F=H= I L HJE?AI a, b, c, d, e, f O F H J= J JEA A A JH=@=I K =I GKA L= A  IE D=O K ?= E K EA @ L HJE?AI ?KO E? F IE> A L HJE?A E JAHE H AI a - J ?AI 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 W1 = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 = =JHE W1 I HAIFA?JEL I

2=H= = = E =H = ? F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ @A>A I =F HJ=H = CK J @ F=H= ? IJHKEH =I =JHE?AI Wk = IECKEA JA >IAHL=?E >LE= AI = GKA FAH EJA ? IJHKEH Wk = F=HJEH @A = =JHE = JAHE H Wk1

>IAHL=?E $ !  I ?= E I IE L HJE?AI E JAHE HAI HAFAJE@ I K EA @ I L HJE?AI vi O vj ?KO I L HJE?AI E JAHE HAI FAHJA A?A = ? K J {v1 , ..., vk } I @A @ I JEF I >EA ?= E I ?KO I L HJE?AI E JAHE HAI I @A ? K J {v1 , ...vk1 } >EA ?= E I GKA JEA A = vk ? L HJE?A E JAHE H AI @A?EH GKA IA FKA@A LAH ? = ? ?=JA =?E @A K ?= E C1 @A vi = vk O K ?= E C2 @A vk = vj @ @A I L HJE?AI E JAHE HAI @A C1 O C2 FAHJA A?A = ? K J {v1 , ..., vk1 }

'$ 2 H J= J IA JEA A GKA

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wij k ) = 1

(wij

(k1)

= 1) (wik

(k1)

= 1 = wkj

(k1)

).

-IJ I FAH EJA ?= ?K =H = ? F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ 2=H= ? IJHKEH 2 Wk = F=HJEH @A Wk1 D=O GKA ? IJHKEH IKI n A JH=@=I 2=H= ?=@= A JH=@= KI= @ = >IAHL=?E = JAHE H D=O GKA D=?AH ? NE  ! ? F=H= ?E AI O K = =IEC =?E 2 H J= J ?=@= ? IJHK??E @A Wk AI K = C HEJ @A ? F A E@=@ ?K=@H JE?= 4n2  + D=O GKA D=?AH n ? IJHK??E AI @A AIJA JEF A = C HEJ @A 9=HID= JEA A ? F A E@=@ ? >E?= AI @A?EH @A H@A O(n3 )

- AH?E?E # ,=@=I =I HA =?E AI @A A AH?E?E "" GKA

FKJ=H IK ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL= A@E= JA A ) C HEJ

I JH= IEJEL=I @A 9=HID=

$" +

K J I F=H?E=

A JA H@A =@ I

+ IA = = I A F HH=B I = JAHE HAI K ? K J F=H?E= A JA H@A =@ AI K F=H (A, ) B H =@ F H K ? K J A O K = HA =?E @A H@A F=H?E= 5A= G A CH=B @EHECE@ =I ?E=@ = = HA =?E + @E?D= HA =?E AI F H @A E?E HA ANEL= = JEIE JHE?= O JH= IEJEL= IA FKA@A IE F E ?=H K F ? = HAFHAIA J=?E @A G -I GKA IA = = @E=CH= = @A 0=IIA @A K ? K J F=H?E= A JA H@A =@ @A K F IAJ KI= @ =I IEC =I E C AI=I @A F=HJE= O H@AHA@ IAJ 5E = HA =?E @A H@A AI J J= = ? IJHK??E @A @E=CH= = @A 0=IIA JEA A J= >E IA JE@ =K GKA I= @H IEA FHA K = HA?J= LAHJE?= 

$ "  ,E=CH= =I @A 0=IIA

=I ? @E?E AI @A F HH=B = JAHE H F=HJE I @A G + I=>A I GKA = HA =?E AI HA ANEL= F @A I > HH=H J @ I I = I O= GKA A?AI=HE= A JA a a F=H= ?=@= a A + I=>A I GKA = HA =?E AI JH= IEJEL= F @A I > HH=H =I =HEIJ=I GKA I ? IA?KA ?E= @A AIJ= FH FEA@=@ 2 H A A F IE a b O b c A?AI=HE= A JA a c A J ?AI I F=HAI (a, b) (b, c) O (a, c) I =HEIJ=I @A CH=B O F @A I > HH=H = =HEIJ= (a, c) .E = A JA A KC=H @A @EHECEH =I =HEIJ=I @A CH=B A ACE I K = @EIF IE ?E LAHJE?= @A = AH= GKA IE K A A A J a AIJ @A>= @A JH b O = > I

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'%

.ECKH= $ ! ,E=CH= = @A 0=IIA

AIJ K E@ I F H K ab

?= E

=I?A @A JA A

A CH=B IE F A

= A J

?AI

I @A CH=B @A = HA =?E * HH= I I = I O =I =HEIJ=I GKA I ? IA?KA ?E= @A = FH FEA@=@ JH= IEJEL= GKA I (1, 3) (1, 4) O (2, 4) 2 H J= J A @E=CH= = @A 0=IIA AI K = HA?J= LAHJE?= O AIJ @E>K =@ A = .ECKH= $ ! EE 5A= A ? K J B = {a, b} O @A E I = HA =?E A A ? K J @A =I F=HJAI @A B @A J=@ P (B ) 5A FKA@A ? FH >=H GKA AI K = HA =?E @A H@A F=H?E= - @E=CH= = @A 0=IIA =I ?E=@ = = HA =?E GKA@= @E>K =@ A = .ECKH= $ "

- A F I $ "  E 5A= A = {1, 2, 3, 4} O A H@A D=>EJK= 2=HJE

- AH?E?E # ,=@ A ?

K J A = {a, b, c, d, e} O = HA =?E

R = {(a, a), (a, c), (c, e), (c, d), (b, d)}
,E>K =H A @E=CH= = @A 0=IIA @A = HA =?E = ? =KIKH= HA ANEL= O JH= IEJEL= @A R @A H@A GKA LEA A @A E@= F H

'&

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.ECKH= $ " ,E=CH= = @A 0=IIA

$"

- A A J I ?=H=?JAH IJE? I @A K ? A JA H@A =@

E?E $"

K J F=H?E=
A JA H@A =@ I

8A= I = CK I A A A J I E JAHAI= JAI A ? K J I F=H?E= 5A= A J ?AI (A, ) K ? K J F=H?E= A JA H@A =@

,A

7 A A A J M A IA @E?A =NE = IE ANEIJA b A b = M @A @ GKA M b 7 A A A J m A IA @E?A E E = IE ANEIJA b A b = m @A @ GKA b m

I @E=CH= =I @A 0=IIA I A A A J I =NE = AI I =GKA I GKA I ANJHA IKFAHE H @A K ?= E =I?A @A JA GKA IA FKA@A FH C=H HA? FH ?= A JA I A A A J I E E = AI I ANJHA I E BAHE HAI @A ?= E I @AI?A @A JAI GKA IA FKA@A FH C=H

-A F

- A A A F = JAHE H EE A L=? B AI K A A A J =NE = = AI AA F

$ " ! - A A A F = JAHE H E A  AI E E = O A " AI =NE =

AI K A A A J E E = OA ?

K J

>IAHL=?E

AI

$"" - ?

K J @A I A A A J I =NE = AI HAIF E E A?AI=HE= A JA K EJ=HE ? IA FKA@A LAH A A IECKEA JA

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7 6 5 2)4+1)

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4,- ), 5

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.ECKH= $ # ,E=CH= = @A 0=IIA

-A F

K J F=H?E= A JA H@A =@ ({1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, ) ?KO @E=CH= = @A 0=IIA AI A @A = .ECKH= $ # JEA A @ I A A A J I =NE = AI ! O # O @ I E E = AI  O "

$"# 7 ?

aA 7 A A A J m A AI K

,A

E?E

$ " $ 7 A A A J M A AI K E

NE

IE a M F=H= ?=@=

IE m a F=H= ?=@= a A E

O " AI K NE - A A A F EE A ? K J L=? AI K E O= GKA A L=? AI K IK>? K J @A ?=@= ? K J  O A J J= B AI K NE O= GKA ?=@= IK>? K J @A B AIJ F H @A E?E ? JA E@ A B 
- A @E=CH= = @A 0=IIA A NE AIJ= ?=H=?JAHE =@ F H IAH A ANJHA IKFAHE H @A ?=@= ?= E =I?A @A JA O HA? FH ?= A JA A E AI A ANJHA E BAHE H @A ?=@= ?= E @AI?A @A JA

-A F

$ " % - A A A F E  AI K

K ? AI A

>IAHL=?E

NE OA E K J F=H?E= A JA H@A =@ JEA A NE E? A A A J =NE = HAIF E E =

$"& -

A?AI=HE= A JA ANEIJA 5E HAIF E  A J ?AI

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@A F HH=B = JAHE H HAFHAIA J=@ A = .ECKH= $ # ? @ I A A A J I =NE = AI O @ I E E = AI JEA A NE E E 2 HAA F  AI K E F HGKA IA LAHE ?= GKA 1 4 @A DA?D  O " I ? F=H=> AI

-A F

$"' - AA F

E?E $ "  5A= (A, ) K ? K J F=H?E= A JA H@A =@ O B A 5A @E?A GKA a A AI K = ? J= IKFAHE H @A B IE b a F=H= ?=@= b B 5A @E?A GKA a A AI K = ? J= E BAHE H @A B IE a b F=H= ?=@= b B 5E ANEIJA K = ? J= IKFAHE H @A B A H ECK= GKA A HAIJ @A ? J=I IKFAHE HAI @A B IA A = = IKFHA @A B 5E ANEIJA K = ? J= E BAHE H @A B =O H ECK= GKA A HAIJ @A ? J=I E BA HE HAI @A B IA A = = @A B - AH?E?E #! 5A= A ?
K J A = {a, b, c, d, e, f } O = HA =?E @=@= F H = ? =KIKH= HA ANEL= O JH= IEJEL= @A @A H@A

,A

R = {(f, a), (a, c), (c, e), (c, d), (f, b), (b, d)}.
+= ?K =H I A A A J I E E = AI I =NE = AI A NE OA E IE ANEIJA 6 = @ B = {a, b, c, d} A ?= ?K =H A ? K J @A ? J=I IKFAHE HAI @A B A @A ? J=I E BAHE HAI O A IKFHA OA IE ANEIJA
- = =IEC =JKH= @A *=IAI @A =JA JE?=I DA I LEIJ ? IA?KA ?E=I BK @= A J= AI F=H= A = EIEI @A K = L=HE=> A HA= @A = AIJHK?JKH= @A ? K J J J= A JA H@A =@ @A (R, ) 6= >E A A ?=F JK ! DA I KI=@ =I FH FEA@=@AI @A H@A =?E A A ? K J @A I AH I A JAH I (Z, ) F=H= A JA HA = @A = @ELEIE A JAH= ) > I ? K J I I J J= A JA H@A =@ I O EJ I - = IECKEA JA IA??E L= I = FHAIA J=H = CK =I =F E?=?E AI @A I ? K J I EJ I J J= A JA H@A =@ I O K = C HEJ F=H= @=@ K ? K J F=H?E= A JA H@A =@ ? IJHKEH K = HA =?E @A H@A J J= GKA ? JA C= = HA =?E @A H@A F=H?E=

$"! 1

AHIE

@A K

H@A F=H?E= A K

H@A J J=

5KF C= I GKA JA A I K ? K J @A J=HA=I GKA HA= E =H @A @ GKA D=O K = IAHEA @A FHE HE@=@AI AIJ=> A?E @ IA K = HA =?E @A H@A F=H?E= I >HA A ? K J @A J=HA=I 2 H A A F K ? K J @A =IEC =JKH=I GKA FKA@A ?KHI=HIA IE K J A= A JA GKA =FH >=H F=H= ? IACKEH K = E?A ?E=JKH= ?

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!

K = IAHEA @A =IEC =JKH=I GKA D= @A ?KHI=HIA @AIFK I @A =FH >=HIA K =I =IEC =JKH=I FHALE=I I E JAHAI=H AIJ=> A?AH K H@A J J= F=H= HA= E =HIA =I J=HA=I F H A A F K = = AH= @A ?KHI=H =I =IEC =JKH=I I=>EA @ A GK H@A D= @A HA= E =HIA 8A= I K A A F KO IE F A

-A F

$ "  5A= K ? K J @A JHAI =IEC =JKH=I =JA JE?=I 1 =JA JE?=I 11 O . IE?= F=H= HA= E =H A ! = I 5A JEA A GKA ?KHI=H FHE AH =JA JE?=I 1 O KAC =JA JE?=I 11 =@= IA @E?A I >HA ?K= @ ?KHI=H = . IE?= . H = A JA JA A I K ? K J KI= @ =I IEC =I
C = {M I, M II, F }
? K = HA =?E @A H@A F=H?E=

M I M I, M I M II, M II M II, F F.
=I @EIJE J=I = AH=I @A ?KHI=H AIJ=I =IEC =JKH=I ? HHAIF @A = I @EIJE J I H@A AI J J= AI @A GKA IA FKA@A @ J=H = C HAIFAJ= @ A H@A F=H?E= -IJ I H@A AI J J= AI I

M I M II F

M I F M II

F M I M II.

-IJ AI @A =I F IE> AI $ FAH KJ=?E AI @A ? K J @A =I JHAI =IEC =JKH=I A ACE I K = @A =I JHAI A GKA M I FHA?A@A = M II
2 H J= J => H@= I AIJA FH > A = CA AH= F = E ?=?E @A J=HA=I GKA IA FKA@A =F E?=H = = JH=H K =

2H > A = ,=@ K ?
HA =?E + IA D= LEIJ = = F = E ?=?E @A =I J=HA=I JA EA @ A GKA @A>A FHA?A@AH

K J F=H?E= A JA H@A =@ (A, R) A ? @A H@A J J= T @A @ GKA R T

A A A A F = HA =?E T AI E?= = =F E?=?E J=HA=I ? IEIJA A @EIA =H K = B H = @A HA= E =H J @=I ?KA J= =I FHE HE@=@AI GKA IA ? ?= AIJ AI J=HA=I A?AI=HE= A JA = JH=I

AA A J

A = $ "  +=@= ?
E E =

K J

EJ F=H?E=

A JA H@A =@ (A, R) JEA A K

!

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,A IJH=?E 5A= K A A A J x1 A 5E x1 AI E E = A A = GKA@= @A IJH=@ A ?=I ? JH=HE ANEIJA x2 x1 ? x2 = x1 5E x2 AI E E = GKA@= @A IJH=@ A A = IE ANEIJA x3 x2 O x3 = x2 + A ? K J AI EJ A?AI=HE= A JA AIJA FH ?AI @A>A JAH E =H =F HJ= @ K A A A J E E =
-IJA A = FAH EJA ? IJHKEH K = C HEJ F=H= = ? IJHK??E @A H@A J J= T R 2=HJE I @A A O A ACE I K A A A J E E = a1 GKA ANEIJA F H A A = =K GKA AI A?AI=HE= A JA E? A A??E @A K = J=HA= F=H= HA= E =H = = FHE AH= @A A JHA =I J=HA=I I FHE HEJ=HE=I )D H= A ? K J A {a1 } AI K ? K J F=H?E= A JA H@A =@ ? A H@A GKA E @K?A R I >HA 4AFAJE I A FH ?AI F=H= A ACEH K A A A J E E = a2 GKA F H A A = = JAHE H A?AI=HE= A JA ANEIJA O =I IK?AIEL= A JA D=IJ= =C J=H I A A A J I @A A - H@A J J= T AI

a1 a2 a3 ... an

-A F

F=H?E= A A

$ " ! 5A= A ?

K J A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} O = HA =?E

@A H@A

R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (4, 5)}.
- ACE I K A A A J x1 = 1 ,AIFK I A A ? E E = GKA A A FHE AH ?=I AI A?AI=HE= A JA K J A{1} JA A I = HA =?E @A H@A E @K?E@=

R1 = {(2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (2, 3), (4, 5)}.
- ACE I K A A A J E E = A JHA I @ I F IE> AI ?= @E@=J I GKA I A A " 6 A I x2 = 2 - A ? K J A {1, 2} JA A I K H@A E @K?E@ R1 = {(3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (4, 5)}. 6 = I x3 = 3 J= >E F @ = I A ACEH A " x4 = 4 O x5 = 5 2 H J= J A H@A J J= AI + JE K= @ A FH ?AI

1 2 3 4 5.
K ? >I HLAIA GKA F @H = I D=>AH A ACE@ @A JH= = AH= I xi F=H= >JA AH H@A J J= @EIJE J J= >E ? F=JE> A ? A H@A F=H?E= ? A GKA A = I

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- -4+1+1 5

!!

J=H K = ?=@A = @A J= A @A K = FEA = IAC A IECKEA JA AIGKA = @A J=HA=I 6=HA=I - I= > =H =J H E =H FE J=H A F=GKAJ=H E FE=H HACEIJH=H 2HE HE@=@AI - I= > =H = JAI @A =J H E =H =J H E =H = JAI @A FE J=H FE J=H = JAI @A A F=GKAJ=H E FE=H = JAI @A FE J=H ,EIA =H K F IE> A F = E ?=?E @A =I J=HA=I

- AH?E?E #" 5A JEA A GKA

$#

- AH?E?E I
HA =?E AI @A H@A

@A AGKEL= A ?E= E 5A= A ? K J N7 O = HA =?E aRb IE a + b < 9 EE 5A= A ? K J R @A =I HA?J=I @A F = O = HA =?E @A F=H= A EI AIJ AI rRr IE r O r I F=H= A =I EEE 5A= A ? K J A = {a, b, c, d, 1, 2, 3} @A E I K = HA =?E F H = ?K= @=@ I m, n A mRn IE >EA m O n I = > I AH I >EA m O n I = > I AJH=I EL 5A= A ? K J B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 90} @A E I = IECKEA JA HA =?E S aSb IE 3a > b

- AH?E?E ## -IJK@E=H IE =I IECKEA JAI HA =?E AI I

- AH?E?E #$ 4AFHAIA J=H

@A A AH?E?E = JAHE H @A

A@E= JA @ECH=B I O IKI E@=I I >HA ? K J I EJ I

=JHE?AI =I HA =?E

AI

- AH?E?E #% -

=I HA =?E AI @A A AH?E?E ## @A E@=I I >HA ? K J I EJ I GKA IA= HA ANEL=I HAIFA?JEL= A JA IE JHE?=I HAIFA?JEL= A JA JH= IEJEL=I ?= ?K =H IK ? =KIKH= HA ANEL= HAIFA?JEL= A JA IE JHE?= HAIFA? JEL= A JA JH= IEJEL=

- AH?E?E #& 6
A A ? ? K J

=H = ? =KIKH= HA ANEL= O JH= IEJEL= @A = HA =?E

@A

E@=

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} R = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (3, 6), (5, 4)}.

8AHE ?=H GKA AI K = HA =?E @A H@A 4AFHAIA J=H IK @E=CH= = @A 0=I IA += ?K =H A A A J I =NE = AI E E = AI O NE I O E I IE I DK>EAH=

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+)2 67 K J ? ?EA JA @A ## EE 6

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-5

- AH?E?E #' ,AI?HE>EH A ? - AH?E?E $ 5A= A ?

HA =?E A

K J A = {, , , }

I = IECKEA JA

R = {(, ), (, ), (, ), (, )}.
+ IJHKEH = ? =KIKH= HA ANEL= O JH= IEJEL= @A R O LAHE ?=H GKA AI K = HA =?E @A H@A 4AFHAIA J=H IK @E=CH= = @A 0=IIA O ? IJHKEH K = HA =?E @A H@A J J= GKA ? JA C= = R

$ $ - AH?E?E I HAIKA J I
- AH?E?E "
E + R AI K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= A J ?AI AI HA ANEL= @A @ GKA F=H= ?=@= a A IA JEA A GKA aRa O @A AIJA @ aa EE 5A= c a A J ?AI cRa O aRb 2 H = FH FEA@=@ JH= IEJEL= cRb O =I c b ,A ECK= = AH= IA FHKA>= A JH ? JA E@ EEE 5KF C= I GKA a b = A J ?AI ANEIJA c A @A @ GKA aRc O bRc GKA C=H= JE = F H = FH FEA@=@ IE JHE?= O F H = FH FEA@=@ JH= IEJEL= GKA aRb O F H EE GKA a = b GKA @= K = ? JH=@E??E EL 5A= c A A J ?AI c c F H GKA IA JEA A = ECK= @=@ HAGKAHE@=

- AH?E?E "!

E -I K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= - ABA?J AI HA ANEL= F HGKA J @= F= =>H= p A FEA = F H = EI = AJH= GKA = FH FE= F= =>H= p -I IE JHE?= F HGKA IE pRq A J ?AI = FHE AH= AJH= @A = F= =>H= p AI ECK= GKA = FHE AH= AJH= @A = F= =>H= q F H J= J qRp FKAI IKI FHE AH=I AJH=I I ECK= AI ,A ECK= @ IE = FHE AH= AJH= @A = F= =>H= p AI ECK= GKA = FHE AH= AJH= @A = F= =>H= q O = FHE AH= AJH= @A = F= =>H= q AI ECK= GKA = FHE AH= AJH= @A = F= =>H= r A J ?AI = FHE AH= AJH= @A = F= =>H= p AI ECK= GKA = FHE AH= AJH= @A = F= =>H= r F H GKA IA JEA A = FH FEA@=@ JH= IEJEL= AI K = HA =?E @A H@A F HGKA D=O F= =>H=I @EIJE J=I ? alto O alba GKA LAHE ?= altoRalba O albaRalto KAC AI = JEIE JHE?= - ? K J ? ?EA JA AI A ? K J @A AJH=I FKAI IA FKA@A E@A JE ?=H ?=@= ? =IA @A AGKEL= A ?E= ? = E E?E= @A ?K= GKEAH= @A =I F= =>H=I GKA = B H = EE -I HA ANEL= FKAI {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d)} R AI IE JHE?= FKAI (a, b) R FAH (b, a) / R -I = JEIE JHE?= FKAI K ?= IA JEA A m = l J=

$$

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!#

.ECKH= $ $ - AH?E?E "! EE ,E=CH= = @A 0=IIA

GKA (m, l) R O (l, m) R -I JH= IEJEL= FKAI A E? ?=I HA AL= JA AI (a, b), (b, c) R O ABA?JEL= A JA (a, c) R 2 H J= J AI K = HA =?E @A H@A F=H?E=  FAH @A AGKEL= A ?E= 5K @E=CH= = @A 0=IIA AIJ A = .ECKH= $ $ EEE + J @ AH A JAH K n JEA A A EI IEC GKA n IA JEA A = FH FEA@=@ HA ANEL= 5E a, b A JAH I K I LAHE ?= GKA signo(a) = signo(b) A J ?AI signo(b) = signo(a) ? GKA = HA =?E AI IE JHE?= 6= >E AI JH= IEJEL= FKAI IA JEA A GKA IE signo(a) = signo(b) O signo(b) = signo(c) A J ?AI signo(a) = signo(c) 2 H J= J AI K = HA =?E @A AGKE L= A ?E= O AI @A H@A F HGKA AI = JEIE JHE?= D=O AH I @EIJE J I ? A EI IEC  - ? K J ? ?EA JA JEA A @ I A A A J I @EC= I signo+ O signo GKA I HAIFA?JEL= A JA = ? =IA @A AGKEL= A ?E= @A I F IEJEL I O = @A I AC=JEL I EL -I HA ANEL= FKAI F=H= ?=@= AH HA= a IA JEA A GKA aa = 0 Z -I IE JHE?= O= GKA IE a b Z A J ?AI b a Z -I JH= IEJEL= FKAI IE a b Z O b c Z A J ?AI = IK = AI K AH A JAH a b + b c = a c Z 2 H J= J AI K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= GKA AI @A H@A 5A JEA A GKA a = {a + k : k Z}

!$

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-5

5A FKA@A J =H A ?=@= ? =IA @A AGKEL= A ?E= K HAFHAIA J= JA A JHA  O K F @ = I @A?EH IK F=HJA @A?E =  F H GKA A ? K J ? ?EA JA IA FKA@A E@A JE ?=H ? A E JAHL= [0, 1)

- AH?E?E ""

E N5 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

= HA =?E

AI A IECKEA JA ?

K J

R = {(2, 5), (5, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3)}.

? = J=> = =I ?E=@= ? IEIJA A HAFHAIA J=H H@A =@ - @ECH=B =I ?E=@ AI I FK J I @A R A K F =

(N5 , {(2, 5), (5, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3)}).

EE - AIJA ? K J = HA =?E AI

R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (1, 7), (1, 8), (1, 9), (1, 10), (2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (2, 8), (2, 10), (3, 3), (3, 6), (3, 9), (4, 4), (4, 8), (5, 5), (5, 10) (6, 6), (7, 7), (8, 8), (9, 9), (10, 10)}
? = J=> = =I ?E=@= ? IEIJA A HAFHAIA J=H H@A =@ - @ECH=B =I ?E=@ AI (N10 , R). EEE = HA =?E AI I FK J I @A R A K F =

R = {(, ), (, N1 ), (, N2 ), (, N3 ), (, N4 ), (, N5 ), (N1 , N1 ), (N1 , N2 ), (N1 , N3 ), (N1 , N4 ), (N1 , N5 ), (N2 , N2 ), (N2 , N3 ), (N2 , N4 ), (N2 , N5 ), (N3 , N3 ), (N3 , N4 ), (N3 , N5 ), (N4 , N4 ), (N4 , N5 ), (N5 , N5 )}
= J=> = =I ?E=@= ? IEIJA A HAFHAIA J=H I FK J I @A R A K F = ? H@A =@ J = @ ? ? H@A =@=I I IK> @E?AI A  F=H= A ? K J L=?  - @ECH=B =I ?E=@ AI

(A, R).

$$

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!%

EL = J=> = =I ?E=@= ? IEIJA A HAFHAIA J=H I FK J I @A R A K F = ? H@A =@ J = @ F H A A F a = 1 b = 2 d = 3 O c = 4 - @ECH=B =I ?E=@ AI (B, R).

- AH?E?E "#
E 6 =

I N5 H@A =@ @A 0 0 0 0 0

= B H = KIK= 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

EE6

I N10 H@A 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 =

=@ @A = B H = KIK=

1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

EEE 6

I A H@A =@ @A 1 0 0 0 0 0

= B H = A GKA AIJ AI?HEJ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 H = = B=> JE?= 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

EL 6

I B H@A =@ @A B 0 0 0 0

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-5

- AH?E?E "$

2 @A I D=?AH =KJ JE?= A JA A@E= JA K FH ?A@E EA J @A =F A LAH = 2H ?JE?= # GKA @=@= K = =JHE M ?= ?K = M 2 + M 2 ? IJHKOA K = =JHE M 2 GKA JEA A K  A = A JH=@= @A IK> @E?A ij IE = ? HHAIF @EA JA A JH=@= A M 2 AI K = O K  A ?=I ? JH=HE 2 ; J = = @EBAHA ?E= M M F=H= ? FH >=H IE JEA A A JH=@=I F IEJEL=I AI @A?EH IE D=O = CK = A JH=@= K = KAL= - ?K= GKEAH ?=I E AI JH= IEJEL= F HGKA 2R5 O AI K JEF @A % = HA =?E EE AI JH= IEJEL= F A J ?AI b = aK ? K K AH A JAH ,A EI A J ?AI c = bK ? K K AH A JAH 2 H J= J GKA a @ELE@A = c = HA =?E EEE AI JH= IEJEL= FKAI HA =?E EL AI JH= IEJEL=

5R2 FAH 2 + 2 = 4 HGKA IE a @ELE@A = b @ IE b @ELE@A = c c = aKK @A @ AI = E ? KIE =

LAHJEH = A HA ANEL=

- AH?E?E "%

= HA =?E E D=O GKA K EH = R A ? K J

AI HA ANEL= F=H= ?

{(2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5)}.

=I HA =?E = HA =?E AI EE O EEE I EL HA ANEL=I

AI HA ANEL= D=O GKA = =@EH A A A A A J (a, a) E AI IE JHE?= K J

- AH?E?E "&
= HA =?E EE

= HA =?E AI IE

JHE?= D=O GKA K EH A A ?

{(2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 1), (5, 1), (6, 1), (7, 1), (8, 1), (9, 1), (10, 1), (4, 2), (6, 2), (8, 2), (10, 2), (6, 3), (9, 3), (8, 4), (10, 5)}.
= HA =?E = HA =?E O (a, d) EEE EL AI IE AI IE JHE?= IK ? =KIKH= IE JHE?= D=O GKA K EH A JHE?= AI A A I A A A J I (c, a) (d, c) E?= HA =?E GKA

- AH?E?E "' 2=H= ?= ?K =H = ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL= @A =

AI JH= IEJEL= "" E D=O GKA K EH IAA A J I

(2, 2), (5, 5), (3, 3), (4, 4).

- AH?E?E #
E +

IE@AH=

IK =

=JHE ?

K = EIJ= ?

@ I IK> @E?AI

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- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5 5E = A JH=@= AI a11 , a12 , ..., a1n , ..., bn1 , ..., bnn . = ? HHAIF @EA JA I= E@= IA @A A ? K = =JHE @A A JH=@=I cij @

!'

@A

cij = ai1 b1j + ... + ain bnj .

,A AIJA @ A = C HEJ @A>A IAH

- JH=@= a11 , a12 , ..., a1n , ..., bn1 , ..., bnn . . Hi=1J n . Hj=1J n cij := 0 . Hl=1J n cij := cij + ail blj 5= E@= c11 , ..., cnn EE - JH=@= m11 , m12 , ..., m1n , ..., mn1 , ..., mnn . . Hi=1J n . Hj=1J n EB mij = 0 JDA nij := 1 A IA nij := 0 5= E@= n11 , ..., nnn .

- AH?E?E #

= E?= HA =?E JH= IEJEL= AI = @A "" E W0 AI AN=?J= A JA = =JHE @A CH=B @EHECE@ AIJ AI

=I

=JHE

0 0 W0 = 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0
O =@A I IA LAHE ?= GKA = FHE AH= = @A W0 AI

= =JHE W1 JEA A K K @ @A W0 JA C= K K 0 0 1 A KAIJH ?=I = 1 IE wi wij 1 = 1 = w1j + J @= K = A J ?AI W1 = W0 .

= =JHE W2 JEA A K K @ @A W1 JA C= K K O =@A I IA LAHE ?= GKA 1 1 1 1 2 = 1 = w25 @E?E IA LAHE ?= I A w52 = 1 IE wi wij 2 = 1 = w2j -IJ= ?

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2 F H J= J IA JEA A w55 =1

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0 0 W2 = 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 0 1

= =JHE W3 JEA A K K @ @A W2 JA C= K K O =@A I IA LAHE ?= GKA 2 2 2 2 3 = 1 = w34 @E?E IA LAHE ?= I A w43 = 1 IE wi wij 3 = 1 = w3j -IJ= ? 3 =1 F H J= J IA JEA A w44 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 W3 = 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 = =JHE W4 JEA A K K @ @A W3 JA C= K K O =@A I IA LAHE ?= GKA 4 3 3 3 3 wij = 1 IE wi @E?E IA LAHE ?= I A w34 = 1 = w43 4 = 1 = w4j -IJ= ? 4 F H J= J IA JEA A w33 = 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 W4 = 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 = =JHE W5 JEA A K K @ @A W4 JA C= K K O =@A I IA LAHE ?= GKA 5 4 4 4 4 wij = 1 IE wi @E?E IA LAHE ?= I A w25 = 1 = w52 5 = 1 = w5j -IJ= ? 5 F H J= J IA JEA A w22 =1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 W5 = 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 5A >IAHL= ? IA D= E JH @K?E@ " K I A = @E=C = ? HHAIF @EA JAI = I A A A J I (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5) GKA I I A A A J I GKA D=O GKA K EH = R F=H= JA AH = JH= IEJELE@=@

$$

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5 2=H= ? IJHKEH = ? =KIKH= HA ANEL= DA I @A = =@EH

! I

- AH?E?E #
AA A J I ,A AIJA @

(b, b), (c, c), (d, d)(e, e). Cr = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (e, e), (a, c), (c, e), (c, d), (b, d)}.
2=H= ? FKJ=H = ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL= >IAHL= I GKA (a, c), (c, e) Cr F H J= J @A>A I K EH (a, e) ,A ECK= @ (a, c), (c, d) Cr F H J= J @A>A I K EH (a, d) -I K = ? FH >=?E @A IJH=H = IECKEA JA ECK= @=@ IEA @ Ct = ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL= @A Cr

Ct = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (e, e), (a, c), (c, e), (a, e), (c, d), (a, d), (b, d)}.

- AH?E?E #! 2=H= ?= ?K =H = ? =KIKH= HA ANEL= D=O GKA K EH J @ I

I EA >H I @A = @E=C = + (f, a), (a, c) R A J ?AI (f, c) Ct )D H= (f, c), (c, e) Ct E F E?= (f, e) Ct + (a, c), (c, e) R A J ?AI (a, e) Ct + (a, c), (c, d) R A J ?AI (a, d) Ct + (f, c), (c, d) R A J ?AI (f, d) Ct .E = A JA (f, b), (b, d) R A J ?AI (f, d) Ct ,A AIJA @

Ct = {(a, a), (a, c), (a, d), (a, e), (b, b), (b, d), (c, c), (c, d), (c, e), (d, d), (e, e), (f, a), (f, b), (f, c), (f, d), (f, e), (f, f )}.
- ABA?J = =JHE GKA HAFHAIA J= AI 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 A= 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

1 0 1 0 1 1

0 0 0 . 0 0 1

; IA JEA A GKA A2 HA =?E JH= IEJEL=

JEA A A JH=@=I 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 A = 0 0 0 0 2 2

2 0 1 0 0 3

K =I KAL=I KAC AI A ABA?J K = 3 3 0 2 0 0 2 2 0 . 1 0 0 0 1 0 5 4 1

!

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-5

.ECKH= $ % - AH?E?E #! ,E=CH= = @A 0=IIA

8EA @ IK @E=CH= = @A 0=IIA LAH .ECKH= $ % IA JEA A GKA D=O @ I A A A J I =NE = AI GKA I d O e O F H J= J D=O NE 0=O K A A A J E E = f GKA AI =@A I A E - A A A J d AI ? J= IKFAHE H @A B O AI =@A I = E?= F H J= J AI A IKFHA = E?= ? J= E BAHE H AI f GKA F H J= J AI A @A B

- AH?E?E #" 4AFHAIA J=

> =H ?

= E O A F=GKAJ=H ?

I ?=@= K = @A =I J=HA=I F H IK E E?E= A I= = e

T areas = {E, a, p, e, l, r}
=I FHE HE@=@AI I

E a, a p, p e, l p.
; D=?EA @ IK ? =KIKH= HA ANEL= O JH= IEJEL= @= K H@A F=H?E=

{(E, a), (a, p), (E, p), (p, e), (E, e), (a, e), (l, p), (l, e) (E, E ), (a, a), (p, p), (e, e), (l, l), (r, r)}.
- H@A J J= GKA ? F AJ= AIJA H@A F=H?E= LAH @E=CH= = @A 0=IIA A = .ECKH= $ & IA L= ? IJHKOA @ @A = IECKEA JA = AH= 5A A ECA K A A A J

$$

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.ECKH= $ & - AH?E?E #" ,E=CH= = @A 0=IIA

E E = F HAA F GKA IA E @K?A

A E 6

IA ?

K J T areas {E } O A

H@A

{(a, p), (p, e), (a, e), (l, p), (l, e) (a, a), (p, p), (e, e), (l, l), (r, r)}.
)D H= A ACE I K A A A J E E = a O A ? K J HAIK J= JA @A GKEJ=H A A A A J a ? A H@A E @K?E@ )I IK?AIEL= A JA >JA A I F H A A F  = A A??E @A A A A J E E = AI E?= =I GKA D=O L=HE=I = AH=I @A D=?AH  E a l p e r.

E = HA =?E @A E@= A E AI HA ANEL= FKAIJ GKA F H A A F 7+7 = 14 LAHE ?= IAH A H GKA ' 2 H J= J FKA@A IAH HA =?E @A H@A E @A AGKEL= A ?E= 8AHE ?= = FH FEA@=@ IE JHE?= O= GKA a + b = b + a AI JH= IEJEL= O= GKA F H A A F 7R1 O 1R7 O IE A >=HC 7 + 7 > 9 ,A DA?D = HA =?E AI

- AH?E?E ##

R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (1, 7), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4),

!"

+)2 67

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(5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (6, 1), (6, 2), (7, 1)}
EE = HA =?E @A F=H= A EI AI HA ANEL= J @= HA?J= AI F=H= A = = I EI = IE JHE?= IE r AI F=H= A = = r A J ?AI r AI F=H= A = = r O JH= IEJEL= IE r AI F=H= A = = r O r AI = r A J ?AI r AI F=H= A = = r  ,A AIJA @ AI K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= 2 @A I J =H ? HAFHAIA J= JA A ?=@= ? =IA @A AGKEL= A ?E= = HA?J= GKA F=I= F H A HECA O A J ?AI A ? K J ? ?EA JA IA FKA@A E@A JE ?=H ? = IA E?EH?K BAHA ?E= K E@=@ LEA @ ?=@= HA?J= ? A E? FK J @A ? HJA ? @E?D= IA E?EH?K BAHA ?E= -IJ AI A IK? K J @A F = HA= @A E@ ? {(x, y ) : x2 + y 2 = 1, x 0} {(1, 0)} EEE = HA =?E AI HA ANEL= O= GKA = ?K= E@=@ @A IAH AH AJH= = ? F=HJA ?=@= A A A J @A A ? IEC EI -I IE JHE?= F HGKA IE m, n A I = > I AH I HAIFA?JEL= A JA = > I AJH=I A J ?AI = EI = FH FEA@=@ = JEA A n, m A ,A ECK= = AH= AI JH= IEJEL= 2 H J= J AI K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= - ? K J ? ?EA JA A/R AI K ? K J @A @ I A A A J I = ? =IA @A I AH I O = ? =IA @A =I AJH=I EL = HA =?E AI HA F=HJE?K =H F=H= ?=@= A A 1S 2 O= GKA 3 > 2 O 2S 1 90S 1 FAH 3 1 < 90 HA =?E AI ANEL= F HGKA 3a > a F=H= ?=@= AH A J @A B AI = JEIE JHE?= O= GKA F O= GKA 6 > 1 AI IE JHE?= O= GKA F 2 H J= J AI @A AGKEL= A ?E= E @A =JKH= A HAA F HAA F H@A =

S = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (7, 7), (8, 8), (90, 90), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 7), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 7), (4, 8), (4, 90), (7, 1), (7, 2), (7, 3), (7, 4), (7, 8), (7, 90), (8, 1), (8, 2), (8, 3), (8, 4), (8, 7), (90, 1), (90, 2), (90, 3), (90, 4), (90, 7), (90, 8), (90, 90)}.

- AH?E?E #$

E - @ECH=B AI (N7 , R) ?KO= 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

=JHE AI

1 1 1 1 1 0 0

1 1 1 1 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

$$

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

!#

EE 5A= A = {a, b, c, d} O B = {1, 2, 3} A J ?AI A @ECH=B =I ?E=@ = = HA =?E AI (A, (A A ) (B B )}) 5K =JHE ? A H@A A A GKA AIJ= AI?HEJ A AI 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 EL - @ECH=B =I ?E=@ AI (B, S ) O K = A GKA AIJ AI?HEJ B AI =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I ? A H@A

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0 1 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 1

- AH?E?E #%

= E?= HA =?E GKA HA ANEL= AI = =@EH (5, 5) (6, 6) O (7, 7)

AI HA ANEL= AI = E O IK ? =KIKH=

= E?= HA =?E GKA AI IE JHE?= AI = EL + = =JHE @A IK @ECH=B JEA A J @=I =I A JH=@=I @A = B H = aij = 1 ?K= @ i j A J ?AI IK ? =KIKH= IE JHE?= AI B B 6 = @ = =JHE @A @ECH=B @A E IA >IAHL= GKA IK ?K=@H=@ JEA A J @=I =I A JH=@=I K =I @A @ GKA IK ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL= AI N7 N7 = ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL= @A EL ? IEIJA A = =@EH IAA A J I

(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 7), (1, 8), (2, 4), (2, 7), (2, 8), (3, 8).

- AH?E?E #&

= HA =?E AI = JEIE ? =KIKH= HA ANEL= ? IEIJA A K EH J @= EH= @ A @E=CH= = @A 0=IIA LAH I E E = AI O " O $ =NE = AI

JHE?= JH= IEJEL= O HA ANEL= 5K = @E=C = = .ECKH= $ ' IA >IAHL= GKA  ! O # D=O NE E E

!$

+)2 67

4- )+1

-5

.ECKH= $ ' - AH?E?E #& ,E=CH= = @A 0=IIA

- AH?E?E #' ,A A JHA J @=I =I HA?J=I F=H= A =I A = EI = ? =IA @A AGKEL= A ?E= A ACE I = GKA F=I= F H A HECA 2 H J= J F @A I E@A JE ?=H ?=@= ? =IA @A AGKEL= A ?E= ? A CK GKA B H = @E?D= HA?J= ? A A A @A =>I?EI=I AIJ AI ? A E JAHL= [0, 180) R - AH?E?E $
= =JHEN @A R AI 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0
AI 1 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

=JHE @A IK ? =KIKH= HA ANEL= 1 0 Cr = 0 0

1 0 2 = Cr 0 0

2 1 0 0

$$

- -4+1+1 5 4-57- 6 5

!%

.ECKH= $  - AH?E?E $ ,E=CH= = @A 0=IIA

IA JEA A GKA =

=JHE @A = ? =KIKH= JH= 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

IEJEL= AI 1 0 , 0 1

FKAI AIJ= =JHE = ?K=@H=@ JEA A A JH=@=I K =I KAL=I 7 = HA =?E @A H@A J J= GKA = ? F AJ= F @H = IAH

!&

+)2 67

4- )+1

-5

+=F JK +

% A AI HAIKA J I

JH AI O AN

- AIJ= IA??E ? A??E = I ? JH AI O AN A AI HAIKA J I @A ?KHI I = JAHE HAI ? K E IJHK A J JE F=H= A AIJK@E @A = =IEC =JKH=

!'

! 

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

=JA +

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= JH 
''' 

 ,A KAIJH= F H E @K??E

= IECKEA JA B H K =

n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 6 + IJHKOA K = C HEJ GKA E @EGKA IE A K = EIJ= @A AH I A JAH I D=O @ I HAFAJE@ I -IJK@E= IK ? F A E@=@ 12 + 22 + 32 + ... + (n 1)2 + n2 =
! 7 = =F E?=?E f : A B IA @E?A E OA?JEL= IE D=O @ I A A A J I @EIJE J I @A A GKA JA C= = EI = E =CA F H f AIJ AI IE f (a) = f (b) AI GKA a = b + IJHKOA K = C HEJ GKA FAH EJ= I=>AH IE f AI E OA?JEL= A A ?=I A GKA A O B IA= ? K J I EJ I " + IJHKOA K = C HEJ ?KO= A JH=@= IA= K AH A JAH a AI?HEJ A = CK = >=IA b O JH= >=IA c O GKA >JA C= ? I= E@= A AH a AI?HEJ A = >=IA c 2KA@AI KI=H @ @ F H? ?E@ A = C HEJ GKA ?= >E= @A >=IA  = JH= >=IA 

! 

=JA + JH

JE?= ,EI?HAJ=  HAIKA J

''' 

 ,A KAIJH= F H E @K??E

= IECKEA JA B H K =

12 + 22 + 32 + ... + (n 1)2 + n2 =
2=H= n = 1 = B H K = AI ?EAHJ= O= GKA

n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 6

123 6 ,A>A I =D H= FH >=H GKA IE AI ?EAHJ= F=H= n = ECK= @=@ GKA GKAHA I FH >=H AI 12 = 1 = 12 + ... + n2 + (n + 1)2 =
2 H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E >JA A

AI F=H= n + 1

(n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3) 6 I GKA

n(n + 1)(2n + 1) + (n + 1)2 . 6 ; O= JA A I I GKA FAH=H A IACK @ J H E @A = ECK= @=@ = JAHE H O ? FH >=H GKA AI AN=?J= A JA 12 + ... + n2 + (n + 1)2 = (n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3) . 6 + IJHKOA K = C HEJ GKA E @EGKA IE A K = EIJ= @A D=O @ I HAFAJE@ I -IJK@E= IK ? F A E@=@
- JH=@= a1 , ..., an s := 0 B H i = 1 J n MDE A s = 0 B H j = i + 1 J n MDE A s = 0 EB ai = aj JDA s := 1 EB s = 0 JDA r := A IA r :=I 5= E@= r

AH I A JAH I

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

-I K = C HEJ @A ? F A E@=@ ?K=@H JE?= O(n2 ) O= GKA A A FA H @A I ?=I I A >K? A i IA HAFEJA n LA?AI O A ?=@= K = @A A =I A >K? A j IA HAFEJA n i LA?AI ! 7 = =F E?=?E f : A B IA @E?A E OA?JEL= IE D=O @ I A A A J I @EIJE J I @A A GKA JA C= = EI = E =CA F H f AIJ AI IE f (a) = f (b) AI GKA a = b + IJHKOA K = C HEJ GKA FAH EJ= I=>AH IE f AI E OA?JEL= A A ?=I A GKA A O B IA= ? K J I EJ I + A AI K ? K J EJ JEA A n A A A J I O F @A I K AH=H I A A A J I @A A E JAHFHAJ= @ GKA I I AH I 1, 2, ..., n 1@A F=H= B GKA JEA A F H A A A J I I AH I 1, 2, ..., m @ @A m AI A AH @A A A A J I @A B 5A JH=J= A J ?AI @A ? IJHKEH = EIJ= f (1), f (2), ..., f (n) IA= = EIJ= @A =I E CA AI F H f @A I A A A J I @A A + A JH=@= AIJ= EIJ= IA =F E?= A = C HEJ @A I - A A J I HAFAJE@ I O IE D=O A A A J I HAFAJE@ I AI GKA AI E OA?JEL= - ?=I ? JH=HE AI " + IJHKOA K = C HEJ ?KO= A JH=@= IA= K AH A JAH a AI?HEJ A = CK = >=IA b O JH= >=IA c O GKA >JA C= ? I= E@= A AH a AI?HEJ A = >=IA c 2KA@AI KI=H @ @ F H? ?E@ A = C HEJ GKA ?= >E= @A >=IA  = JH= >=IA ?K= GKEAH=  = E@A= AI ? F AH K = C HEJ GKA JH= IB H A A AH a @A = >=IA b A = >=IA @A?E = O @AIFKAI =F E?=H A = C HEJ GKA JH= IB H = K AH A JAH AI?HEJ A >=IA  A K AH AI?HEJ A >=IA b - JH=@= a = (a0 , a1 , ..., an )b , b, c p := a0 , i := 0 MDE A (i < n) i := i + 1 p := p + ai bi ) ? JE K=?E = p IA A =F E?= A = C HEJ GKA F=I= @A >=IA  = >=IA b

! !

=JA +

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= JH
''' 

 - E LAHI F=H= A FH @K?J @A ! = $ > # ? ! JEA A E LAHI - ECA = E?= I K?E @K

@K @K %

% AI

!&# @A IEIJA = @A ?

CHKA ?E=I E A= AI

x 3(mod 5) x 5(mod 7) . x 9(mod 11)

= - IEIJA = > !'! ? !&! JEA A I K?E

! 5A= K ? K J A @A  A A A J I + IJHKE I A ? K J B @A IK>? K J I @A A - ? K J @A I IK>? K J I @A B JEA A = 210 A A A J I 10 > 22 A A A J I 210 ? 22 A A A J I " AH @A F= =>H=I @A # AJH=I A A FEA = O JAH E = F H L ?= AI = 52 283 > 5 4 28 27 26 ? 5 4 283 K

= B=>AJ @A & AJH=I GKA

# + =I L=HE=> AI x A y IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH E ID C A I @A CH=@ a b AI @A?EH ANFHAIE AI @A = B H = x y ? a O b AH I A JAH I F IEJEL I F IE> A A JA  J= GKA a + b = n AH @A E I @EIJE J I @A CH=@ % AI = 18 17 > 9 17

! "

+)2 67 ? 182

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

$ - K = AI= HA@ @= IA HAK A # ? A I= AI @A = AH= GKA GKAHA I I=>AH @A ?K J=I = AH=I IA FKA@A IA J=H IE I E F HJ= GKE AIJ = =@ @A GKE AH @A B H =I AI = 5! > 5!/4 ? 5!/5 % = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = HAF=HJEH " ?=HJ=I A K = >=H= = AIF= = = KC= @= IA= K JH AI @A?EH JHAI ?=HJ=I ? A EI AH O = JH= @EBAHA JA AI = (3 2 36)/(39 38 37) > (4 3 2 36)/(39 38 37) ? (3 3 2 36)/(39 38 37) & ? = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA A K IK?AI @A *AH K E GKA IA HAFEJA n LA?AI FH >=>E E@=@ p @A NEJ IA >JA C= = IK ! BH=?=I I AI n3 3 = n p (1 p ) 3 n ni > 3 (1 p)i i=0 i p ? = EI = GKA >JA AH = IK ! NEJ I

' 5A= K ? K J A @A ?K=JH FAHI =I GKA E@A HAIFA?JEL= A JA  %  %#  %$  & 5A= = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= X GKA =IEC = = ?=@= FAHI = @A A IK = JKH= - L= H AIFAH=@ E (X ) AI = = A@E= =HEJ JE?= @A =I " = JKH=I >  %% ?  %"  - ? K J @A I AH I FHE I AI = 7 ? K J EJ > 7 ? K J EJ ? IA I=>A IE AI EJ AH @A ?EBH=I @A " @ CEJ I GKA I =  > & ? %

EJ JEF I @A # AI

 -

 5A= A IK?AI E I=?=H K & = JEH=H @ I @=@ I 5A= A IK?AI F I=?=H K & = JEH=H JHAI @=@ I = E AI I FH >=> A GKA F

! # > F AI I FH >=> A GKA E ? 5 ECK= @A FH >=> AI ! 5A= a O b @ I AH I A JAH I J= AI GKA mcd(a, b) = 1 A J = mcd(a + b, a b) = 1 mcd(a + b, a b) = 3 > mcd(a + b, a b) = 1 mcd(a + b, a b) = 2 ? mcd(a + b, a b) = 21 mcd(a + b, a b) = 3 "   AH %! = -I K > -I K ? -I K AH ? AH ? AH FHE FKAIJ F H B=?J HAI FHE ?AI

I @EIJE J I @A I @EIJE J I @A

FKAIJ F H ! B=?J HAI FHE

# - mcd(234, 567) AI = ! O D=?A B= J= ! F=I I A A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI F=H= I=>AH > ' O D=?A B= J= # F=I I A A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI F=H= I=>AH ? 5 FHE I HA =JEL I O D=?A B= J= " F=I I A A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI F=H= I=>AH

! $

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

=JA + JH

JE?= ,EI?HAJ=

) HAIKA J
''' 

 - E LAHI F=H= A FH @K?J @A ! = $ > # ? ! JEA A E LAHI

@K @K %

% AI

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = = > O= GKA 3 5 = 15 O = @ELE@EH # A JHA % A HAIJ AI  - ECA = E?= I K?E @K !&# @A IEIJA = @A ? CHKA ?E=I E A= AI

x 3(mod 5) x 5(mod 7) . x 9(mod 11)

= - IEIJA = > !'! ? !&! JEA A I K?E

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = ? + A IEIJA = JEA A I K?E E?= @K ? AI K = I K?E

# % O  I FHE I A JHA I A J ?AI 5 7 11 = 385 O IA ? FHKA>= GKA I

! 5A= K ? K J A @A  A A A J I + IJHKE I A ? K J B @A IK>? K J I @A A - ? K J @A I IK>? K J I @A B JEA A = 210 A A A J I 10 > 22 A A A J I ? 22

n
210

AA A J I K J @A n A A A J I FHAIA J= K = B=>AJ @A & AJH=I GKA

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > O= GKA K ? 2 IK>? K J I " AH @A F= =>H=I @A # AJH=I A A FEA = O JAH E = F H L ?= AI = 52 283

! % > 5 4 28 27 26 ? 5 4 283 = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = = I B=?J HAI # ? HHAIF @A = =I L ?= AI A A FHE AH O JE KC=H O I B=?J HAI & = =I AJH=I E JAH A@E=I 5E IA E @E?= ? JH=HE =I F= =>H=I FKA@A FHAIA J=H AJH=I HAFAJE@=I # + =I L=HE=> AI x A y IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH E ID C A I @A CH=@ n AI @A?EH ANFHAIE AI @A = B H = xa y b ? a O b AH I A JAH I F IEJEL I F IE> A A JA  J= GKA a + b = n AH @A E I @EIJE J I @A CH=@ % AI = 18 17 > 9 17 ? 18 = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = ? 7 = LA A ACE@ a A AH b AIJ K L ?= A JA @AJAH E =@ b = 17 a 2 H J= J IA JH=J= @A LAH ?K J I F IE> AI L= HAI FKA@A J =H a + a FKA@A IAH ?K= GKEAH AH A JHA 0 O 17 IA JEA A A HAIK J=@ $ - K = AI= HA@ @= IA HAK A # ? A I= AI @A = AH= GKA GKAHA I I=>AH @A ?K J=I = AH=I IA FKA@A IA J=H IE I E F HJ= GKE AIJ = =@ @A GKE AH @A B H =I AI = 5! > 5!/4 ? 5!/5 = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = ? FKAI A AH J J= @A = AH=I A GKA # ? A I= AI IA IEA J= A K = AI= HA@ @= AI 5! O D=O GKA @ELE@EH F H # FKAI @=@= K = @EIF IE?E @A ? A I= AI D=O # @EIF IE?E AI HAIK J=@ @A CEH=H K KC=H = I ? A I= AI A =I GKA =I F IE?E AI HA =JEL=I =I EI =I % = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = HAF=HJEH " ?=HJ=I A K = >=H= = AIF= = = KC= @= IA= K JH AI @A?EH JHAI ?=HJ=I ? A EI AH O = JH= @EBAHA JA AI = (3 2 36)/(39 38 37) > (4 3 2 36)/(39 38 37) ? (3 3 2 36)/(39 38 37) = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > = FHE AH= ?=HJ= FKA@A IAH ?K= GKEAH= = IACK @= ?=HJ= @A>A IAH ECK= = = FHE AH= A J ?AI IA JEA A K = FH >=>E E@=@ @A 3/39 = JAH?AH= @A>A IAH ECK= = = FHE AH= O = = IACK @= F H J= J =

! &

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

FH >=>E E@=@ AI 2/38 = JE = ?=HJ= @A>A IAH @EIJE J= @A =I JHAI FHE AH=I F H J= J 36/38 - J ?AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A >JA AH K JH IEA @ =I ?=HJ=I ECK= AI =I JHAI FHE AH=I AI

(3 2 36)/(39 38 37).
- B=?J H " FH LEA A @A DA?D @A GKA D=O ?K=JH F IE> AI A A??E ?=HJ=I A K = @A " & ? AI @A JHAI

= FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA A K IK?AI @A *AH K E GKA IA HAFEJA n LA?AI FH >=>E E@=@ p @A NEJ IA >JA C= = IK ! BH=?=I I AI n3 3 = n p (1 p ) 3 n ni (1 p)i > 3 i=0 i p ? = EI = GKA >JA AH = IK ! NEJ I

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > A JA @EA @ GKA = IK JHAI BH=?=I I AI = K E @A I IK?AI I  BH=?=I I  BH=?=I BH=?=I I O ! BH=?=I I ' 5A= K ? K J A @A ?K=JH FAHI =I GKA E@A HAIFA?JEL= A JA  %  %#  %$  & 5A= = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= X GKA =IEC = = ?=@= FAHI = @A A IK = JKH= - L= H AIFAH=@ E (X ) AI = = A@E= =HEJ JE?= @A =I " = JKH=I >  %% ?  %" = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = = >=IJ= KI=H = B H K = @A = AIFAH= =JA JE?=  - ? K J @A I AH I FHE I AI = 7 ? K J EJ > 7 ? K J EJ ? IA I=>A IE AI EJ =

EJ

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > 5E BKAH= EJ @EC= I p1 , ..., pn A J ?AI A AH A JAH p1 ... pn + 1 LAHE ?= IAH FHE FKAI = @ELE@EH F H ?K= GKEAH FHE @= @A HAIJ K O AIJ A A ? K J @A I FHE I FKAI AI AIJHE?J= A JA =O H GKA ?K= GKEAH pi  GKA AI K = ? JH=@E??E  AH @A ?EBH=I @A " @ CEJ I GKA I =  > & ? % JEF I @A # AI

! ' = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = = 2=H= IAH JEF @A # IA D= @A JAH E =H A  A # 2 H J= J =I JHAI FHE AH=I ?EBH=I I E>HAI O = ?K=HJ= @A>A IAH 3 K  K # ,A AIJA @ 10 2  5A= A IK?AI E I=?=H K & = JEH=H JHAI @=@ I = E AI I FH > F AI I FH ? 5 ECK= @A & = JEH=H @ I @=@ I 5A= A IK?AI F I=?=H K >=> A GKA F >=> A GKA E FH >=> AI

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > *=IJ= D=?AH K HA?KA J @A ?=I I B=L H=> AI O F IE> AI ! 5A= a O b @ I AH I =JKH= AI ? a > b J= AI GKA mcd(a, b) = 1 A J ?AI = mcd(a + b, a b) = 1 mcd(a + b, a b) = 3 > mcd(a + b, a b) = 1 mcd(a + b, a b) = 2 ? mcd(a + b, a b) = 21 mcd(a + b, a b) = 3 = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > 5A= p = mcd(a + b, a b) AI?HE>E I

a + b = ps a b = pt
@A @ GKA IA JEA A

2a = p(s + t) 2b = p(s t).

-IJ IEC E ?= GKA p @ELE@A = 2a O = 2b A J ?AI p @ELE@A = mcd(2a, 2b) GKEAHA @A?EH GKA >EA p = 2 >EA p @ELE@A = a O = b A J ?AI p = 1 "   AH %! = -I K > -I K ? -I K AH ? AH ? AH FHE FKAIJ F H B=?J HAI FHE GKA

I @EIJE J I @A I @EIJE J I @A

FKAIJ F H ! B=?J HAI FHE

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = ? + = H= @A %! AI AIJHE?J= A JA A H GKA " >=IJ= ? FH >=H ? I AH I FHE I ! # %  O ! E CK @A A I @ELE@A

!!

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

# - mcd(234, 567) AI = ! O D=?A B= J= ! F=I I A A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI F=H= I=>AH > ' O D=?A B= J= # F=I I A A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI F=H= I=>AH ? 5 FHE I HA =JEL I O D=?A B= J= " F=I I A A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI F=H= I=>AH = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > *=IJ= ABA?JK=H A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI

!!

=JA +

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= JH
''' 

 - E LAHI F=H= A FH @K?J @A " = # > ? " JEA A E LAHI - ECA = E?= I K?E @K

@K @K %

% AI

!&# @A IEIJA = @A ?

CHKA ?E=I E A= AI

x 2(mod 5) x 4(mod 7) . x 8(mod 11)

= - IEIJA = > !& ? !'# JEA A I K?E

! = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = HAF=HJEH " ?=HJ=I A K = >=H= = AIF= = = KC= @= IA= K JH AI @A?EH JHAI ?=HJ=I ? A EI AH O = JH= @EBAHA JA AI = (3 2 36)/(39 38 37) > (4 3 2 36)/(39 38 37) ? (3 3 2 36)/(39 38 37) " - ? K J @A = 7 > 7 ? I AH I FHE I AI ? K J EJ ? K J EJ IA I=>A IE AI EJ

EJ

# + =I L=HE=> AI x A y IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH E ID C A I @A CH=@ a b AI @A?EH ANFHAIE AI @A = B H = x y ? a O b AH I A JAH I F IEJEL I F IE> A A JA  J= GKA a + b = n AH @A E I @EIJE J I @A CH=@ % AI = 18 17 > 9 17

!!

+)2 67 ? 182

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

$ AH @A F= =>H=I @A " AJH=I A A FEA = O JAH E = F H L ?= AI = 52 282 > 5 4 28 27 ? 5 4 282

= B=>AJ @A & AJH=I GKA

% - K = AI= HA@ @= IA HAK A $ ? A I= AI @A = AH= GKA GKAHA I I=>AH @A ?K J=I = AH=I IA FKA@A IA J=H IE I E F HJ= GKE AIJ = =@ @A GKE AH @A B H =I AI = 6!/4 > 5! ? 6!/5 & ? = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA A K IK?AI @A *AH K E GKA IA HAFEJA n LA?AI FH >=>E E@=@ p @A NEJ IA >JA C= = IK ! BH=?=I I AI n n3 3 = 3 p (1 p) n ni > 3 (1 p)i i=0 i p ? = EI = GKA >JA AH = IK ! NEJ I

' 5A= K ? K J B @A ?E ? FAHI =I GKA E@A HAIFA?JEL= A JA  %  %#  %$  &  '" 5A= = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= X GKA =IEC = = ?=@= FAHI = @A A IK = JKH= - L= H AIFAH=@ E (X ) AI =  & > = A@E= =HEJ JE?= @A =I # = JKH=I ?  %"  AH @A ?EBH=I @A # @ CEJ I GKA I = & > ' ?  JEF I @A # AI

 5A= a O b @ I AH I A JAH I J= AI GKA mcd(a, b) = 1 A J = mcd(a + b, a b) = 1 mcd(a + b, a b) = 3 > mcd(a + b, a b) = 1 mcd(a + b, a b) = 2 ? mcd(a + b, a b) = 21 mcd(a + b, a b) = 3   AH %' = -I K AH ? FKAIJ F H B=?J HAI FHE

?AI

I @EIJE J I @A

!!! > -I K ? -I K AH ? AH FHE FKAIJ F H ! B=?J HAI FHE I @EIJE J I @A



! - mcd(234, 567) AI = ! O D=?A B= J= ! F=I I A A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI F=H= I=>AH > ' O D=?A B= J= # F=I I A A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI F=H= I=>AH ? 5 FHE I HA =JEL I O D=?A B= J= " F=I I A A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI F=H= I=>AH " 5A= K ? K J A @A % A A A J I + IJHKE I A ? K J B @A IK>? K J I @A A - ? K J @A I IK>? K J I @A B JEA A = 27 A A A J I 27 > 22 A A A J I 7 ? 22 A A A J I # 5A= A IK?AI E I=?=H K & = JEH=H JHAI @=@ I = E AI I FH > F AI I FH ? 5 ECK= @A & = JEH=H @ I @=@ I 5A= A IK?AI F I=?=H K >=> A GKA F >=> A GKA E FH >=> AI I

!!"

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

=JA + JH

JE?= ,EI?HAJ=

* HAIKA J
''' 

 - E LAHI F=H= A FH @K?J @A " = # > ? " JEA A E LAHI

@K @K %

% AI

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = = > O= GKA 4 2 = 8 O = @ELE@EH & A JHA % A HAIJ AI  - ECA = E?= I K?E @K !&# @A IEIJA = @A ? CHKA ?E=I E A= AI

x 2(mod 5) x 4(mod 7) . x 8(mod 11)

= - IEIJA = > !& ? !'# JEA A I K?E

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > + A IEIJA = JEA A I K?E E?= @K > AI K = I K?E

# % O  I FHE I A JHA I A J ?AI 5 7 11 = 385 O IA ? FHKA>= GKA

! = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = HAF=HJEH " ?=HJ=I A K = >=H= = AIF= = = KC= @= IA= K JH AI @A?EH JHAI ?=HJ=I ? A EI AH O = JH= @EBAHA JA AI = (3 2 36)/(39 38 37) > (4 3 2 36)/(39 38 37) ? (3 3 2 36)/(39 38 37) = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > = FHE AH= ?=HJ= FKA@A IAH ?K= GKEAH= = IACK @= ?=HJ= @A>A IAH ECK= = = FHE AH= A J ?AI IA JEA A K = FH >=>E E@=@ @A 3/39 = JAH?AH= @A>A IAH ECK= = = FHE AH= O = = IACK @= F H J= J = FH >=>E E@=@ AI 2/38 = JE = ?=HJ= @A>A IAH @EIJE J= @A =I JHAI FHE AH=I

!!# F H J= J 36/38 - J ?AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A >JA AH K ?=HJ=I ECK= AI =I JHAI FHE AH=I AI JH IEA @ =I

(3 2 36)/(39 38 37).
- B=?J H " FH LEA A @A DA?D @A GKA D=O ?K=JH F IE> AI A A??E ?=HJ=I A K = @A " " - ? K J @A = 7 > 7 ? I AH I FHE I AI ? K J EJ ? K J EJ IA I=>A IE AI EJ AI @A JHAI

EJ

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > 5E BKAH= EJ @EC= I p1 , ..., pn A J ?AI A AH A JAH p1 ... pn + 1 LAHE ?= IAH FHE FKAI = @ELE@EH F H ?K= GKEAH FHE @= @A HAIJ K O AIJ A A ? K J @A I FHE I FKAI AI AIJHE?J= A JA =O H GKA ?K= GKEAH pi  GKA AI K = ? JH=@E??E #+ =I L=HE=> AI x A y IA FKA@A ? IJHKEH E ID C A I @A CH=@ AI @A?EH ANFHAIE AI @A = B H = xa y b ? a O b AH I A JAH I F IEJEL I F IE> A A JA  J= GKA a + b = n AH @A E I @EIJE J I @A CH=@ % AI = 18 17 > 9 17 ? 18 = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = ? 7 = LA A ACE@ a A AH b AIJ K L ?= A JA @AJAH E =@ b = 17 a 2 H J= J IA JH=J= @A LAH ?K J I F IE> AI L= HAI FKA@A J =H a + a FKA@A IAH ?K= GKEAH AH A JHA 0 O 17 IA JEA A A HAIK J=@ $ AH @A F= =>H=I @A " AJH=I A A FEA = O JAH E = F H L ?= AI = 52 282 > 5 4 28 27 ? 5 4 282 K = B=>AJ @A & AJH=I GKA

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = = I B=?J HAI # ? HHAIF @A = =I L ?= AI A A FHE AH O JE KC=H O I B=?J HAI & = =I AJH=I E JAH A@E=I 5E IA E @E?= ? JH=HE =I F= =>H=I FKA@A FHAIA J=H AJH=I HAFAJE@=I % - K = AI= HA@ @= IA HAK A $ ? A I= AI @A = AH= GKA GKAHA I I=>AH @A ?K J=I = AH=I IA FKA@A IA J=H IE I E F HJ= GKE AIJ = =@ @A GKE AH @A B H =I AI

!!$

+)2 67 = 6!/4 > 5! ? 6!/5

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > FKAI A AH J J= @A = AH=I A GKA $ ? A I= AI IA IEA J= A K = AI= HA@ @= AI 6! O D=O GKA @ELE@EH F H $ FKAI @=@= K = @EIF IE?E @A ? A I= AI D=O $ @EIF IE?E AI HAIK J=@ @A CEH=H K KC=H = I ? A I= AI A =I GKA =I F IE?E AI HA =JEL=I =I EI =I & ? = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA A K IK?AI @A *AH K E GKA IA HAFEJA n LA?AI FH >=>E E@=@ p @A NEJ IA >JA C= = IK ! BH=?=I I AI n3 3 = n p (1 p ) 3 n ni (1 p)i > 3 i=0 i p ? = EI = GKA >JA AH = IK ! NEJ I

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > A JA @EA @ GKA = IK JHAI BH=?=I I AI = K E @A I IK?AI I  BH=?=I I  BH=?=I BH=?=I I O ! BH=?=I I ' 5A= K ? K J B @A ?E ? FAHI =I GKA E@A HAIFA?JEL= A JA  %  %#  %$  &  '" 5A= = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= X GKA =IEC = = ?=@= FAHI = @A A IK = JKH= - L= H AIFAH=@ E (X ) AI =  & > = A@E= =HEJ JE?= @A =I # = JKH=I ?  %" = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > >=IJ= KI=H = B H K = @A = AIFAH= =JA JE?=  AH @A ?EBH=I @A # @ CEJ I GKA I = & > ' ?  JEF I @A # AI =

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = ? 2=H= IAH JEF A  A # 2 H J= J =I ?K=JH FHE AH=I ?EBH=I I IAH K  K # ,A AIJA @ 104 2

@A # IA D= @A JAH E =H E>HAI O = ?K=HJ= @A>A ?AI

 5A= a O b @ I AH I A JAH I J= AI GKA mcd(a, b) = 1 A J = mcd(a + b, a b) = 1 mcd(a + b, a b) = 3 > mcd(a + b, a b) = 1 mcd(a + b, a b) = 2 ? mcd(a + b, a b) = 21 mcd(a + b, a b) = 3

!!% = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > 5A= p = mcd(a + b, a b) AI?HE>E I

a + b = ps a b = pt
@A @ GKA IA JEA A

2a = p(s + t) 2b = p(s t).

-IJ IEC E ?= GKA p @ELE@A = 2a O = 2b A J ?AI p @ELE@A = mcd(2a, 2b) GKEAHA @A?EH GKA >EA p = 2 >EA p @ELE@A = a O = b A J ?AI p = 1    AH %' = -I K > -I K ? -I K AH ? AH ? AH FHE FKAIJ F H B=?J HAI FHE GKA

I @EIJE J I @A I @EIJE J I @A

FKAIJ F H ! B=?J HAI FHE

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = ? + = H= @A %' AI AIJHE?J= A JA A H GKA " >=IJ= ? FH >=H ? I AH I FHE I ! # %  O ! E CK @A A I @ELE@A ! - mcd(234, 567) AI = ! O D=?A B= J= ! F=I I A A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI F=H= I=>AH > ' O D=?A B= J= # F=I I A A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI F=H= I=>AH ? 5 FHE I HA =JEL I O D=?A B= J= " F=I I A A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI F=H= I=>AH = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > *=IJ= ABA?JK=H A = C HEJ @A -K? E@AI I " 5A= K ? K J A @A % A A A J I + IJHKE I A ? K J B @A IK>? K J I @A A - ? K J @A I IK>? K J I @A B JEA A = 27 A A A J I > 22 A A A J I 7 ? 22 A A A J I = HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = ? O= GKA K ? 2 IK>? K J I
n
27

K J @A n A A A J I FHAIA J=

!!&

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

# 5A= A IK?AI E I=?=H K & = JEH=H JHAI @=@ I = E AI I FH > F AI I FH ? 5 ECK= @A

& = JEH=H @ I @=@ I 5A= A IK?AI F I=?=H K >=> A GKA F >=> A GKA E FH >=> AI

= HAIFKAIJ= ? HHA?J= AI = > *=IJ= D=?AH K HA?KA J @A ?=I I B=L H=> AI O F IE> AI

!!'

=JA JE?= ,EI?HAJ= + JH  )

    FK J I 5A= a R K AH HA= AIJHE?J= A JA F IEJEL a > 0 ,A IJH=H F H E @K??E GKA = IECKEA JA @AIECK= @=@ IA LAHE ?= F=H= ?=@= n =JKH= (1 + a)n 1 + an.   FK J I = ,AJAH E =H IE A IECKEA JA H=

= EA J AI ? HHA?J A CK= A =JKH= = AC=?E @A = D= =FH >=@ E CK = =IEC =JKH=

((p q ) (q r)) (p r).

> -I?HE>EH A A CK= A B H = O A IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= 0=O = K I GKA

! FK J  5A= = BK ?E f : Z7 Z7 @=@= F H = ANFHAIE f (a) = 5a + 1 4A?KAH@= GKA Z7 AI A ? K J @A =I % ? =AI @A AGKEL= A ?E= @A = HA =?E @K %  = -IJK@E=H IE f AI E OA?JEL= O IE AI I >HAOA?JEL= > ,AJAH E =H IE ANEIJA g : Z7 Z7 J= GKA = ? F IE?E g f @A E@= ? (g f )(a) = g (f (a)) IA= = E@A JE@=@ "  FK J  4AI LAH A IEIJA = @A ? CHKA ?E=I

x 3 mod 5 x 5 mod 7 x 2 mod 2

#  FK J I + IJHKEH K = C HEJ GKA @=@= K = EIJ= @A A JAH I a1 , a2 , ..., an O @ I A JAH I a O 1 b n +1 E JH @K ?= A A JAH a A = EIJ= A = F IE?E b - A F = A JH=@=  # %  @= ? I= E@= = EIJ=   # %  -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@

!"

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

=JA + JH

JE?= ,EI?HAJ=  ) HAIKA J

 

  FK J I 5A= a R K AH HA= AIJHE?J= A JA F IEJEL a > 0 ,A IJH=H F H E @K??E GKA = IECKEA JA @AIECK= @=@ IA LAHE ?= F=H= ?=@= n =JKH= (1 + a)n 1 + an. 2=H= n = 1 = B H K = AI ?EAHJ= >=IA @A E @K??E  FKAIJ GKA

1 + a 1 + a.
5KF C= I =D H= GKA = B H K = AI ?EAHJ= F=H= n O ? LAH=?E@=@ F=H= n + 1 -I?HE>E I FH >A I IK

(1 + a)n+1 = (1 + a)n (1 + a) (1 + an)(1 + a)

@ @A = JE = @AIECK= @=@ AI ? IA?KA ?E= @A = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E )D H= >EA (1 + an)(1 + a) = 1 + a + an + a2 n. ,A @ GKA B= J= ? FH >=H = @AIECK= @=@

1 + a + an + a2 n 1 + a(n + 1) = 1 + an + a.
AGKEL= A JA A JA GKA AI ?EAHJ FKAIJ GKA a > 0   FK J I = ,AJAH E =H IE A IECKEA JA H= = EA J AI ? HHA?J

a2 n 0,

((p q ) (q r)) (p r).

5E =IEC = ,A AIJA @ I p := F r := V q := V A J ? AIJ=I =IEC =?E AI ?AI (p q ) := V (q r) := V

((p q ) (q r)) := V.

!" 2 H JH =@ (p r) := F O IA JEA A = ? JH=@E??E

V F

> -I?HE>EH A A CK= A B H = O A A CK= A =JKH= = AC=?E @A = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= 0=O = K I GKA D= =FH >=@ E CK = =IEC =JKH= 5A= U A ? K J @A I = K I O A A @A =I =IEC =JKH=I - A K ELAHI U A IA @A A A FHA@E?=@

P ((x, y )) := el alumno x ha aprobado la asignatura y.

2 H J= J = IA JA ?E= 0=O = K =JKH= IA AI?HE>A B H = A JA

I GKA

D= =FH >=@

E CK = =IEC

x U y A (P (x, y )).
5K AC=?E AI KI= @ =I AGKEL= A ?E=I CE?=I FAHJE A JAI

x U y A P (x, y ).
-I @A?EH ?=@= = K

D= =FH >=@ = CK = =IEC =JKH=

! FK J  5A= = BK ?E f : Z7 Z7 @=@= F H = ANFHAIE f (a) = 5a + 1 4A?KAH@= GKA Z7 AI A ? K J @A =I % ? =IAI @A AGKEL= A ?E= @A = HA =?E @K %  = -IJK@E=H IE f AI E OA?JEL= O IE AI I >HAOA?JEL= 5A >IAHL= GKA

f (0) = 1 f (1) = 6 f (2) = 4 f (3) = 2 f (4) = 0 f (5) = 5 f (6) = 3

2 H J= J f AI >EOA?JEL= ? > ,AJAH E =H IE ANEIJA g : Z7 Z7 J= GKA = ? (g f )(a) = g (f (a)) IA= = E@A JE@=@ F IE?E

g f @A

E@= =H

+ f AI >EOA?JEL= A?AI=HE= A JA @A>A ANEIJEH g ,A DA?D >=IJ= J g (b) = 3b + 4 O= GKA

!"

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

g (f (a)) = g (5a + 1) = 3(5a + 1) + 4 = a + 3 + 4 = a

@ @A J @=I =I ECK= @=@AI I ? CHKA ?E=I @K %

"  FK J  4AI LAH A IEIJA = @A ?

CHKA ?E=I

x 3 mod 5 x 5 mod 7 x 2 mod 2

+ # % O I FHE I A J ?AI A JA HA = ?DE @A I HAIJ I C=H= JE = = ANEIJA ?E= @A I K?E O IK K E?E@=@ @K 5 7 2 = 70 ,A AIJ= = AH= A ? K J @A =I I K?E AI AI @A = B H =

x = 68 + 70k
@ @A k AI K AH A JAH

#  FK J I + IJHKEH K = C HEJ GKA @=@= K = EIJ= @A A JAH I a1 , a2 , ..., an O @ I A JAH I a O 1 b n +1 E JH @K ?= A A JAH a A = EIJ= A = F IE?E b - A F = A JH=@=  # %  @= ? I= E@= = EIJ=   # %  -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@ - JH=@= a1 , a2 , ..., an ; a, b c := ab ab := a B H E BH b+1 J n d := ai ai := c c := d an+1 := c 5= E@= a1 , ..., an+1 -I K = C HEJ @A ? F A E@=@ E A= FKAI JEA A K E? >K? A GKA HA= E = K = ?= JE@=@ ? IJ= JA @A FAH=?E AI A ?=@= HAFAJE?E

!"!

=JA JE?= ,EI?HAJ= + JH  *

    FK J I 5A= t R K AH HA= AIJHE?J= A JA F IEJEL t > 0 ,A IJH=H F H E @K??E GKA = IECKEA JA @AIECK= @=@ IA LAHE ?= F=H= ?=@= n =JKH= (1 + t)n 1 + tn.   FK J I = ,AJAH E =H IE A IECKEA JA H=

= EA J AI ? HHA?J

((p q ) (q r)) (p r).

> -I?HE>EH A A CK= A B H = O A A CK= A =JKH= = AC=?E @A = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= 0=O = K I GKA D= =FH >=@ J @=I =I =IEC =JKH=I ! FK J  5A= = BK ?E f : Z7 Z7 @=@= F H = ANFHAIE f (a) = 3a + 1 4A?KAH@= GKA Z7 AI A ? K J @A =I % ? =IAI @A AGKEL= A ?E= @A = HA =?E @K %  = -IJK@E=H IE f AI E OA?JEL= O IE AI I >HAOA?JEL= > ,AJAH E =H IE ANEIJA g : Z7 Z7 J= GKA = ? F IE?E g f @A E@= ? (g f )(a) = g (f (a)) IA= = E@A JE@=@ "  FK J  4AI LAH A IEIJA = @A ? CHKA ?E=I

x 4 mod 5 x 5 mod 7 x 2 mod 2

#  FK J I + IJHKEH K = C HEJ GKA @=@= K = EIJ= @A A JAH I a1 , a2 , ..., an O @ I A JAH I a O 1 b n +1 E JH @K ?= A A JAH a A = EIJ= A = F IE?E b - A F = A JH=@=  # %  @= ? I= E@= = EIJ=   # %  -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@

!""

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

=JA + JH

JE?= ,EI?HAJ=  * HAIKA J

 

  FK J I 5A= t R K AH HA= AIJHE?J= A JA F IEJEL t > 0 ,A IJH=H F H E @K??E GKA = IECKEA JA @AIECK= @=@ IA LAHE ?= F=H= ?=@= n =JKH= (1 + t)n 1 + tn. 2=H= n = 1 = B H K = AI ?EAHJ= >=IA @A E @K??E  FKAIJ GKA

1 + t 1 + t.
5KF C= I =D H= GKA = B H K = AI ?EAHJ= F=H= n O ? LAH=?E@=@ F=H= n + 1 -I?HE>E I FH >A I IK

(1 + t)n+1 = (1 + t)n (1 + t) (1 + tn)(1 + t)

@ @A = JE = @AIECK= @=@ AI ? IA?KA ?E= @A = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E )D H= >EA (1 + tn)(1 + t) = 1 + t + tn + t2 n. ,A @ GKA B= J= ? FH >=H = @AIECK= @=@

1 + t + tn + t2 n 1 + t(n + 1) = 1 + tn + t.
AGKEL= A JA A JA GKA AI ?EAHJ FKAIJ GKA t > 0   FK J I = ,AJAH E =H IE A IECKEA JA H= = EA J AI ? HHA?J

t2 n 0,

((p q ) (q r)) (p r).

5E =IEC = ,A AIJA @ I p := V r := V q := V A J ?AI (p q ) := V (q r) := V

((p q ) (q r)) := V.

!"# 2 H JH =@ (p r) := V O IA JEA A = ? JH=@E??E

V F

> -I?HE>EH A A CK= A B H = O A A CK= A =JKH= = AC=?E @A = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= 0=O = K I GKA D= =FH >=@ J @=I =I =IEC =JKH=I 5A= U A ? K J @A I = K I O A A @A =I =IEC =JKH=I - A K ELAHI U A IA @A A A FHA@E?=@

P ((x, y )) := el alumno x ha aprobado la asignatura y.

2 H J= J = IA JA ?E= 0=O = K =JKH= IA AI?HE>A B H = A JA

I GKA

D= =FH >=@

E CK = =IEC

x U y A (P (x, y )).
5K AC=?E AI KI= @ =I AGKEL= A ?E=I CE?=I FAHJE A JAI

x U y A P (x, y ).
-I @A?EH ?=@= = K

D= =FH >=@ = CK = =IEC =JKH=

! FK J  5A= = BK ?E f : Z7 Z7 @=@= F H = ANFHAIE f (a) = 3a + 1 4A?KAH@= GKA Z7 AI A ? K J @A =I % ? =IAI @A AGKEL= A ?E= @A = HA =?E @K %  = -IJK@E=H IE f AI E OA?JEL= O IE AI I >HAOA?JEL= 5A >IAHL= GKA

f (0) = 1 f (1) = 4 f (2) = 0 f (3) = 3 f (4) = 6 f (5) = 2 f (6) = 5

2 H J= J f AI >EOA?JEL= ? > ,AJAH E =H IE ANEIJA g : Z7 Z7 J= GKA = ? (g f )(a) = g (f (a)) IA= = E@A JE@=@ F IE?E

g f @A

E@= =H

+ f AI >EOA?JEL= A?AI=HE= A JA @A>A ANEIJEH g ,A DA?D >=IJ= J g (b) = 5b + 2 O= GKA

g (f (a)) = g (3a + 1) = 5(3a + 1) + 2 = a + 5 + 2 = a

!"$ @

+)2 67

+ ?

64

-5 ; -: @K %

- -5 4-57- 6 5

@A J @=I =I ECK= @=@AI I

CHKA ?E=I

"  FK J  4AI LAH A IEIJA = @A ?

CHKA ?E=I

x 4 mod 5 x 5 mod 7 x 2 mod 2

+ # % O I FHE I A J ?AI A JA HA = ?DE @A I HAIJ I C=H= JE = = ANEIJA ?E= @A I K?E O IK K E?E@=@ @K 5 7 2 = 70 ,A AIJ= = AH= A ? K J @A =I I K?E AI AI @A = B H =

x = 54 + 70k
@ @A k AI K AH A JAH

#  FK J I + IJHKEH K = C HEJ GKA @=@= K = EIJ= @A A JAH I a1 , a2 , ..., an O @ I A JAH I a O 1 b n +1 E JH @K ?= A A JAH a A = EIJ= A = F IE?E b - A F = A JH=@=  # %  @= ? I= E@= = EIJ=   # %  -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@ - JH=@= a1 , a2 , ..., an ; a, b c := ab ab := a B H E BH b+1 J n d := ai ai := c c := d an+1 := c 5= E@= a1 , ..., an+1 -I K = C HEJ @A ? F A E@=@ E A= FKAI JEA A K E? >K? A GKA HA= E = K = ?= JE@=@ ? IJ= JA @A FAH=?E AI A ?=@= HAFAJE?E

!"%

=JA +

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= JH
 

5A= A CH=B IE F A G = (V, E ) ?KO=

=JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I AI A

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 A := 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
O @A

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

@ GKA IK F JA ?E= ? >E?= AI

!"&

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

20 37 29 37 28 21 18 A3 := 46 29 33 31 21 33 45 28

37 38 49 63 41 42 34 62 31 41 43 36 33 65 38

29 49 40 57 39 33 25 61 36 43 48 28 42 60 40

37 63 57 72 60 44 41 80 46 55 61 45 54 80 59

28 41 39 60 40 40 29 60 29 40 48 35 33 59 43

21 42 33 44 40 26 24 52 27 32 37 30 34 51 39

18 34 25 41 29 24 16 40 20 25 35 19 24 36 32

46 62 61 80 60 52 40 74 40 54 65 39 52 78 58

29 31 36 46 29 27 20 40 22 28 35 19 29 45 27

33 41 43 55 40 30 25 54 28 32 38 26 32 55 35

31 43 48 61 48 37 35 65 35 38 44 39 35 65 45

21 36 28 45 35 30 19 39 19 26 39 20 25 37 36

33 33 42 54 33 34 24 52 29 32 35 25 28 53 30

45 65 60 80 59 51 36 78 45 55 65 37 53 76 59

28 38 40 59 43 59 32 58 27 35 45 36 30 59 40

 ,AJAH E =H A AH @A L HJE?AI A AH @A =HEIJ=I O A CH=@ @A ?=@= L HJE?A IAC = H@A =?E @A I L HJE?AI GKA @= = =JHE )  ,A IJH=H KI= @ CH=B G AI ? AN ! 8AHE ?=H IE AI = =JHE A O =I F JA ?E=I @A A GKA IA =F HJ= GKA A

K CH=B AK AHE= CEJK@

" ,AJAH E =H ?K AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = A ACEH K ?= E @A ! K EA @ A FHE AH L HJE?A O A JAH?AH @E?D ?= E IA= IE F A

# 5A= A ANFAHE A J @A *AH K E ? IEIJA JA A A ACEH K L HJE?A @A G @A @ GKA IA >JEA A K NEJ IE A CH=@ @A @E?D L HJE?A AI =O H ECK= GKA  ,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ p @A NEJ O = FH >=>E E@=@ q @A BH=?=I @A @E?D ANFAHE A J @A *AH K E $ ,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = HAFAJEH A ANFAHE A J = JAHE H # LA?AI IA >JA C= = A I K NEJ % 5A= K KAL ANFAHE A J = A=J HE GKA ? IEIJA A A ACEH K L HJE?A @A G 5A= = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= g ? IEIJA JA A =IEC =H = ?=@= L HJE?A IK CH=@ ,AI?HE>EH A AIF=?E KAIJH= @A @E?D ANFAHE A J O = BK ?E g += ?K =H = AIFAH= = =JA JE?= @A @E?D= L=HE=> A = A=J HE= & ,AJAH E =H A AH @A =HEIJ=I GKA D=O GKA = =@EH = G F=H= GKA IA ? LEAHJ= A A CH=B ? F AJ

!"'

=JA + JH

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= HAIKA J

 

5A= A CH=B IE F A G = (V, E ) ?KO=

=JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I AI A

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 A := 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
O @A

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

@ GKA IK F JA ?E= ? >E?= AI

!#

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

20 37 29 37 28 21 18 3 A := 46 29 33 31 21 33 45 28

37 38 49 63 41 42 34 62 31 41 43 36 33 65 38

29 49 40 57 39 33 25 61 36 43 48 28 42 60 40

37 63 57 72 60 44 41 80 46 55 61 45 54 80 59

28 41 39 60 40 40 29 60 29 40 48 35 33 59 43

21 42 33 44 40 26 24 52 27 32 37 30 34 51 39

18 34 25 41 29 24 16 40 20 25 35 19 24 36 32

46 62 61 80 60 52 40 74 40 54 65 39 52 78 58

29 31 36 46 29 27 20 40 22 28 35 19 29 45 27

33 41 43 55 40 30 25 54 28 32 38 26 32 55 35

31 43 48 61 48 37 35 65 35 38 44 39 35 65 45

21 36 28 45 35 30 19 39 19 26 39 20 25 37 36

33 33 42 54 33 34 24 52 29 32 35 25 28 53 30

45 65 60 80 59 51 36 78 45 55 65 37 53 76 59

28 38 40 59 43 59 32 58 27 35 45 36 30 59 40

 ,AJAH E =H A AH @A L HJE?AI A AH @A =HEIJ=I O A CH=@ @A ?=@= L HJE?A IAC = H@A =?E @A I L HJE?AI GKA @= = =JHE ) @A + = =JHE AI @A J= = 15 15 A J ?AI D=O # L HJE?AI = IK?AIE I CH=@ I KI= @ = H@A =?E @A I L HJE?AI GKA IA = = = =JHE AI

(6, 9, 8, 12, 8, 7, 5, 12, 6, 7, 9, 6, 7, 12, 8).

2 H J= J A AH @A =HEIJ=I AI = AIJ AI 122/2 = 61  8AHE ?=H KI= @ G AI ? AN = EJ=@ @A = IK = @A AIJ I CH=@ I

=JHE A O =I F JA ?E=I @A A GKA IA =F HJ= IE A CH=B

- ABA?J AI ? AN FKAI A3 JEA A J @=I IKI A JH=@=I K =I GKA IEC E ?= GKA D=O K ?= E @A CEJK@ JHAI K EA @ ?=@= F=H @A L HJE?AI ! 8AHE ?=H IE AI AI AK AHE= K CH=B AK AHE= FKAI D=O L HJE?AI @A CH=@ E F=H CEJK@

" ,AJAH E =H ?K AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = A ACEH K ?= E @A ! K EA @ A FHE AH L HJE?A O A JAH?AH @E?D ?= E IA= IE F A

+ = A JH=@= (1, 3) @A A3 AI ' A J ?AI D=O ' ?= E I @A CEJK@ ! K EA @ A L HJE?A  ? A L HJE?A ! I ?= E I IE F AI @A>A IAH

!# @A = B H = 1a13 13a3 2AH @A AIJ I D=O ECK =@O=?A JAI O= GKA = A JH=@= (1, 3) @A A AI  FKAI  O ! I

# 5A= A ANFAHE A J @A *AH K E ? IEIJA JA A A ACEH K L HJE?A @A G @A @ GKA IA >JEA A K NEJ IE A CH=@ @A @E?D L HJE?A AI =O H ECK= GKA  ,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ p @A NEJ O = FH >=>E E@=@ q @A BH=?=I @A @E?D ANFAHE A J @A *AH K E 0=O # L HJE?AI JHAI @A A I JEA A CH=@ =O H ECK= GKA  A J ?AI

p = 3/15

q = 1 p = 12/15.

$ ,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = HAFAJEH A ANFAHE A J = JAHE H # LA?AI IA >JA C= = A I K NEJ -IJA IK?AI AI ? >=>E E@=@ AI F A A J=HE = IK?AI J @ BH=?=I I F H J= J IK FH

1 (12/15)5 .

% 5A= K KAL ANFAHE A J = A=J HE GKA ? IEIJA A A ACEH K L HJE?A @A G 5A= = L=HE=> A = A=J HE= g ? IEIJA JA A =IEC =H = ?=@= L HJE?A IK CH=@ ,AI?HE>EH A AIF=?E KAIJH= @A @E?D ANFAHE A J O = BK ?E g += ?K =H = AIFAH= = =JA JE?= @A @E?D= L=HE=> A = A=J HE= ? - AIF=?E KAIJH= AI A ? K J @A L HJE?AI GKA IA FKA@A FA I=H N15 = BK ?E g AI A CH=@ @A @ GKA

g (1) = 6, g (2) = 9, g (3) = 8, g (4) = 12, g (5) = 8, g (6) = 7, g (7) = 5, g (8) = 12, g (9) = 6, g (10) = 7, g (11) = 9, g (12) = 6, g (13) = 7, g (14) = 12, g (15) = 8.
; IK AIFAH= = =JA JE?= AI

(6 + 9 + 8 + 12 + 8 + 7 + 5 + 12 + 6 + 7 + 9 + 6 + 7 + 12 + 8)/15.
& ,AJAH E =H A AH @A =HEIJ=I GKA D=O GKA = =@EH = G F=H= GKA IA ? LEAHJ= A A CH=B ? F AJ - CH=B ? F AJ K15 JEA A J @ I IKI L HJE?AI @A CH=@ " ? AH @A =HEIJ=I GKA JEA A AI GKA A

(15 14)/2.
,A AIJA @ = @EBAHA ?E= A JHA AIJA D=O GKA = =@EH = G F=H= >JA AH A CH=B ? AH O A |V | I =I =HEIJ=I GKA F AJ AIJ AI 105 61

!#

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

=JA

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= .1 )


-:) -

  ! 

= @KH=?E @A AN= A AI @A D H=I O A@E= 5A F @H KJE E =H E>H I O =FK JAI A IK HA= E =?E IA FAH EJA A KI @A ?= ?K =@ H=I 6 @= HAIFKAIJ= GKA AIJ =@A?K=@= A JA H= =@= IA ? J=

IE@AH=H E ? HHA?

 -IJK@E=H IE A IECKEA JA H= = EA J AI ? HHA?J 5E A ? H AI = K A J ?AI AIJ K> =@ D=O K A? EFIA - ? H AI = K @A ? JH=HE D=O K A? EFIA 2 H J= J AIJ K> =@ + IE@AH=H A IECKEA JA = C HEJ A IAK@ ? @EC

- JH=@=
N O O O    O -IJK@E=H 9DE A O N 

5= E@=
+K =? AI A L= H @A K = LA A A?KJ=@ A = C HEJ F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ A J H E I @A

! ,A K AH F IEJEL A H GKA  I=>A I GKA = @ELE@EH F H @= @A HAIJ  = @ELE@EH F H ! @= @A HAIJ  O = @ELE@EH F H % @= @A HAIJ ,A GK AH IA JH=J= " 5A= Z6 A ? CHKA ?E= @K $ O f : Z6 Z6 @A IKFH=OA?JEL= K J @A ? =IAI @A AGKEL= A ?E= @A = HA =?E @A ?

Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
E@= F H f (x) = 2x. -IJK@E=H IE f AI E OA?JEL= O

!#! # I  KC=@ HAI @A ? K> @A BKJ> 4AO K = E?= = F=H= D=?AHIA K = B J CH=B = , I = KA 5A FE@A = 0= =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = KA AIJ  KC=@ HAI > = KA O K?=I AIJ IEJK=@ I K = =@ $ K= +=H I IA ? @A A I IA = = ?= A K?=I O I

IEJK=@ A A ?A JH @A @A JH

= FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K H@A =@ H A I= > =@ A 6=EM= FHAIA JA = C @ABA?J AI   = 74 + D= ? FH=@ HA?EA JA A JA # H@A =@ HAI A I= > =@ I A 6=EM= 0= =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A = I # H@A =@ HAI FHAIA JA = C @ABA?J > ,A I ?E ? H@A =@ HAI D=O= = A I K GKA FHAIA JA = C @ABA?J % ,=@ A CH=B ?KO= =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I AI = GKA =F=HA?A = ? JE K=?E H= AIA = HAIFKAIJ= = ?=@= K = @A =I IECKEA JAI FHACK J=I -I ? AN -I AK AHE= -I D= E J E= -I >EF=HJE@ 5A AIA IE A CH=B AI @A = CK @A I JEF I GKA =F=HA?A = ? JE K=?E H> HKA@= ?K> ?E?

A=

0 1 1 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 0

& - K ?EAHJ @AF=HJ= A J ? LELA &# FAHI =I 4AIF @AH = =I IECKEA JAI FHACK J=I = -I F IE> A GKA ?=@= EA >H @A @AF=HJ= A J IA ALA = ? AN=? J= A JA # @A I EA >H I HAIJ= JAI 1 @E?=?E KJE E =H K CH=B A A GKA I L HJE?AI IA= =I FAHI =I O D=O K = =HEIJ= A JHA ?=@= @ I FAHI =I GKA IA AL= = > 0=O = A I @ I FAHI =I ? AN=?J= A JA A EI AH @A = EC I A A @AF=HJ= A J 1 @E?=?E 5A =? IA = H= =H F H HA@K??E = =>IKH@ 

!#"

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

' ,E>K =H I # CH=B I @EHECE@ I FK@EA @ D=>AH = I =HEIJ=I K JEF AI GKA ANEIJA I= L EI H I I ? " L HJE?AI @A CH=@ HA?KAH@= GKA K = I >HA K L HJE?A =F HJ= @ I K E@=@AI = CH=@ @A AIA L HJE?A  - A ? K J N7 IA ? IE@AH= = HA =?E

R @AJAH E =@= F H

a, b N7 , (aRb (a + b) < 5) .
4AFHAIA J=H = HA =?E A@E= JA K @ECH=B -IJK@E=H IE AI HA ANEL= IE JHE?= O JH= IEJEL= += ?K =H = ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL=

!##

=JA -:) -

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= .1 ) 4-57- 6



  ! 

= @KH=?E @A AN= A AI @A D H=I O A@E= 5A F @H KJE E =H E>H I O =FK JAI A IK HA= E =?E IA FAH EJA A KI @A ?= ?K =@ H=I 6 @= HAIFKAIJ= GKA AIJ =@A?K=@= A JA H= =@= IA ? J=

IE@AH=H E ? HHA?

 -IJK@E=H IE A IECKEA JA H= = EA J AI ? HHA?J 5E A ? H AI = K A J ?AI AIJ K> =@ D=O K A? EFIA - ? H AI = K @A ? JH=HE D=O K A? EFIA 2 H J= J AIJ K> =@ 5A= =I FH F IE?E AI IECKEA JAI a :=A ? H AI = K n :=AIJ O e :=D=O A? EFIA - H= = EA J AI A IECKEA JA

K> =@

a (n e) a (a e) n
AI AI 6 AI 5E = IACK @= DEF JAIEI AI LAH@=@AH= A J ?AI >EA a AI V >EA a e V 5E a AI LAH@=@AH= A J ?AI a AI F ? GKA = FHE AH= DEF JAIEI LAH@=@AH= 2 H J= J a := V D=?A GKA = >=I DEF JAIEI IA= LAH@=@AH=I = @ a := V O n := F O e ?K= GKEAH= IA JEA A GKA A H= = EA J L E@ + IE@AH=H A IECKEA JA = C HEJ N O O O    O -IJK@E=H A IAK@ ? @EC

- JH=@=
9DE A O N 

5= E@=
+K =? AI A L= H @A K = LA A A?KJ=@ A = C HEJ F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ A J H E I @A

!#$

+)2 67 - L= H @A = I= E@= AI

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

z = 1 + ... + n = n(n 1)/2.

? + D=O I K >K? A GKA HA= E = A ?=@= HAFAJE?E K = ?= JE@=@ IJ= JA @A FAH=?E AI A = C HEJ AI @A ? F A E@=@ E A=

! ,A K AH F IEJEL A H GKA  I=>A I GKA = @ELE@EH F H @= @A HAIJ  = @ELE@EH F H ! @= @A HAIJ  O = @ELE@EH F H % @= @A HAIJ ,A GK AH IA JH=J= 0=O GKA HAI LAH A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A ? CHKA ?E=I

x 1 mod 2 x 1 mod 3 x 2 mod 7

+ ! O % I FHE I A J ?AI D=O K = E?= I K?E @K 2 3 7 = 42 F H A JA HA = ?DE @A I HAIJ I ,A DA?D ?K= GKEAH I K?E AI @A = B H =

37 + 42k k Z.
I - J =I ?AI J= J !% ? E?=I

37+42 = 79 I

I K?E

AI = A AH?E?E O =@A @A ?

" 5A= Z6 A ? CHKA ?E= @K $ O f : Z6 Z6 @A IKFH=OA?JEL=

K J @A ? =IAI @A AGKEL= A ?E= @A = HA =?E

Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
E@= F H f (x) = 2x. -IJK@E=H IE f AI E OA?JEL= O

AI E OA?JEL= F HGKA f (0) = 0 O f (3) = 0 AI I >HAOA?JEL= F HGKA F H A A F ANEIJA a Z6 J= GKA g (a) = 1 # I  KC=@ HAI @A ? K> @A BKJ> 4AO K= +=H I IA ? K = E?= = F=H= D=?AHIA K = B J CH=B = , I @A A I IA = = = KA 5A FE@A ?= A K?=I O

!#% = 0= =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA  KC=@ HAI = KA AIJ IEJK=@ A A ?A JH @A I

0=O 11! = AH=I @A @EIF AH = I  KC=@ HAI A K = = 5E = KA ?KF= K IEJE @AJAH E =@ A J ?AI D=O 10! = AH=I @A IEJK=H = I  HAIJ= JAI 2 H J= J 10!/11! = 1/11 AI = FH >=>E E@=@ >KI?=@= > K?=I O = KA AIJ IEJK=@ I K = =@ @A JH 5E F H A A F A I IA @EIF A A D=O 2 9! = AH=I @A ? ?=H I + FKA@A ?KF=H ?K= GKEAH KC=H @A FHE IECKEA JA -I @A?EH D=O 10 2 9! = I KC=HAI FHE AH O IACK @ A J ?AI I FHAJA @A I GKA AIJ K J I AH = @ ?E O A E A@E=J= A JA AH=I F H GKA = FH >=>E E@=@ AI

10 2 9!/11! = 2/11.
= FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K H@A =@ H A I= > =@ A 6=EM= FHAIA JA = C @ABA?J AI   = 74 + D= ? FH=@ HA?EA JA A JA # H@A =@ HAI A I= > =@ I A 6=EM= 0= =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A = I # H@A =@ HAI FHAIA JA = C @ABA?J = FH >=>E E@=@ AI 0.0015 > ,A I ?E ? H@A =@ HAI D=O= = A IK GKA FHAIA JA = C @ABA?J GKA = $

-I K IK?AI ? F A A J=HE = IK?AI J @ I AIJ FH >=>E E@=@ AI 1 0.9995

>EA

F H

% ,=@ A CH=B ?KO= =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I AI = GKA =F=HA?A = ? JE K=?E H= AIA = HAIFKAIJ= = ?=@= K = @A =I IECKEA JAI FHACK J=I -I ? AN -I AK AHE= -I D= E J E= -I >EF=HJE@ 5A AIA IE A CH=B AI @A = CK @A I JEF I GKA =F=HA?A = ? JE K=?E H> HKA@= ?K> ?E?

A=

0 1 1 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 0

!#&

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

4AFHAIA J= @ A CH=B IA >IAHL= GKA AI ? AN AI AK AHE= FKAI JEA A L HJE?AI @A CH=@ E F=H AI >EF=HJE@ - ABA?J J = I A L HJE?A  + A L HJE?A O A " I =@O=?A JAI ? @A>A AIJ=H A A EI IK>? K J @A L HJE?AI GKA A  FAH I =@O=?A JAI A JHA I GKA ALEJ= = F IE>E E@=@ @A IAH >EF=HJE@ FKA@A IAH 0= E J E= F HGKA ? JEA A K L HJE?A @A CH=@  AI K H> F HGKA ? JEA A ?E? I F H A A F A "! AI K = HKA@= F HGKA A K = HKA@= J @ I I L HJE?AI I= L K JEA A CH=@ @ I AI K ?E? F HGKA A K ?E? J @ I I L HJE?AI JEA A CH=@ AI K ?K> FKAI JEA A % L HJE?AI & - K ?EAHJ @AF=HJ= A J ? LELA &# FAHI =I 4AIF @AH = =I IECKEA JAI FHACK J=I = -I F IE> A GKA ?=@= EA >H @A @AF=HJ= A J IA ALA = ? AN=? J= A JA # @A I EA >H I HAIJ= JAI + IJHKE I K CH=B IE F A ?KO ? K J @A L HJE?AI AI A ? K J @A FAHI =I O @ I L HJE?AI I =@O=?A JAI IE =I ? HHAIF @EA JAI FAHI =I IA AL= = - =I DEF JAIEI @A = A CH=@ @A ?=@= L HJE?A AI # GKA FH @K?A K CH=B IE F A ? K = ?= JE@=@ E F=H @A L HJE?AI @A CH=@ F=H GKA AI K = ? JH=@E??E 1 @E?=?E KJE E =H K CH=B A A GKA I L HJE?AI IA= =I FAHI =I O D=O K = =HEIJ= A JHA ?=@= @ I FAHI =I GKA IA AL= = > 0=O = A I @ I FAHI =I ? AN=?J= A JA A EI AH @A = EC I A A @AF=HJ= A J 1 @E?=?E 5A =? IA = H= =H F H HA@K??E = =>IKH@  + IJHKE I K = BK ?E AH @A = EC I GKA =IEC = = ?=@= FAHI = A AH @A = EC I GKA JEA A - J ?AI =F=HA?A K = =F E?=?E @A N85 A N84 GKA FKA@A IAH E OA?JEL= GKA C=H= JE = GKA > AI ?EAHJ= ' ,E>K =H I # CH=B I @EHECE@ I FK@EA @ D=>AH = I =HEIJ=I K JEF AI GKA ANEIJA I= L EI H I I ? " L HJE?AI @A CH=@ HA?KAH@= GKA K = I >HA K L HJE?A =F HJ= @ I K E@=@AI = CH=@ @A AIA L HJE?A - ? K J @A L HJE?AI AI N4 O GKA FKA@A IAH E := {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)} GKA ?= >E= AI A ? K J @A =HEIJ=I

!#'

E E E E

:= {(1, 2), (1, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)} := {(1, 2), (1, 2), (3, 4), (3, 4)} := {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 1)} := {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 4)}
K J N7 IA ? IE@AH= = HA =?E

 - A ?

R @AJAH E =@= F H

a, b N7 , (aRb (a + b) < 5) .
4AFHAIA J=H = HA =?E A@E= JA K @ECH=B -IJK@E=H IE AI HA ANEL= IE JHE?= O JH= IEJEL= += ?K =H = ? =KIKH= JH= IEJEL= - @ECH=B JEA A ? L HJE?AI A ? K J N7 O ? =HEIJ=I A ? K J

R := {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3), (3, 1), (2, 2)}.
AI HA ANEL= FKAI (7, 7) / R -I IE JHE?= FKAIJ GKA IE a + b < 5 A J ?AI b + a < 5 AI = JEIE JHE?= FKAIJ GKA (1, 2), (2, 1) R AI JH= IEJEL= FKAI (3, 1), (1, 3) R O (3, 3) / R 5A JEA A GKA Ct = R {(3, 3)}

!$

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

=JA

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= .1 )

-:) -

  5AFJEA >HA = @KH=?E @A AN= A AI @A ! D H=I O A@E= 5A F @H KJE E =H E>H I O =FK JAI A IK HA= E =?E IA FAH EJA A KI @A ?= ?K =@ H=I 6 @= HAIFKAIJ= GKA AIJ =@A?K=@= A JA H= =@= IA ? J=    # FJ I ,AJAH E =H IE A IECKEA JA H=

IE@AH=H E ? HHA?

= EA J AI LAH@=@AH

5E I C= = ?=HHAH= A J ?AI 2A@H BKA A IACK @ 4= BKA A IACK @ 5E 2A@H BKA A IACK @ A J ?AI I C= = ?=HHAH= 5E +=H I BKA A IACK @ A J ?AI 4= BKA A IACK @ I C= = ?=HHAH= KAC +=H I BKA A IACK @
  # FJ I  5A= P (x) A FHA@E?=@ N I=>A D=> =H HKI O Q(x) A FHA@E?=@ N I=>A FH CH= =H A + - A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI @A I = K I @A = AI?KA = AI?HE>EH =I IECKEA JAI BH=IAI A A CK= A B H = ? ?K= JE ?=@ HAI E 0=O K = K A = AI?KA = GKA I=>A D=> =H A HKI O FH CH= =H A + EE 0=O K = K A = AI?KA = GKA I=>A D=> =H HKI O I=>A FH CH= =H A + EEE +=@= = K @A = AI?KA = I=>A D=> =H A HKI FH CH= =H A +  FJ  ,=H J @=I =I I K?E AI @A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A ? CHKA ?E=I

x 2(mod 3) x 5(mod 7) x 1(mod 5)

! 5A= A IECKEA JA = C HEJ - JH=@= n N ? 

!$ . HE J . H 5= E@= ?

J E ? ?

E  FJ  -NF E?=H GK D=?A A = C HEJ O @=H K = B H K = F=H= = I= E@= EE  FJ  -IJK@E=H A H@A @A ? F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ " 5A= K = HA@ @A $ H@A =@ HAI K AH=@ I @A  = $ @AI?HEJ= F H K CH=B ?KO= =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I AI = IECKEA JA

0 1 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 0 1

0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0

5A= p = 0.1 = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K ?=> A GKA K A @ I H@A =@ HAI =@O=?A JAI IA @= A E  FJ  +K AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA IA AIJH FAA = A I @ I ?=> AI EE  FJ  +K AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K A I= A GKA F=HJA @A H@A =@ H K AH=@ ? K  ACKA = H@A =@ H K AH=@ ? K JA EA @ A ?KA J= = E B H =?E I >HA = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA IA @= A K = ? ANE # 5A= = IECKEA JA (V, A) =JHE = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A K CH=B IE F A G =

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
F

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
A JAI ? AN=I @A CH=B

E  # FJ I  ,AJAH E =H A

AH @A ?

!$ EE  # FJ =HEIJ= (1, 5) A EEE  # FJ EL  # FJ $ 5A= A ?

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

I  ,AJAH E =H IE G AI K H> ,AJAH E =H IE = = =@EH = KAL CH=B (V, A {(1, 5)}) AI K H> I  ,AJAH E =H I CH=@ I @A J @ I I L HJE?AI @A G I  ,AJAH E =H IE A CH=B (V, A {(1, 5)}) AI -K AHE=

K J

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 7, 54, 34, 52, 21, 11, 12, 13, 16, 112}.
- A @A E I = IECKEA JA HA =?E IA= a, b A A J ?AI aRb IE O I = A JA IE a b 0(mod 3) E  FJ  ,A IJH=H GKA R AI K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= A A EE  # FJ I  4AFHAIA J=H = A@E= JA K CH=B EEE  # FJ I  ,AI?HE>EH J @=I =I ? =IAI @A AGKEL= A ?E= @A A @K = HA =?E R

!$!

=JA -:) -

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= .1 ) 4-57- 6

  5AFJEA >HA = @KH=?E @A AN= A AI @A ! D H=I O A@E= 5A F @H KJE E =H E>H I O =FK JAI A IK HA= E =?E IA FAH EJA A KI @A ?= ?K =@ H=I 6 @= HAIFKAIJ= GKA AIJ =@A?K=@= A JA H= =@= IA ? J=    # FJ I ,AJAH E =H IE A IECKEA JA H=

IE@AH=H E ? HHA?

= EA J AI LAH@=@AH

5E I C= = ?=HHAH= A J ?AI 2A@H BKA A IACK @ 4= BKA A IACK @ 5E 2A@H BKA A IACK @ A J ?AI I C= = ?=HHAH= 5E +=H I BKA A IACK @ A J ?AI 4= BKA A IACK @ I C= = ?=HHAH= KAC +=H I BKA A IACK @
-I A A AH?E?E % @A I =FK JAI

  # FJ I  5A= P (x) A FHA@E?=@ N I=>A D=> =H HKI O Q(x) A FHA@E?=@ N I=>A FH CH= =H A + - A K ELAHI @A @EI?KHI @A I = K I @A = AI?KA = AI?HE>EH =I IECKEA JAI BH=IAI A A CK= A B H = ? ?K= JE ?=@ HAI E 0=O K = K A = AI?KA = GKA I=>A D=> =H A HKI O FH CH= =H A +

x U (P (x) Q(x))
EE 0=O K = K A + A = AI?KA = GKA I=>A D=> =H HKI O I=>A FH CH= =H

x U (P (x) Q(x))
EEE +=@= = K @A = AI?KA = I=>A D=> =H A HKI FH CH= =H A +

x U (P (x) Q(x))

!$"

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5 CHKA ?E=I

 FJ  ,=H J @=I =I I K?E

AI @A IECKEA JA IEIJA = @A ?

x 2(mod 3) x 5(mod 7) x 1(mod 5)

+ ! # O % I FHE I A JA HA = ?DE @A I HAIJ I C=H= JE = = ANEIJA ?E= @A K = I K?E E?= @K 3 7 5 = 105 2 H J= J J @=I =I I K?E AI I @A = B H =

x = 26 + 105k k Z.
! 5A= A IECKEA JA = C HEJ - JH=@= n N ?  . HE J . H J E ? ? 5= E@= ? E  FJ  -NF E?=H GK D=?A A = C HEJ I= E@= = I= E@= AI O @=H K = B H K = F=H= =

c := 1 + (1 + 2) + (1 + 2 + 3) + ... + (1 + 2 + ... + n)
EE  FJ  -IJK@E=H A H@A @A ? F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ 0=O @ I >K? AI A >K? A j IA HAFEJA n LA?AI O ?=@= LA GKA AIJA IA ABA?J = IA HA= E = @A H@A @A i FAH=?E AI A A >K? A j F H J= J = ? F A E@=@ AI ?K=@H JE?= " 5A= K = HA@ @A $ H@A =@ HAI K AH=@ I @A  = $ @AI?HEJ= F H K CH=B ?KO= =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I AI = IECKEA JA

0 1 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 0 1

0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0

!$# 5A= p = 0.1 = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K ?=> A GKA K A @ I H@A =@ HAI =@O=?A JAI IA @= A E  FJ  +K AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA IA AIJH FAA = A I @ I ?=> AI -IJK@E= @ A CH=B >IAHL= I GKA ? JEA A $ =HEIJ=I F H J= J JA A I K ANFAHE A J @A *AH KE E GKA IA HAFEJA $ LA?AI ? FH >=>E E@=@ p = 0.1 @A NEJ O I FHACK J= I F H A IK?AI = A I @ I NEJ I IK FH >=>E E@=@ AI

6 i=2

6 i p (1 p)1i . i

EE  FJ  +K AI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K A I= A GKA F=HJA @A H@A =@ H K AH=@ ? K  ACKA = H@A =@ H K AH=@ ? K JA EA @ A ?KA J= = E B H =?E I >HA = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA IA @= A K = ? ANE 5A @A>A H FAH IE J= A= A JA A ?=> A (1, 2) O = A I K @A I ?=> AI IECKEA JAI (1, 5), (5, 4), (4, 3), (3, 2) 2 H J= J

p(1 (1 p)4 ).
# 5A= = IECKEA JA (V, A) =JHE = =JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A K CH=B IE F A G =

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
F

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
A JAI ? AN=I @A CH=B ! "O

E  # FJ I  ,AJAH E =H A

AH @A ?

6EA A @ I ? F A JAI ? AN=I = GKA ? = GKA ? JEA A = I L HJE?AI # $ % &

JEA A =

I L HJE?AI 

EE  # FJ I  ,AJAH E =H IE G AI K H> ,AJAH E =H IE = = =@EH = =HEIJ= (1, 5) A KAL CH=B (V, A {(1, 5)}) AI K H>

!$$

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

G AI K H> FKAI AI ? AN ) = =@EH @E?D= =HEIJ= IA >JEA A = ? JEA A A ?E? 2342

EEE  # FJ I  ,AJAH E =H = IK?AIE =JHE AI @A I CH=@ I IECKEA @

ANE

FAH

AI K

H>

F HGKA

I CH=@ I @A J @ I = H@A =?E

I L HJE?AI @A G @A L HJE?AI GKA =H?=

(1, 3, 2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 1).
EL  # FJ I  ,AJAH E =H IE A CH=B (V, A {(1, 5)}) AI -K AHE= AI FKAI ? $ 5A= A ? K J JEA A L HJE?AI @A CH=@ E F=H

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 7, 54, 34, 52, 21, 11, 12, 13, 16, 112}.
- A @A E I = IECKEA JA HA =?E IA= a, b A A J ?AI aRb IE O I = A JA IE a b 0(mod 3) E  FJ  ,A IJH=H GKA R AI K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= A A -I HA ANEL= FKAIJ GKA a a = 0 0(mod 3) -I IE JHE?= FKAIJ GKA IE a b 0(mod 3) A J ?AI b a 0(mod 3) -I JH= IEJEL= FKAIJ GKA IE a b 0(mod 3) O b c 0(mod 3) A J ?AI (a b) + (b c) = a c 0(mod 3) EE  # FJ I  4AFHAIA J=H = - ? A@E= JA K CH=B K J @A L HJE?AI AI A 5A=

A1 := {1, 4, 7, 13, 16, 34, 52, 112} A2 := {2, 8, 11} A3 := {3, 54, 21, 12}.
- J ?AI A ? K J @A =HEIJ=I @A CH=B AI

E := A1 A1 A2 A2 A3 A3 .
EEE  # FJ I  ,AI?HE>EH J @=I =I ? =IAI @A AGKEL= A ?E= @A A HA =?E R - ? ?EA JA A/R JEA A JHAI A A A J I A1 A2 O A3 @K =

!$%

=JA +

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= 64
 

- AH?E?E  # FK J I ,A
F H # F=H= ?=@= AH

IJH=H F H E @K??E =JKH= n

GKA 42n 1 AI @ELEIE> A

- AH?E?E

GKA @=@= K = EIJ= @A A JAH I A ?KA JHA A FHE AH J H E @A = EIJ= GKA AI ECK= GKA = CK @A I = JAHE HAI -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@

# FK J I ,EIA =H K = C HEJ

!$&

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

=JA + 64

JE?= ,EI?HAJ=  HAIKA J

 

- AH?E?E  # FK J I ,A
F H # F=H= ?=@= AH *=IA @A E @K??E 2=I @A E @K??E J= GKA ,A>A I @A + 5KF

IJH=H F H E @K??E =JKH= n

GKA 42n 1 AI @ELEIE> A

42 1 = 15 IA JEA A GKA AI @ELEIE> A F H #

C= I F H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E GKA ANEIJA t Z

42n 1 = 15t.
I

IJH=H GKA 42(n+1) 1 AI @ELEIE> A F H # -I?HE>E

42(n+1) 1 = 42n+2 1 = 42 42n 1.

7I= I = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E

42(n+1) 1 = 42 (15t + 1) 1 = 42 15t + 16 1 = 42 15t + 15.

+ ?K= AI JEF @A #

- AH?E?E

# FK J I ,EIA =H K = C HEJ GKA @=@= K = EIJ= @A A JAH I A ?KA JHA A FHE AH J H E @A = EIJ= GKA AI ECK= GKA = CK @A I = JAHE HAI -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@
- JH=@= a1 , ..., an c := 0 . Hi=2J n . H j =1 J i1 1B aj = ai JDA c := j j := n + 1 i := n + 1 1B c := 0 JDA c := D=O A A A J I HAFAJE@ I 5= E@= c

!$' - ?=I FA H AI A ?=I A GKA D=O A A A J I HAFAJE@ I - >K? A E JAH IA HAFEJA i 1 LA?AI ?=@= K = @A =I ?K= AI ABA?J = K = ?= JE@=@ ? IJ= JA @A FAH=?E AI K = ? F=H=?E O A =K A J @A ? J=@ H j AIJ AI ! 2 H J= J = BK ?E T (n) IAH

T (n) = 3 + 3 2 + 2 + 3 3 + 2 + 3 4 + 2 + .. + 3 n + 2 + 1
@ @A A FHE =?E AI @A >K? A I@ ? F=H=?E 2 H J= J AH ! AIJ B H =@ F H = =IEC =?E E E?E= = = c O =I =IEC = I= E@= - ! GKA K JEF E?= I =I FAH=?E AI @A IACK @ IAI ? HHAIF @A = =K A J @A ? J=@ H i - K = AI = GKA I I=?= @A >K? A

O(T (n)) = O(n2 ).

@A ? F A E@=@ ?K=@H JE?=

-I K = C HEJ

!%

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

=JA +

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= 64
 

- AH?E?E  # FK J I ,A

IJH=H F H E @K??E

A IECKEA JA DA?D

1 + 2 + 22 + ... + 2n = 2n+1 1

# FK J I + IJHKEH K = C HEJ GKA JA C= ? A JH=@= K = EIJ= @A AH I A JAH I O >JA C= ? I= E@= A FHE AH A A A J @A = EIJ= GKA AI AIJHE?J= A JA A H GKA A E A@E=J= A JA FHA?A@A JA -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@

- AH?E?E

!%

=JA + 64

JE?= ,EI?HAJ=  HAIKA J

 

- AH?E?E  # FK J I ,A

IJH=H F H E @K??E

A IECKEA JA DA?D

1 + 2 + 22 + ... + 2n = 2n+1 1
*=IA @A E @K??E AI ?EAHJ 2=I @A E @K??E 2=H= n = 1 = B H K = @E?A GKA 1 + 2 = 22 1 + GKA

1 + 2 + ... + 2n + 2n+1 = (1 + 2 + .. + 2n ) + 2n+1 ,

=F E?= @ = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E IA JEA A = B H K = >KI?=@=

1 + 2 + ... + 2n + 2n+1 = 2n+1 1 + 2n+1 = 2n+2 1.

- AH?E?E # FK J I + IJHKEH K = C HEJ GKA JA C= ? A JH=@= K = EIJ= @A AH I A JAH I O >JA C= ? I= E@= A FHE AH A A A J @A = EIJ= GKA AI AIJHE?J= A JA A H GKA A E A@E=J= A JA FHA?A@A JA -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@
- JH=@= a1 an S := 0 . H i = 2 J n MDE A S := 0 if ai < ai 1 S := 1 EB S = 0 JDA r := D=O A A A J I LAHE ?= @ 5= E@= r -I K = C HEJ @A ? F A E@=@ E A= FKAI I K = ?= JE@=@ ? IJ= JA @A FAH=?E AI

=?

@E?E

A IA r := ai1

D=O K >K? A GKA HA= E =

!%

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

=JA +

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= 64
 

5A= = IECKEA JA G = (V, E )

=JHE K =

=JHE @A =@O=?A ?E=I @A K

CH=B IE F A

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AH

 ,AJAH E =H A @A =HEIJ=I @A /

AH @A L HJE?AI A CH=@ @A ?=@= L HJE?A O A F A JAI ? E F

,AJAH E =H =I @EIJE J=I ? L HJE?AI O =HEIJ=I ? ! ,AJAH E =H ?K J=I =HEIJ=I ? LAHJEH A K CH=B ? AN

AN=I @A / AI?HE>EA @ IKI IA D= @A = =@EH = G F=H= A JAI ? AN=I @A / AI

" ,AJAH E =H IE ?=@= K = @A =I ? -K AHE= = # 1@A GKA " ? 0= E J E= =

!%! $ 5A= A CH=B IE F A H = (V , E ) @A E@ ? E {{10, 2}, {2, 9}} 8AHE ?=H GKA H AI ? AN O ? -K AHE= % + FKJ=H K H> CA AH=@ H @A H FKJ=@ A A =F=HJ=@ = JAHE H AI A & -NF E?=H IE A H> CA AH=@ H ? E? H> CA AH=@ H @A H

V = V O E = FH >=H IE AI

' 5E = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA IA @= A K ?=> A A K = HA@ HAFHAIA J=@= F H A CH=B H  I L HJE?AI I @ I O =I =HEIJ=I I ?=> AI A JHA @ I 2 AI 10 ,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA B= A K = ? K E?=?E A JHA I L HJE?AI  O #  1@A GKA & A JHA I L HJE?AI O%

!%"

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

=JA + 64

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= HAIKA J

 

5A= = IECKEA JA (V, E )

=JHE K =

=JHE @A =O=?A ?E=I @A K CH=B IE F A G =

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

 ,AJAH E =H A AH @A L HJE?AI A CH=@ @A ?=@= L HJE?A O A AH @A =HEIJ=I @A / AH @A L HJE?AI AI # FKAI AI A AH @A =I ? K =I @A = =JHE 5K = @ I  @A ?=@= = JA A I A CH=@ @A ?=@= L HJE?A H@A =@ I @A  = # I CH=@ I I

4, 1, 3, 3, 2, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 2.
AH @A =HEIJ=I AI = AIJ AI & EJ=@ @A = IK = @A I CH=@ I @A I L HJE?AI

!%# ,AJAH E =H =I @EIJE J=I ? F A JAI ? AN=I @A / AI?HE>EA @ IKI L HJE?AI O =HEIJ=I =I JHAI ? F A JAI ? AN=I I (Vi , Ei ) ? i {1, 2, 3} @A @ GKA

V1 = {1, 4, 3, 10, 15}, V2 = {2, 5, 6, 7, 8}, V3 = {9, 11, 12, 13, 14} E1 = {{1, 3}, {1, 15}, {1, 10}, {10, 3}, {4, 3}, {15, 4}, {1, 4}} E2 = {{2, 5}, {6, 5}, {6, 7}, {7, 8}, {8, 6}} E3 = {{11, 9}, {11, 12}, {12, 9}, {11, 14}, {12, 13}, {13, 14}}
! ,AJAH E =H ?K J=I =HEIJ=I ? LAHJEH A K CH=B ? AN *=IJ= = =@EH @ I =HEIJ=I F H A A F =HEIJ= AI IK ?EA JA F HGKA I F @H = I E IA D= @A = =@EH = G F=H=

=I =HEIJ=I {10, 2} O {2, 9} 7 = I ? A?J=H @ I ? F A JAI A JHA

" ,AJAH E =H IE ?=@= K = @A =I ? F A JAI ? AN=I @A / AI -K AHE= = E CK = AI F HGKA J @=I ? JEA A L HJE?AI @A CH=@ E F=H # 1@A GKA " ? 0= E J E= = = FHE AH= AI 0= E J E= = K ?EH?KEJ 0= E J E= AI 4, 3, 10, 1, 15, 4 = IACK @= AI F HGKA JEA A L HJE?AI @A CH=@  = JAH?AH= AI F HGKA ? JEA A = ?EH?KEJ 0= E J E=

11, 9, 12, 13, 14, 11

$ 5A= A CH=B IE F A H = (V , E ) @A E@ ? V E {{10, 2}, {2, 9}} 8AHE ?=H GKA H AI ? AN O ? FH -K AHE= -I ? AN F HGKA IA D= ? A?J=@ =I @EIJE J=I ? F AI -K AHE= F HGKA F H A A F A L HJE?A  JEA A CH=@ % + FKJ=H K H> CA AH=@ H @A H

= V O E = >=H IE AI
A JAI ? ! AN=I

!%$

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- -5 4-57- 6 5 F HAA F =I =HEIJ=I

0=O GKA D=?AH @AI=F=HA?AH I ?E? I 3KEJ= @ {6, 8} {3, 10} {3, 4} {15, 4} {9, 12} O {11, 14}

& -NF E?=H IE A H> CA AH=@ H ? FKJ=@ A A =F=HJ=@ = JAHE H AI A E? H> CA AH=@ H @A H AI IA F @H = F H A A F J =H = =HEIJ= {6, 8} O GKEJ=H A IK KC=H = =HEIJ= {6, 7} ' 5E = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA IA @= A K ?=> A A K = HA@ HAFHAIA J=@= F H A CH=B H  I L HJE?AI I @ I O =I =HEIJ=I I ?=> AI A JHA @ I AI 102 ,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA B= A K = ? K E?=?E A JHA I L HJE?AI  O # ,A>A ANJH FA=HIA A ?=> A {10, 2} A {2, 5} 2 H GKA = FH >=>E E@=@ AI 2 102  1@A GKA ' A JHA I L HJE?AI O % 5A E F IE>E EJ= = ? K E?=?E IE >EA IA @AJAHE H= A ?=> A {2, 5} >EA A ?=> A {5, 6} >EA A ?=> A {6, 7} O = A I K @A A JHA I ?=> AI {6, 8} O {7, 8} 2 H J= J 2 102 + 102 (2 102 (1 102 ) + 104 )

!%%

=JA

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= .1 ) )
.A>HAH

-:)  

= @KH=?E @A AN= A AI @A ! D H=I O A@E= 5A F @H KJE E =H E>H I O =FK JAI A IK HA= E =?E IA FAH EJA A KI @A ?= ?K =@ H=I 6 @= HAIFKAIJ= GKA AIJ =@A?K=@= A JA H= =@= IA ? IE@AH=H E ? HHA? J= = FK JK=?E @A ?=@= A AH?E?E IA E @E?= A A EI - JE A AH?E?E I JEA A GKA D=?AH I = K I =? CE@ I = AL= K= ?E ? JE K= 2=H= AIJ I = K I I FH > A =I  " O $ L= A  # FK J I O A JE L= A FK J I   FK J I F=H= I = K I @A AL= K=?E ? JE K=  # F=H= A HAIJ  5A= = IECKEA JA =JHE K = =JHE @A =O=?A ?E=I @A K CH=B IE F A G = (V, E )

0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

E ,AJAH E =H A AH @A L HJE?AI O A AH @A =HEIJ=I @A / EE ,AJAH E =H IE G AI ? AN ,AJAH E =H IE G AI -K AHE=

!%&

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- -5 4-57- 6 5

EEE ,AJAH E =H I L HJE?AI @A CH=@ =O H ECK= GKA " EL + FKJ=H IE AI F IE> A K H> CA AH=@ H @A G 5E G AI J =H = ? F A JA ? AN= ? =O H AH @A L HJE?AI O ? AI F IE> A K H> CA AH=@ H @A @E?D= ? F A JA ,A

? AN FKJ=H IE

 FK J I F=H= I = K I @A AL= K=?E ? JE K=  # F=H= A HAIJ  IJH=H F H E @K??E GKA F=H= ?=@= n AH =JKH= IA LAHE ?= E 7n AI E F=H EE 11n 1 AI K JEF @A #

!  FK J  5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B IE F A ? AN J= GKA |V | = 30 ,AJAH E =H A AH E @A =HEIJ=I GKA FKA@A JA AH ,AJAH E =H A AH NE @A =HEIJ=I GKA FKA@A JA AH "  FK J I F=H= I = K I @A AL= K=?E ? JE K=  # F=H= A HAIJ  + IJHKEH K = C HEJ GKA JA C= ? A JH=@= K = EIJ= @A AH I A JAH I a1 an K A JAH b O K AH =JKH= p = 1 AI @A?EH - JH=@= a1

an b p ai , b Z p N {1})

O ? I= E@= = EIJ= H@A =@= A A H@A A GKA =F=HA?A A = EIJ= @A = A JH=@= @A I A A A J I @A = EIJ= @A = A JH=@= GKA LAHE ?= IAH ? CHKA JAI ? b @K p -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@ #  FK J  5A= A O B =I IECKEA JAI FH F IE?E AI

A := (p q ) (r s) B := (p r) (q s)
,A IJH=H GKA A E F E?= CE?= A JA B

$  FK J I F=H= I = K I @A AL= K=?E ? JE K=  # F=H= A HAIJ  5A= K CH=B IE F A G = (V , E ) HAFHAIA J=@ F H = =JHE M GKA AI K = @A IKI =JHE?AI @A =O=?A ?E=

0 1 M= 0 1

1 0 0 1

0 0 0 1

1 1 1 0

!%' - A ? K J V @A I L HJE?AI @A G IA AIJ=> A?A K = HA =?E R IAC = ?K= @=@ I v, w V IA JEA A GKA vRw IE O I = A JA IE ANEIJA K ?= E A G @A CEJK@ K EA @ v ? w -IJK@E=H IE = HA =?E R AI HA ANEL= IE JHE?= = JEIE JHE?= O JH= IEJEL=  JAIA GKA ANEIJA K = =@A?K=@= = AH= @A HAFHAIA J=H = E B H =?E I >HA I ?= E I @A CEJK@ @ I A J H E I @A M 

- AH?E?E =@E?E = F=H= ? JE K=  FK J I

I =K

=? CE@ I = AL= K=?E

5A D= @A A ACEH K ? EJ @A k FAHI =I @A K ? K J @A % K AHAI O " D >HAI ,A ?K J=I = AH=I IA FKA@A A ACEH @E?D ? EJ IE = D= @A AIJ=H B H =@ F H # FAHI =I @A I ?K= AI ! I D >HAI O K AHAI > A ? EJ FKA@A AIJ=H B H =@ F H ?K= GKEAH AH @A FAHI =I IEA FHA O ?K= @ D=O= A EI AH @A D >HAI GKA @A K AHAI ? A ? EJ JEA A " FAHI =I @A =I ?K= AI = A I @ I @A =I ?K= AI I K AHAI @ A ? EJ JEA A " FAHI =I @ I @A ?=@= IAN FAH A 5H 4= HA FKA@A AIJ=H A A ? EJ ? = IA H= / A

!&

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=JA -:) -

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= .1 ) ) HAIKA J

.A>HAH

 

  FK J I 5A= = IECKEA JA IE F A G = (V, E )

=JHE K =

=JHE @A =O=?A ?E=I @A K CH=B

0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

E ,AJAH E =H A AH @A L HJE?AI O A AH @A =HEIJ=I @A / + = =JHE JEA A # =I O # ? K =I A J ?AI G JEA A # L HJE?AI 2 @A I ?= ?K =H A CH=@ @A ?=@= L HJE?A LEA @ A AH @A K I GKA D=O A ?=@= =  A ?=@= ? K = @A AIJ= = AH= = IK?AIE @A I CH=@ I @A I L HJE?AI AI $ ! ! " ! ! !  + = IK = @A I CH=@ I @A I L HJE?AI AI " A CH=B JEA A  =HEIJ=I EE ,AJAH E =H IE G AI ? AN ,AJAH E =H IE G AI -K AHE= + A L HJE?A  AI =@O=?A JA ? I L HJE?AI ! "  O " J @ I A I AIJ A = EI = ? F A JA AI =@O=?A JA ? A # A # AI ? A $ O IJA ? A % ? A & O ? A ' ,A AIJA @ O= JA A I GKA I IECKEA JAI L HJE?AI AIJ A = EI = ? F A JA ? AN=  ! " # $ % & '  O " - CH=B AI A J ?AI ? AN F HGKA A # AI =@O=?A JA ? A

!& " A  ? A ' A  ? A  O A ! ? A  E?= ? F A JA ? AN= - CH=B AI AK AHE= CH=@ E F=H F H A A F A ! GKA JEA A CH=@ ! ,A AIJA @ D=O K = F HGKA D=O L HJE?AI @A

EEE ,AJAH E =H I L HJE?AI @A CH=@ =O H ECK= GKA " - L HJE?A  JEA A CH=@ $ O A L HJE?A $ JEA A CH=@ " A HAIJ @A L HJE?AI JEA A CH=@ A H

EL + FKJ=H IE AI F IE> A K H> CA AH=@ H @A G 5E G AI ? AN J =H = ? F A JA ? AN= ? =O H AH @A L HJE?AI O ? FKJ=H IE AI F IE> A K H> CA AH=@ H @A @E?D= ? F A JA + G AI ? AN IA FKA@A ? FKJ=H K H> CA AH=@ H A E E = @ K = =HEIJ= A ?=@= ?E? F=H= GKA IJ I @AI=F=HA ?= + D=O # L HJE?AI A H> JA @H " =HEIJ=I @A @ GKA D=O GKA GKEJ=H $ 2 H A A F F @A I GKEJ=H {3, 10} {3, 4} {4, 15} {7, 8} {11, 14} O {11, 12}  FK J I ,A IA LAHE ?= E 7n AI E F=H EE 11n 1 AI K IJH=H F H E @K??E GKA F=H= ?=@= n AH =JKH=

JEF

@A #

E + 71 = 7 GKA AI K AH E F=H = = H =?E E AI ?EAHJ= F=H= n=1 5E 7n AI E F=H A J ?AI ANEIJA K AH A JAH k @A @ GKA 7n = 2k + 1 ,A AIJA @ IA ? ? KOA

7n+1 = 7 7n = 7 (2k + 1) = 2 (7k + 3) + 1.

EE + 111 1 = 10 = 2 5 IA JEA A GKA = = H =?E EE AI ?EAHJ= F=H= n=1 5E 11n 1 AI K JEF @A # A J ?AI ANEIJA K A JAH k @A @ GKA n 11 = 5k + 1 ,A AIJA @ IA ? ? KOA

11n+1 1 = 11 11n 1 = 11(5k + 1) 1 = 11 5k + 11 1 = 55k + 10 = 5(11k + 2).

!  FK J  5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B IE F A ? AN J= GKA |V | = 30 ,AJAH E =H A AH E @A =HEIJ=I GKA FKA@A JA AH ,AJAH E =H A AH NE @A =HEIJ=I GKA FKA@A JA AH

!&

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AH E @A =HEIJ=I JEA A ?K= @ AI K H> A J ?AI JEA A ' =HEIJ=I NE AH @A =HEIJ=I JEA A ?K= @ AI A CH=B ? F AJ K30 ? ! L HJE?AI ?=@= K ? CH=@ ' F H J= J ? 15 29 =HEIJ=I "  FK J I + IJHKEH K = C HEJ GKA JA C= ? @A AH I A JAH I a1 an K A JAH b O K AH @A?EH - JH=@= a1 A JH=@= K = EIJ= =JKH= p = 1 AI

an b p ai , b Z p N {1})

O ? I= E@= = EIJ= H@A =@= A A H@A A GKA =F=HA?A A = EIJ= @A = A JH=@= @A I A A A J I @A = EIJ= @A = A JH=@= GKA LAHE ?= IAH ? CHKA JAI ? b @K p -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@ - JH=@= a1 an b p j := 0 . Hi=1J n 1B ai b mod p = 0 JDA j := j + 1 = @ cj := ai 1B j = 0 JDA r := D=O A A A J I ? = FH FEA@=@ HAGKAHE@= A IA r := c1 , ..., cj 5= E@= r - JA @A I ? J= = @A = A JH=@= A AH n CEJK@ @A = EIJ= @A = A JH=@= -I K = C HEJ @A ? F A E@=@ E A= O= GKA D=O K >K? A GKA IA HAFEJA n LA?AI O GKA HA= E = K = ?= JE@=@ ? IJ= JA @A FAH=?E AI A A FA H @A I ?=I I $ #  FK J  5A= A O B =I IECKEA JAI FH F IE?E AI

A := (p q ) (r s) B := (p r) (q s)
,A IJH=H GKA A E F E?= CE?= A JA B = E?= F IE>E E@=@ F=H= GKA A E F EGKA CE?= A JA B AI GKA ANEIJ= L= HAI @A LAH@=@ @A =I L=HE=> AI p, q, r, s GKA D=?A GKA A IA= LAH@=@AH O B B= I )D H= >EA IE B AI B= I AI F HGKA p r AI LAH@=@AH O q s AI B= I -I @A?EH p O r LAH@=@AH=I O = CK = A JHA q O s B= I= >I HLAIA GKA A AI = ? K ?E @A @ I E F E?=?E AI - = >=I E F E?=?E AI = DEF JAIEI AI LAH@=@AH= p O r I = >=I LAH@=@AH=I FAH = CK = @A =I JAIEI AI B= I=

!&!  q s I B= I=I F H GKA = ? KAIJH= IKF IE?E A LAH@=@AH= K ?E

A AI B= I= A ?

JH=@E??E

? =JHE

$  FK J I 5A= K CH=B IE F A G = (V , E ) HAFHAIA J=@ F H = M GKA AI K = @A IKI =JHE?AI @A =O=?A ?E=

0 1 M= 0 1

1 0 0 1

0 0 0 1

1 1 1 0

- A ? K J V @A I L HJE?AI @A G IA AIJ=> A?A K = HA =?E R IAC = ?K= @=@ I v, w V IA JEA A GKA vRw IE O I = A JA IE ANEIJA K ?= E A G @A CEJK@ K EA @ v ? w -IJK@E=H IE = HA =?E R AI HA ANEL= IE JHE?= = JEIE JHE?= O JH= IEJEL=  JAIA GKA ANEIJA K = =@A?K=@= = AH= @A HAFHAIA J=H = E B H =?E I >HA I ?= E I @A CEJK@ @ I A J H E I @A M  = =JHE @A = HA =?E IAH = =JHE @A K I O ?AH I @A M 2 AI @AEH K = =JHE ? K K @ @A M 2 JEA A K = A JH=@= K = O K ?AH A A HAIJ @A =I A JH=@=I + M 2 AI

2 1 M= 1 1
- J ?AI = HA =?E = IECKEA JA =JHE GKA GKAHA

1 2 1 1

1 1 1 0

1 1 0 3
A@E= JA

I AIJK@E=H IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 0

1 1 0 1

-I A J ?AI HA ANEL= FKAI = @E=C = JEA A E CK = A JH=@= K = -I IE JHE?= FKAI = =JHE AI IE JHE?= AI = JEIE JHE?= FKAI F H A A F 1R2 O 2R1 6= F ? AI JH=IEJEL= FKAI F H A A F 3R2 O 2R4 FAH ! IA HA =?E = ? "

!&"

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- AH?E?E =@E?E = F=H= ? JE K=  FK J I

D

I =K

=? CE@ I = AL= K=?E

5A D= @A A ACEH K ? EJ @A k FAHI =I @A K ? K J @A % K AHAI O " >HAI ,A ?K J=I = AH=I IA FKA@A A ACEH @E?D ? EJ IE = D= @A AIJ=H B H =@ F H # FAHI =I @A I ?K= AI ! I D >HAI O K AHAI 5A JH=J= @A A ACEH K JH H@A =@ @A D >HAI A JHA I " F IE> AI O K = F=HA = H@A =@= @A K AHAI A JHA =I % F IE> AI 2 H J= J IAH

5 3

7 2

> A ? EJ FKA@A AIJ=H B H =@ F H ?K= GKEAH AH @A FAHI =I IEA FHA O ?K= @ D=O= A EI AH @A D >HAI GKA @A K AHAI ,A AIJA @ FKA@A IAH @AI@A  D >HA O K = K AH A J J=  D=IJ= " D >HAI O " K AHAI A J J= & -IJ AI

74+

7 2

4 7 + 2 3

4 7 + 3 4

4 4

? A ? EJ JEA A " FAHI =I @A =I ?K= AI = A I @ I @A =I ?K= AI I K AHAI - J ?AI I K AHAI O D >HAI JHAI K AHAI O  D >HA " K AHAI 7 7 4 7 4 + + 4 3 1 2 2 @ A ? EJ JEA A " FAHI =I @ I @A ?=@= IAN FKA@A AIJ=H A A ? EJ ? = IA H= / A AH J J= @A ? EJ I AI FAH A 5H 4= HA

7 2

4 2
= AI

AH @A ? EJ I A I GKA AIJ IE K J A= A JA = > I FAHI AI IE F A A JA 6 3 O A HAIK J=@ = AI = @EBAHA ?E=

!&#

=JA

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.A>HAH

-:)  

= @KH=?E @A AN= A AI @A ! D H=I O A@E= 5A F @H KJE E =H E>H I O =FK JAI A IK HA= E =?E IA FAH EJA A KI @A ?= ?K =@ H=I 6 @= HAIFKAIJ= GKA AIJ =@A?K=@= A JA H= =@= IA ? IE@AH=H E ? HHA? J= = FK JK=?E @A ?=@= A AH?E?E IA E @E?= A A EI - JE A AH?E?E I JEA A GKA D=?AH I = K I =? CE@ I = AL= K= ?E ? JE K= 2=H= AIJ I = K I I FH > A =I  " O # L= A  # FK J I O A JE L= A FK J I   FK J I F=H= I = K I @A AL= K=?E ? ,A IJH=H F H E @K??E GKA F=H= ?=@= n AH E 5n AI E F=H EE 21n 1 AI K JEF @A # I @A AL= K=?E ? JE K= O  # F=H= A HAIJ  =JHE @A =O=?A ?E=I @A K CH=B IE F A G = JE K= O  # F=H= A HAIJ  =JKH= IA LAHE ?=

 FK J I F=H= I = K 5A= = IECKEA JA =JHE K = (V, E )

!&$

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0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

E ,AJAH E =H A AH @A L HJE?AI O A AH @A =HEIJ=I @A / EE ,AJAH E =H IE G AI ? AN ,AJAH E =H IE G AI -K AHE= EEE ,AJAH E =H I L HJE?AI @A CH=@ =O H ECK= GKA " EL + FKJ=H IE AI F IE> A K H> CA AH=@ H @A G 5E G AI ? AN J =H = ? F A JA ? AN= ? =O H AH @A L HJE?AI O ? FKJ=H IE AI F IE> A K H> CA AH=@ H @A @E?D= ? F A JA !  FK J  5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B IE F A ? AN J= GKA |V | = 40 ,AJAH E =H A AH E @A =HEIJ=I GKA FKA@A JA AH ,AJAH E =H A AH NE @A =HEIJ=I GKA FKA@A JA AH "  FK J I F=H= I = K I @A AL= K=?E ? JE K= O  # F=H= A HAIJ  + IJHKEH K = C HEJ GKA JA C= ? A JH=@= K = EIJ= @A AH I A JAH I a1 an K A JAH b O K AH =JKH= p = 1 AI @A?EH - JH=@= a1

an b p ai , b Z p N {1})

O? I= E@= = EIJ= H@A =@= A A H@A A GKA =F=HA?A A = EIJ= @A = A JH=@= @A I A A A J I @A = EIJ= @A = A JH=@= GKA LAHE ?= IAH ? CHKA JAI ? b @K p -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@ #  FK J I F=H= I = K I @A AL= K=?E ? JE K= O  # F=H= A HAIJ  5A= K CH=B IE F A G = (V , E ) HAFHAIA J=@ F H = =JHE M GKA AI K =

!&% @A IKI =JHE?AI @A =O=?A ?E=

0 1 M= 0 1

1 0 0 1

0 0 0 1

1 1 1 0

- A ? K J V @A I L HJE?AI @A G IA AIJ=> A?A K = HA =?E R IAC = ?K= @=@ I v, w V IA JEA A GKA vRw IE O I = A JA IE ANEIJA K ?= E A G @A CEJK@ K EA @ v ? w -IJK@E=H IE = HA =?E R AI HA ANEL= IE JHE?= = JEIE JHE?= O JH= IEJEL=  JAIA GKA ANEIJA K = =@A?K=@= = AH= @A HAFHAIA J=H = E B H =?E I >HA I ?= E I @A CEJK@ @ I A J H E I @A M  $  FK J  5A= A O B =I IECKEA JAI FH F IE?E AI

A := (t q ) (u s) B := (t u) (q s)
,A IJH=H GKA A E F E?= CE?= A JA B

5A D= @A A ACEH K ? EJ @A k FAHI =I @A K ? K J @A % K AHAI O " D >HAI ,A ?K J=I = AH=I IA FKA@A A ACEH @E?D ? EJ IE = D= @A AIJ=H B H =@ F H $ FAHI =I @A I ?K= AI " I D >HAI O K AHAI > A ? EJ FKA@A AIJ=H B H =@ F H ?K= GKEAH AH @A FAHI =I IEA FHA O ?K= @ D=O= A EI AH @A D >HAI GKA @A K AHAI ? A ? EJ JEA A $ FAHI =I @A =I ?K= AI = A I @ I @A =I ?K= AI I K AHAI @ A ? EJ JEA A " FAHI =I @ I @A ?=@= IAN FAH A 5H 4= HA FKA@A AIJ=H A A ? EJ ? = IA H= / A

- AH?E?E =@E?E = F=H= JE K=  FK J I

I =K

=? CE@ I = AL= K=?E

!&&

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=JA -:) -

JE?= ,EI?HAJ=

.1 ) 4-57- 6
  .A>HAH

  FK J I ,A IA LAHE ?= E 5n AI E F=H EE 21n 1 AI K

IJH=H F H E @K??E

GKA F=H= ?=@= n

AH

=JKH=

JEF

@A #

E + 51 = 5 GKA AI K AH E F=H = = H =?E E AI ?EAHJ= F=H= n=1 5E 5n AI E F=H A J ?AI ANEIJA K AH A JAH k @A @ GKA 5n = 2k + 1 ,A AIJA @ IA ? ? KOA

5n+1 = 5 5n = 5 (2k + 1) = 2 (5k + 2) + 1.

EE + 211 1 = 20 = 4 5 IA JEA A GKA = = H =?E EE AI ?EAHJ= F=H= n=1 5E 21n 1 AI K JEF @A # A J ?AI ANEIJA K A JAH k @A @ GKA n 21 = 5k + 1 ,A AIJA @ IA ? ? KOA

21n+1 1 = 21 21n 1 = 21(5k + 1) 1 = 21 5k + 21 1 = 21 5k + 20 = 5(21k + 4).

 FK J I 5A= = IECKEA JA IE F A G = (V, E ) =JHE K = =JHE @A =O=?A ?E=I @A K CH=B

!&'

0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

E ,AJAH E =H A AH @A L HJE?AI O A AH @A =HEIJ=I @A / + = =JHE JEA A # =I O # ? K =I A J ?AI G JEA A # L HJE?AI 2 @A I ?= ?K =H A CH=@ @A ?=@= L HJE?A LEA @ A AH @A K I GKA D=O A ?=@= =  A ?=@= ? K = @A AIJ= = AH= = IK?AIE @A I CH=@ I @A I L HJE?AI AI $ ! ! " ! ! !  + = IK = @A I CH=@ I @A I L HJE?AI AI " A CH=B JEA A  =HEIJ=I EE ,AJAH E =H IE G AI ? AN ,AJAH E =H IE G AI -K AHE= + A L HJE?A  AI =@O=?A JA ? I L HJE?AI ! "  O " J @ I A I AIJ A = EI = ? F A JA AI =@O=?A JA ? A # A # AI ? A $ O IJA ? A % ? A & O ? A ' ,A AIJA @ O= JA A I GKA I IECKEA JAI L HJE?AI AIJ A = EI = ? F A JA ? AN=  ! " # $ % & '  O " - CH=B AI A J ?AI ? AN F HGKA A # AI =@O=?A JA ? A " A  ? A ' A  ? A  O A ! ? A  ,A AIJA @ D=O K = E?= ? F A JA ? AN= - CH=B AI AK AHE= F HGKA D=O L HJE?AI @A CH=@ E F=H F H A A F A ! GKA JEA A CH=@ ! EEE ,AJAH E =H I L HJE?AI @A CH=@ =O H ECK= GKA " - L HJE?A  JEA A CH=@ $ O A L HJE?A $ JEA A CH=@ " A HAIJ @A L HJE?AI JEA A CH=@ A H EL + FKJ=H IE AI F IE> A K H> CA AH=@ H @A G 5E G AI J =H = ? F A JA ? AN= ? =O H AH @A L HJE?AI O ? AI F IE> A K H> CA AH=@ H @A @E?D= ? F A JA I

? AN FKJ=H IE

!'

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64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

+ G AI ? AN IA FKA@A ? FKJ=H K H> CA AH=@ H A E E = @ K = =HEIJ= A ?=@= ?E? F=H= GKA IJ I @AI=F=HA ?= + D=O # L HJE?AI A H> JA @H " =HEIJ=I @A @ GKA D=O GKA GKEJ=H $ 2 H A A F F @A I GKEJ=H {3, 10} {3, 4} {4, 15} {7, 8} {11, 14} O {11, 12} !  FK J  5A= G = (V, E ) K CH=B IE F A ? AN J= GKA |V | = 40 ,AJAH E =H A AH E @A =HEIJ=I GKA FKA@A JA AH ,AJAH E =H A AH NE @A =HEIJ=I GKA FKA@A JA AH AH E @A =HEIJ=I JEA A ?K= @ AI K H> A J ?AI JEA A !' =HEIJ=I NE AH @A =HEIJ=I JEA A ?K= @ AI A CH=B ? F AJ K40 ? " L HJE?AI ?=@= K ? CH=@ !' F H J= J ? 20 29 =HEIJ=I "  FK J I + IJHKEH K = C HEJ GKA JA C= ? @A AH I A JAH I a1 an K A JAH b O K AH @A?EH - JH=@= a1 A JH=@= K = EIJ= =JKH= p = 1 AI

an b p ai , b Z p N {1})

O? I= E@= = EIJ= H@A =@= A A H@A A GKA =F=HA?A A = EIJ= @A = A JH=@= @A I A A A J I @A = EIJ= @A = A JH=@= GKA LAHE ?= IAH ? CHKA JAI ? b @K p -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@ - JH=@= a1 an b p j := 0 . Hi=1J n 1B ai b mod p = 0 JDA j := j + 1 = @ cj := ai 1B j = 0 JDA r := D=O A A A J I ? = FH FEA@=@ HAGKAHE@= A IA r := c1 , ..., cj 5= E@= r - JA @A I ? J= = @A = A JH=@= A AH n CEJK@ @A = EIJ= @A = A JH=@= -I K = C HEJ @A ? F A E@=@ E A= O= GKA D=O K >K? A GKA IA HAFEJA n LA?AI O GKA HA= E = K = ?= JE@=@ ? IJ= JA @A FAH=?E AI A A FA H @A I ?=I I $ #  FK J I 5A= K CH=B IE F A G = (V , E ) HAFHAIA J=@ F H = M GKA AI K = @A IKI =JHE?AI @A =O=?A ?E= =JHE

0 1 M= 0 1

1 0 0 1

0 0 0 1

1 1 1 0

!' - A ? K J V @A I L HJE?AI @A G IA AIJ=> A?A K = HA =?E R IAC = ?K= @=@ I v, w V IA JEA A GKA vRw IE O I = A JA IE ANEIJA K ?= E A G @A CEJK@ K EA @ v ? w -IJK@E=H IE = HA =?E R AI HA ANEL= IE JHE?= = JEIE JHE?= O JH= IEJEL=  JAIA GKA ANEIJA K = =@A?K=@= = AH= @A HAFHAIA J=H = E B H =?E I >HA I ?= E I @A CEJK@ @ I A J H E I @A M  = =JHE @A = HA =?E IAH = =JHE @A K I O ?AH I @A M 2 AI @AEH K = =JHE ? K K @ @A M 2 JEA A K = A JH=@= K = O K ?AH A A HAIJ @A =I A JH=@=I + M 2 AI

2 1 M= 1 1
- J ?AI = HA =?E = IECKEA JA =JHE GKA GKAHA

1 2 1 1

1 1 1 0

1 1 0 3
A@E= JA

I AIJK@E=H IA FKA@A HAFHAIA J=H

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 0

1 1 0 1

-I A J ?AI HA ANEL= FKAI = @E=C = JEA A E CK = A JH=@= K = -I IE JHE?= FKAI = =JHE AI IE JHE?= AI = JEIE JHE?= FKAI F H A A F 1R2 O 2R1 6= F ? AI JH=IEJEL= FKAI F H A A F 3R2 O 2R4 FAH ! IA HA =?E = ? " $  FK J  5A= A O B =I IECKEA JAI FH F IE?E AI

A := (t q ) (u s) B := (t u) (q s)
,A IJH=H GKA A E F E?= CE?= A JA B = E?= F IE>E E@=@ F=H= GKA A E F EGKA CE?= A JA B AI GKA ANEIJ= L= HAI @A LAH@=@ @A =I L=HE=> AI t, q, u, s GKA D=?A GKA A IA= LAH@=@AH O B B= I )D H= >EA IE B AI B= I AI F HGKA t u AI LAH@=@AH O q s AI B= I -I @A?EH t O u LAH@=@AH=I O = CK = A JHA q O s B= I= >I HLAIA GKA A AI = ? K ?E @A @ I E F E?=?E AI - = >=I E F E?=?E AI = DEF JAIEI

!'

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

AI LAH@=@AH= t O u I = >=I LAH@=@AH=I FAH = CK = @A =I JAIEI AI B= I=  q s I B= I=I F H GKA = ? K ?E A AI B= I= A ? JH=@E??E ? KAIJH= IKF IE?E A LAH@=@AH=

- AH?E?E =@E?E = F=H= ? JE K=  FK J I

I =K

=? CE@ I = AL= K=?E

5A D= @A A ACEH K ? EJ @A k FAHI =I @A K ? K J @A % K AHAI O " D >HAI ,A ?K J=I = AH=I IA FKA@A A ACEH @E?D ? EJ IE = D= @A AIJ=H B H =@ F H $ FAHI =I @A I ?K= AI " I D >HAI O K AHAI 5A JH=J= @A A ACEH K = F=HA = = H@A =@= @A K AHAI A JHA =I % F IE> AI 2 H J= J IAH 7 2 > A ? EJ FKA@A AIJ=H B H =@ F H ?K= GKEAH AH @A FAHI =I IEA FHA O ?K= @ D=O= A EI AH @A D >HAI GKA @A K AHAI ,A AIJA @ FKA@A IAH @AI@A  D >HA O K = K AH A J J=  D=IJ= " D >HAI O " K AHAI A J J= & -IJ AI

74+

7 2

7 4 + 3 2

7 4 + 4 3

4 4

? A ? EJ JEA A $ FAHI =I @A =I ?K= AI = A I @ I @A =I ?K= AI I K AHAI - J ?AI I K AHAI O " D >HAI JHAI K AHAI O ! D >HAI " K AHAI O D >HAI # K AHAI O  D >HA $ K AHAI

7 2

4 7 + 4 3

4 3

7 4

4 7 + 2 5

4 1

7 6
HA

@ A ? EJ JEA A " FAHI =I @ I @A ?=@= IAN FKA@A AIJ=H A A ? EJ ? = IA H= / A AH J J= @A ? EJ I AI

FAH A 5H 4=

7 2

4 2
= AI

AH @A ? EJ I A I GKA AIJ IE K J A= A JA = > I FAHI AI IE F A A JA 6 3 O A HAIK J=@ = AI = @EBAHA ?E=

!'!

=JA JE?= ,EI?HAJ= -:) - .1 )

  5AFJEA >HA

= @KH=?E @A AN= A AI @A ! D H=I O A@E= 5A F @H KJE E =H E>H I O =FK JAI A IK HA= E =?E IA FAH EJA A KI @A ?= ?K =@ H=I 6 @= HAIFKAIJ= GKA AIJ =@A?K=@= A JA H= =@= IA ? IE@AH=H E ? HHA? J= - AN= A AIJ B H =@ F H % A AH?E?E I = FK JK=?E @A ?=@= A AH?E?E IA E @E?= A A EI   FK J  ,A IA LAHE ?= IJH=H F H E @K??E GKA F=H= ?=@= n AH =JKH=

n i=1
 FK J I 5A= = IECKEA JA IE F A G = (V, E )

1 n = i(i + 1) n+1
=JHE K = =JHE @A =O=?A ?E=I @A K CH=B

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

!'"

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

E ,AJAH E =H A AH @A L HJE?AI O A AH @A =HEIJ=I @A G EE ,AJAH E =H IE G AI ? AN ,AJAH E =H IE G AI -K AHE= EEE ,AJAH E =H I CH=@ I @A ?=@= K @A I L HJE?AI EL + FKJ=H IE AI F IE> A K H> CA AH=@ H @A G 5E G AI ? AN J =H = ? F A JA ? AN= ? =O H AH @A L HJE?AI O ? FKJ=H IE AI F IE> A K H> CA AH=@ H @A @E?D= ? F A JA ? !  FK J  ,AJAH E =H J @ I ?K=JH L HJE?AI I F IE> AI CH=B I IE F AI EI HB I

"  FK J I + IJHKEH K = C HEJ GKA JA C= ? A JAH F IEJEL n O @AJAH E A IE n AI F JA ?E= @A = C AI @A?EH IE ANEIJA JH I @ I A JAH I F IEJEL I a O b ? n = ab 2 AH K A A F @A IK BK ?E = EA J

A JH=@= K AH JH A JAH F IEJEL b > 1 @A @ GKA

#  FK J  E 5A= =I IECKEA JAI FH F IE?E AI A1 := (p q ) A2 := (r q ) A3 := r B := p ,AJAH E =H IE @A A1 A2 O A3 IA @A@K?A CE?= A JA B EE ,AJAH E =H H= =@= A JA IE =I AC=?E AI @A I IECKEA JAI A K ?E= @ I  6 @ I I AIJK@E= JAI LELA A ?=I= @A IKI F=@HAI  6 @ I I E CA EAH I E B H JE? I I L=H AI ! 5E IK A@=@ AI IKFAHE H = # = I @A>A =JHE?K =HIA A A AI @A =C IJ I HAIFA?JEL= A JA  E C AIJK@E= JA LELA A ?=I= @A IKI F=@HAI  0=O = CK = K AH GKA AI E CA EAH= E B H JE?= ! 5E IK A@=@ AI IKFAHE H = # = I @A>A =JHE?K =HIA A =C IJ $  FK J  5A= K = HA@ @A H@A =@ HAI @A =@= IAC A CH=B IE F A G = (V , E ) HAFHAIA J=@ F H = =JHE M GKA AI K = @A IKI =JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E= -IJ GKEAHA @A?EH GKA V HAFHAIA J= A ? K J @A H@A =@ HAI O GKA @ I L HJE?AI @EBAHA JAI I =@O=?A JAI IE IA D= E IJ= =@ K ?=> A @EHA?J

!'# GKA F=I= F H JH H@A =@ H K EA @ I ? HHAIF @EA JAI H@A =@ HAI

0 1 M= 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

- A ? K J @A H@A =@ HAI AIJ=> A?A I = HA =?E R IECKEA JA A H @A =@ H u IA HA =?E = ? v IE I = A JA IE AIJ ? A?J=@ I A = HA@ GKA IA FHAIA J= = JAHE H A JA A JA @A I GKA ?=@= H@A =@ H AIJ >LE= A JA ? A?J=@ ? IEC EI  E -I?HE>EH J @ I I F=HAI GKA B H = = HA =?E EE ,AJAH E =H IE = HA =?E R AI HA ANEL= IE JHE?= O JH= IEJEL= EEE ,AJAH E =H IE AI K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= - ?=I @A GKA IA= AI?HE>EH A ? K J ? ?EA JA V /R %  FK J I E 7 AIJK@E AIJ=@ IJE? KAIJH= GKA A KC=@ H @A >= ?AIJ 5 EJD A ?AIJ= K = = EA J @A JEH E>HA ? FH >=>E E@=@ p = 1/3 = 5E @EIF A @A JHAI = = EA J I @A JEH E>HA @AJAH E =H = FH >= >E E@=@ @A GKA A ?AIJA = A I K @A A I > ,AJAH E =H A AH E @A = = EA J I GKA IA A?AIEJ= F=H= GKA = FH >=>E E@=@ @A A ?AIJ=H = A I K IKFAHA A L= H 0.8 EE 7 J=> AH @A ! A H=O= AIJ B H =@ F H ' ?=IE =I @EIJHE>KE@=I K E B H A A JA A K ?K=@H=@ AIJ AI K = I >HA ?=@= L HJE?A K = A A ?A JH @A ?=@= =@ O K = A A ?A JH @A ?K=@H=@ LAH CKH=I  O  = ,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = ? ?=H JHAI FEA =I A JHAI ?=IE =I @EIJE J=I = A=J HE= A JA @E?D=I JHAI FEA =I AIJ = E A=@=I > /A AH= E =H A FH > A = = IEJK=H n FEA =I A K J=> AH @A J= = nn

!'$

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64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

.ECKH= %  6=> AH @A 6HAI A H=O=

.ECKH= %

6=> AH @A +K=JH A H=O=

!'%

=JA -:) -

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= .1 ) 4-57- 6

5AFJEA >HA

 

= @KH=?E @A AN= A AI @A ! D H=I O A@E= 5A F @H KJE E =H E>H I O =FK JAI A IK HA= E =?E IA FAH EJA A KI @A ?= ?K =@ H=I 6 @= HAIFKAIJ= GKA AIJ =@A?K=@= A JA H= =@= IA ? IE@AH=H E ? HHA? J= - AN= A AIJ B H =@ F H % A AH?E?E I = FK JK=?E @A ?=@= A AH?E?E IA E @E?= A A EI   FK J  ,A IA LAHE ?= IJH=H F H E @K??E GKA F=H= ?=@= n AH =JKH=

n i=1

1 n = i(i + 1) n+1


= B H K = AI ?EAHJ= F=H= n = 1 >=IA @A E @K??E

1 i=1

1 = 1/2 = 1/(1 + 1). i(i + 1)

I GKA J= >E AI F=H= n + 1 F=I

5E = B H K = AI ?EAHJ= F=H= n LA= @A E @K??E  -I?HE>E I = IK = ?

+1 n i=1

1 1 1 = n + . i=1 i(i + 1) i(i + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2)

7I=

I = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E

+1 n i=1

1 n 1 = + . i(i + 1) n + 1 (n + 1)(n + 2)
LAHE ?=H A J ?AI = B H K = =JHE @A =O=?A ?E=I @A K CH=B

; AI K = ?

FH >=?E

 FK J I 5A= = IECKEA JA IE F A G = (V, E )

=JHE K =

!'&

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64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

E ,AJAH E =H A AH @A L HJE?AI O A AH @A =HEIJ=I @A G = IK?AIE @A I CH=@ I AI ? GKA HAIF @A I EEE

(5, 1, 3, 3, 2, 4, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3).
2 H J= J D=O # L HJE?AI O  =HEIJ=I EE ,AJAH E =H IE G AI ? AN ,AJAH E =H IE G AI -K AHE= *=IJ= K = HAFHAIA J=?E @A CH=B F=H= >IAHL=H GKA AI ? -K AHE= FKAI JEA A L HJE?AI @A CH=@ E F=H EEE ,AJAH E =H I CH=@ I @A ?=@= K @A I L HJE?AI 5ECKEA @ = H@A =?E @A I L HJE?AI GKA =H?= = @A I CH=@ I AI =JHE AN AI

= IK?AIE

(5, 1, 3, 3, 2, 4, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3).
EL + FKJ=H IE AI F IE> A K H> CA AH=@ H @A G 5E G AI ? AN J =H = ? F A JA ? AN= ? =O H AH @A L HJE?AI O ? FKJ=H IE AI F IE> A K H> CA AH=@ H @A @E?D= ? F A JA + A CH=B AI ? AN =@ EJA K H> CA AH=@ H GKA @A>A JA AH " =HEIJ=I ,A AIJA @ D=O GKA GKEJ=H % =HEIJ=I GKA L= B H = @ ?E? I AI

!'' @A?EH GKA = GKEJ=H =I A CH=B FAH = A?A ? AIJ=I =HEIJ=I AI AN  7 = F IE> A A A??E @A

(13, 15), (11, 12), (3, 4) (3, 10), (1, 15), (6, 7).

!  FK J  ,AJAH E =H J @ I I F IE> AI CH=B I IE F AI EI HB I ? ?K=JH L HJE?AI )F=HA?A  CH=B I @EIJE J I - ? K J @A L HJE?AI AI IEA FHA V ? ?K=JH A A A J I @EC= I

V := {1, 2, 3, 4}.
GKA L= = IAH @EIJE J A ?=@= CH=B AI A ? E E = EE E = {(1, 2)} EEE E = {(1, 2), (1, 3)} EL E = {(1, 2), (4, 3)} L E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4)} LE E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4)} LEE E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)} LEEE E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)} EN E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), (1, 4)} N E = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), (1, 4), (3, 4)} NE K4 K J @A =HEIJ=I E

"  FK J I + IJHKEH K = C HEJ GKA JA C= ? A JH=@= K AH A JAH F IEJEL n O @AJAH E A IE n AI F JA ?E= @A = C JH A JAH F IEJEL AI @A?EH IE ANEIJA JH I @ I A JAH I F IEJEL I a O b ? b > 1 @A @ GKA b n = a 2 AH K A A F @A IK BK ?E = EA J - JH=@= n v := 0 . H i = 2 J n 1 A HA= E@=@ >=IJ=H = D=IJ= = F=HJA A JAH= @A = H= ?K=@H=@= @A n MDE A v = 0 EB n mod i = 0 JDA i := n + 1 A IA j := i = @ MDE A j < n @ j := j j

"

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EB j = n JDA v = 1 A IA i := i + 1 1B v = 0 JDA s : A IA s :=I 5= E@= s - A F - JH=@= ' i=2? 9 mod 2 = 0 A J ?AI i=3? 9 mod 3 = 0 A J ?AI j=3 ? j < 9 A J ?AI j = 3 3 = 9 ? j = 9 IA I= A @A >K? A j  O v = 1 ? v = 1 A J ?AI IA I= A @A >K? A i ? v = 1 A J ?AI = I= E@= AI I #  FK J  E 5A= =I IECKEA JAI FH F IE?E AI A1 := (p q ) A2 := (r q ) A3 := r B := p ,AJAH E =H IE @A A1 A2 O A3 IA @A@K?A CE?= A JA B (q AI V J= J @ I ABA?J A1 AI AGKEL= A JA CE?= p) ,A A3 JA A I GKA r AI V 7I= @ = IA JA ?E= ? JH=HHA? FH IE =I DEF JAIEI I LAH@=@AH=I J= A JA IA JA ?E= ? JH=HHA? FH ?= = 7I= @ A2 JA A I GKA A J ?AI q ?= @A A1 JA A I GKA p AI V 2 H >E AI = JAIEI AI @A I IECKEA JAI A K ?E=

EE ,AJAH E =H H=

=@= A JA IE =I AC=?E

=C IJ I HAIFA?JEL= A JA  E C AIJK@E= JA LELA A ?=I= @A IKI F=@HAI  0=O = CK = K AH GKA AI E CA EAH= E B H JE?= ! 5E IK A@=@ AI IKFAHE H = # = I @A>A =C IJ

 6 @ I I AIJK@E= JAI LELA A ?=I= @A IKI F=@HAI  6 @ I I E CA EAH I E B H JE? I I L=H AI ! 5E IK A@=@ AI IKFAHE H = # = I @A>A =JHE?K =HIA A A

AI @A

=JHE?K =HIA A

 = AC=?E @A  AI ANEIJA K AIJK@E= JA GKA LELA A ?=I= @A IKI F=@HAI  5 ,A = AGKEL= A ?E= A JHA (x P (x)) O x P (x)

" ! = IA JA ?E= ! AI @A JEF p q @ @A p AI JA AH I @A # = I O q AI @A>A =JHE?K =HIA A =C IJ 7 = E F E?=?E p q AI AGKEL= A JA = p q @A @ GKA = AC=?E AI p q AI @A?EH JEA A I @A # = I O @A>A =JHE?K =HIA A =C IJ $  FK J  5A= K = HA@ @A H@A =@ HAI @A =@= IAC A CH=B IE F A G = (V , E ) HAFHAIA J=@ F H = =JHE M GKA AI K = @A IKI =JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E= -IJ GKEAHA @A?EH GKA V HAFHAIA J= A ? K J @A H@A =@ HAI O GKA @ I L HJE?AI @EBAHA JAI I =@O=?A JAI IE IA D= E IJ= =@ K ?=> A @EHA?J GKA F=I= F H JH H@A =@ H K EA @ I ? HHAIF @EA JAI H@A =@ HAI

0 1 M= 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

- A ? K J @A H@A =@ HAI AIJ=> A?A I = HA =?E R IECKEA JA A H @A =@ H u IA HA =?E = ? v IE I = A JA IE AIJ ? A?J=@ I A = HA@ GKA IA FHAIA J= = JAHE H A JA A JA @A I GKA ?=@= H@A =@ H AIJ >LE= A JA ? A?J=@ ? IEC EI  E -I?HE>EH J @ I I F=HAI GKA B H = = HA =?E -I?HE>E I V = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} - J ?AI

R := {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3), (3, 1), (1, 4), (4, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), (2, 4), (4, 2), (3, 4), (4, 3)}
EE ,AJAH E =H IE = HA =?E

R AI HA ANEL= IE

JHE?= O JH= IEJEL=

-I HA ANEL= IE JHE?= O JH= IEJEL= F H J= J K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= + =H= A JA = @E=C = AIJ ? JA E@= A R F H GKA AI HA ANEL= ?=@= H@A =@ H AIJ ? A?J=@ ? IEC EI  -I IE JHE?= FKAIJ GKA IE D=O K = ? ANE A JHA A H@A =@ H a O A H@A =@ H b = D=O A JHA b O a ,A ECK= = AH= AI JH= IEJEL= FKAI IE a AIJ ? A?J=@ ? b O b ? c A J ?AI A?AI=HE= A JA a AIJ ? A?J=@ ? c ,A DA?D IE ? IJHKE I = =JHE @A K I O ?AH I @A I + M + M2 + M3 + M4 >JA A I

"

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1 1 1 1 0
?

1 1 1 1 0

1 1 1 1 0

1 1 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 1
J J= A JA EC JH IA=

GKA KAIJH= GKA I ?K=JH FHE AH I H@A =@ HAI AIJ A?J=@ I A JHA I O A GKE J H@A =@ H AIJ ? A?J=@ ?

EEE ,AJAH E =H IE AI K = HA =?E AI?HE>EH A ? K J ? ?EA JA V /R

@A AGKEL= A ?E= - ?=I @A GKA

- ABA?J AI K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= O A ? K J ? ?EA JA HAIK J= IAH A @A =I ? F A JAI ? AN=I @A CH=B GKA A AIJA ?=I I @ I = GKA ? JEA A = I L HJE?AI  ! O " F H K =@ O = GKA ? JEA A = GKE J L HJE?A F H JH AIJ AI

V /R = {1, 5}.

%  FK J I E 7 AIJK@E AIJ=@ IJE? KAIJH= GKA A KC=@ H @A >= ?AIJ 5 EJD A ?AIJ= K = = EA J @A JEH E>HA ? FH >=>E E@=@ p = 1/3 = 5E @EIF A @A JHAI = = EA J I @A JEH E>HA @AJAH E =H = FH >= >E E@=@ @A GKA A ?AIJA = A I K @A A I - IK?AI HAIK J= IAH ? F A A J=HE = IK?AI AHH=H I JHAI = = EA J I GKA JEA A FH >=>E E@=@ (2/3)3 F H J= J = FH >=>E E@=@ >KI?=@= AI 1 (2/3)3 > ,AJAH E =H A AH E F=H= GKA = FH >=>E E@=@ @A A ?AIJ=H = @A = = EA J I GKA IA A?AIEJ= A I K IKFAHA A L= H 0.8 A IK A

4= = @ ECK= GKA = JAI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A A ?AIJ=H = n = = EA J I AI 2n p(n) = 1 . 3

2 n )D H= p(n) 0.8 IE O I = A JA IE q (n) = ( 3 ) 0.2 + q (1), q (2), ... AI K = IK?AIE @A?HA?EA JA LEIJ A *=IAI @A =JA JE?=I A J ?AI >=IJ= EH AL= K= @ D=IJ= A ? JH=H A FHE AH L= H GKA IA= A H ECK= GKA  *=IJ= @A AIJA @ J =H n = 4

"!

.ECKH= % ! 6=> AH @A 6HAI A H=O=

.ECKH= % " 6=> AH @A +K=JH A H=O=

""

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EE 7 J=> AH @A ! A H=O= AIJ B H =@ F H ' ?=IE =I @EIJHE>KE@=I K E B H A A JA A K ?K=@H=@ AIJ AI K = I >HA ?=@= L HJE?A K = A A ?A JH @A ?=@= =@ O K = A A ?A JH @A ?K=@H=@ LAH CKH=I  O  = ,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA = ? ?=H JHAI FEA =I A JHAI ?=IE =I @EIJE J=I = A=J HE= A JA @E?D=I JHAI FEA =I AIJ = E A=@=I 9 0=O ' ?=IE =I I ?=I I F IE> AI I I ?=I I B=L H=> AI I =I 3 JHAI =I =I JHAI ? K =I O =I @ I @E=C = AI AIJ AI & - ? ?EA JA @= = FH >=>E E@=@ >KI?=@= > /A AH= E =H A FH > A = = IEJK=H n FEA =I A K J=> AH @A J= =

nn

n I ?=I I F IE> AI I I B=L H=> AI I n O =I @ I @E=C = AI AIJ AI 2n + 2

=I n

=I =I n ? K

=I

"#

=JA +

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= JH


)
!

AOAI @A ,A HC= (p q ) AI CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA = p q ,A IJH=H F H E @K??E GKA F=H= ?=@= AH =JKH= n 2 IA JEA A GKA (p1 ... pn ) AI CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA = p1 ... pn IEA @ p1 pn L=HE=> AI FH F IE?E = AI J= =I AOAI @A ,A HC= D=O GKA @A IJH=H =I E  FK J  5A= a1 an K = EIJ= @A J= = n @A AH I A JAH I @EBAHA JAI ,AJAH E =H ?K J=I JAH =I H@A =@=I FAH EJEA @ AH I HA FAJE@ I IA FKA@A B H =H KI= @ I AH I @A = EIJ= EE " FK J I ,EIA =H K = C HEJ GKA JA C= ? A JH=@= K = EIJ= @A AH I A JAH I @EBAHA JAI O ? I= E@= J @=I =I F IE> AI JAH =I H@A = @=I @A @E?D I AH I FAH EJEA @ A @E?D=I JAH =I GKA D=O= HAFAJE?E AI -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@ K J ? ?EA JA @A I AH I A JAH I F H = HA =?E @A ? CHKA ?E= @K  E  FK J  ,AJAH E =H ?K J I A A A J I JEA A Z11 O ?K AI I ,AJAH E =H ?K AI @A A I JEA A E LAHI F=H= A FH @K?J EE  FK J  += ?K =H =I IECKEA JAI FAH=?E AI @K # 234 + 2798 128 34 O 2765 7895943021 EEE  FK J I ,AI?HE>EH J @=I =I I K?E AI @A = ? CHKA ?E= E A=

- AH?E?E 

# FK J I 5A= p O q B H =I FH F IE?E = AI 2 H =I

- AH?E?E

$ FK J I

- AH?E?E ! " FK J I 5A= Z11 A ?

5x + 3 7 mod 11.

"$

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=JA + JH

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= ) HAIKA J

 !

C= (p q ) AI CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA = p q ,A IJH=H F H E @K??E GKA F=H= ?=@= AH =JKH= n 2 IA JEA A GKA (p1 ... pn ) AI CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA = p1 ... pn IEA @ p1 pn L=HE=> AI FH F IE?E = AI J= =I AOAI @A ,A HC= D=O GKA @A IJH=H =I ,A

- AH?E?E  5A= p O q B H =I FH F IE?E = AI 2 H =I AOAI @A ,A

*=IA @A E @K??E 2=I @A E @K??E

HC=

2=H= n = 2 = = H =?E

AI ?EAHJ= F H =I AOAI @A CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA

= (p1 ... pn ) pn+1

+ p1 ... pn pn+1 AI A J ?AI IA JEA A

(p1 ... pn pn+1 )

AI CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA =

((p1 ... pn ) pn+1 ).

)F E?= @ =I AOAI @A ,A IE = JAHE H ? ; AIJ= ANFHAIE AI HC= IA JEA A = AGKEL= A ?E= CE?= @A = ANFHA

(p1 ... pn ) pn+1 .

CE?= A JA AGKEL= A JA F H DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E =

(p1 ... pn ) pn+1 .

.E = A JA = ANFHAIE = JAHE H AI AGKEL= A JA =

p1 ... pn pn+1 .
GKA ? ? KOA = @A IJH=?E

- AH?E?E

"% E 5A= a1 an K = EIJ= @A J= = n @A AH I A JAH I @EBAHA JAI ,AJAH E =H ?K J=I JAH =I H@A =@=I FAH EJEA @ AH I HAFAJE@ I IA FKA@A B H =H KI= @ I AH I @A = EIJ= EE ,EIA =H K = C HEJ GKA JA C= ? A JH=@= K = EIJ= @A AH I A JAH I @EBAHA JAI O ? I= E@= J @=I =I F IE> AI JAH =I H@A =@=I @A @E?D I AH I FAH EJEA @ A @E?D=I JAH =I GKA D=O= HAFAJE?E AI -IJK@E=H IK ? F A E@=@ E 5 A J= J n3 EE - = C HEJ AH @A L=HE=?E AI @A n A A A J I J =I@=I @A ! A ! 2 H

A FIAK@ ? @EC

- JH=@= a1 an  AH I A JAH I @EBAHA JAI l := 1 . Hi=1J n . Hj=1J n . Hk=1J n bl := (ai , aj , ak ) l := l + 1 5= E@= b1 b n3 + I JHAI >K? AI = E@=@ I A = C HEJ JEA A ? F A E@=@ ? >E?=

K J ? ?EA JA @A I AH I A JAH I F H = HA =?E @A ? CHKA ?E= @K  E ,AJAH E =H ?K J I A A A J I JEA A Z11 O ?K AI I ,AJAH E =H ?K AI @A A I JEA A E LAHI F=H= A FH @K?J EE += ?K =H =I IECKEA JAI FAH=?E AI @K # 234 + 2798 34128 O 2765 7895943021 EEE ,AI?HE>EH J @=I =I I K?E AI @A = ? CHKA ?E= E A=

- AH?E?E ! 5A= Z11 A ?

5x + 3 7 mod 11.
E - ? K J ? ?EA JA Z11 JEA A  A A A J I GKA I

Z11 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

+ @K?J  AI FHE J @ I I A A A J I @A Z11 JEA A E LAHI F=H= A FH

"&

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EE 234 + 2798 4 + 3 2 mod 5 34128 (1)128 1 mod 5 2765 7895943021 0 mod 5 EEE 2=I= I A ! HAIJ= @ O >JA A I

5x 4 mod 5.
+ >JA A

5 9 1 mod 11 A J I

?AI

KJEF E?= @

= ?

CHKA ?E= F H '

x 3 mod 11.
,A AIJA @ A ? K J @A I K?E AI AI

{11k + 3 : k Z}.

"'

=JA +

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= JH


*
!

 # FK J I ,A

IJH=H GKA F=H= J @

2n

AH

=JKH= n N,

(2k 1) = 4n2 .
k=1

 # FK J I -I?HE>EH A FIAK@ ? @EC K = C HEJ ?KO= A JH=@= IA= K = EIJ= @A AH I A JAH I O ?KO= I= E@= IA= IE ANEIJA A FHE AH AH A JAH @A = EIJ= GKA AI ? CHKA JA ? " @K % -IJK@E=H = ? F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ ! # FK J I ,=@ A IEIJA = @A ? CHKA ?E=I x 1 mod 5 x 5 mod 11 x 2 mod 3, AIJK@E=H IE ANEIJA I K?E AI O IE ANEIJA D= =H =I J @=I

" # FK J I 5A = = @ I @=@ I IE K J A= A JA K = I = LA ,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K @A I @ I HAIK J=@ I >JA E@ I IA= IE I=>A I GKA = IK = @A I @ I HAIK J=@ I AI $ JEA A

75  FK J I ,AJAH E =H ?K J I

AH I @A " ?EBH=I @EIJE J=I E CK = @A =I @ I FHE AH=I ?EBH=I ECK= = ?AH

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=JA + JH

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= * HAIKA J

 !

 # FK J I ,A

IJH=H GKA F=H= J @

2n

AH

=JKH= n N,

(2k 1) = 4n2 .
k=1

7JE E A I K = @A IJH=??E *=IA @A E @K??E IE n = 1, A J

2n 2

F H E @K??E ?AI

(2k 1) =
k=0 2n k=1

(2k 1) = 1 + 3 = 4 = 4n2 .

2=I @A E @K??E

IA=
k=1

(2k 1) = 4n2 . 5A JH=J= @A @A

2(n+1)

IJH=H GKA

(2k 1) = 4(n + 1)2 .

k=1

)D H=
2(n+1) 2n+2 2n

(2k 1) =
k=1 k=1

(2k 1) =
k=1

(2k 1)+[2(2n +1) 1]+[2(2n +2) 1]

DEF @A E @ = 4n2 + (4n + 1) + (4n + 3) = 4n2 + 8n + 4 = 4(n + 1)2 . 5A IECKA GKA F=H= J @ AH
2n

=JKH= n N,

(2k 1) = 4n2 .
k=1

"  # FK J I -I?HE>EH A FIAK@ ? @EC K = C HEJ ?KO= A JH=@= IA= K = EIJ= @A AH I A JAH I O ?KO= I= E@= IA= IE ANEIJA A FHE AH AH A JAH @A = EIJ= GKA AI ? CHKA JA ? " @K % -IJK@E=H = ? F A E@=@ @A = C HEJ - JH=@= a1 , a2 , a3 , , an . E  9DE A i n, ai @7=4 i := i + 1 1B i > n JDA s := D=O A JAH I ? CHKA JAI ? " @K % A = EIJ= A IA s := ai AI A FHE AH AH A JAH @A = EIJ= GKA AI ? CHKA JA ? " @K % 5= E@= s = ? F A E@=@ @A AIJA = C HEJ AI E A= A n, O= GKA A A FA H @A I ?=I I D=O K AH ? IJ= JA @A FAH=?E AI GKA IA HAFEJA n LA?AI F H = FHAIA ?E= @A K I >K? A ! # FK J I ,=@ A IEIJA = @A ? CHKA ?E=I x 1 mod 5 x 5 mod 11 x 2 mod 3, AIJK@E=H IE ANEIJA I K?E AI O IE ANEIJA D= =H =I J @=I

5EA @ ! # O  AH I FHE I @EIJE J I A F=HJE?K =H I FHE I A JHA I 2 H J= J A JA HA = ?DE @A HAIJ = H = = ANEIJA ?E= O K E?E@=@ @A K = I K?E @K P = 3 5 11 = 165. -IJ= I K?E @K $# AI

x0 = 1 q1 33 + 5 q2 15 + 2 q3 55,
@ @A 33 q1 1 @A?EH

mod 5, 15 q2 1 mod 11, 55 q3 1 mod 3, AI 4 q2 1 mod 11, q3 1 mod 3.

3 q1 1 mod 5,
- J

?AI q1 = 2, q2 = 3 O q3 = 1 O

x0 = 1 2 33 + 5 3 15 + 2 1 55 =

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= 66 + 225 + 110 = 66 + 60 + 110 mod 165 = 236 mod 165 = 71 mod 165.
=I I K?E AI @A IEIJA = @=@ I I ? AH I A JAH I @A = B H =

x = 71 + 165k,

k Z.

" # FK J I 5A = = @ I @=@ I IE K J A= A JA K = I = LA ,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K @A I @ I HAIK J=@ I >JA E@ I IA= IE I=>A I GKA = IK = @A I @ I HAIK J=@ I AI $ 5A= S A IK?AI
K @A I @ I HAIK J=@ I AI  O S A IK?AI
= IK = @A I @ I HAIK J=@ I AI $  5A JH=J= @A ?= ?K =H = FH >=>E E@=@ ? @E?E =@= @A S F H S :

p(S |S ) =

p(S S ) . p(S ) S S = {(2, 4), (4, 2)}. 5A 2 . 5

)D H= S = {(1, 5), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 2), (5, 1)} O IECKA GKA p(S S ) p(S |S ) = = p(S )

JEA A

75  FK J I ,AJAH E =H ?K J I
AH I ?

AH I @A " ?EBH=I @EIJE J=I E CK = @A =I @ I FHE AH=I ?EBH=I ECK= = ?AH AIJ=I ?=H=?JAH IJE?=I

0=O 9 8 8 7 = 4032

"!

=JA

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= .1 )

-:) -

5AFJEA >HA ! = @KH=?E @A AN= A AI @A ! D H=I O A@E= 5A F @H KJE E =H E>H I O =FK JAI A IK HA= E =?E IA FAH EJA A KI @A ?= ?K =@ H=I 6 @= HAIFKAIJ= GKA AIJ =@A?K=@= A JA H= =@= IA ? J= - AN= A AIJ B H =@ F H $ A AH?E?E I = FK JK=?E IA E @E?= A A EI

IE@AH=H E ? HHA? @A ?=@= A AH?E?E

- AH?E?E   FK J I

E  # FK J I ,AJAH E =H IE A IECKEA JA H= = EA J ? HHA?J

= EA J AI

K H=

5E =FHKA>=I A AN= A IAH I BA E 5E AIJK@E=I K?D AHAI BA E -IJK@E=I K?D )FH >=H I A AN= A
EE  # FK J I . H = E =H = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= @A A CK= A -I?HE>EH IK AC=?E A A CK= A B H = O A A CK= A =JKH= =JKH=

- J @=I =I B= E E=I D=O K

EEE  FK J  ,A IA JEA A GKA

EA >H = ?K

A CKIJ= = A?DKC=
AH =JKH= n

IJH=H F H E @K??E
n

GKA F=H= ?=@=

(2k )3 = 2n2 (n + 1)2 .

k=1

- AH?E?E

 FK J I E  FK J  -I?HE>EH K = C HEJ A FIAK@ ? @EC GKA JA C= ? A JH=@= K = EIJ= a1 , an , @A AH I A JAH I O @ALKA L= = IK> EIJ= @A a1 , an @A I AH I GKA I @EIJE J I -IJ AI GKA >JA C= A ? K J @A an I A A A J I @A = EIJ= a1 ,

""

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- -5 4-57- 6 5

EE  FK J  -I?HE>EH K = C HEJ A FIAK@ ? @EC GKA JA C= ? A JH=@= @ I AH I =JKH= AI b O c O K = EIJ= a1 an @A AH I =JKH= AI O >JA C= = IK> EIJ= @A a1 an @A I A A A J I IE ANEIJA GKA I JEF I ? K AI @A b O c

- AH?E?E !  FK J I

= FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K H@A =@ H B=>HE?=@ F H K = ?EAHJ= A FHAI= FHAIA JA K @ABA?J A IK @EI? @KH F H A ?K A H@A =@ H IA FKA@A KJE E =H = =HC @A FHE AH = @A LE@= AI p O = FH >=>E E@=@ GKA K = F= J= = B=>HE?=@= F H = EI = A FHAI= IA AIJH FAA @KH= JA A FHE AH = @A LE@= AI q E  FK J  2AFA ? FH= ! H@A =@ HAI O # F= J= =I @A AIJ= A FHAI= += ?K =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA @AIFK I @A K = 2AFA JA C= K I H@A =@ H O K = I = F= J= = BK ?E = @ EE  FK J  5KF C= I GKA 2AFA ? A?JA I ! H@A =@ HAI O1 O2 O O3 ? =I # F= J= =I P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 O P 5 F H A@E @A =I IECKEA JAI ? ANE AI

(O1, P 1), (O2, P 2), (O2, P 4), (O2, P 5), (O3, P 3).
,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA ? AIJ=I @A K = @A = ? FH= 2AFA FKA@= JH=>= =H ? K = F= J= = @A =I ? A?J=@=I ? EI =I ? ANE AI O @AIFK I A H@A =@ H O= A I

- AH?E?E "  # FK J I

5A= R = IECKEA JA HA =?E

@A

E@= I >HA N7

R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (4, 5), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (5, 6), (2, 3), (4, 6), (6, 5), (6, 4), (7, 7), (3, 2)}.
E  # FK J I ,AJAH E =H IE LAHE = JEIE JHE?= O JH= IEJEL= EE  # FK J I ,AJAH E =H IE AI K IE AI K = HA =?E @A H@A EEE  # FK J I 5E AI K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= 5E AI @A H@A @AJAH ?= =I FH FEA@=@AI HA ANEL= IE = HA =?E JHE?=

@A AGKEL= A ?E= ,AJAH E =H

@A AGKEL= A ?E= @AJAH E =H IKI ? =IAI E =H IE AI K = HA =?E @A H@A J J=

- AH?E?E #  FK J 

"# -BA?JK=H =I IECKEA JAI FAH=?E IK J=@ A JHA  O " E  # FK J I 2143 + 80100 EE  # FK J I 224 2513 EEE  # FK J I 27 EL  # FK J I 312013 AI @K # >JA EA @ IEA FHA K HA

- AH?E?E $  # FK J I

5A= G = (V , E ) K CH=B IE 0 1 1 0 A := 1 1 0 0

F A O A K = @A IKI

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0

1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

=JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=I

E  # FK J I ,AJAH E =H IE G AI ? AN EE  # FK J I ,AJAH E =H IE G AI AK AHE= EEE  # FK J I ,AJAH E =H IE G JEA A K H> CA AH=@ H EL  %# FK J I + FKJ=H IE AI GKA ANEIJA K H> CA AH=@ H ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= @A G

"$

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

=JA -:) -

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= .1 ) 4-57- 6

5AFJEA >HA ! = @KH=?E @A AN= A AI @A ! D H=I O A@E= 5A F @H KJE E =H E>H I O =FK JAI A IK HA= E =?E IA FAH EJA A KI @A ?= ?K =@ H=I 6 @= HAIFKAIJ= GKA AIJ =@A?K=@= A JA H= =@= IA ? J= - AN= A AIJ B H =@ F H $ A AH?E?E I = FK JK=?E IA E @E?= A A EI

IE@AH=H E ? HHA? @A ?=@= A AH?E?E

- AH?E?E   FK J I

E  # FK J I ,AJAH E =H IE A IECKEA JA H= = EA J ? HHA?J

= EA J AI

K H=

5E =FHKA>=I A AN= A IAH I BA E 5E AIJK@E=I K?D AHAI BA E -IJK@E=I K?D )FH >=H I A AN= A
5A= =I L=HE=> AI IECKEA JAI a :==FHKA>=I A AN= A e :=AIJK@E=I K?D - H= = EA J GKA IA FHAIA J= JEA A JHAI DEF JAIEI

s :=IAH I BA E

H1 := (a s), H2 := (e s), H3 := e.
; = JAIEI AI T := a 2=H= GKA A H= = IECKEA JA FH F IE?E AI K = J=KJ = EA J IA= ? HHA?J IA @A>A JA AH GKA C=

(H1 H2 H3 ) T.
2AH = IECKEA JA =IEC =?E GKA AI @A L= HAI = =I L=HE=> AI FH F IE?E = AI KAIJH=

a := F, s := F, e := v.

"%

EE  # FK J I . H = E =H = IECKEA JA IA JA ?E= @A A CK= A -I?HE>EH IK AC=?E A A CK= A B H = O A A CK= A =JKH=

=JKH=

- J @=I =I B= E E=I D=O K

EA >H = ?K

A CKIJ= = A?DKC=

5A= F A ? K J @A =I B= E E=I 5A= P A ? K J @A =I FAHI =I 5A= f F O p P @A E I @ I FHA@E?=@ I P (p, f ) := = FAHI = p AI EA >H @A = B= E E= f O L(p) :== p A CKIJ= = A?DKC= - J ?AI = IA JA ?E= @A A K ?E=@ AI f F p P (P (p, f ) L(p)). = AC=?E LEA A = IAH

f F p P (P (p, f ) L(p)).
3KA IA AA A A A CK= A =JKH= ANEIJA K = B= E E= A EA >H I AI CKIJ= = A?DKC= EEE  FK J  ,A IA JEA A GKA IJH=H F H E @K??E
n

= GKA = J @ I IKI
AH =JKH= n

GKA F=H= ?=@=

(2k )3 = 2n2 (n + 1)2 .

k=1

= >=IA @A E @K??E AI LAH@=@AH= FKAI 23 = 2 1 22 2=H= A F=I @A E @K??E >=IJ= >IAHL=H GKA
+1 3 n 3 3 3 n k=1 (2k ) = k=1 (2k ) + 2 (n + 1) .

7I=H = DEF JAIEI @A E @K??E

F=H= AI?HE>EH

+1 3 2 2 3 3 n k=1 (2k ) = 2n (n + 1) + 2 (n + 1) .

5=?=H B=?J H ?

2(n + 1)2 @A

@ GKA IA JEA A

2(n + 1)2 (n2 + 22 (n + 1)) = 2(n + 1)2 (n + 2)2

? GKAH = I @A IJH=H

- AH?E?E

 FK J I E  FK J  -I?HE>EH K = C HEJ A FIAK@ ? @EC GKA JA C= ? A JH=@= K = EIJ= a1 , an , @A AH I A JAH I O @ALKA L= = IK> EIJ= @A a1 ,

"&

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64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5 K J @A

an @A I AH I GKA I I A A A J I @A = EIJ= a1 ,

@EIJE J I -IJ AI GKA >JA C= A ? an

,EIA = I K = C HEJ =KNE E=H GKA @AJAH E = IE K A A A J AIJ A K = EIJ= = = I FAHJA A?A - JH=@= a1 , ..., an a s := 0 . H i = 1 J n MDE A s := 0 EB a = ai JDA s := 1 5= E@= s 2=H= ? IJHKEH A = C HEJ GKA IA I FE@A >=IJ= J =H K = EIJ= =KNE E=H @EC= I b GKA E E?E= A JA ? JEA A A FHE AH A A A J @A = A JH=@= A EH = FE @ =? I IK?AIEL I A A A J I @EIJE J I @A = EIJ= @A = A JH=@= - JH=@= a1 , ..., an b1 := a1 j := 2 . Hi=2J n EB pertenece(ai , b) = 0 JDA bj := ai j := j + 1 5= E@= b EE  FK J  -I?HE>EH K = C HEJ A FIAK@ ? @EC GKA JA C= ? A JH=@= @ I AH I =JKH= AI b O c O K = EIJ= a1 an @A AH I =JKH= AI O >JA C= = IK> EIJ= @A a1 an @A I A A A J I IE ANEIJA GKA I JEF I ? K AI @A b O c - JH=@= a1 , ..., an b c j := 1 . Hi=1J n EB ai mod c = 0 = @ ai mod b = 0 JDA bj := ai j := j + 1 5= E@= b

- AH?E?E !  FK J I

= FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA K H@A =@ H B=>HE?=@ F H K = ?EAHJ= A FHAI= FHAIA JA K @ABA?J A IK @EI? @KH F H A ?K A H@A =@ H IA FKA@A KJE E =H = =HC @A FHE AH = @A LE@= AI p O = FH >=>E E@=@ GKA K = F= J= = B=>HE?=@= F H = EI = A FHAI= IA AIJH FAA @KH= JA A FHE AH = @A LE@= AI q E  FK J  2AFA ? FH= ! H@A =@ HAI O # F= J= =I @A AIJ= A FHAI= += ?K =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA @AIFK I @A K = 2AFA JA C= K I H@A =@ H O K = I = F= J= = BK ?E = @

"' EE  FK J  5KF C= I GKA 2AFA ? A?JA I ! H@A =@ HAI O1 O2 O O3 ? =I # F= J= =I P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 O P 5 F H A@E @A =I IECKEA JAI ? ANE AI

(O1, P 1), (O2, P 2), (O2, P 4), (O2, P 5), (O3, P 3).
,AJAH E =H = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA ? AIJ=I @A K = @A = ? FH= 2AFA FKA@= JH=>= =H ? K = F= J= = @A =I ? A?J=@=I ? EI =I ? ANE AI O @AIFK I A H@A =@ H O= A I

E 5A JH=J= @A @ I ANFAHE A J I @A *AH K E E @AFA @EA JAI = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA @AIFK I @A K = 2AFA JA C= K I H@A =@ H AI ECK= = = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA IA AIJH FAA AN=?J= A JA @ I H@A =@ HAI

p1 =

3 2 p (1 p). 2

)I = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA @AIFK I @A K = 2AFA JA C= K = I = F= J= = AI ECK= = = FH >=>E E@=@ @A GKA IA AIJH FAA AN=?J= A JA ?K=JH F= J= =I

q1 =
- J

5 4 q (1 q ) = 5q 4 (1 q ). 4

?AI = FH >=>E E@=@ >KI?=@= AI

P = p1 q1 = 15p2 q 4 (1 p)(1 q ).
EE = FH >=>E E@=@ Q @A GKA ? =I ? ANE AI @A E@=I A A FH > A = O @AIFK I @A K = @A = ? FH= 2AFA FKA@= JH=>= =H ? A H@A =@ H O = A I K = F= J= = AI A FH @K?J @A = FH >=>E E@=@ p2 = 1 p @A GKA A H@A =@ H O2 BK ?E A F H = FH >=>E E@=@ q2 = 1 q 3 @A GKA BK ?E A = A I K = @A =I F= J= =I @A ? K J {P 2, P 4, P 5}. - J ?AI = FH >=>E E@=@ >KI?=@= AI

Q = p2 q2 = (1 p)(1 q 3 ).

- AH?E?E "  # FK J I

5A= R = IECKEA JA HA =?E

@A

E@= I >HA N7

R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (4, 5), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6),

" 

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-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

(5, 6), (2, 3), (4, 6), (6, 5), (6, 4), (7, 7), (3, 2)}.
E  # FK J I ,AJAH E =H IE LAHE = JEIE JHE?= O JH= IEJEL= EE  # FK J I ,AJAH E =H IE AI K IE AI K = HA =?E @A H@A EEE  # FK J I 5E AI K = HA =?E @A AGKEL= A ?E= 5E AI @A H@A @AJAH ?= =I FH FEA@=@AI HA ANEL= IE = HA =?E JHE?=

@A AGKEL= A ?E= ,AJAH E =H

@A AGKEL= A ?E= @AJAH E =H IKI ? =IAI E =H IE AI K = HA =?E @A H@A J J=

E -I HA ANEL= FKAI R ? JEA A = @E=C = . -I IE JHE?= O= GKA IE (x, y ) R, A J ?AI J= >E (y, x) R. AI = JEIE JHE?= O= GKA F H A A F (2, 3) O (3, 2) I A A A J I @A

R.
-I JH= IEJEL= I ?=I I JHELE= AI I

(4, 5), (5, 6) R O (4, 6) R, (6, 5), (5, 4) R O (6, 4) R,

(4, 6), (6, 5) R O (4, 5) R, (6, 4), (4, 5) R O (6, 5) R.

JHE?=

EE 2 H A =F=HJ=@ = JAHE H R AI @A AGKEL= A ?E= IEA @ HA ANEL= IE O JH= IEJEL= AI @A H@A O= GKA AI = JEIE JHE?= EEE =I ? =IAI @A AGKEL= A ?E= @A R I ?K=JH

C1 = {1}, C2 = {2, 3}, C4 = {4, 5, 6}, C7 = {7}.

- AH?E?E #  FK J 

-BA?JK=H =I IECKEA JAI FAH=?E AI @K # >JA EA @ IEA FHA K HA IK J=@ A JHA  O " E  # FK J I 2143 + 80100 3 mod 5 EE  # FK J I 224 2513 4 mod 5 3 mod 5 2 mod 5 EEE  # FK J I 27 (22 )3 2 3 mod 5 3003 3 3 mod 5 EL  # FK J I 312013 34

- AH?E?E $  # FK J I

5A= G = (V , E ) K CH=B IE F A O A K = @A IKI

=JHE?AI @A =@O=?A ?E=I

" 

0 1 1 0 A := 1 1 0 0
+ = IAH ? AN JE = = @A =

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0

1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
AN

0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
FKA@A

E  # FK J I ,AJAH E =H IE G AI ?

=JHE AIJ B H =@= F H ?AH I A CH=B

EE  # FK J I ,AJAH E =H IE G AI AK AHE= - CH=B AI AK AHE= F HGKA J @=I =I =HEIJ=I AIJ A = A JA ? AN= B H =@= F H J @ I I L HJE?AI AN?AFJ A JE L HJE?AI JEA A CH=@ F=H EEE  # FK J I ,AJAH E =H IE G JEA A K ) IAH ? AN FKA@A JA AH K H> EL  %# FK J I + ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= @A G FKJ=H IE AI GKA ANEIJA @A H> K CA AH=@ H H> CA AH=@ H K CA AH=@ H EI = ? F OJ @ I I

7 ?EH?KEJ AK AHE= AI A IECKEA JA @ IECKEA @ A H@A @A = =JHE 

I L HJE?AI AIJ

K AH=@ I

v5 , v 4 , v 3 , v 2 , v 1 , v 3 , v 5 , v 2 , v 6 , v 5 , v 7 , v 6 , v 1 , v 5

"

+)2 67

64

-5 ; -:

- -5 4-57- 6 5

*E> E CH=B =
4 * / 6 *4 +*8* 4 IA 0 ,EI?HAJA ?/H=M 0E ''# O ''' *ECCI

=JDA =JE?I = @ EJI =FF E?=JE = K= F=H= A ?KHI

=JA

JE?= ,EI?HAJ= 8E?A I 8ELAI ''" =JA JE?= @EI?HAJ= O ? >E =J HE= )@@EI

/HE = @E 4 2 9AI AO '&'

6HKII ,EI?HAJA =JDA =JE?I B H ? =JE = + FKJAH 5?EA ?A 5AHEAI '' = *KI>O 4 II -IJHK?JKH=I @A = ? FKJ=?E 2HA JE?A 0= ''#

FKJAH I?EA JEIJI 1 JAH JE?=I @EI?HAJ=I F=H=

=JA

+HE=@ 4 *K I= ) 8AC= + *= AH AA 4 .K @= A J I = JA JE? I 1 +A JH @A -IJK@E I 4= )HA?AI ''& 2=H= A +=F JK  .AH ) E= @A 5 ?DA 8=?=I .K @= A J I @A = 1 B H JE?= '&% 2=H= A +=F JK 

. 4 4! 9

1 B H

JE?=

4 IA 0 5JK@A JI I KJE I CKE@A B H ,EI?HAJA =JDA =JE?I = @ EJI =FF E?=JE I ?/H=M 0E ''' ,A FH > A =I 4 IA 0 -NF HE C ,EI?HAJA =JDA =JE?I MEJD ?/H=M 0E ''% 2=H= A FH CH= = =F A 4 9 0= E C + @E C = @ E B H =JE '& 5 >HA ? @EC I

=F A

JDA HO 2HA JE?A 0=

" !