‘THE OXFORD SERIES IN ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING [AneL S. Sepa Seis Eaitor, Electrical Engineving The Science ee ane ee d Engi . eee een ae oy ecupaee mon ars and Engineering ee eceeieeece ee a ee peney eerie, : : Seuiae meena: of Microelectronic Se ecdacncas Cee Ss Mey Daag ot Ed Fabricati eae eat Comer Dig Let and State Mechine Design, 3d Ea abrication Ce aia ica ted nd Sem Ande, SE ectearcer me au Dimiutiev. Understanding Seiconducir Devices SECOND EDITION Reena pee alae eenecnaeeens Cel aimee cache Laney & termes nt Seems mene mec oe oe Jee ction Oc Fe Conmmioion tens Stephen A. Campbell Kuo, Digital Control Systems, 3rd Ed. Lancet) of Mnestta) ties te iid log Comma Sems St Ek Se Dita mete Creat Des Carer Syl en fran dnb EEL nan aa Eecronepene Pilar bopes ‘Warner and Grung, Semiconductor Device Electronics New York OxfordOxfnd University Pree Oxo New York Atboge Abelard — Bangkok Boge Bocnge Aes Caleta Cape Towa. Chena Darep Solas Deli rene Hong Kong Ital Karachy Kola Compur Madi Meitgimne "Merce Giy Mba Natt Pass St Paulo Shanghah Sigapore Tape Tatjy Teron Wow sed oat compas in Beip ean Copy © 200 by Oxford Universi Press Publi by Oxford Univers Pes, ne. 13 Aan acu New Yok New York 10016. nfo segs une ofOnford Univers Pest All ight reserved. No prof hie publication maybe repodced, red ina eal syst, o ante, 12am or by any nears elecons, mesic, prcoping. econ. robe, without Pt emai of Oxo Unive Pes Lincary of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Campoat, ups A 15 Tf science a coginecing of mises fabcaowStephen A, Campbell — ‘cm. — (The Onesies ia lactic and computer einen) jcade ibigrpacl elec and index fewerssimas | Sonoita Desi adigstcon Tie Sess Spacer S ooesen2 £ ; Aa ad Mare “* Prinng angst 33798 6B ‘ing in the United Stas Arsen oni re pager Contents Preface — xii Part I Overview and Materials 1 Chapter 1 An Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication 1.1 Microelectronic Technologies: A Simple Example 5S 1.2 UnitProcesses and Technologies 7 13 ARoadmapforthe Course 8 14 Summary 9 Chapter 2 Semiconductor Substrates 10 2.1 Phase Diagrams and Solid Solubility” 10 22 Ceystallography and Crystal Stoeture® 13 23 Crystal Defects 16 2.4 Caochralski Growth 24 25 Bridgman Growh ofGaas 29 26 Float Zone Growth 30 27 Wafer Preparation and Specifications 31 28 Summary and Fuure Trends 33 Problems 33 References 34 Part I Unit Process |: Hot Processing and lon Implantation 37 Chapter 3 Diffusion 39 ‘31 Fick's Diffusion Equation in One Dimension 39 3.2. Atomistic Models of Diffusion 47 Thin seion roid tack me3.3. Analytic Solutions of Fick's Law 45 ‘34 Corrections to Simple Theory 47 ‘33. Diffusion Coefiicients for Common Dopants 48 36 Analysis of Diffused Profiles 52 37 Diffusion in SiO, $9. 3.8 Diffusion Systems 60 3.9 SUPREM Simulations of Diffusion Profs 61 310 Summary 64 Problems 64 References 65 Chapter 4 Thermal Oxidation 68 "iL The Detl-Grove Model of Oxidation 68 42 The Linar and Parsboic Rae Coeficients 71 43° The nial Oxidation Regime 75 44 TheSinctueof SO. 76 43 Oniecharnseioaion "7 46 The Efe of Dopunts ring Oxidation and Poysiison Ouation 447. Oridton-Inducd Stacking Fats 86 48 Alleratve Gate Isolators? 88 43 Ouidaion Systems 50 4410 SUPREM Onidaions* 92 401 Summary 93 Problems 96 References 95 Chapter 5 lon implantation 98 ‘5.1 Ideatized fn implantation Systems 99 52 Coulomb Seattering® 104 53 Vertical Projected Range 105 5.4 Channing and Lateral Projected Range 110 55 Implantation Damage 112 5.6 Shallow Junction Formation’ 116 3.7 Buried Dielectrics” 118 ‘5.8 Ton Implancaion Systems: Problems and Concerns 120 5.9 Implanted Profiles Using SUPREM* 122 5.410 Summary 123, Problems 128, References 124 a genet Chapter 6 61 62 Rapid Thermal Processing 127 ness Gray Body Radiation, Heat Exchange, and Optical Absorption” High-Intensity Optical Sources and Chamber Design 130) ‘Temperature Measurement 133 ‘Thermoplastic Suess" 137 Rapid Thermal Activation of Impurities 138 Rapid Thermal Processing of Dielectrics 140 Silicidation and Contact Formation 141 Alternative Rapid Thermal Processing Systems 142 Summary M43 Problems 143 References 144 Unit Processes 2: Pattern Transfer Optical Lithography = 151 Lithography Overview 1ST Diffraction” 155 ‘The Modulation Transfer Function and Optical Exposures Source Systems and Spatial Coherence 159 ContacuProximity Printers 165 Projection Printers 167 ‘Advanced Mask Concepts" 172 Surface Reflections and Standing Waves 176 Alignment 178 Summary 179 Problems 180 References 180 149 Photoresists 183 Photoresist Types 183 Organic Materials and Polymers? 184 ‘Typical Reactions of DQN Positive Photoresist_ 186 Contrast Curves 187 ‘The Critical Modulation Transfer Function 190 Applying and Developing Phtoresist 191 Second-Order Exposure Effects 195 Ademcd Peed ire Ps” gs 158 12889 Chapter 10 101 102 103 104 103 106 107 108 Chapter 11 na na 03 us us us uz us Summary 200 Problems 200 References 202 Nonoptical Lithographic Techniques” 205 Interactions of High-Energy Beams with Mater” 205 Direc Weite Electron Beam Lithograpty Systems 208 Direct Write Electron Beam Lithography Summary and Outlook 214 X-Ray Sources? 216 Proximity X-Ray Exposure Systems 219) Membrane Masks 221 Projection X-Ray Lithography 224 Projection Electon-Beam Lithography (SCALPEL) 225 E-Beam and X-Ray Resists 227 Radiation Damage in MOS Devices 228 Sommary 230 Problems 231 References 231 Vacuum Science and Plasmas 9 236 ‘The Kinetic Theory of Gasses*™ 236, Gas Flow and Conductance 239 Pressure Ranges and Vacuum Pumps 240 ‘Vacuum Seals and Presure Measurement 267 ‘The DC Glow Discharge” 249 RF Discharges 251 High-Density Plasmas 252 Summary 255 Problems 255 References 256 Etching 258 Wetting "259 Chemica Mechanical Polishing 264 Base Regimes of lama Ecing. 265 Tigi Pessore Plasma ching 257 teeing 274 Rewtve lu Biching 27 Damage in Reactive on ihing® 281 Tigh Denity Plasma (HDP) Etching. 282 ns m0 Part IV Chapter 12 ma 122 123 2s 23 126 a7 ae Be 210 ru y212 113 as Chapter 13 13 B2 53 bs Bs 136 7 138 139 cots ix Liftrt 283, Summary 285 Problems 285 References 286 Unit Processes 3: Thin Films 293 Physical Deposition: Evaporation and Sputtering 295 Phase Diagrams: Sublimation and Evaporation’ 296 Deposition Racs 297 Sepeoverge 301 Evaporator Systems: Crile Heating Tesniqnes 302 Malicomponet Fins 30¢ Antnvoduston to Spuceing 305 Pyne of Spring” 306 Deposition Rat: Sputer Yield 308 igh Densiy lama Spotering 310 Moricogy and StepCoverge 312 Sputesng Methods. 315 Spoteringof Specific Maeals 317 Stress in Beposted Layers 319 Summary 320 Prien 321 References 322 Chemical Vapor Deposition 326 [A Simple CVD System forthe Deposition of Silicon 326, Chemical Equilibrium and the Law of Mass Action” — 328 Gas Flow and Boundary Layers? 331 Evaluation ofthe Simple CVD System 336 ‘Atmospheric CVD of Disecrics 337 Low-Pressute CVD of Dielectrics and Semiconductors in Ht Wall Systems 339 lastna-Enhanced CVD of Dielectrics 343, Metal CVD" 347 Summary 350 Problems 350 References 351eres Chapter 14 14 42 43 14 15 46 a7 48 9 110 10 112 wn “i Part V Chapter 15 1st 132 B3 159 15.10 1a Chapter 16 164 162 163 164 Epitaxial Growth = 355 ‘Wafer Cleaning and Native Oxide Removal 356 ‘The Thermodynamics of Vapor-Phase Growth 360 Surface Reactions 364 Dopant Incorporation 365 Defecs in Epitaxial Growth 366 Selective Growth” 368. Halide Transport GaAs Vapor-Phase Epitaxy 369) Incommensurate and Strained Layer Heteroepitaxy 370 Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) 373 ‘Advanced Silicon Vapor-Phase Epitaxial Growth Techniques 378. Molecular Beam Epitaxy Technology 381 BCF Theory? 386 Gas Source MBE and Chemical Beam Fpitaxy* 391 Summary 392 Problems 392 References 393 Process Integration 399 Device Isolation, Contacts, and Metallization 401 Sanetion and Oxide Isolation 401 LOCOS Methods 404 Trench lolaion 407 Silicon on Insulator Ioation Techniques 411 Semi-insulating Substrates 412 Schottky Contacts 41d Implanted Ohmic Contacts 418 Alloyed Contacts 421 Mulilevel Metlizaion 423, Planarizaton and Advanced Interconnect 428 Summary 432 Problems 433 References 434 CMOS Technologies 439 Basic Long Channel Device Behavior 39 Eaty MOS Technolgies 441 “The Base Sum Tecnology 442 Device Sing 437 165 166 167 168 169 Chapter 17 in 2 3 14 a3 176 i Chapter 18 iat 2 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 Chapter 19 ist 192 193 198 133 135 197 98 coe Hot Cari Efects and Drain Engineering 455 Processing for Robust Oxides 458 Latehup 459 _ Shallow Source/Drains and Tailored Channel Doping 461 Summary 464 Problems 464 References 466 GaAs Technologies 471 Basic MESFET Operation 471 Basic MESFET Technology 472 Digital Technologies 474 MMIC Technologies 478 MODFETs 480 Optoelectronic Devices 482 Summary 484 Problems 484 References 485 Silicon Bipolar Technologies 488 Review of Bipolar Devices: Ideal and Quasideal Behavior 488, Second-Oxder Elects 489 Performance of BITs 491 Early Bipolar Processes 494 ‘Advanced Bipolar Processes 495 Hot Electro Effects in Bipolar Transistors S04 BICMOS 508 Analog Bipolar Technologies $07 Summary 508 Problems 508 References 510 MEMS = 514 Fundamentals of Mechanics SIS Stress in Thin Fits 517 Mechanical to Blectical Transduction S18 ‘Mechanies of Common MEMS Devices 523 Bulk Micromachining Eching Techniques $27 Bulk Micromachining Process Flow 535, Surface Micromachining Basics $40 Surface Micromachining Process Plow S44MEMs Actuators 546 High Aspect Raton Microsystems Technology (HARMST) 551 Summary Problems 554 References 557 Chapter 20. Integrated Circuit Manufacturing 559 Fo Yrliteticconand Yield Tracking 60 32 Paaleceel 505 5 Sst! Press Conta 209 Salta Cxptments and ANOVA 569 25 Deumoreeenmen 57 sae ConpuerincgtetMenfatsing 578 any carey gor Prniers 578 otecnss 578 Appendix I. Acronyms and Common Symbols | 580 Appendix I. Properties of Selected ™ Semiconductor Materials 585 Appendix 111, Physical Constants 586 ‘Appendix 1V. Conversion Factors 588 Appendix V. Some Properties of the Error Function 591 Appendix VI. FValues 595 Appendix Vit. SUPREM Commands 597 Index 599 —<$—$——_—_—_—_—_—_—_[___=—=_=_—————— Preface “The inet of his book is stroducemicroclectnicprocesicg to & wile audience wrote it asa textbook for senior andor firet-year graduate student Dut i may also be used asa ference for provtcing professionals The goal hasbeen to provide a took hati ety to fed and understand Bath sion and GaAs procestes and wchaolgis are covered, although the emphasis on ilicon: thsedtecologies. The took assumes ove yar of physic, one year of mathematics (Owough simple ‘erential equation) and one cure in chemistry. Most sade with electrical engineering bck founds wil lo have ad at est one course in semiconductor physics and devices including pe Jnctons and MOS transistors. This material extremely wel forthe lst Bie chapters an Te ‘iced inthe fst sections of Capers 16,17, nd 8 for sodens who havent seen it before or Rnd that bey area bit uty. One course in Bak attics also encourage bit ist require fo this ‘Microeectonice textbooks neces vie the fabrication sequence into a mer of unit cones ae pate to frm be nega sit The ffs five the book a ervey ‘or a numberof loosely related opce cach wit is owa background mate. Most sont have “dtc ecaling al of te Dackground materia. They have ten it once, two oF thee year and ‘mary fil exan ago ts iporian that his flamer matralbe reestablished before stdying ‘ew materia, Dnrtated through each caper of ths Book are reviews ofthe sence that underies the engincrng. These sections marked with an", so hep maketh dsinction between the i Imuable scat lews andthe ppton of those Inv, with all he aendant approximations and ‘aveatsothetecialogy at and Optical lidoraphy, fr iestance, aay have sited Wie, bat i Fedee wil always be with us. "A secon cen dh rises in teaching tis type ofcourse thatthe solution of he eustons describing the proves often cannot te done anlyicl’. Comer difsion as an example. Fick's Ts hav analyte solutions, bot hey ae only vali in very rested parameter space. Predepos hom dffixons ee done a igh concentrations at which tne smplifyig ssumpsion used in he Sld- hom eivaton ae snply not vali. In the ares of iograpey even the simpiest solutions ofthe Fas fel equations are beyond the scope ofthe bok. I thi text a widely wed simulation program ced 'SUPREM I's been used fo provide more meaningful exipls ofthe sot of real-word dopant ‘edistibution problems tat he mirolectone fabrication engineer might ace. The sofware {ended to agen nt eplace, leaning the frdsoentalequaans tht describe microelectronic po ‘coving. pie instalatons inhale VAX-, SUN, Apollo, and DOS-bsed microcomputers. The ‘ook lve niches the bare teri with aditonl seins and chapters on proces iniepration fr ‘avlou tecnologie ad on ware danced processes. This dional material cin sections atk with 1" tie doce mat poi covering these restos, hey my be omited without loss of the isi coment of te cour “The econ edion ax aed ari of opt keep itcanent. Most otably ew chaps ten ad orf! new aplatons fr microfabrication roses. Called ecelecroretanialeee syst (MEMS), his etiting ea promise to oem p many rew ares fr microfabrication. The new ‘Chop 19 was wine by Br Gregory Cnc fo fanages he Mirtehnology Laboratory athe ‘versity of Minna and has worked on MEMS fr a mor of yeas. If yo have questions oom ‘moms on hi aren you can contact Gog rectly at hurr @ece un ial, os has to acknowedge tht omar how man ines this materials eviews i cannot be ptameed o be fe ofall the Caopetlly) nina eos. othe past, pulses have pro- “ied rata when eror were sucienly numerous or egresios. Even when eala ae published. They ave ver fc to gto the people who have already bought the book. This means the he trope ears often unaware of mt ofthe cores url anew or revised eon ofthe bok is ‘elwsed. Ths book wll hve an ema ha anyone can aces at any ime. We wll ao provide ‘rior adios to the book Bat were not vba press me. You ean cess the fe by going 0 the Oxford University Presa web ste forth Book, pr cap-esa cr/sbo0 9536085 nh ‘Rs me goes on {wil be adding other minor updates new topics on this site as wel I youd ‘Cenehng tat you fecl nods cerecton or clnctinn in he bo, | eve yout ny me ay ‘mal ediess,Campbellece unm ed, Please be suet lace yeu jutifeaton ching publishes telerences Minneapolis sac. The Science and Engineering of Microelectronic FabricationPart I Overview and Materials scours is enlike many tat you my have lake nth the mater that wil be covered is [Pmsily x mumber of Unit processes th ae ute distinct or each ler. The bok then [eth fave ofa survey of topes hat wil Be covered rae than a linear progression, This pat ut he bak wil ay the foundations Hat il be unde Ine etn he various abc Son process. “The fist chaper wil provide a roadmap of the cour aan ineoduction to intgrate crit fabcaion. The process that are Grove giveth and Gates ies asaya he sigan taketh away. Semiconductor technology, the fabocation of imegsed esisrs, is teed to demonstrate a flow of tes poceses which we wil ella \echnology. Extensions of the tehnalogy to inte capacitors an MOSFETe ae also discos. The secon chapter wil nroce the opie of eystal growth and wafer radon, The chap ter contain base mars information ikst will be used thoughout the rest of the book, Tas Incldes erst siete and erste defen, phase diagrams, andthe concept of sla slut ‘Unt he eer uit processes hat wil be covered ia te ltr chapirs, very few imegrae cic Tabcabon faites actualy grow their own wafers, The lope of wafer producion, Nowever. ‘emonsates some of the important properties of semicondctor ails that wl be portant both Shoring he fabrication proce and to the evel yee and performance ofthe seated eit. The ‘ferences nthe production of siiconand GaAs waters are dscessed,Chapter 1 An Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication “The eens industry has gon rp inthe pst four dead. This growth has ben ven y 2 ‘volun in rotten sry 1D puting moe than oe tei on ie of Sei ‘Coocer wis considered outing edge: Iga circuits (1s) contain eso devies were unheard ‘ST Dipl computes were large slow and exer coy Bell Lab, which had invent ihe tas {eea decade ear rected the concept of ICs, They reasood ta in ert schiewe working ecu ‘Slate descr mut work Therefore thave a SU pohly of uncon for 20 asso ce ‘isthe probably of device funtonaliy mst be (5) = 0966, or 9666. This was considered to betidiculusy optimistic tthe me, ye ay integrated cuits are ult wih ions of sists Bary tanitors were made fem grnaiom, bt most reais ae now made on sion si strates. We wl therefore emphasize silicon nis book. The second most popular material for bul ing 1s i alm arvenige(OuAs). Where appropriate, the book wil cus the processes rouired (Or GaAsiC. Aldwugh GaAs ha higher electron mobil than sco, it als has several seve {Dnitatons including low hole mobility, las sabi daring thermal pocesing, poor thermal ‘hide, high cost an perhaps most ioral, much higher defect dense, Silom bas therefore fecsse the material choice fr bphly imtgrted cea, and GaAs is teserved for ccs that pea avery high spends bt wid low to moderate levels of iteration. Curent he most om ‘on appa of GuAs i analog seats operving ot speeds in excess ofa gigabers (10 Hr). ‘Moe seventy mietoelectone farcaon fests have because 1 bull a vary of sorts Incloing micromagntics, optical devies, and micromechanical scares, Insane cases these ‘Hévure hve ap been imegrted into chipe conainingelcronic crit. A poplar nonlec- tronic splcation, sicromecharical (MEMS) swactures wil be introduced ater nhs book. “Tohart the proper of slcon microelectronics it i easiest follow one typeof chip. Mem cory cigs ave hd essen he se fonction fox mary years, aking his eype of says mean Sect Hentermore they ar extremely regula a can be soldi age volumes, making technology seteaaion forthe ep esgn eco, Ar x esl memory chips have te highest densi of [Svea Fae shows te enaiyoféymamicandom access memories (DRAMS) a8 faztin of tine. Toe vetcal axis logan, The density ofthese circus increase by increments of 4. Ech of tose ierements takes aprons thee years. One ofthe most fundameatal changes the fbrcaion proces that allow this techology evlutin iste mii fete size hat canbe 3 ____e@ FOVineet icctonc ron « fawess fund acd son more printed on the chip. Not only does thi increase IC dem lassim iy the shorter distances that eactons and oles have sem jo avel improve the Uansstor speed. Part of the IC Performance improvement comes om this increased asso perortance and part of come ro: being Sic pack the tansisors closer togter, decessing the pars capacitance, The ipicand side of Figure Ti shows te Is have progressed frm 10 microns Gm pm = 10°" fowl bode I pm. Forse sim © etme, Fee 12 shows an ecto mien em nalcon tad 1 along wth + Raman it The eon eral and hoon Ise metal es ed 1 seats Scot he ante. The amis sles eed {feet ihe nal and emt vl in he mi ‘rap At this ale of feopress gait chips wid ery sn nica feces for 025m features wl be Seen by he dime you ea his geet, Song ccm mg SE as mi 8 Teves $< — TT ‘ode Ttalpes ASige Barge 5 [A fest glance, these incredible denies and the ascii design compleity wotk! seem exterely daming. This book, howeve, wl focus on how he cies are bil ier thin bow they tte dine or how the sire pert. The fabian oes sna no water how many tra ‘Stor a oo be chip. The Bat alo the bok wil cover tetas peations eis to build an I ‘ring mechanical constucion a analog, these wool incl eps sch forging cating, bende {nding and welding, These reps wil called wit procenesin is ext Ione knows bow todo Ch ofthese spe for contain materal (© sed, andi te machines and materia eed are sie “ihe they could be ted to make ladder, igh presen. cr smal ship. There mam ‘rand onr of he ep wil leary depo on wats being bull bu the basic uni processes erin {hc sane: Furthermore. eae sequence tat produces & foo sip has ben worked ou ther sips of ‘lar esgn could yrbubly be bik wth ese proces. The design ofthe ship tha is, what pos ‘whore sa separate sk. The ship is banded ae of apis to whch eo ste mus blk "The collection and ordering ofthese wit procestes for making wal product wil be cll 2 eclnology, Put ofthe book will cover some o he baie Ebicaion technologies. Whether the tcehooogy is wed to make microprocessors, UO cones, oF ay oer digital fanction is Trgey {mur ote fabicain process. Even nay analog design canbe Dull using a ecology very ‘Sra oned to bild most ital eeu. An TC, ben, stars with a eed for some sor of ee tronic device. A designe group of designers wanssizs he regurements ino a eit design; Cat in bow many tanistors, resistors, and capacitors mus be wed, what valves hey must have, sod {Siping example, te blueprints must srnchow reflect he eatin tha te shipbuilder cannot ut ves over Weld joints ore small vets al expoct er wo bold very high pressures. The ides man cere pve the designer a document hat sys what can and cannot be done. In miso ‘ovr thn document called the desig rales r layout rales. They specy tow smal or age ozs fetes can be how lose we diferent tues an be the desig conFerms o hese is the chip canbe Pll withthe given technology 1.1 Microelectronic Technologies: A Simple Example Testead of baci, the cult designer hands the IC fabricator a set of photomasks. The pho mais are apical represenaton of the design tat has ben produced in acconéance with he Tayout es, Asan example ofthis interface, assume that a nod exists fran IC consisting f sine le volge divider shown in Figure The ecology to bail his desi is shown fn Fgae| $iticon water wil be usd a the substrate since they are at, reasonably inexpensive, and most IC procesng equipment ist upto bande tern. The prediction ofthese sobsvates willbe discussed Fr cuapcr 2 Ste the wafer i at Teast somewhat conductive an insulating Iyer mist fat be ‘cpontal to proven leakage betwoen njacert eestor. alternatively. «thermal oxide of slicon (SIU be grown, snc it an excellent instr. The heal oxidation of silicon is covered in ‘Ghupcr 4 Nex a conducting layer deponted tha wl be used forthe esis, Several techniques fordepsing bot ulting snd conduetag layers wil be diseussed in Chapters 12-14 ‘Tis conducting layer must be dvi op into inividul resistors. This an be done by rev sng portions ofthe contin layer, lestng rectangles of he flim tht ae isolated rom each ates, ‘Theres values given by k= ‘where pithe maser esitvity isthe resin length, W sth esitor wid nis the chess Uribe layer The designer can therfore sek different values of resistors by choosing the width ©Figun 13 A single estroge vier At ‘croutons soe oot, “Tpelpe shown st ght arc us conast an ——$—$— $e readin Miconeonc Faves An (sige (2 ote ie (2) Deen eterna) (4) Patera ta s49 (5 bee e {6 Pte nt (pest wt risen w o gee 14 The technology flow or vcning te resistor (toma a gare 13. length mo, subject vo the Hits specified by the layout rls. The technologist chooses the film ‘hicknes and the material (and therefore p) 0 give the designe an appropriate range of esses witout forcing him to resort 1 extreme goametes, Since p andr are determined ring the aie ‘ton and are apreoimately constant arom wafer, the rao pr more often specified than pot £ Individually. This ra ie called the sheet resistance, I bas units of 1 where the umber of squares isthe ratio of the length width of the resistor ie "The reir ifeeatin rom he desig, namely Land W fr each resistor, must be transfered fom the photomask to the wer, This done using «process called phototherapy. The men ‘commonly used type af phoolthoprapby is epiallihopraphy. In this process, a photosensitive layer elle photoresist ie rt spread on the wafer (Figure 13). Light shiiag hough the mask expose the eit in he eon othe wafer where some of the etal esis ayer mus be removed. Tes exposed epons, «photochemical action ocr he eit hat causes it 10 be esl s- saved ina developer soltion. After the develop sep dhe photoresist remains only nthe ass where {resistor sds. De wale then inumese in a ci tht solves the exposed metal layer but ‘oes ot sgniartly tack the resi. When the etch compl the wafes are eroved ff the cid bath, rinsd, sd the potoreit is removed. The photltogmphic proces wl be covered in CChapers7 through 9. Chaper 1 wilteover etching. "Athlouph he rssors have now been formed they still eed to Be interconnected and metal lines must be broagh tthe edge ofthe chip, where they can ter be attached meal wires for com. facto the external weld. Thi later operation, called pachging, wil nt be covered inthis text. If the metal ines have t cos over the resistors, another ining Iayer must be depose. To make ‘lecal contact he resistors one can ope up holes inthe insula ayer using the sabe pho tolthographic and ech processes we ad ued foe ptteriog de ress, although the composition ‘fhe ac bath ny be dee aly, the fabistion sequence can be competed by depositing (1)Srtng trate) Canth pee {unt retusa Teesipes 7 ighly condectve metal ayer, applying third mas, ad etching this metal intercones ye “The technology coms of four yes: the ower aor nate aoe eet tn =e S3388 Ul Boom em eeetecoreee as Tattup Except or edpsof the pater th ik ea ali) es can he ih Novice that he comparon ih ship Tremere ttaas nee creel ieee photomasks, ane that defines only a few resistors and tively remove some of thes layers in ceria regions. (tate eros (ener sy ness OF these ins is constant. The technology uses ing breaks owe none eal effon Dimmens epedwale (EB ie busing breaks down, a pet Th Fae 15 Sic sie orp ese sg Md be anf). Infact front ste of cessing (TP) A numberof prceses hit allow the growth of thin lsyers of semiconductor on op ofthe wafer wile discussed, These process ae Eales cpa growth. They alow the podaton of Fareed dpan repons below the suc ofthe wafer The book wil et disse ere ade oa! extgurs of towing slicon on icon and gllom sere on gallium arene (bomoe thy rl en cover nore advanced tgs hat allow te prowth extremely his yes ar the aban of advanced device suces "Tae un posers canbe scaled ito fonctions cess males, These mous ate esigged eat ont specie tanks sac te eel lation of aacent assis, fw resis {ence contacto transistors, and mip ayes of high desl inereouect. AM of tee aes ave Int cai ahances over eps few years. Clear aeoffs exist mor the vaso odes in {ems of proces complex, cat dros, planar. and performance, These modols od the Feel iy Ht ii i i Fie 1.7 soadmp fre coun inating he easy Between the chaps tank ani faction re semble in ectrnopes, Te f te mos popula eons ‘cen caen bea they ae poplar and beste ey are erste of many ober coeunon thn repent resonable cos secon ofthe mioeleonis inst wil be Feviwed Fly, ‘Stoop As you mig ine om previo dacs te sane nit process cone ed ‘ess equa for high-volome marcia of Cs wl be dacussed te fice sh neon cbrg coupled device (CCDs), ner solar cell, ad gemiing Gioes (LEDS). The only ieee ae the number, ype, a sone of te process wel © 1.3 A Roadmap for the Course fer he echclgy, Yo ae encore ok i 0 fest or Fabrcon teens ter you complete coare to ee Sos ofthe other ways tht hese ui prcesses ae epi “The vats unit processes for fbition ae fil independent. Bach ofthe next 13 bape will, a a cover a differen unit process To kes the Boo fo a manageable size, each proces can be only tril inroduced. many ese, he chiple aenseses canbe expan into books. The materia 1.4 Summary step wil ieee a ila You tr ep ch pie ve Imeprtd sir ave developed with increible level of comple. excesting 1000.00.00 tan eat Trea fis ach sonnei ne coe Sistrs pe chip. Transistor damsiy, as measured by dynam random access memes (DRAM), ere 1.7 shows amp oh coure hp shat yourinsractoy chooses flo junrpies about every 3 yeas, at has since T968, This book wl Inreduce the tehrologes used ee {o fab the ICs The bling blacks of these technologies ce the wn processes of phatlithog. sections are marked with 2°. The shapers and secons marked with * ae atonal materi ‘ag. orton isa, ion pletion etching, hn ln deposition ns eit growth, The ‘omewhat beyond the bac process needed wo describe simple semiconductor temoogies. ti process canbe anembled infect orer and umber, depending onthe ici to be al, “The lat ix chapters ofthe book are dented to sscondvctr technologie. The base unit process dacs earlier ae bre sogsthe 9 fom. Cs mede frm silicon CMOS, bipols a Sistorn GaAs fel fic wants, and micromecheic! devices. Tes ecology exarpes have TTChapter 2 Semiconductor Substrates “Tis section of the took will deal with nit roesss that depend strongly on the properties ofthe Fa arse wales themslves.Diffsion for example, depends on te crysaiae perfection nthe cance in aay unpens on the proces tmmperstre We wil hepin wit a eseiton of phase Thabane Tis murals paricolrty weft for understanding the formation of alloys that wil be eg crn book Ts top lio leeds naturally it a discussion of sali solubility ad the do. caret scumonductrcrysiai: Following tat the chapter wil oncentrae oo crt stutres sh Ha semeevaline woes. The secon Palo he chapter wil discuss the echniqus wed 2 finned eogeonductor wafer These wafer, wbich ¥ry in ianeter fom i for some compound eetconductors upto 300m fr some licon wafers athe asc slaing pint for device faba Tee ihugh ee oneaton felis sill wake her Owe wafers, the tidy of he semicondctoe ante mess good place to bint develop a uadersanding of senicoaducor processing, FOr ‘Tore complete review of i topic se Malan and ara (1 The teri toed for efclectonies can Be dived im the casications depending 08 the anvunt of Homie oder they poses. In singe crystal materials, almost al of the atoms i the (Mosul ooupy wel defied and regaar portions Iaown as late ites, Mis ofthe eemicondctor SEeeaee tien the acne devices ae actly made ae single crystal. Arogpous mats Sen SiOy teat he apposite exreme Theses in a amorphous mil have o Tong ange ‘Sher Instead the chemical bonds have a aage of legis ad orestations, The tid ls of mae Sits polrtilin, These meters area coleston of stall single crystals randomly oisted ‘Bin eopect to cach eer. The size and orientation of ese crysas often change during pressing Und somedines even ding cect operation. 2.4. Phase Diagrams and Solid Solubility” Most ofthe ates of interest to ws in tis text ae ao elementa: rater they are mixtres of mae ae Bren ein no very wscfl ina pure state, ned, tis mixed with impure hat affect ‘Grecia pope. A wey convent way 10 pesat the properties of mintres of maeil is & ‘Shas dafom Binary pate dagams canbe Wovpht of aps that show the eegion of stability Cartan of two materials a function of percent composition and terpeatre, Phase digrans (Riya have a resmure dependence but al ofthe diagrams of neem semiconductor device fb ‘ston wl bea 1 atm 21 Fes aye eS tity "18 Figure 21 shows he tase dara for eS noe B21 Somat se dan Gian xp fe sie ef 9s [2 Deca cn he graph The upper lie, ce deserts the enperatire tiven mitre wil bein completly Ilsa Tee ove or sls curve dees ie tempera which te mtr wil empl feu. Betwcen es no crves eon ch ig hi di me, Th comonomer ‘ix weg som concerto of ad Ge bdr 0 temperate ch mate! wil pow wa a 1106. — eet 2 OSC, Aspe Bat he bei sto rath ht te ema nan euro e eo ec he fd inline cn oe ne wih emiey he cnpaon x hehe ah ie est pra Free I'S opin of ma il 32 omc pec is, The seein fhe a an ead off he pr as coment ih esis ie engeriepe he euing vie ae pce i Noe a hac ht mobi i ea tempest is inne, he compo of he mel ves Wed coal val, ‘ithe nti alt mvs de wp io ene ener ehe is ine te ene hare en Fr 7 ating ae res TC Cpe Wei pen co ea ‘mera i Figure 21 Pease sr cf Ge Si The doles eres he "hemodynamic lib cures ASM eration. e of12 2Seakordc Sus cooing, the ste processes osu. In either pees, maining thermodycamic equ in he Solid muck ore fic han isin th me ‘ample 24 Forth example jas cused, calculate the faction of the SO charge tat is molten at ise. Solton: Let bethe fraction ofthe charge thats mate, Then | ~-cshe fri of he charge hati sli Tre faction of sion in the melt plus te fraction of ico i he sid tak 10.5, he otal fation of iis the charge 05 = 022 + 0581 ~ 9) Solving for 036 = 008 r= 02 22% of th charge is nolan and 78% i sll Figure 22 shows the ps diagram for GaAs (3. Material stems lke GaAs tat ave 10 solid pases tat melt form a single ligud phase recalled intermetlics. To examine the phase ‘Sagres in he lower igthand corer, Ts asi pve, snc it i below the solids fi. ‘The venice! line a the center of the dagrra indates at tbe compound Gx wil for i hs Tiara sytem The lower lft region ea solid mine of GaAs snd Ga, while th region ia he {bwer gt hse nature of GaAs and As, I this Azsch solid is heated 1 10°C, te soation tuitepn to mel Beeween tis frperafute andthe Kgudus line, the concentration ofthe mel ca te detrmited as beiore. For Orch charge, th mixed state Begins at about 30°C, only lghty howe tom trperstre Ths gives ise 1 problems associated withthe growth of GaAs lye tht stb esc both nein hs ape z well ta ater chiper on pital govt “svi exile consider Figure 23, which shows the pase dagra forthe AS-Si sytem ls), White the suctre looks quite complicated wit Several diferent sold phases mapped ot, ‘mcroletronic apis ae primaiyilerested inthe low arsenic concentration fim. Even try bevily ope sco is normal Tes than 58 arsenie. Novice at there sony very small Tezlon in which As will disole ln slicon at» dopat without forming a compound. The maxima Concetrion of an nary tat an be dsolved a anther material under exuibvium conditions is ited the soi solubility. Notice tht the wold solabliy increases athe temperature approsches {OTC whore it is aut & atc percent, soa that inthis eon a vera! ine will actully ine cree curves The poton of te lne hat goes frm © omic peremt As at SOC Yo 4 fomnic Perce Asa 1OS7C is ead the solas cure, represents soubliy. Te remaing two ies The whe sls and ligula esesively. The sod solubility of Asin St is comparatively Ize rer, and i means tat As i be ued 0 form very heavy dope and therefore ow resistance ‘elon such at source sd din contacts for MOS transistor (Chapter 16) and emit and colesoe ‘onars wotpolrvarsisors (Chapter 18. Since tn the sid slubiity rom the phe dag hat {sot primary ineest for dapat impor, and he soli obit varies by des of mages ur fernt mgs in icon, he poe diagram nforeatin for amber of common dopants in siicon have been combined (5} on aserilog pet is Figure 24 220,soganhy Cal Sesse 13 en caarreve Figure 2.2. Phase ng fc Gah (carn of ASM ernst Consider what happens inthe elongata, A sicon Wafers heed to 105°C and dps 0 3.5% atomic with As Doping msthade wil begin to be doused in the next chapter. puny co ‘ttrton ar normally expreued in camber permit volune.A 3.8% ame Coneencation asic. ‘comespons 01.75% 10" cm The ps diagram indicts tht asthe wate is ook twill eve: tually exceed th maximim cogceation tha can be in Slat ora thermodyasic ‘iri, the excess Asta condense ot, cite by coming ob ofthe sre oso ely. by forming sl preiptats in he sioun esta Fr thi to happen the Assos must be mie ine {ys the wafers cooked apd enowgh he precipitates cana orm, and a higher conceniaion ‘of pris dan ter ynaiclly lowes ca be omen in. Metallurg efer tos proces as (qunching. Tis an impertantconsieration oe in mind. Doping concentrations ean sod fen {Ec cece the sol sclutay, This is doe by beating & wafer with excess dopant sews and hen ‘oolng pid Prakconeetaton can exceed Ce sold slit by a actor of 10 oF mar. 2.2 Crystallography and Crystal Structure” ‘Cras re described by their most bese stratrl element the ont cll. crystal is simply 80 fy ofthese cel, repeated in very reguor manner over tve dimesios. The unit el merest —<—<$<—<— <<< —<—<—<—————————— rrwt ecactanee ae swe a lave i a a a a a a onic eet ste os Figure 23. Pine singrm for Ar SL (cours of ASM Internatio Ive cai prety with each ee ofthe unit el Being the same length, Figce 2S sbows thee Simson per of cuiceqysals. The sirection ina crystal re etd sing Cran coordinate Suen a [ea For eae cys the fares ofthe cel form plans that are perpecalar othe rer or he condinate sysea The symbol (xy) used to denote «patil plane that is pspe: ‘Ecutr wo te vector bat points rom he ogi long the [2] ection, Figur 2.5B shows several Gonmue cya icin, The sctof cubes and ¢ at reused 10 dese planes i this : (tanner ur called the Miler indices ofa plane. They are found fora sven plane by taking the [Dvr of te points a which te pla a guesion crosses the three coorinae axes, hen mii ing by the smalet pousbl facioro wake x,y aod ziteger. The notation (x2) i so wed 10 ‘epreen rysal planes, This presentation i meant include not ony the given plane, bu also lt ‘Caisson planes, For example in a rstal with ub symmetry, the (100) plane wil ave exactly ‘Sotume properties the (O10) and (01) plans. The ony eifference i an abitray choice of coor: inate syste, The notation {10} refers tal te. “Ficon and germanium are bod Groep TV elements. They have for valence electons and cod four more to complete thelr vlene shall. In ry, hs i done by forming covalent bonds 1 four acuest eighbor toms, None ofthe bse cube tates in Figure 2.5 would therefore {eppprine. The simple cubl cys has sx newest meighbors, the body centred cubic (BCC) as eg nd the fee entered cube (PCC) has 12. Instead, Group TV xemiconducos fom in the 22oysaicgpy ad Cyl Sree 15 ce 1" Concannon) Figure 24 Sclid slit of somo sco mpi (al igh reseed erin wh permision. ©1960 AT & 7, 40 Tel Be ‘ipiete Sayeeda Fare cent te o » Figre 25 (9) Gomme ct ig i Tice cer and aceenor case) Cy ‘orientations in the evbie sytem, aeFue 28 Te cinmoat cite Fue 27. singe aa LO (Deen ond 2am Sees Gamoad strctte shown in Figure 25 The ont cll can be consruced by starting with an FCC cel and ‘ding four dion some Ite length ofeach ie fn. the Foor addins ste ae load ta, 12/9), al, 3, a), (alo a) and a, eld Sal), Tis cyst stetare ce alo e though of 2 ‘wo ftesoeking FCC latioes. Gas ao formes inthis sine arzagemeat, however, when (elements ae prose theerystal has veced lel of syne. ‘The secure ten called chiens. 2.3 Crystal Defects Semicondocior wafers are highly pefoct single on tus, Nevers, est detects ply an import tole in semiconductor fatvicaton. Semiconditor fects of imperfections, can be divided ito four 'ypes depending on thir ieasionality. Point defects do nc extend any ection, Line defects extend in ‘one sitecton “rough the crystal. Ane sd volume defects are 2 and -D defect, epectively. Each ‘ype fart ute diferent arent of Be favieation pce, Pint defects are cxtemey impor sotto the understanding of doping ad diftosion. The prevention of ine defects important to ay ‘heal procesig, paula in pid heal processing. Vola deft a play wef le in YeKlenginerag, Figure 27 shows afew ofthe mot important semiconductor deft ‘One ofthe most canon pes of pin defect lie site without an som Tis defects 3 ‘vacancy. A chely related point defect i at ao du resides wot on alatic it, bi the spces betwen the atic poston. [rele fo as an inka the inertial atom oof he Same smatril asth los inte lace it a seltteri n sore cate, the neal comes om 4 ‘eary vacancy. Such a vacacy interstitial combination i elle Fen eect might also migra tote surface ofthe wer wher nist ‘Vacancies and e'neesials are ininsie defects Just ab one tls shout inc caries in sericondsctors, at none tempest inns ‘defects wll tend to ocurin an otherwise perfect cyst Thermal excitation ° ‘reas a very sal percentage of electrons at hoes na semiconductor. Wil also remove a Small ner of atoms from their lic ies, eaving o fect. Te ners or vacancy may nt remain lhe site at which was Feet ecg mek Bahonsol ics an move trek te eal pry ote SS SSS te cee ons il ie meetin fatto te * 3233 behind vacancies Gover. the vacancy conceotaion is given by a8 Anis uncon which fs egeton of the fre. enerr en there she number density of stom inthe ryt ace (5.02% 10 10 yn. For example, an anes! a 12D0°C for 3h gives an oxy en concentration of 6% 10” cm? (2 ppn) and an approximate dened rone depth of 25 jum, Fnuly, ove aceds to observe thatthe carbon eancentation must als be contlled in wafers Intended for innsic peering ws, since the axyge can prcipiate at erbon impurities (20) The oncetaion of earbom inthe wafer, therefore, factor i determining the sie sn shape ofthe seyprn recite (21. 1s deat up Cconcntation ae than 0:2 ppm 2.4 Czochralski Growth ‘The techniqn used to produce mest ofthe crystals from which semicoodcto wafers are cutis called Czochvatst growth. The process was lst developed by Tel [2] i he ecy 1950s ao nas Gist developed by Cznchalskt who wed ito draw thio mal amet forthe melt as early 251918 Since sien i single component system, its eset to art by staying is prowth. Once this is complete some ofthe complications sociated with compound emicondoctor grotah wil Be discused. The production of the high prty polyerysaline materials that ae meted the Cochralsi furnace will ot be discussed. While ts i an interesting execite in dilation it ot ‘very elevane ote IC fabrestion proces. (Cuotralsk growth invaves the slain of» erysa from a mel. The material wed in singe crys sion growth is electronic grade polycrystalline slcon(plyiicon, which hasbeen Feped fom guar (S10,) unt its 99:99999% pure. The poly lade ino a fused sled ‘crcible that i contained fo an evacuated chamber Figure 2.12) [23 The chamber ie back filled With an ino ga, apd the crucible i ited to approximately ISOI°C, Nest, sal chemically hed seed erst (about 05cm ia diameter an 10 em lo) lowered nto contact wi the mek ‘Tis ery mt be cael onto since wil eve a the tpl forthe prowth of the mach Jager cyst cll the Boule. Modem bosles af silicon can reach a diameter of oer 300 tm and sel 02 mong Since both tet and the soi are at sbou the same pressure and have approximately the same compotion, sobificaion must be acomplished by sredsction intemperate. Ae shown the Sgr, temperate sont bythe incensed serface area of te ok. Both ara conveton sad ary body rasan wil cause he esa 0 give off sobtantal heat and wil give ese to song, ‘ermal gradient across the Tigid solid ineface. Ate interac, sional energy must be In secommodate the lent heat of fasion for he sol Baling the energy flow in aun volume atheFigure 212 Sctemats md ghowcagh (omtes of ‘orntis Comoran of Casha Sut em, 240m bow 20 imerace wih simple 1D anaysy, (wat) (naa) use ax ‘wher the ks ae the thermal conductivities of ligand oid slcon st he ming pint, Ais the ‘ros-sccional area ofthe boule, Tithe lemgersre, and i the Ineat heat offs appt acl 340 cal fo sien), ‘Both of de two thermal difesion terns are poitve under non Coach growth com oa, ith the fst tern arger than the second, Teint tht cher isa mary ae at which the crystal can be plod (Figure 213). This would gr if all the beat iain up the slid it ‘roduc by the Islet heat of fasion a the interface (sete fist try in Egon 210 sO} Toe ‘ere would be no werperatre gradient inthe ig en ‘am atempt i made to pull the eystl from the mel fase han this the solid cant conde the het away andthe mate will nt soil a single ery 24), Type vals for the tere "ur satiation Cznchals are about 100"Cem, bough for pul rs near the ram the termperatue praen wil ary inversely with the arse the yt Figure 214). Toma lize he temperature gradient inthe oe th Boule and mee te typkly ete in oppo ce- ions during the growth In rely, the maximum pul rat snot normaly se, Is been found that the ceysallne ‘ua s2sensiiv function of the pl ate The mesial near the melt hus avery igh demty oF Poin defects, 1k would be desiable to cool the solid quickly enough to preven hese deft fom Figure 2:13 Time se sequen of ol cing pl tw he mein Cat roth (reine ih porn of ane Pr a ae eee u Sentra Series gglomerting. Oa the ether band, suc pid coking means that large themal pain’ (an there {Se tage sovver) wil cccor i th eral, pculrly for Inge diameter wafers. Czochralski ‘Gown grocesses ue thi effet to tinimize dseaton nthe bole by rapidly beginning the pl ‘Fun produces a maou. highly perfect pon [25-27] jut below the sec rst, calle tang. Any dintatoos inthe seed atl, whether tet nally or caused by contact wi tbe mln sic, ‘Sn be preveme fom propagting in the bool a this mamer (2). An example of such an edge Searels atcation can be seen ia Figure 215. The mek trmperare i then lowered. andthe pol ‘at reduced wo shoulder eu te bool othe desired dame. Fall, the pl te a famace te ‘erate ae aie using Feedback conta fom an optical tector sto measure the with of he Fete Thc ueipn of ti ew sheds is eneally impor i contellng the temperature station ‘ea te olid-neliniectac nd hereto in etrining the delet density (23 ‘Gena at the meter of he esas incresed, the pul rate mus be decreased. This is pecans the het lst is proportional tothe srfce ate, which i proportion the damter Seibert whi the energy pce by fasion is proporticaal othe vam, which i ur s Figure 214 (A) A200 seo ron ty (8) potty SOD wen (phar cay of MEME ‘Berens Matra be) Figure 218 _X ry egrph of sed neck showing ge ‘malonate Sm 2AGcnbh Gow) 25 proportional to the square of the diameter. the pl Fat fs too low, bower, pint defects wil agelomer ie The type of defects formed most commonly are faleddiocation lope. I semicondsctor substrates these loops are called sil Beene they ae often dis ‘buted in sul about the enter of the wa, ‘arg the proces of Czochralski growth sverl Imparies will corporate ilo he ery. We have sleady discused the importance of oxygen th ub- ‘ira. We are now in a poston to undead its fin. Cribs ueed to bold De mote silicon during Be Contras proces ar wsaly fed sca (SO, fen mistakenly called que). A ISO, silica wil felene a considerable amount of oxygen ino the Ion silicon, Over 95% of the dissolved oxyg=n ‘Seapesrom the sre ofthe alt as Si (30. Some fie oxygen wl be Incorporated ino the growing ays. Since tis soply of oxygen is consatly ‘plished will be approximately conan along the contled sing the temperature of the mc. For feawcedconcentzebons of oxygen, the boule can be frown under magnetic coctecment. The fst comme lly signican tnagneticaly confined Czoctrls from wore reported in theca 1980s [31,32]. Fig tre 216 shows & magnotily coined erysal growth System The magnetic field uy be directed along the Tenth of the foie ana ever, modern systems fee nealy all perpendicular 16 the growth ‘section (tanec). Typical Wels ae 037 XG). In eer case the purpose ofthe ld iso create a Larent force gu B, which wl change the motion ofthe ‘nid impure inthe melt in such amaener aso keep ther aay fom the uo itace td thereto Screase the input incorporation nthe rsa this rangement, nygea concen ‘aon low at 2 pn have been reper [33 Thix process also ashe eflet of minimizing eis iy variations avout wafer [34 Tis azo common to invoice opt sams into the mel so that a parca esti wafec cansbe made To do issone can siply weigh the mal, eterine the numberof pert toms that ‘Gost be needs and ton weight puri. The press complhated, however, by te fat Ti rpactics tend seprgate at solidi inrfaes Thats th oid may be more ores key Toconain an purity han the Iii, A prepa coefficint ean be dein a8 ¢ 212) ‘whore Can Care the impurity conention the void and igi sles ofthe soiiqu iter: Thee Table 2.1 sarmasiaes the Seregtioncoeficews of eoramon impure sion “To endeand fw dopant sepreation spar etal uniflora, consider what happens if b> nat ene, the concentration of impor 9th sli s great than thin the mel. ToFume 216 Photopph of comes ply cota Cnc system (Tha eta achieve this higher proportion of dopant is pled foe the mele han i contained in the qui ‘Consoqoemy the tmpuiyconcetraio nthe mele mrt decrease asthe bul spall. Refering tothe phase Gingrams ote 0d solubility curves, the concentration shift of he met so shit the “onoraation ofthe Solid. Ir we define Xas te frac ofthe mel ha has Solid, and sssupe that te volun is wel ned ea be shown that Cmca ey wher Cte nial met eonceaation “The well mined approximation nt very good de to he existence of tbeoal gradient inthe me. The basic effec i shown in Figure 2.17, The hot wal ofthe croible cause the met near the Walls o expand: The lowce density ofthis healed marl wil cause 10 ie. The cooler region of the met nea the boule wl od to ink. Collectively, te proces is known satura convection and “is 21 Sep aion meomornerte nse = a a 2 3. P ES ora a os 03s obs ons Beas 2ACextie ew "27 the Mow tems dha it proces ae haowe 36 Dusyancy-deen Peireultion cell. Ths eect is resent Some extent whe ‘hs temperate rien exit in ster that contain gud ‘or gat with aii nonzero viscosity. The rotation ofthe cv ‘ble andthe boule. long with the pling ation of the boule, ‘he heat leased by selidcaton ate salid-ele interface and the srface tension of the elt al comibue wo thew ptems in the melt [36], For larger boas the Now i hz mel eb lene At he hgh otra, the met cannot ow, inthe sre way the woe atthe tanks of river cannot Rod ecaue ofthe ite vieosty ofthe mel thre wil bea Yegion ear the ligule interface over which litle foe of mers) sl be poset. This region of the melts called the Bourary layer Te inputs hat re ake up by Ue eid mist se ‘ross hs eegian, To fae this effec min account, the gre tion coefficient & cn te replncd wit an elective segregation fefficien whee a9 ‘isan etfcive boundary layer hicknes, Vs the pall velit. nd Dis the impurity dif inthe oie smiconductr "The row of GuAs fom the mek i sgiicntly more cue than the grt f sion, One reason i the diterence Figure 217 Forno ction cll inthe vapor presse ofthe (vo males, Siokhiometic GaAs reli at I238°C (se Figere 22) At hat temperate the vapor esse of glim i essthan 0.01 atm, ile the vapor pres sure of aren is stout "age. is obvios that maintaining sehiomeuy dough te bose wil te callngng. A variety of systems have been designed o overcome tix obacle This and he nex ‘secton vill present the two mest popular choices: lid encapralated Concha growth co mony called LEC, andthe Bridgman growth technique. Bedgmun wafers ave the lowest discs tion doses (fener 10°em andar commonly aed for ebricaing optoelectronic devices such 1 laser. LEC grown wafers can be made with Iagger dances, they ae fou, and can be male semainsiting wih ressiviis of neaty 100 Milan. A disadvantage of LEC wafer is that xy typically hive deft densities greter than 10*em™ Many ofthese defects ae de to thermoplastic fees aking from vera! temperature radions of 60-80"Cicm (37) The production and se of those seminsulaing substrates wl be icussd in Chopter 15, A ares fs propery eat ll ‘etronie GaAs devices ae faced on LEC meri. Pytoyticboron nite (pBN) erciBles are wed istead of qua in LEC growin o avo le ‘on doping ofthe Gas bute ro equa To prevent ouiiffesion of As frm the mel, tbe LEC ‘process ser tghly iting dik shown in Figure 2.18 The mast common sclat rsa s bork ‘nie (8,0). A slight excess of eic aed othe charge to componrate Forte arsenic ss at ‘ova until the xp Booms moten at about ADIPC and seas the mel. Once the carze is mole, ‘he ace crystal ca be mere trough the br oxide ul it somes the charge, Dring shes the peste reaches 6 tm. Crystal growths cari ot at 20am (8) For thst reason he proces is sometines celled high pesoure LEC or HP LEC: Typical pl ates ate abou I cmv (ISenet, (ey temocene (Seton ibe eae uemperre coal ere, ‘The second problem cacoumtered in LEC growth rele to difereces io the mater properties af licen td Gaks Table 22 sommares the rlevant data, The heal conductivity af GaAs is about tied tha of i icon, Ava esl, a GaAs bole aot able oessipte te latent eat of ferion ax apy sa siicon boule Prter~ more, he shear sss rogue o mace a dsoation st the tcing point is about forth tat of silicon. Not ‘only the material less able dispute bea, a smaller thermoplase sain will induce defects no surprs: Ing, therefore, hatte Coote grow of GaAs is pi imal limited to ouch sale wafers than silicon tnd that defect densities of Crosbalk grown material are ‘many orders of magritade larger than spare silicon fer the dsocation density i kept ow engh it does ot present a turmounable ret the fabication of Cs with madera to high ives of imegratin; However, gure 218 Scicoaic of igait Schnee one ster, ug mee els rprined sen. y= en Lor course, duadvanage of his process is tht it so slab For Fring ype sion 2.7 Wafer Preparation and Specifications . ‘After th bute ts bcm grown she wafers mus be made, The Boule is fs characeizd for ress Fareed cpa preston Thon te sed anal rect of andthe boule is mechanically immed to a —e—2 2 Suncom Sats om cm 10) vn am int ten z O® om wn ry ‘ony oy ain sates (a caste gure 223 sundrs atorntn foifeent semicon wae. the prope diameter. The diameter ahs point is lghly lage han the fal wafer diameter, since ‘ditional exching wil sil be done, For wafers 10 mm and les, ts are round te enti lent of the boule o denote the ert crietton andthe doping eye ad o provide a meted for carey aligning the ration ofthe wafer during subseqseat potoiography ep, The largest ft ealed the primary is orinted perpendicular tothe (110) decon. One or more rior ft wl a Be round Figure 2.23 shows the Ba eentton or diferent wafer pes or larger wate anotch brown ato the ge ‘iter arindng the fats the wale is dipped in a chemical etchant o remove the dase caused ‘by the mechanical grinding Fark manutacurer hats proretary mint, ut ley seme sed ‘the HE-HINO, sytem. Af etching, the bale is sea into wafers. This excl sep the Process ait wil determine the wafer bow 2od Panes. Typically, 2 wie impregated with amend Pts is used. The wafers may then be edge rounded in anohce mechanical grining proces, tk ‘hasbeen found that edge roundel wafers are fess susceptible to deve ccated by chanel Ban ‘ling ring the subsequent processing caso pevens the ple wp of liguid tht wl cou the wafer when asing spinon proces Next series of sep te performed to remove any reidal mchanicl damage ad o prepare ‘the wafers fo device fabricate Fis the wafers te mechanically lapped ia sanyo lis ood lvoe, then etched as before to ede the damage Finally, one or Bt ses ecvte a posh ina Electrochemical rocess involving sary of NaOH and very ie siica pts lowe by ache, ‘eal cean remove any residal contaminants Tables 23 and 2.4 show typical var mpecibcatons ‘Both silicon and GaAs technologies se migrating to larger wafer ses snc hs allows more i per wafer and hese greater efficiency. The stsndard GaAs wafer (00 em, The standard wae for sion IC manufacturing i 200 mum. The Sst Cs to be bil on 40mm wale ave now been Tobie 23 pes oats on Geen a Tea ra esting mp >i Mesa or Vy 00 eddy on) we Panes (0 “ Contcm 1 Tipe peal aoe ase wr ‘Clee: pail?) ‘Grygen crete ea) Species +38 (Cates saceuraton Sxi0" Nest ng “aoa ridin diced cng hs om) = Sie em) 10 Teton (nm) casos Bow (um. io Gia ass um) 3 Comte 2 ” .. FE ATT = ——, nape, rpc en hn completed, but 30mm accepance ha bees slowed by adver ecocamie conditions. Ax shown in Fire 224, however, secptance ofthe new 300-ra sam fr is expected to prow im coming years, Simul ‘the fest 150-mo GaAs fab line his wecnty hepun rodicton 2.8 Summary and Future Trends “This chapter eviowed some ofthe mst basic proger: tis of semiconductor materials. An intodoctior to phase cigrams was given ad he ide of slid solu ity wos presented. Nex, base desertion of poi. Vine, area, and volume defects was given. la th scot al ofthe chapter esa prow methods were presened,Conevalih rowth ithe most common method for preparing silicon wafers, Liga ncepulted Czochralski the dominant tho for sowing GaAs for elesronic applications, be high defest densities are « problem, For optockstroic applications the prefered head i Oe Bridgman ecaigue Problems 1 |AGaAs crystals ona cordate system such hat an arsenic to sits the gestion 0.00 aaa glum atom sis aa al at Fi hex. coorinates of theater tre nearest elghbor galls alos othe esenc alam at 00.0. What isthe distance tween theve aos? Compare the dstnce tthe aoc rai an 368 A, ven igure 1.6, Explain any ferences (note For dhe cystal in Problem inthe tre ther nearest arsoie atoms ote ct alive 3. Atbxure f 30% stcon and 70% germanium heated to 100°C ibe mae a heal ‘euiriom, wat ithe concentration of sion i heme? AC wha epee wil the ‘mle charge mo}? The saraple tempest ised to 130°C, hen sey cote back daw, te L100. Whats the concent oF con the sis?2S Sites 4, Referenc pO During the motel beam pital growth (MBE) of GaAs ayers dere song tendency to form dope of gallum on the surface ofthe wafer. These oval defers area serous ‘roblm for MBE febcation. Avoiding thes require large arsenic to altar xo, Referring the phase dagram, explain why thermadynass woul aver the formation of these droplets. [A process technology tht has guinea grst dal of interest nthe last fw years is ap “rmal annealing (oe Chapter 6), The proses allows wafers tha have hgh concentrations of ‘dopant sons in thm oe ested to hgh temperatures very api, minimizing dopant ‘dfsion Explai he deiabiy of soc a proces based on te dscussion of phase diagrams td solid saab. ‘silicon wafer thar has 10 om of non i found to havea! vacancy concenaton of 2 10 on at sore processing temperatre ans singly lowed vacancy concertaion of {hem at the sme terperatre Detect temperature ad he activation energy of te hanged vacancy with espoct 1 he nse lve, Repeat Problem 6 the wafer doped with 2 > 10% em” of boron Init desired to form a Jenaded ze 10 um ick sing an 1100 seca How ng wil the ‘anes nen be? Wit wll he oxygen concenation bei the dened 200? Whe temperstoegradien in Cocca silo is 100"Cem, calculate the maximum pl te. ‘Asoming atthe ek sat uniform temperate an loses no eat except the boule and thatthe ale ra perfect Black body, se up the diferent equabons apd boundary conatons ln ewo dimensions ht one would eed wo salve to find TY. 2) ne boule ‘A toute of singe cpt scons pled fom the mel i Caner proces. The silicon is bton doped. Afr the boule pled i sliced ino wafers. The wafer takes fom the top of the bool bs boron conentation of 3 = 10cm Wha wou you expect for doping ‘concentration ofthe wafer taken from the poston corresponding (090% ofthe nial charge ‘oliied? ‘Arnel contains 0. sami erent phosphons in sion. Asse the well mined “proximation and allt the dopant concentaion when 10% of de erysals pulled, when 508 of the ery pulled. and when 90% of teers is pulled ‘tool of alco ie plled fom al hat conte 001% phospors Pia the mel {@) What concentration of phowgors(P) woul! you expect atthe tp ofthe boule (x = 0)? (©) the boule i long anit basa uniform cro section, t what postion (rx valve) would you expect concentration of phosphors toe twice as age a it8 he top? (e) Now consider he eto contain gallium aswel (Gallium is p-ype dopant for sion, but tis wt common we.) The concentration of albumin he el is such tat athe top ofthe boule r= 0), the concentatons of gal and phoxphors are exactly ea tbe concenvaion of glliam half way down he Boule (x= 0.5 twice tat ofthe spor, what ithe sepregtion coco () for gala? Wy docs Braginan gomth end to hve bigher impurity concentrations han LEC? es, '. Mahan and KS, Harsha, Principles of Grwth nd Processing of Semiconductors, ‘McGrail, Boston, 199. Binary Alley Phase Diagroms, 20808, vol. 2, ASM In, Mates Pk, OH, 1990, . 2001 ‘Binary Alloy Phaze Diagrams, 2, ol 1, ASM In, Matra Pts, OH, 1980, p. 283, hip. 319 2». a. 2 2s. x. 28 20. 3 fers 35 FA Trambore, “Solid Solhilies of inpurtis fn Gorman and Sion Bell Syaems Tech 4. 39-210 1960). S- Ghandi, VLSI Fabrication Principe, Joba Wiley & Son, New York, 1983. S.M. Ho, Moterias Res. Soe. Symp. Pro. 58.249 (1986) . S. Msn, GA. Roagonys, and D, Brae, "A Model fer the Formation of Stacking Fass in Sileon” Appl Ps Len. 3073 (1977). R.A. Craven Semiconductor Silicon 1981, p25 1.€, Mikkelson, SJ Poarton. J. W, Corbet nd S.J Pennycook es, Oxygen, Carbon “Hirogen ond Nitrogen in Crane icone, MRS, Psu, 1986. HAR Hull, “Siicon Maer forthe Megs IC En” Semateeh Technical Rept 93071 746A XFR(1999. {A Bourret, J. Thibault Dessean, and D.N. Seidmann, "Early Stages of OxynenSearepsion ‘and Precipitation in Slcon.” J. App. Ph. 85:82 (1985) Wada, NAnve, and K, Kola. "Difsio Limited Growth of Oxygen Precipitation in Coctrai Sco,” J Crt. Growsh 48.749 (1980), KH. Yang HF. Kapper, and GH, Schorthe,“Minecty Case Lifetine in Annealed Shcon Crystals Cootining Oxygen” Pips Star. Sol. ASD221 (1978, HR. Hal, HF. Schake,1. 7. Robinson, C. Babe, and D, Wong, "Some Observations on Oxygen PresipitaionGetering in Device Processed CzochasSiicon." J. Elecrachom Soe 1371351 0989) D.C. Gupta an RB. Swaronp, “Ee of Oxygen a Inermal Getering om Door ammation,” Sold State Toohol2:113 (August 1984) RB. Swaroop “Advances in Silicon Technolgy forthe Semiconductor Indust,” Sli State echol 26101 (ly 1983). D. Huber and. Re, “Precipitation Process Design for Denuded Zoe Formation in (Coaches Silicon Wafers” Sali Site Technol 26:13? (August 1983) M. Stavoa, J. R. Pate, LC. Kimesing, and PE Fesland, “Difoivy of Oxy i tthe Done Formation Temperate,” Appl. Py. Let. 2:7 (1983) 'W.J. Taylor, ¥. Tan, and U. Goal, “Carbon Precptaton i Silicon: Why Is So Dict.” App Phys Len 62:3336 (199). T.Faboda, Appl. Phy. Le. 681376 194) G.K. Teal, "Single Cras of Geranium and Siicon—Basic tothe Transistor andthe Teiegrated Creu,” IEEE Tras. Eletran Des. BD-23:021 (1970) ‘W. Zubeen. Huber, “Coochrski Gro Silicon,” n Crystals & Springer-Verlag, esi, 1982 ‘SN, Rea, "Czochralski Silicon Pall Rats" J. Creal Growth 84267198), 1. C. Dah, “Evidence of Disoeaa Jog in Deformed Siion."J. Ap Phys 2705 (1958). [W.C Dash, Silicon Crystal Fre of Dislocations". App. Pye. 2736 (1958, [W.C, Dash, “Growth of icon Crt Fre from Dishcatons” J App. Phys 34591959) "TA, "Cry Fabrication,” ia VSI Elecron~Mlcroracare St 12, N.. insu and H.W ede, Academic Pes, Orlando, 1988. |W. von Ammon, "Dependence of Bulk Deccs onthe Axial Temgerature Gradient of icon Crysis Dring Caachi Grow,” J Cryst. Growth 1SL:273 (1995) KOM Kim and EW. Langlois, “Computer Silaon of Oxygen Sepatin in CZIMCZ Silicon (Cys and Comparison wih Experimental Result.” J Elcroche Soc. 138:1851 (199D. 1 Hos, T, Suzi, Y. Otho, andN. Ista, Electrochem. Soe. Ee Abs St. Lous Mee, May 1980. p 136 2 Sonnet Ses 38 ». 2 BE 46 7, 48 4, so. 32 5s ss 56 1K. Hoshi, Naw, T. Suzan V. Okubo, “Crotrlsl Seon Crystals Grown ina ‘Tranevere Magosti il,” J. Electrochem. So. 132693 (198). ‘T Suoaki,N. nwa, Y. Oko, and K. Hos Semiconductor Sco 181,198, p90. LN. Thomas, HM. Hobgood, PS. Ravishankar, and. Brggins, “Mel Growth of Large Diameter Seicondactor: Prt,” Sold State Technol, 38163 (Ape 1980) SS, VLSI Technalgy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988 1X Kobayashi, "Convection in Mek Growth Theory and Experiments" Pro. Bik Meet (Gra. Eng pn Soe. App Py) 1984. [CM Gran, D. Rumsby. RM. Ware, M. R. Browea, and B. Tuck, “Eich Pit Density, Resivity and Chromo Disrttion i Chromiom Dope LEC Ga,"in Sem: fueating EY Materials, Shiva Publishing, Nanwck, OK. 184, p98 RM. Ware, W. iggts K.0. O'Hear, and M. Tieman, “Growth and Propet of Very Lange Cysts of Sem ns Galli Arseid,” Gas IC Sp. 1996. 'S. Miyazawa and F- Hyuga, "Proximity fet of Dislocations on Gas MESFET Vy" IEEE Trane. Elecron Dev. ED-3:227 (1986), Rusby, RM, War, B Smith M, Tyjberg, M.R.Brozl, and EJ. Foulkes, Teck. Dig GaAs 1C Symp. Phoeis, 1985, 0.34, H.Blvenroich and P- Him, “Mechanism fr Dislocation Density Reduction in GaAs {Cystalsby Indium Aion.” App. Phys. Le. 46:68 (1985), 1G facoh, Proc Semttnating i-Mate Shiva Pabing, Nasiwisk, UX, 1982, p-2 (C Mine. Zora, S. Camptell, M. Young, K Oza, and K. Borg. "The Relitionship betwee the Resstviy of SembInslting GaAs ad MESFET Properties.” Mat Set. ng. B. 44185. 97. HL}. Se, "Met Growth Processes For Semiconductor.” Key Eng Materials 8:69 (1991), "TP. Chon, T.S. Huats. LJ. Cher and Y.D. Guo, “Te Growth and Churcterzation of Gans Sigh Crystal By x Mekfed Horizontal Bridgman Tecniqu,” J. Cryst. Growth 106-367 1950, IE. Kremer. Francomano, G.H, Besthan, KM. Berks andT. Miler, Material Res. Soe Symp. Pro. 14:15 1989), {CTE Chang. V. FS. Kip, and W.R, Wilos, “Vercal Gratien Freeze Growth of GaAs asd ‘Naghtbalene: Theory and Practice." J. Crs. Growih 2.241 (1978), IRE Kremer, Frascomano, B.Feienrtch,H. Marhall ad K.M. Bue in Sec “nsdating Materials 1990, A. G. Miles and C. 1. Mies, eds. Ada-Hilge, 1990. .Bubvig.C, Fan, C. Hanis, an B.Hotfnaan, "Grow snd Propeieso Semi Insulating VOF-Gaks* Mat Sl Eng. 4428 (1997. [Nak ¥- Hog. Kawarabayasi, H Migain,N. Toyoda, M,Kiyama,S. Sawada 1. Kuwats and, Nakajima, *Manfacturing Large Diameter GaAs Subtratesfor Epitaxial Devizes by VB Meth” Gas IC Symp, 198, P28 1W. Keller nA, Mabbau, Plat Zone Silicon, Maret Dekker, Nev York, 98 CN. Kluhr and M.S. Coben, Nicleonics 2242 (196. F Shira, Semiconduir Silicon Catal Technolgy, Aesdemic Press, San Diego 1989, S$. Wolf and R. Taube, icon Procening forthe VIS! Eva, Vt Lat Pes, Sunset Beach, California, 1986 S.T Myers, "The Reales of Conversion to 300m Stcon Water” Som. nt. Api, 1996, ps. KW. Kelly. Mots, and K Kou” Model Based Cont of Thenrl Stresses During LEC (Growth of Ga As: Crystal Growth Expeiments."J. Cryst Growth MMI-2)265 (1981), Part II Unit Processes I: Hot Processing and lon Implantation rl ow only the semiconductor substrate taf has ben discussed. This section wll begin 1 dscunsion of uit pocestes, These re the individual process steps cared ut infil fabrication technologies. A ltr section will discuss how these unit proceses are pu together to form functional Mocks (Laowe as pocess modules) and ultimately, «technology. This fst section on unit processes wil discuss thee processes tlated to dopant itducton and nove tment az well the Bowih of the ides. Since dopants are nscesary or al types of devices. they ar some ofthe fist processes developed for faction. For the ‘device to operate propery tbe doped regions nus have the ight cor The best way to predict sxiesion ani sizes. This section wil thesfre frst dass the the future is to invent it." movement of dopa iapunty atoms through difsen. Eany tech ologies used qaseout oc Ligeid vapor sources in high temperatare ‘ovens fo imtoduce the impurdes foto the wafer. As device ize was ede’, however, fn implantation was developed to beter contol the pion and amount of impart inte wae. As stodard mpl tin and high terpertue annealing es have begu prove inade quae, special methods hae also heen developed o minimize the resin af imps hough diag. One ofthe most important of theses rapid heal processing, which wil be cases in ‘Chapcr 6 Chaper 4 wll also cover the ternal oxidation of sion. Unlike the ether chapters. ony silcon oxgaton wil be discussed since this proces + no usd in compound semicoedtstor technologiesChapter 3 Diffusion very semiconductor device relies onthe ability to fabricate well conte, locally doped regions ofthe wofe. The chemical imporiies most therefore fis be iaodsced ino some sections af the ‘rae, they mast he ative so ht Oey conrbte te dested carrie, and they rus be the concen ion desire by the dovice deiner Freuenty concentration pros wil he deserted. As show Figure 31, he impurity concetalin othe carer concentration splat oa the vertical ai The ep nto the wafer is plated on the hecizoetal aus. Typically tbe y variable wil aty over many ‘otters of rogaiade, For ht reson, th conentaom is orally given of & logathmic scale Recall tat he norber density of silicon is $% IO" atomsen so at typical impurity conenta- tion (10 aoc’ for active device regions are dped sigh afew pars per milion. ‘After the imports are faced they may edb inthe wafer. This ay be itentonal covit ay be pans effect of sone other thermal proces. In ther event, its be contd apd tmontored. The ston of impurity nome inthe wafer oxcrs primary by duo, the ot move tex ofa miter ht occurs neat conceit radiant a esl fandom thera movin, TH ‘haptr wil inode the diferent equations that describe difasion, solve te equation in closet form for to st of boundary condos, deseribe he piss involved i the difision coecient, prevent models tat dseribe the dfs beter of typical impurities inslicon apd Gus, and Inrodice SUPREM, «program tht calls dffeson profiles under a wide variety of conditions. 3.1 Fick’s Diffusion Equation in One Dimension ‘Any material tats eto move wil experience a et redsibation in respon to a concentration ‘raicn, The movemet wil tendo reduce the sie ofthe grains, The sure ofthis movement is ‘te random mation ofthe material. Since the high coaccation region has more impurity som, there isa net movement of purtios away fem the concentration maximum. This an effect not Timid to impurities in semleanductor by any means, The basic law of dilion inouced hee a ood to deerbe beat transfer, the motion 0 eletons, gaseous imparts soc 2 air plac, land even animal population sass "he banc equation that esrtes fio Fes st aw acts) as 6‘iia i Degas wa Pout ty conan topes Pr aatonsrssemalesde Rector Rgie2_A ona ve cc inst of SEivecteeclcsteetaTasrbetat Gaertn wea ana hha of py ‘erin Int and ou of he vole oben ‘where Cte imu cnncetration, 1 the coffin of diffusion. and Fis he pet x of mae Ja The unis of Fae eurber por ani ine er unit aren The neptve sgn expresses he fet Oat ‘here is net movement nthe decon of decreasing concentration, ‘Wile Fick's ist law accurately deseribes he iusion process. inthis pplication there is no convenient wry lo ease te cutet density ofthe imp. alike local curet, dees aerials oul poorly confined and not ex detected. Therefore a second expression for Fick's tow fas been devloped that deeribes the same concept. but wih more readily measurable psn ties. deveoping ts expesin it sean tore ih log ba of material with uniform {ros ection A (Figure 32). Consier» small volume of length de, then BoA y ae an where hex Fenving the volame and J, isthe hx ering she volume. If hee tw Hes are ‘ot te same he concentration ofthe ising species i the volume must change. Recall hat the umber of pares his volume element st the product the conceation andthe differen tal volume element (A=) Then he conc equation is expressed as ac solemieMuse done 4 pation 3.4 the most general representation of Fick's second aw. If the fusion coefficient i _stumed tobe independent of poston this reduces tote simpler form Fou a ‘where the postion variable as been changed ot wes that the rection nto te wale (eth) [ste one of primary intre. Fnally, in hee dnensions fran isotope medium, Fick's second law iexpressed a Pd pec an (Oncis eft then, with he soition of difredal eguatin thats second err in position and srt onde in ime. Ts routes the knowledge of test wo indepecat boundary comitions. The soli of he diverenal equation wil be diseased lei the chaps. is we wl Focus. he {lication of Fick's second le tothe proble of difsion in semiconductors and cscs the fe ‘or that deterine he difuson celica. 3.2 Atomistic Models of Diffusion Argument begins by assuming th he crystal isotropic. Widow tis appoint Fick’ second Tew cannot be applied. Altkugh tallow st drive solutions to Equation 3.6, beaks dowa when the concent ofthe dopam is fe. Then the differnt becomes a function ofthe doing con tration and therefore dep, Ima crystal te lt ies ate represented asthe minis of parbolc potent! wells. Each son ina ex only inte limit of OK. At nonzero temperatures the dors sla about he Tum positon Now inset impurity ato iat this ryt. The stom sit etwecn aie sites ian mterattal postion Typical. some tha do ot bond realy wi he max mail a ine ial parties These impure Siow rapidly, but they donot irclyconibate to doping, A Second type of input tone tha places the silicon atom onthe ntice se, These substtaons nurses wll ete primary focus ofthe chap. Table 3.1 ste a pomber of icon impurities and ategois them ino sbttuona nd ters “Assume that te impart aim ia Figure 33A moves one late site tothe sg. By symmetry, no et energy was expended. Yet fora subattatioal atm to move i te crystal. mus have sul ‘Gent energ) to surmount ptt well in which res. For the dct exchange shown in Figure SSA a leat sin Bons mast be broken for tbe Has kom and the input so exchange positions. ‘Thin comiserably emior however if the adjacent latices is occupied by a vacaney (Seton 28) Then oly duce bonds mt be broken, Vacancy exchange Figure 3.38) therefore one ofthe ‘desea fest mechanisns fr sbsitional impurities. 2 Sioa ~~ Sastional = BA Al GaSb Ge incon Oman FasCa ZAM42 sofuion vovvee v2000 vvvvee 990000 200000 2vVe00 do0000 wove. w wove vvvv08 vee v0 ve e200 wove. dv000 sovvee 900000 o gure 33. Din of inary tom by cies ‘harp (A andy vocab enchange (0). The srs ‘oh ms ly ac th wer energy eg. umber of charged vacances is poportonl othe rato [CLV where Fairs vacaney mode can be wed wo saccessuly esribe the difsion of many inperis it ow and ‘dere concentrations a terjeratres below JON. Tete te simple pctre from Figure 338 and als fone atonal dtl vacancy clare. Recall ht each Som inthe silicon matrix must for a covalent bond ‘ih it for nearest neighbors in oder tis valenee Shell Inthe presence of neu Yacancy hee out ‘toms are et with an unstiiedsll I the vacancy apres an elec, ste oe aos valence, but ‘becomes negatively charged Silay. an aiact som can lowe an elton and the VacAney 29pEs 1 be ponively charged ‘Since vacancies are very due in semicon- ductor a pial procesing conitins, each of the possible charged snes can be weated ab independent nies The diflsion coefficient then becomes the Stim of ll possible difsion coefficients, weighed by thee probability of existence we assume dat the prt f che ape cnt hen tin, ms the itis eae concerto, and js hearer ofthe charge tt. Then the ost 3m. tral expression forthe tl diasion ceficiotin the vacancy models given by > sae [alos fafon [ayo + ep om « [2] om + [Ef om an “Te nin carer concentration fr silicon can be fund from 1] new"? nerigerer a ere my = 7.3% 10% em? for scam snd mp = 4.2 10! cm for Gas. The bandgap canbe ‘determined by ant? = Fe BETO 89 where Ej and are 1.17 €V 0.000473 eV-K,an8 636K for silicon an 152 eV, 0000541 eV-K, nd 201 for GaAs. The intrinsic carer cncentatons fr sicon and GaAs ae shown ia Figure 318 heavily doped scm he bandgap i ao reduced by the Bandgap narowing effet Ag, = 2110" ev a0, tei ari Cone) gure 34 tin carer cncenttin of sco aad kraea incon oftampesare s2hmitelewedOtinke "43 For heavily doped difusions (C >> n) be etecuon of hale concentsion iz jest the imps fly conenaation, Fee low conceataon difiioas (ea) Cy Then a deth wl exis a wich the concentration of born Exactly equals tht ofthe background concentration Since boron ka pype dopant and pasphores ‘San ype dopant in sileon apa freon wil exit st dep, wich alld he jmcon ‘ep ibe dfsion ia ve a difsion oe can bow fom Ean 3.16 fool 2] Be el CN aba ci) teas pat ee a anion oan 3.4 Corrections to Simple Theory Substintiona} impure ar alaost completely fond at and above rom tempers, Fr tht ea- son, ian electric fel exis inthe sobstate, she total creat will ave both Ja ad isin com ents Recall Ohm's depts =o Ka e% # -rennof-€-c84] i secrete yt a eee ers mat ie o-alT Lee eo amy he isting cer ht eo Oia hein ton 2 yeoa +e ro) For high concentration doping Care > Me Cut he profi's own elect eld wil ence the movement ofthe impuriy. This quai ena o F's it aw, exept at he fois ‘ernie by afd entancerent er (1 + 9). Farthermore, the differion of a impurity may be ected by the presence of cer inure through ees fed fle fi By comparing inet, oriing. and ning dopant diffsion experiments, some ig has buon she onthe processes by which various impusiss dite [3). The dunvg oF puss i semiconductor depends on he concenization of tacancies, When a semiconductor is xsd, x ish onceiation of excess interiial are penerated ner the xidelsemicondacto interac [5]. Thea sofa ‘exces eoncentaton dcays with depth dv wo vacancy ira recombination. Near the surfs EN SoRttns tnreae the dif for boron and pospbors. 1 is belived therefore, hat see TReariies auc primary by the intertiaky process. Anenic diffxivity is found © aan eet odin condos. An excess fri concentratio i expected to depress the IEE concntian, Arsenic therefore belived wo iffse primary vine vacancy mech ee re acanen in onidzing cxlitions, Experneats cn alo be done ding terms ii Sr eh ths oxen arly done m practice it inet high concentration of vacancies at ae Eels hae Conirmed the contusions ofthe er results by showing he ‘oppo rends of oxition. He coped dopant profile aftr a dfesie nan oxidizing ambient, we nod 0 St the ately undertone cotins, Not th, swith high concentration dition the ifsiity aaron of pontion, Stl speaking, ercor, Equation 3 is mo longer valid, To fs aoe eee is amal compared 1 dClds and ean be ignored. Since the encentation of ae tals Jopende he ons and ecosiation rates, he tivity mast be a Fre Tey in entation te hasbeen shown hat for sfuion under exisicng conditions, p-p+49 ae av= Soniag or engl aner concn @ aa ficdea see am “hiss ca abe sao fd the verge Hal wii fe —_ sanpl ifthe fou ovate ae aso used for Van der Pauw measrement Fagre316.Toetidtecinate Then he average Hall bility i ven by fotos rence cae ea wR SoingnsalomesRotis 55 Fora ditind pro, this verge mobility i of le interests however, he Hall obit isan often- ‘quoted figure of mer forte gua of an eptail ayer wih email uiforsconcentaion All ofthe preceingtechnigues havea serious Limitation: They provide intermatcn only abot ‘be ister of the profile. Several methods can be tae to mente the caer eonceraton 3 3 fametion of depth. The fs ses the eapaclancevolage characteristic of «diode (pp junction ot Schotky) or an MOS capacitor. Although the MOS technique i wel wed ts more difia dive ad rogues a low inerface state density atthe SSO; interface tobe teliable, Te dade ‘method wll be sesirod ee, bu he techniques ae very smile “Asame thal the stture canbe desetbedin he depletion approximation Fra one-sided step {nction or Scothy contac the depletion wth given by pH cs w. V 842) theres the leans constant ofthe seiconducor. Vs the bul i voltage of the diode, Nan {he suerte doping concentration, and Vi he exteralyapplid voliape. The capacitance ofthe ‘odes [im on 4g [ation Wo arts ton) Ditfretning with espect to voltage and solving forthe impurity concentration, rata oY [ss nie a een “To mearure the substrate doping then, one seed wo measure te capacitance in depletion as fine tion ofthe apledvolige and find the frst derivative. The doping concentation a a faction of alge for ear data point can be determined using Equation 345, andthe depth coespnding 10 hat oie may be oad sing Eouaion 343. "he C-V method hae several significant Kmitaons. The Sst sat impurity concentrations In soon above 1% 10" om? cannot be measured. At tase concentratns, the semicundacte becomes degen and acts moe like metal tan 2 semicondictor. The second is thatthe dep tion edges ae not abr. Hsesd they are rade ont afew Debye eal, whe [an w= (ae oo) Consequaly, abet doping profs ae not well described by their caer roles. Finally the C-V {echniue can profile only t the depth conesponding to breakdowa vole in Schou diodes or {aversion a MOS capacitors. ‘ ‘Several aanitrive 2 D dopant profiling echniqds are being develope including nanospread- ing sestance snd advanced dopant seve etch systems. Petbap the most pronsng is Scanning ‘Capone Microscopy (SCM) [24], The SCM tchigoe uses an stom forse croscope 0 san ‘Sonn lp ever a sans. Typically the sample x cleaved aed measured edge om. The conductive- os cnet om?) Hi i a o apt ym) Foere 2.17 Tyica sedig resistance pote showing mere ci cnczton a8 Bc anpermsion Son) spinon he cpicnc in inyrson This ce ely covet 0 pam sone ai ypc tapactances are tan U9 (25) Aough clan chang, shel guaine eene poste Hahn cecicaypoilg be ae concenaion ee spreading resiance et pce fear ting Nn in elas onthe cl an ce gare 317 sows apa sreaing rescence. The sale ist beveled ett ty ing ou pany Hr od ia ck sl a ur of pres eee sae ace mia pede ce. Th espitin of e poe we beeved 0 Figue.18 4 pis SIMS angen The angie toned by hakenry fre Tepe eee ast analyaed to dae compan of esi be Simos tomes 57 petra th semiconductor surface 10 a depth of oder tens of angstroms. The curent is crowded ino the aspen, leading wo Fine resistance betwecn the probes. If this restance is compared toa ‘alitraon sander of known concenration, methods hive been developed (26) decovolute the Tesi gece efi, The ce can ed metas poe ging fo 10 10 ea? “There are hee primary limitations o spreading resivance measurements. The measurement ani HO) ambit by Day = 12 10" omacche 0" ean “The pico boro dtason in SiO, as ceive a et deal of interest ney Yo the pob- tec of Brom ifn from heavily doped ype polyryualline gate eles wo he channel of FEMOS devices Not only does this change the tvesold voltage, it degrades xe relobility and Tatcxee suscepti to device Instabilies (23. Boro I beled to ifs sbstiotonally for ‘iicen atoms [347 Comiderabe work has gone ni invesigzng the effect of SiO, impurties on tn fio, Nirogen oles difasionpaways reducing the difsivity, primarily by increas hg the diffeion activation energy (3S. Abavesut most gate odes wed in exp submicon FETS iar ponte some nose. Hyarogen, ot theater hand, increases boron diffi ia SiO, 3.8 Diffusion Systems tm st moder devices feature sizes ae small fen es than 1 jm. Most doing is aow done by too umznaon be tan predepoiion difinion. When very Newly doped layers are require twevedifsion bes re sometimes bed t nredce de Gesired dopant. These famacs ae Momus to oxidaton tes, except that «controled Nw of no inest gas such as Ns or Ar wed Thier tan Oy (See Secon 49 fora desiled description of these systems) There ae two metods ted to hes dope layers furnace we: sold source ad ge source opin. ‘Moat gud sour dopants reapplied though a vapor transport method. Ax shown in Piure 1.20, sala container of he igi emerson a const erperatare bat prac a know, ‘aber pesare ofthe dopant above the surface ofthe igi A metered ow of an ier gas sly ‘Htopen a njted i Oe bubbler, ond the sultant str of Nand dopant coming vapor are 1 the furnace. The petal pressure of dopant in the ambient ofthe forace fs conuoled bythe temper tre ofthe bath, te restue of the gas above the iid, tnd the ratio ofthe ow hough be babble fo the sm of “Thether Bows into th furnace, A bypass configuration is to tpl employe to allow the Now of vapor fo the buble oe pecs svitched on and of provide more contol over the doping time. Ustlly an onygeh oorce must aso e supped to react with he ieoming open “Te most common bores sources BB, which is bolting point of °C, Te Believed Ot the reactions thar ocarin he farce ielade dissociation rae BB, + 2B + 38, ean) Foue 20 Ayriainiticnmgione certs and xin usawisrSasmeore ne 48 +30, 28,0, es) 29SVPROMSrulserslDion Paes 61 “The oxides transported tothe wale surfice where it oriies the snace release fre ore: 28,0, + 38i-+4B +3810, as “The concentration of BB in he frmace must be carefully conoid, even though the surface concentration of torn vill be xed by its so soli in silicon at the diffusion temperature. I the BB, concentration soo tig with respect tothe O; coneenaton volatile icon boride com pounds wil frm ate rice. These compounds lead 9 nonuniform doping and may be diffi 0 Fomove. This eat lado contac sistance problems the device. Liu source phospbores doping {is armally done wing x bubbler of POC, which has aboilag poim of 107°C. The reaction peo ‘ceeds ina rasner silat tht of BB, The oxide tat forms 0, Thin oxide dssoiotes whe {face ofthe wafer lesing P and forming SiO, Ligh sources have several disadvantage. They av often highly corsive. Bublers most be pressirint and have Boon known fo explode, Becaac the vapor pessre above the qui increases ‘exponentially with temperate, the procs is sensve o small bobbiereoperaure changes. Fu thermore, there i signieat danger of fring iosleble silicon compounds tthe surace ofthe ‘afer hat are invisible, but ae extremely desirable “The dopant species cat also be inoduced though th use of solid sources. These dss ae about the ame tn a he wafer and are loaded m ltt slt in furnace oats. For difusing pe layers in lion boron nite (BN), dics are commonly wed: When ovidad at 730-1100. {thin fim of B,0, forms te surface. ln he presence of Hy, the vlaile compound HBO; forms ted dite tote srface ofthe wafer where bronco glass formed. This las serves 3 he boron source for difsio into te uhrat, The rrface ctnceniration fe tpialy said Sluiliy Site Both arsenic sn phosphors slid source dics con be used a ype dopa for con. Phas: horas containing dics come inthe form of hot pressed snuneniaza menopbosphate(NHI,PO,) or “rumonium dipbopbat [(SHL),M,PO,] i ert cera Binder Fora more ball profile, seni Sourees conan aluninura ascii (AIAO,) ae alo availabe. The areaic Is wansportc to the ‘wafer serface as As,Oy For bot arsenic nd phosphorus oid source difsin, care must be ikea {void forming an undoped thermal oxide a he srface of the wafer prior doping. The presence of ‘heh layer ca block he difusion of he dope note subse 3.9 SUPREM Simulations of Diffusion Profiles Iahas probly become apparent to the rade ht the varios complications ht risen the eat tion of tse profiles, auch ax concentration dependent dius, precioe analytic calculations forall bu the simplest exarples. For ha eon, numerical methods have been develope for the prediction of profes is +2 and 3-D. Ot the real eat be hehe wo device simulators so dat the effec hata change in so inprity profile ould have cn he device characteris can be pre: (iced in tsaightorvard manger. fhe situation rele ae aeurate, the device designer ean ‘optimize peformancs al txt process sensitivity with fat ewer rns through the aiation facil ‘ealng in temendows savings cost and ine. ‘While some corporations have developed proprietary software, one of he mos: poplar pac ges for elclating inpiriy” profes isthe Stanford Universty PRocess Engineering, Modsle (GUPREM), SUPREM Ill performs detsed calesatons im -D. SUPREM TY performs cleula- tion in 2-D, The ult of hse prams athe chemical, carer and varsicy concentrations as functions of depth int the semiconductor. This section wil we SUPREM Il as a0 investigatea some vie impurity profiles ina ore reais anne Inthe soeceedng capers he use of SUPREM I vl be expanded to cover oxidation ion impaction, an rap henna pocesng ‘Before proceeding however, word of cation iin order. Students end 0 regard the ont of these programs being nfaliby caret. Thi i ofcourse. not rue. The predictions of his coe ae font) good asthe models and numerical techasqus tit are employed. In practice these modst parameters must be tigroualycherked lo ensue accuracy. These rogram should be reganed 3 culation tooled allow the proces engicer o acess moe complicated difeion made. These Imodels ve ls more reat and usually ot at away, ve aly acura esl {Ai ifsion process simulators ae ult on tee banc exuations. Ia 1-D there are the fax a ae +n sn where Zs the charge sat and is he mobility ofthe imply. The comtniy equation gives Gu 64a g, as te ih meron ambition airy. an Poise’ seton Lieei=ap- 24 N5-ND as whee is the dlc constant, and pare the eecton and hole concentrations, nd Mj and Na {ue the concentrations ofthe ionized danrs and acceptors. These equations are solved Sian ouly overa LD gi that he user defines. "The divi wed for SUPREM is based on he vacancy model of Fair. The difsiviy el: cuted using Equation 37, Te values off and D, are inceded in software look-up table for ‘oron antimony, aan in silcon. Finally empirical modes are aed 0 ake into account Ged ‘sided, oxidation enhanced, and oxidation ead difsion. "Torn SUPREM I, an nput deck must be provided. This le conains a series of comments, the inal sttment, meri sateen, proces saiemens, and ouput statements. A descip- tion of some of tbe mst commonly used SUPREM Ill coommands is given in Appendix. VI “The deck starts wits he il car, which is smply a comment repeated oe each page of the up Several comment cards may follow, Th user s encouraged 10 use these cards fo document the process ow. "The next ard ie «control sateen, he iialie cad. ses the subst ype, orientation, and doping. also sts the thickness ofthe egon to be simulated and it esabishes a grid. THe trmount of pridspcing neces depends onthe doping pradients present, but typically total of 100 vo 200 grid poi are ured. the default coefiens are ot fou to be adequate, mates as can be ued to ar the ode, For example, ifthe user messues the diffusion coefficients of neni and ide at he activation energy forthe neual vacancy fasion coefficient i ferent ‘an the fel, tis parmeter can be change by invoking “arsenic de = (vale in eV)” Si Tay one can rhe various parameters of silicon oxide, plyicon, or ide ‘Once the subscale and ites ze seta sce OF procestcdh are used to callout he sequence of procesting ses they are completed. This example wil Besa with the diffusion card that cals ou the time, tempest, dflson amblct (xing or not oxidizing), and srface com A9SIRFEMSinsrrscrDMa Fetes 69 centration, ifs doping proces is bring cried oot. Muipe difions an Be ron sequently 0 ‘Simulate alate anne nally th chemical, active, and pet impurity concentrations at each ai point can be ited ‘x pote The ouput options vary wth the particular version of SUPREM I ht ssa is tsp possible to printout he materials parameters that ae being sed and information about each layer of the smlition. A sound type of out satement involves inverting the effet of elec ‘scaly biasing the top andr bolo of he vlume being simulte, These can be wed to determine the shee esstance of iused ayer andthe eso voltage of MOS stucues. ‘ample 22 Us SUPREM te simulate a predepesion cision In this example, SUPREM I wil be wed simulate a peepoiton dition of slcon with phosphors a 1S0"C, wih he surface concentration set by the sd Slab of hor ‘Boris at hat tempera Run the following exarcple, and theo repeat be exercise uit the Saye exuation suming simple inne ifn. How large isthe ference? Can you ‘aplin the ducrepany? Title eeanple 3.2-Predeposition Diffusien of Phosphorus Initialize (100)Siticon Soron Concentration=1e16 Diffusion ‘Tines20 Texpe: 050 Phosphorus Solid Set Print Layers Active Concentration Phosphoris Boron Net Plot. Active Net Gnin-iBi5, stop Bed example 1 Example 33 Use SUPREM to siratate «ised bipolar traneistor. (One snp way ta ake an NPV bipolar ranssor isto diffe born and arsenic from the surface ino an mye substrate. The diffosed asic becomes the emit, the difsed boron ‘becomes the se, athe subwrate suse ap commoe collector Of eel importance 1 the Ite oie eects ie impuiy. AS a esa it acumultes Ine leon under he growing fil, reaching a maximum at the rte This effect can be oft.be waar (<1) ) Stee Sie —t ce ae cmp >) —, | see | “ NE Ge as ae ea wine) y Figure 4.17. Temperature dependeoe of boron ‘Speen osc for ator pes a sions (Chptaed ype Meron i he Kat = Datuieteecdesiow (Main nee at 1) tad of pts ty Dion Fen ions Figure 418 Sion onic ches year nt ‘rdaton tine fore ier sre concen of Bex ar Dea et a ere by prion The [Beomchomal Se ee rer gure 419 Osidon conics fr dy oxyzen HBO a fctns of te face cone osphris fier Hot al eprimed by permion The “leche Soc Figure 4.16 The efx of ermal edt oe be Input Sebusen bons som done (A) So difon nose m= | Gorn nea or ‘hing ambien) ft inion aide, w= | {Gorm mn hyropen seta) (sow taxi, ino pump, asec (D fit ier onde, '55 gli fer Gove eral were if the inary ditfases mpidly in the SiO, Io thi case, the dopant is rapidly removed from he ine face. Te panty cenceouation inte subst te ‘mere, although larger tun inte oxide, sil es than he concentration the bal: Hn < I the oxide Sai oak up the dopant. Here de impurity concent thon ine ube decreases est the nerve igue 4.17 shows he segregation coeficent of ‘econ in Si for a varity of oxidizing contions (32) In these experiments, near dry otis reams an oxiizngfuratce tat uses O; a the feed Eas; Rowever no special provisions have been Trev remove wate rem te embiat Obviony, the segregation coefcient an ary, bat is wel (lsc by an Arbeit fection, Phosphor, enc, and antimony al ve segregation coef ‘ents of about 1033) "The common silicon dopants tnd 0 enbance the oxidvon rat of silicon when prescat s te subst in high conceataons, Boron, which sepegaes into the oxide, eters and weakens the ‘lay suture, ediing ts vscoty. When te boron surface conenration exceeds 10° mths ho haste fect of increasing the difesiiy of molealr oxygen. As a result the pabolie rie ‘ocfcien increases [34] when the surface is heeily doped with boron (Figure 4.18) ‘With heavy phosphors doping the parabolic rt coecient shows only modes inctases, bat he tinea ite coffin incoares rapidly for surface doping levels greater than 10° cm? (Figwe 149) (35, 26} Thiseelieved Wo ocerbocaue the segregation cece causes the phpnut © 7 wd ‘sn bans Xam dae (181 5 weap dapat) 81 won pam ess Time (ou “ mats ® Flows 420 Th iin sp pn (A) wee) yan afer arg ea. piney e eert aon sccamulat athe surface. A model explain he neeased reactviyof be surface gst that his ign conccorstion of phospora hi he ern encrey and therchy Increses the surface vactncy et ton [3], These vacces provide bition Oxsatin ts and so neem the ress, “The onkaion of olsen sof consdeabe iret fer aplieations seh th prxuction cof hia onises between poy yer in EEPROM, the oxidation of polysitico plugs for DRAMS, and (he idan of polyenes ht occurs ding roxio scp. has ben found that an enbaneed (Sisaon rat ceur deo ses a he grin boundaries 38) Figure 4.20 sows the oxide thickness fas not andy undoped plyeniaton for varius tempecatres (38), For onion temperatures Tess thin 1007, the xiaton aes or edoped polysilicon are ger than ithe (100) (11 toon a shor times For longer oxidation he oxi thickness alto level intrmedite between (Gy aad (LI) sion, Whea the polysico is hesily doped with phosphors, the plyoxidation tats less than at of eter (10) oe (LL singers sition 4,7 Oxidation-Induced Stacking Faults ‘As metioed inthe peevous chapter, thermal oxidation ha the side effect of releasing high coe ‘Aiton of aon sleimertl. This isthe caute of the exidaloenhancd difision, These ‘herr mera toms coms pine defects AS mentioned in Chapter 2 the fe eneray of eaten wit Signs 87 soup of point defects can be reduced thy agglomerate ino larger defect n oxidation processes, ‘Be acted defects hn are sill creed are Oxidation infoced Stacking Faults (OSP). Stacking fats me PD defects that ae analgocs fo dsocatons. They are an extra plane of sts of tite ‘ett inetd int the latice. The OSP wstaly Bis isthe (111) plane ad is bounded by parti ialyons the defects often occur cose tothe Si-SiO, ineface whet he excess inersialcom Eitan large OST te very readily induced a rexisng defects such 38 tose cause by 3m {mplazation (se Chapter 5) Mfr defect can have several undeiele effets In bipolar transitory, the dislocations that terminate he stacking faut ean be pi sion pth forthe emiter dopant. Te res are sbors (Show the bees layer aled pipe. In MOS techoolgis the primary eoncem is that these defects can Ear heme atl imports thot wil reside im the depletion repion of sorefdan junctions. The ‘porter wil ct s recombination center ht wil cause exces Feskage i he device. Figure 421 rpms ope alcrograhs of samples afer preferential etching sep used to delineate the defects Hoy Seeking aun the diamond Sate fe slong te 111) planes. For (100) wafers hese planes Intercept te surface along be (110) directions (4, Ttnas bons shown dt length the stocking falis almost nearly proportions othe ox anion te (a2, ach ime tretng, however, the dependence of the Ingth on temperatire [teas thw in ignre 422 there ae two distin! temperate regimes. AChigh temper the Tamper) Tempera ota Te 38 F a_i eh al Sin enc te in) soi o Fgwe 421 Osteon-ndce king esa (10 wafers at pect cing. Ate peal ing umors ef he et sexes er ar Fgura 22 pica acing ft eagh a econ fener for (A) dy (Bw nation shi [eet ered ins gh tmp (ae —6 he tn omation of OSE sot favored. Sticking aus ily grin his teiperre rez bu sin Jer cada me Any essng fu wil lo tent ho. Since dopant ri aan any precio tes Bighicmpertereoxiatons Dowever, Fle 4.22 so cant idan shill be done a eed Temperate, An avatar of Heh Pra et tat oda ve roth ine, ie temperature canbe weed ante foomaton of OSF rid gus Roo sown ta he 36 OF HCLin the ambient empl suppres th tation of stacking fl 4.8 Alternative Gate Insulators" "rn such for aheatve acest for he MOS gt xi his ong a a iy aa a eet ume die sleeper dete isnt {nl io. The yen dete ack on eae he ty of te ge ke forces a ace ea eouce ey fo gate lode impure, The pea we wit en tener ie ety tht eds eed wy ae © tat en paid a ey come hes vlinge. Depsied ims fr VLSI pe costal saber fet ems the excel thi is typical ses dee tn ar A ln le ohee cis chage. Pain depose ns cation, a aa nes comm) be iran ach asthe RE an eal ws ema the de 0 ne Sad 285 Cem fort apn These ins wil be conred in aa A He ne i atom gcse ae simple dice. The polio is Ce ese ae cel ceo A lan canbe veloped or te preity ese tei 16) 3 r | -Thes creasing he pemiaviy dacs te bandgap. Ashe bandgap estates, it som nie 9 Tee She te gate ison ands he gat leakage curentes shaply, AS Toto da a vein permitvity sould be coesiered for simple delet since neater dies is maura 0 cose the oe of ion sie Lth-whh na asl constant abut wie that of oxi. Deposit ni ls are eal we 11 wha cenologics In adin oh higher dive constant ii ws eas exe Io tes tht in MOS transisors can prevent impuris sch o bron in the bealy de tion ue ro ning te chnel. Tere re ee ices wih thermal is Sor a dciaan ifsc rng tization is icon, nt N, o NH This means ak a on fonns a te tp surface, hot the i-SiN, interface sno sping tbe that hes, i jt have a hgh nrc date deny. Second he hema expansion coefficient fr ra ict tie tof silicon, Since ermal ntrdization equives very tgh emery et cots popes a iftson beri) ding het up and cool ow his fen es aa at Faber degra he terface. Te third ifeuly associated with heal ities eo ‘e eluse des ere good difsion bres Resting te force te to 120 aan re mie eyes tr fan 40 A because he siicon dis sso smal (45, $6 ‘ret capuues re ena not lated Gs dapa ition ee ese ee sougated ihe ase of niides oxides as an aboctive alieratve wo S10; (47, by expning stil one 10 4 gh tempernne NH) anocl, he oxide reat form om 420 w {seen cies 89 cylide:S10,N, whee wl «an» deeded o he pes conto, Anon Se de gers nnpsnch S08 noe be sre of oie a ori eo acne i, cls he ns mcs Spy dag he poses he lee cw a eereepe anaes ee at fs ie Bs wt te rian to eldown 11. Ott ee r—— Seerstgc ce shh en spss ate day of ese ms elated ss ee Shien vrer Hyararn, wih piv he dangling on he ete TS Ritte weed upon cng Osytier ny pe toe, vease ttm ccerng te nA meron kta, vay ies ak ‘Shean oe “uy wi se ne tha el ve ph capeematn of lk ton ve ic epee ot edwin cae nec een to ae de dig be ihcegrae Ny mea as SEERELINST roto fies RN) can ees Kayan (4, ST Fain erect mhen wn andr fel proeing coon se set Ft es UCR of ime gales n ULST Sve [6] mee the ude ites thst pve close ome ae evra Peis ore impr when hei aa ee enters ung cee crane At eh NMOS hens cube to ces apie te lath pone os. evenly» mor grape Baebes ive sium tym 18m thon eae Sinee ‘stag high peri ayes that might somedsy be ] That to replace SiO, The reason for this intrest sth thservtion fat a tbe gale insulator bs sealed below Fe 428 Ment ate cet Vet or & Jeo he ate kaage cet Senay cs hal. As | hoe inthe messrenens of Bra tal (7) and Bachan nd oS) igure 42, be caren density fcr abo 2 eyo agi for every 5 am Secrest. Cin pj ae al power Stone wil pave! ring af Be Si, below 13 fom Toveone ie hikness ers bang elon {hip (anion 42), ene ewe late porate frais Irie Sow, oe oF foe sans wil shi fosion in espowe o an ener api ee eT wslam ted ech pods sale ipl as ea pe pms At pees the tclng canes se Hy 10, TxD NOs HDs toirows esr thes ours One of ie many robles wih is search the eng of he Srranyem bom Sicon fom in ayer af SiO, Sag be deposi ofl tt one Teepe tts ttn ye pee Secon hgh et capctane of teh pert 1 Sottero ass ce trea ciple St, scalng ape 0D appencng8 foment it, ieee ie ae es ae ase ‘wom~” {ral ston 49 Oxidation Systems Figure 424. tren be cisiatin sy {plas cmp coon stan on ou es. {phot couney of 3M erations). “The horizontal diffs farsce has bees the mainstay of te semicondctor industry for decades. ‘Abough many iacovains have Been inrodsced, the basic ea resins unchanged. As shown in Figue 424 tne farce consists of four components the gas rower cabinets the frbace cabinet, ineuding power supplies, tubes, hermocouples, and clements the load station: and the computer enol: Ashe name impli, the gas abit contains the source gasses, typically (a hgh- presse Esliners, and means for producing wconoled Gow of hese gases ia the race. Type ses of presarergulto,pecumatc valves, and gas Gers ae used i his appction. The sis ae plumbed to sel aoe endo the face be This shel contains ditional valves and mas Now ‘Somers (ee Chapter 10) tat conto tbe Bow of gases eto the Famace ake, "The furmace cabinet outs lng tubes, epicaly fr, tht ae tacked vercally. Horizontal farmaces designe for 200mm wafers typically Rave Bees tabos. Furnace heating. elements re ‘wound 0 high pry ceramic forms large enough to accept a 150-1 30-rmimeer ase iia ‘ube. The windings soft separated nt three heating sone nd fed by thes phase power rough thigh eurent power cooler The furace temperature Is monitored i at eat thee oetions wit Thesmocouples. The themacouple volages are ead, compared othe died veperatres, ad the ‘ror signal is ampli and fed back othe power onli. Its ot unusual forthe at zoe inthe ‘ener of the formae to exh °C uniformity over temperate ranges of 400 vo 1200. I wet niaton arto be doe, aon guipent ese reed wo ncae tat the Myrogen gm ely combusts upon injection, “The wafers are lade int fused sca holes call bot the led station The boats cally Dold 25 wafers in 2 vercal ck. The bows are Toodod oto cits tat can holdup to 200 wafer any carers were actully fused ica carages, with skids or fond silica Wheels Gat were slowly fold int te furnace. Concems with parculaion, Dowever, caused these cares 1 be replaced by antlvered Joa systems im which the baa ar ipported on two lng rode. ln these systems the wafers never touch the furnace walls. Due to dif ‘oly mintining the rod near, many of these ‘Syms ave now bon replaced by sof landing 95- tems. in thve atone loading ester aris the toate nto the farce depts ter, and hen with draws minimising the me at temperate fr the bat spp syter. In each system care must be taken to voi jostng te wafers during tis proces, to avoid fet formation ’A micocompeter coms all of the farace ‘operons. Specie eipes ar programmed or eck proces stp. Disk dives ae provid 9 stor ese recipes fr fur eal For example, 2 gat oid ‘Gon sp might inde speciation ube cleanin a mintre of O; and HCI at HOP for 60 rit fo Towed by a ntzopen purge and col dove te 80°C, — cotton tne Freee ra se | zene cae Metenting een Peon etn Pasview gure 4.25 Pin vew of vei famace, Css wih 25 wae TERE otic usando th ses ape wr ey ‘sed mnt fra poe cury of ASM emt {followed by stow posh orang ofthe wafers ina mixture of 0; and Ns followed bya coated famace rap 16 1000: fllowed by sn oxidation Ia Op and HC, followed by shor N, anneal to TOS0°C wo reduce the oxide fined charge followed by called coal down to SDC, fllowed by low pol or removal the wale. The microcomputer allows this to be “ane but” peraton For thahiy produce resus Ican als be programmed t aatcipate thermal oa ach he pre Ituerdon by ramping the cmperane jest hor foadig € mini crperatie Ructunions. The temperature con! systems are mow comple digal and interface wel with the race conor, Tie furmce coil slo ean be ineraced to failty management compuse. With he ase of Toot loa sation, his allows he fin firmaces tobe completely automated ‘Vena farnacen ae oten wed for lrge-chreter wafers. As shown n ges 428 and 4.25, these femmes resi os hriona frmace tuned on end. Wafers are pushes fom bei the fonace pinto the the. These systems hav four ruin eVantgrs. The vet! orton means (hat he water remain horizontal As rest these furaces ate ease 0 automate. Robo wae han ‘ers can csily oud and ead the tbe. Furthermore, the nifory spacing improves proses ni focrity soon he waft, paca fr large Samer substrates. AsO, there m0 ee 0 depositFigure 425 Vere! xinton sm showing cue, ‘eta ed was cout ob ase no eae {het corns of ASH Iterations. the wafers in he tube. Tate no nt fore on the ae: tlevers except dow, 20 they Jo mat ted o wasp ith tage and ean remain ia the furnace. Fealy vertical {ermaces tend to havea sme clesn room fospit ‘an horizontal faces, Athi ype of system finding vre scepance is called uniatch of fst rap faraes. These 55 ‘ems typically bold 200 $0 wafers and ean ramp up at TOOPCHnin snd. door ot SOC without sip (99) “This compares to approximately 10°C jn con ‘etna frac 4.10 SUPREM Oxidations* “Te last chapter itrdced the numerical eaeulaton tool SUPREM to simulte he difsion profiles of Innpucis in leon, The model canals be sed 0 ‘Perform oxidations based oa the Deal-Grove mel ‘The took bas Incorporated Anteius functions to esribe te near and paraDoie ae oelents for ‘wet and dy siconeoefclns, a: well sa rudimen {ary mode for chlorinated oxiato, ‘Oxidation processes we accessed by the same ‘command at diffusion proceses: DIFFUSION. For ‘oxidation 10 occu, simply all he parameter DRYO? for WETO? for dry snd wet oxidations, respectively “The parameters for thse processes can be adjusted before invoking the DIFFUSION sistem, with he RYO? and WETO2 commands, High-pressure ex ations can be accomplished by alo adding be pra ‘ler PRESSURE = where i he oxygen or stam pressure in atmospheres, Te presure cn be ramped by using te parameter, PRATE = x, where xis te Time rate of change of the pressure i aumospbers pr rina, For chlorinated oxidation he parameter is HCI = x, where xs the percentage of HCL in the ambien. For diluted flows on can ako we the commands, PHZ = x, FH20 = x, FHCI= x, EN2 = 1, and .02 = x, where the x valves corespond othe pas ows in standard Hers per minute ofthe comesponding pais Inthe thin ide regime, SUPREM It se n empirical oxidation pode! 60) a asat oe «25 whse B and A se be onion rt cocci fom the Desl-Grove model, and C and L ae pins constants Notce that thr eqpon cls flows the model of Masao! for fa Ly ‘tht is tou 10 A Impriy segregation coctcientan oidatonenanced inion modes 2 Sie ineportet ae ade oat pay reditbat ding exon ar De models e arisammy’ 93 SUPREM ondationexample—gate oxidation Mele Oxidation Rxanple~thin Gate Oxidation in Het Initialize (100) Silicon Boron Concentration=1el7 + Thickness=0.5 af=.0025 Hbe.01 Spaces Push the wafers for 30 min at 800°C in %, ‘Tine=20 Teaperatures27 Nitrogen P.zate=25.7667 comment Ramp the furnace to 1000 over 108 0, and 908 Ny Diffusion Tine=i0 Tenperature=600 F.n2e1.8 F.o2= 2 traver20 comment Oxidize the wafers for 20 min at 1000°C in a mixture of 0, with 38 BCL Diffusion ‘Tneu30 Temperature=1000 Deyo? Hel=3.0 coment Anneal the wafers at 1000°C for 10 min in a Sow of Timeri0 Tenperature=1000 Nitrogen Rasp the furnace to 800°C over 10 min in a fow of M, ‘Mmes10 Tonperature=1000 Nitrogen T-rates-20 Puli the wafere for 30 min at 900% In ‘Timer30 Tenperature-800 Mitrogen T.raver-25.7667 nd oxidation example Alter ther is complet, lad the onde thickness. How much ofthe oxide was grown du ing the ramp? In ths proces ae assumed that here was no inl oxie. How Would you Incorporate nial ons (sch thn stive exe ito your imolation? From the put ‘rofl determine the boron segregation coefcien tht SUPREM assumes, Which ofthe four ‘egos in Figure 4.16 does bor fal into unde hse condos? Taking ino conseration the stating thickness andthe change in he oni thickness for he HCI proces, by wi per ‘centage ba the oxidation rae been ented by uring HCY? Calculate the answer daly sing the Deal Grove model and check i using SUPREM by eliminating the HCI inthe simulation sd ervning SUPREM. 4.1 Summary “This chapter introduced the topic ofthe thermal oxidation of sco, presenting the Desl-Grove rode. Tis model accurately predic he oxide tickess of a wide range of oxidation parameters. hanced growth ates are seen for thin Orde. Altough ts rp seer several ode! that tiempo ena the enue were presented. Oxidation also known 1 induce defi nthe bulk ‘icon because ofthe igh conentaton of selPotrsttas Ua he process produces. Techniquesae 94 Teer Osan foc avoiding these defects are describe, Filly, ypicl oxidation systems ae described andthe ‘opliatin 0 SUPREM to oxidation i presente. Problem: «100-4 gt oxide is rtd for swe techcogy hasbeen decided tht the xian Will ‘a Sad dutat 1000 in dy oxygen theres nia oxide fr bow lng shoul he ve Grabs done sh nication nthe nes reine he parabolic este between he Wo? Repeat Prem if the oxidations dove ina wt O; ambien Reet etedcrded io grow te exe in Paclem | in vo steps. A SO0-A oxide wil be gown Tra tic the wafers willbe eine 03 al hicknes of 1000 Af the oxidations ae ‘eked out at 1000 ia dry O, calla th ine required for ech ofthe oxidations ftir peony to grow a L/h Red oxide to sola the transistors in a ceain biol TEAESiy, Bue te concerns with dopant ifason and tacking fut formation, the oxidation ‘Bon beCarid ot 10S0° Ihe proces caried ut ina wet ambien at atmosphere eure clit the requied elation tie, Asse tht the pabolic ton resect inte oxidation etre Clee the oxidation tine reited at 5 an at 0 atm SeRicon water, wbich is» ped 10° pype head to 100°C fr |. the wafer sia a ee wre, bow much oni il grow? Re eet inci rapid owt ets Sorat nately charged O: bs exactly tice he dfsion coefficient i SiO; a5 neva Bed othe el aide xm but 1 mes the reactivity athe src, with exactly te sae eee cry forth reaction ate coefcien Repeat Problem ina sure of faim of O5 Forsabuicron MOSFETs itis often nossa to grow gale oxides of order 100 A. Akbogh frosts coal ey difictdc fahe shot exation times involved itis peers to [Bow dese oxides at high tempera. Explain why. Betchus tat hasbeen wed wt some sucess io sole the problem mentioned 9 Probie 7 to row te onides inact mite of oxygen anda net pies ach era: sue tat we hve amintre containing 105% Oy and 15 Arf we ana the ap cr ige reine nonalyssocated with hin oxides at assur, ain Problem 4 that he puthote rae cotciesB depends onthe presto th oxidant acute he promt ime fora 100° cxiaton of 100 A. Assumes nial oxide TrelSe [0 Awe can ignore th term Equation 4.16 Ie aio reset ou attention redial hin nies, we con make the aproxtoatin (<< A. inthe Deal-Grove mol i {the nar appeoximaton) For tat eae, tegrate Eguation 418 and find an analyse epee for), Take he oxide thickness to be eo a ime # = ~ SRte that Ls 70 8 and Csi 50 Ain. he 100-A oxide described in Problem 8 sat tO i dry onyen aie, nd tere oil xi, dteine te oxidation os bath wth sd witout he hin oxide rt cakancemen tr fom the eatin deriv in Problem Ar thf the is equired fo te derivation in Problem 9 sti sais? ot alitavey desribe te effet. Repost Problem 10 fora growth ne in an ambient of 10% oxygen and 90% argon Neal onde hiknes smeared bth by soo «Nanospee ae hy measuring tbe .Sitacd capacitance. Toe resus are fund dilerby 208, even tough the same wafer MIE for bon meararements Give the possible errs hat might account forthe Seep. ‘RUISIEA pte oxde is found to hae a 15 temperature bis stress shit Calle he omborof mobile ons per nit wea a he oxide Referenct 1 fiers 98 Moxy the example SUPREM deck to multe 30min wet oxidation at 920, 1000, ei Car the eaulted onde ches with the Deal-Grove precios. Cate crepes coin! rom your ests ad compa iio the graph in Figure 4.17 Cha th subante eacentation 013% 10" emf boon and rerun be 920°C earn Coopare theres to those of Figure 4.18, What des hist you abou the ‘model ued by SUPREM? aspen aw rom several dy oxide at 1000 for 2, 5.and Wain, Calle the (hig ick a fonction of me, Dovs your versio of SUPREM ater 0 move the aa eres reainc? fot ow cana program user increase te accuracy of moderate thskmens 200 A <1, < 1000 A) dry oxidation ras? es OS Deal and A. 5. Grove, “Gener Relaioship forthe Thermal Oxidation of Sic,” 1 App Phys, 36.3770 1965) A Re aptoinin Properies of Elemental and Compound Semiconductors, H. Gates Imencince, New York. 1960.13. Bg Ronen end PH. Robinson, “Hydrogen Chri nd Chloe Geteing An Ete 7 Smear Improving Peformance of Sitcon Devices” J. Electrochem, Sc, 119-47 (1972). Ton Reosand 8 ©. Deal "Kinetr of Thema Onan of Sfcon in OJHCI Minas 1 Blectrchem Soc. BATES QTD. RR Rayo, N. Liab BE, Deal, “Kinetics of Hi Pyrovenie Stam". Electrochem Soc. 1282214 (980), PrP Nssod) D.Plrste and E. A. Iroe, "Thermal Oxidation af Silieon in Dry Onysen: Grout hate Eahancement i the Thin Regime "J Electrochem, Soe 132:2685 (985) pifest of Oxtton Induced Oxide Charges onthe Kinetics of S608 ‘Sold Sate Electr, 26:79 (1982) $'M Hr "Themal Oxidation of Sion" Appt Phas, 58:095 (1988), 1 IN. Meatin PRD. Dissertation, Sanford Universi, Stanford, CA, 1983 RG. Rover an Evans, “Kinetics and Mechanism of Thermal Oxidation of Siticon Sia shetal Empat on tmp fect” JP. Chem. Solids 0:51 (1969) see eeReG himudo, and G. Kamarmos, "A Revised Analysis of Dry Oxidation of ‘Shicon” J App. Phys. 82878 (1982) Se tack el. Majkoiak, “The Iaal Gros Rate of ThexmalSicoe Dios” Ps Siar, Sol ANI6S13 (1989) Fee ed 3D. Plomer, and E. A. ree, “Thera Oxidation of Sitcom in Dey ‘nyaes GrotieateEmanceren in tb Thin ride Reps Physiat Mechanisms” 2 Hectrhon, Soe 1322683 (1989) eae arandS. A Campbell "Gros Kictcs and Fletical Characteristic of aoe ne oe Diode Orown at Low Tempera” J Elecirocken, Soe, 40:50) (199) Ci Han and C. Helms, 1 Flecirochem, Sc. 1341299 (987) Cen agin apd Signs "An "O Sty ofthe Oxkion Mechanism of Son in Diy Oxygen" J Electrochem, Soc. 131914 (198 PBy plletos, €.R. Hee, DB. Keo, 04 B.E, Des, "Paraiel Oxidation Model fr S Joncer Bath Molecular and Atomic Oxygen Concentrations.” ApS Sc 3989 0989) Fa a eT Gustafson, and E. Garfinkel, “Te Intl Oxidation of Siow New ton Seater Rests che Ulstin Regi,” App. Su. Sci, 1OA185:329 (1990) Presa Oxidation of Sion inChapter 5 lon Implantation “The imrodction of dopant impustios by predepostion difsin was described in Chapter 3 ta is rn dopant was difased noth seaconductr from an infinite sore a the surface of te eee eeeeran conratation was int by the solid solubility, and he depth of the profile was JEL OY te une and alias ofthe dopa. To principle. seems hat amare Ey dope Sete cold be achved ithe suppy of dopant at the surface of he wart aproritelyHnie. a cea wey de mintre of dopant n an ier carer gas can rece th rare concent re thn prose was ured in aly miroeletonie technologies; however twas fou very fl seas cont was sb Fund th he Highly doped poles were often the mos real The bese ft biglranssor aed the chum of a MOSFET are two examples of moder doped prfles ‘hatte be very wel conzle, since they date the gin and thresh olin, especie ‘ens plantation nized impeiy stom ccleraod Ouough a lecostatc Hk tke the sate ofthe wale, The dave can be tightly conlled by measuring te fon current. Doses fo the eS Tange om 10 cn for very hgh tpt o 10 cn fr lawrence segoms ech a reas dale contacts, cites, and bred collectors. Some specializes applications require dois of aa i ac By coming te ekssoitic Bell che penetration depth of te impart ons rte cooled on implantation tetefore,povies the api tar the Gopant profile $e Rapsote to some extent Typicl ion energies range fom 50 200 keV, Certain special a aan ing Toning deep Hructres such a rekograde wells (ee Chap 16), can eqse energies upto several Me. re coarse vesearch demonstrations daring most of the 1960s, the Git commer spleen werenrduced 1973, Despite fil reluctance, the new mathe of Sopa inode Tarata becune btwn By 1980, most processes were fully implaed. Abbough now wiely on ian nplmabon abe has ever Grwcks. The incident fons Gamage the semiconductor I ee Th dutage unt be epoited and in some eases complete repair ano be on. Very sallow SoS Vay dary roles are feu imponsible. The thought of jo implaters i ited fe Figanve inplans,prticaly compared to difsionprocesies in which 200 wafers can often be aaaeatcncoly. Fal fon implgtaon equipment s expensive. A state of the at ystems tore han $2000.00. “The prove tha his chapter describes provides a blanket dose tht i essentially enifora eos the foes To elena dpe region ofthe wafer, a mpant mask mse used A variation area oe iglanton isto fos the on Beam © smal spot and we this pot to provide ‘deat rina Sens 99 located proces capebilty. These process ae elle om beam ecaiques. For example, he ions Can be wid dco pride str! vation in he doping role cross a devi. Tas ead is too expensive and too slow fo in) widespresd application in manufacturing. Yon beams ae use, however. orepairmask defects nd scletively remove ayers for dagrostc week. : 5.1 idealized lon Implantation Systems to iepaaton stems canbe ded ne Ose compet (ow $1) on sei neon ec stn Te se owe 32) su th fest ta om ‘Sse died ipl prion Como nt uc rn aon chou By Al ‘sii, Freak eopcs omnes Sits Hy Mos nano ep re Soe wil clon aya ter pans te sod yet te per vai ow of Shoe conateg wht re oc Ire desta tna See on sue pc fam as shown gue 32a che an be edd ean opr ed ae sce The tants bead in even se oper ows pt earn or gon can he Rens ah asinp ed AI igh ps e San cs hen sati o asain pow aur gure 6:1 Schema of en in inp Mayer a repre permisin, Ace res)tee ] \ cum / \ scan iin Faure 52sec ra een ion sue Sis canbe aid oven te wie ns fara csc neo cait eprnedyprmsn ser Sci Freeman “The gus flows ino an are chamber. This chamber as two purposes to beak up he fed gs Into a varity of omic and mecla species and wo onze ome ofthese species In the snes re jae te feed gan flows though an ence ito the Tow-pressire source chamber where it ‘ite boween sot Samet and a meal pn. The kmcot i tsned t large negative pteo- ‘Bw eapoct othe ple Electrons bo off he lament and ae accelerated toward he ste. As thay do vothey cli wih fod gas molecule, transfering some of tic energy. the wansered rely ts lng cooups molealr isoiton ean acest. BF, fo example, beaks up into BB. SURE. Fo a's vary of eter spss in varying quanies, Negative ons may also be pro deed te ar lem sbundan. To improve he onion eicincy 2 magoeti eld i ften imposed iDibe region of be electon cure. Tis produces a spina path fr We ciecrons,draasally Increasing the ionization pstabity, The posive fons are atcted the ext side of th sow ‘haber wich based aa are gave poten! with espect othe flame The positive fons Sraveat ne source chamber tragh ali Te result bon bear i often afew mimes by 110 Pons Thc prcsure ths prt of the source typical 10-10 10-tr, resting ata ae Famcaniky omen andthe srode Maxi or mets are typically few willimpers “The Seam now coi of vary of pecs, most of he fouized The nex sks eet the dened plat species. nthe previous example, we may want ro select oly the B* fm the ‘luo and preven te ther species fom cotineing down the lane. This normally done wit Figure 63 Mass seprsion sg of ning imple ‘Sowing perpen rpnoe ed and iene Desai othe dale fran ono MOH. ‘tas neyo Sams 01 sn ying magnet gue $2) The fea ct 3 igeconter thn samalnind aoe psa A opel el perpen tthe ea ely ea intchambe aang eso cron Me 9s an tere wis he magne ofthe on vey. he hog on eas on na Bist ns etd mca. andr teat avr eon ‘bey casi mech = vu - ay 62 where Vas is the extract poesia. The derivation of Baton 5.2 ignores the energy imparted 0 the fons by collisions with elecons i the source. The spread of in enrBes due to this eflecis of| fer 10 eV. Sioce the extraction potent! i tpialy tee oes of magaitade Inger an this Egoton 8:2 proves a good approimation ofthe te ener. ‘Ashe sit ean be made athe mas analysis chamber sac at ony oe mass (or ore acu stely one charge to hss rato) wil have exsclly the cortect radios of curvatre to ext the Sou i (Eigure 54). The primary limitation to the esoltion — Figure. typical mas spc fora BF sce gs fof such system f the fat tat the bean Tas some Sina vergence, This arses du w the it sit ize {nd rll vrais inthe on energy. Such a system ‘as, however, eal distinguish between he sop ‘of borom, Band By ‘Cnmbiaing Equations 5.120852 em 69 ‘Normally, dhe analyzing Sek i everywhere perpen: ‘cule ote fon velit andthe inlet and outlet are Symmetric, Now ase that he Geld has Bee tuned jn such away af allow an ion of as Aw exactly fellow a ile of radius R anf of mass M+ 3M fener the ier the bear: ail be displaced by = stance 2h pao deiitl ions thane] 6m ‘Two mases are sid to be resolved when D1 than the width of te ear plus the wh of the ext ithe best resolatoneccurewon large sn Af Leeann pemenaa Wics ee is smal. (Due to beam divergence, Las tess effet a ‘han this simple ests Would suggest as Hong sissan ae 02 ‘rangle 1 ‘Stn inlaaon Mass Reson 1am analyring magnet bends the ion beam through 45° and L = R = 50 cn, find te di ace D tha wuld be sen I By steak dough the syste when tis ted foe By Ae Exwacton potential 20 RV ed the required Bel. ‘Since the ference in assis am, Ht oo oes sod = soem ttt — con 45 + sin 45°] = 2.5 om =! soem fyi ~ const + sings) ‘ince sit wids re ipiealy a ew millimeters, tis analyzes ould easily resolve these. 60 aes pearly. bewit mass species wil be move dcal 0 resolve and may require & Targer radios magick. According to Equation 5.3, B= hg fe a x rot = 013T Gsm? 16x 10e here the nis of fl re tesa) and Kilogats (60). of onder a mts oe more) Most mas err used fr TC abication hve fiers with rads of reer ores Retteation ofthe ons ean be Gone ether before or alter te mas analysis. Aseleratig Bit reduce te kel tht ons sil Hose thei charg before reacting the surface of the wafer tut ‘Ties amuchlrer magnct The folowing dsconson wil ase analysis before acelin Fake abe is typi: aly several ters long and mast be maintained ata relatively igh vacuum Tig Meno. Ths ie resenary to avoid collisions during acceleration. The bea sist focused isto (Shh spor a ibbon ung sto electotatc lenses. then enters inca electrostatic acer sete scccletorcomiss of se of rings tached to voltage divider network, Adjutng the okernaply that fends the eider etwork ads the on energy. In he event hatte desire ereay in than he extcton potential, an opposing or bucking poten canbe apied. This Seize the sabity and sata coherence of the beam however, ad ss ot often sed, “Ine bear ts pnt paraily composed of Sos. Some nels may have reappeace Common the earls on hat conhined with dermal electrons: 6 “They may also eon that collided with ther on nthe beam undergoing & charge exchange. New Tass bigly undesale since hey wil pot be delet in eleewostatic end station scanning waesctime They wil ave ina Boum 10 the wafer where hey wil continuously mac nr the => 7 ttt raring common selina se Src me e~ Sintec on naan yrs "108 center of the wale. To avoid tis problem, ost Jom implantaien sjtens are equipped with = bend. The beam pases between the pull pts ofan electotate defection sytem The ‘evils arent deflected ands dont follow the tend: but stead wri beam top The ons ae Sufcienly dedected by te plates to cominue 0 travel dow he abe ‘Near the end ofthe tbe re adonal sts of deflection ples (Figure 53). In many Inmpiamers bod horizon and vere! pats of ‘lls are wrod ina manner analogs 1 lei: om set. The Bein ase back and oth and ‘upand down, wing wrsfonnly actos the wafer, systems designed for high teoughpi. the beam i unl tered ne ection. Hoizotal rasering 18 dooe by mechanically woving the sraer past the eam. This i done by pcg 2 umber of wafers on dhe pero ofa spinning sc. tne wales ey be clamped, oF 381s DOW Common, held by ceninfuga fore. Tere ae 2 umber of advantages to ich a sem. The ‘wafer does at havea re a heal Load, ice {batch of them ae inpaned tte same tine “Te ange ofthe beam with rept 1 the wale remains unchanged in the mechanically scanned ietion. The ttl pump down imei reduced by aati a tatch of wafers smtaeously In many soc systems. wo whels are moaned in side bysige conigurion, Ths allows ave wheel o lad aod pump down while the oer is Being imple. in some mer high- ttn ‘Asan example conser pial soucdin pants for an FET. This wou SO Asancxant erty of 2 eV, Phones s commonly wsed as he plan mask. The sr inmates 201. Ti nog to ae he ermperaa of e Y depo ore, he erg 00 depois uniformly though the wafer, ba rae ne tap 1000 ore. Since photre ee poe eral condacor, ican get quite bot during 1 sore ny ow o be Raed i sich exe th it Te ee 6, S52 Co Powe 56 Fae att paca anaes dare ROE rc impacts bed i Repel rc at hcg othe wae, where thicker Bead of poses cat In pales ne en sans fl ome with provisions cont he wales at fom Tits tmpernre. Te ther pce fen cn planing tou a se Sk th iar iing he sac resk aa the egal he cee EP oe Tasos Hy tat evolves from the surface, leaving behind inva cvbon cd esi ayers fc havea hardened carborizd Iyer ner he surface hat OO Healy ier The ctgssng can rise the pes inthe end sation suey 9 <5 So ec baum Ogi impact with he H, molec, resting i sigieant dose te cro [sh uslomb Scattering” Coulenseancing ually Sense while saying clio mecha, This ei 6 ee co rac fo pnt. Te pes scaring expres a sown for De is eae teen in Fge 6, On wank ofthe atoms iste wale ashaing Aco 1 erin, hove oe Caehgt regia low hr opens he ee fate. Th uncles of he atm inthe wafer. Asaenl he rgt ont more appropiate Ct esticns wih srecing coal of electrons. The tare on italy a 8 Be Ia ef mrance, A ow apgreaces wi cet veo w abd an mas a ars cae acess approach between te cents of the two fom if mo SCTE tree to ccur). Te target iom is assumed 10 be fe ‘Once agai, tis is 2 good spproximaton forte Na retention onesies commonly wsed in miro ees trie fication. Te cbjptve sto calcu the aout of emery trasfened tothe tage stom ding te elisin. The “Elion of tis problem requires the coseration of nergy, momen, and angular momentum, The calc Sine is more involved than Is waraned for OW Pu ‘ves ard orally involves a ansatin into center of Pe condinats, is covered i many odegrohate ‘Janie mechanics txt, Lez us simplify he problem fy comadeing he two also be hard spheres tha (er cuay I py pare de imal momen ofthe {melden ae tore spheres and Oe iat ome turn of the inlet sphere, BAB =P 6n ‘rypialscaaig ple. Fize act Conseving angular momentum, Laat Pd oo Aveta ges e105: Conserving nee, By 2m, ) “Then one cam show that the enegy lst bythe indent sphere - n6 wee) armed ixoaa) a0 “Ths, the corr bs is proportions oh niece and . tery nd depends ote ig snes. “These angles depend om the ion masses and the impact parameter. sone 5.3 Vertical Projected Range Fgue5:7 Tes dvance that aon aes inthe ‘dle ane The pon a tc sng pha the prose chee “This section wil use he satin results to deus what happens tothe ener on i an Tolan oe they che te f te wae, Some nce at hve een Seve fo SS itd ey lt a pian trvdvices willbe poimed ot, When a nrg on otra a wl bein se ee The Sader aPench be scnteascr so rmgs, gu) Aroncased me re “on ect, cney ls opens on he npc parameter. Sins ons erering ali the ‘erin the team ll ave ge of imput preter. Atel he mare ofthe ener Hus Technion can oa good epproimon, be coded probit. Fer = giver fx of ons a Tee es ic frst a egy irs el ce traveled, ater tbe average dT mye rj ange The ener To in cee ae ofe retonn (2) Te ft foto teres. imvlnes nt onl the valence elesrons, bt alo fe core eles the Bost material Sie a rest {ator pace inthe is made up ofthe eles lads rr the sos, many of se Seton will cc Bue fhe elas i 90 he pair the on nctgy may e ranted tough Extomb. intercon For 8 fpice somicondctor {plant handeds of howsands of ese imercons our, Fartermore temas betwen them ad Se ecevon fof rer 10 Ary spe eke fo irc wi no aril stor be once soc incnt on ‘Dust the lrge nob so nat inividl effscs involve, thew sce interactions cat be spprosimed by 2 canon esas Tat th eto the cecum on he oo very och fie 3 forte moving trough ui A vnc do oe Siccrons cn be asined tote eral media Te ht Rode here oa vscows dag foe same ob p> fal othe voc or energies of MeO O Tea mcrocecronie pesos FoeveVE 6Sn a \ 108, Station Since he on mst do work 0 move though he mada, tis force can sso be exprosed a am ney ‘etic Th energy los pe vit length dew elceonie topping is ven he symbol Sand a 4, aa where is aconstant of propotonality hat depends on he on and are species (6) jx [PAM ry MM a +2) tn Bastion 5.13, 2 he charge number (numer of protons) and Mis he mas (neutrons plas tans he acide and target fons. At very high eeepc the viscous Mid mode! can no Foner be Uiveked lasted. 5 peaks ad dereses a he niet iam energy i oie fre. “The om inieracton with the ace ions is very deen fom the imeraton wth de eetons Consider for the tne being an amorpocs solid. ts Known experimenally that ions eneinic recor ey to dep of howd of angstroms Since the aloe spacing i ofthe ore ‘Trenguron,sboat a thousand ineacions can occur. Frtbermore he incident and target ons aoeatees of te sare onder of mage. Ris posible forthe incident fn t be seatred at + Tego toca le to sien! welt. As a feu, nuclear interactions cannot be treated 3 + ‘SSS Entead bey must be urate at seve of dice evens As desribed inthe prevons serrate angle a which the fon is sated wll depend on the impact parameter and onthe See reac ponitns ofthe two tons, Tis means a the result of ay interaction depends “ier ae nractoms that qccured previously, back wo he Bist atomic layer of the soi. Sie the ‘das uniformly Sibuod ver the surface ofthe wafer as ey ene, a tate distribution of Sept wil sul “Torta onde, Gaussian distributions canbe used wo mode the range of depths tht an iow night feoch Ths, the impunity conection as 8 function of depth nan amorphous soi wil be svenby ae Vaeak, where By ste projected ange AR, i the standard deviton ofthe projected range, and i the RE ate coming faciors ze chosen sch hat the lzegrl ofthe profile from x = 010 ges the dose. Doe fo thesis natre ofthe on implantation process, the ons wil also Be seated tnely,penctsng pst the edges ofthe mask, Te profile most therefore be considered ia wo fdmensons wit ot tral and vertical standard deviations "Toad Rone must Setermine the Sth cer os ofthe acidet fon pe oi engin of travel do to mica sopping. Tne theory of nclear topping is iavolved The reader, Hf neste. is (Crono to Deamaey ea. 2] foram excellent weatment, It can be qualitatively described ty ‘Sfaed apere model described in Sesion $2. The enigy transfer during any colon will be & crave Rani of he hpoct parameter. The lower Ce impact parame, tho rete the ena) tone The ancrage energy lose wil alo bea function ofthe ati ofthe mass oft fon otha of che feeget mom. The sale hs rato the larger dhe average energy loss pr colisian wil be. Finally, {nc average energy los wil ba funtion othe energy el, The sold atm is chemically bonded This ang in an appronittely parabolic pea minimum. Ato low energies tho average ol Trek oes ot antler eooigh coergy to break tis bon. The result isa elas colision. The on mo 619 8a Pcie ange 107 Ima change det, at wl ot se mc . wer every. Th, 5 epee 1 areas wh on ‘energy at low energy. The momentura transfer is given by = “ ap =sPae 15) A igh velocities the olson time became 0 bart that he Ato cs so shot tha the energy loss decrees, Ths, Shs & um sore energy. The max vale ofS, can be pod bythe relation S28 10% eV-on? where 22M, wae, 619) wae zrt em Shas a weak energy dependence Figure 5.8 shows he nacleat and eectunic compo shows the nuclear and eecwonie components of ‘or several corsmen silicon dopants as 3 function of ecerey (7 8 ™ ‘Once 5) and 5,(6 ar known, one can peer the integral no fran Sists on to gtibe projected ange, Once own, the projected range can be wed to etna (9), gue 8.8 Nocera isc ric ompooens of SI oe Seige ree eaimteey (ser Smt as olnen By Sse “on npn "rode by pean, McCraw 138), e- vi ane 3a) em To avoid these compicstions, the projected range and its standard deviation are often obiaiped from LSS (Lndhar, Seba, and Sebi) tables [10] ‘or Monie Carlo simulaions These tables repose ‘euled vales that assume a pariolar model for the electron density distibutions of the ion aed the ‘old stoms, The ange values predicted by the model agree well wih experiment ets for concentations lose 1 the maximum, Figure 59 shows the projected, ‘ange and impliot simgale for several commonly {planted impurities [11 ‘Additonal moments can headed 1 the profile to help describe the behavior a lower concentations (gure 5.10). The eh moment of « diibuton is ened by [le-aymnd am “The fst moment jst the normalized dose, The se- cond moment sth prac of he dose aod AR TheSkntapiion third moment is eld the asymmetry of sibuion, Tis syenetry i sly expressed in terms ofthe skewness, where 5 62) an an increased concentration on the surface side f the di euive vhes fore saws eet cna te Sen amp wh paige to et ie oe son a SB AS cal te pred Buta 3. Tin xs ea a un sl ater ica tcseatesing Ata rey on eons mech een cay hgh) we efi mex ro a ee at eur a) Figue 59 _Prjetl mc sts aad ee mo 2) Oya) AZIT pee te fro Gos nd staan devia ths aes and ip ai f(A) wes Dyn tye and) pype pes us Gans sea, 8 hee. ve Ppensinge 108 gure 59 contd, For legend ee previous pat “The fous moment ofthe dsribtion i elated oa distortion af the Gaussian peak. The stortion is expressed by the ros , were Baie om “The larger the kurtosis the Marthe top ofthe Gaussian, Nol Gass have a aos of tee. ‘The vale of 7 and B can be found BY pearing Monte Calo slates [12], or moe diet. by messing sta pees and iting the results Boron in allo is aaer special case. Thisdssibution is mot often describ not by 2 mod fied Gassian but nes bya Peron ype IV disebuton, Expres hs dsb a terms ofa 10 Shnieatain the fist four moments of he Gass ny + ie B+ r= eng PT Tho fBD* Vee ¥ Vaid =F ez here ean ean ‘Figure 5.10 Cucve (a) shows a standurd Gaussian, (D) A -~ ae eee ves bee sy eee ae cps Nnmaiegeewsoe ene OA EE a- ox ‘Shue ttensth pe ote Brinson 5.4 Channeling and Lateral Projected Range ‘When implanting it single crystal mater anther cmpiaon can pe, Channeling cn = He Ey cpr toa jo crystal orion In this satin, some fons may 4) eae ee nes nite cota los (igure 5.11), since cea sopping ot ey fs os eoity ina chanel is ow, Once ina channel he oe wil coniue ints re i cy lacing tral collision hat are sary elas unt it comes to eto fly “gaya aaa Se rip cme et sm Syesgees is wz woo ff 5 a where Enh nin energy i KV and dis the to pacing song em ection io A Fr Fe Ee econ mach eget tan away from a ajo rysallogphic ocean Me i gar 13), Tae tang deco sed not be cow to the il on sony cae tine the target cn eet the incident on along crysallnphic oS, A Se sy of tn ocuring i al an 0 hi fc is unibely to produce 2 etx ‘datoron near the peak ofthe implant roi. tion a ede win io he implant dsebuons. The eet spacey pronounced whea implanting teary matin se the on's womic rs 5 ‘ch less than the crystal pacing. se al ant I plantation ie doe ff axis. Atpica i angle is. To edu oe rota fan nave! ine up fe yw anes angle of abot 30” isla conn aa a en ol sl sate slong te eye x, an channeling ests wil i ce tse Soe imine channcing ist dsoy te tice efore implantation. Praniortizaton sécharaigndLaes Popes nme 110 Figure S11 (A) View te dain cts ‘rca as (11 adsl con (Schema of cuonkig reprinted by person, (Mead Presser Mayer erat) Figure 8.12. cical angle a wich cme bei ‘Sane pain nation Fr bcc ‘Sever ip Saas Be ovo eta implag in 1 see Te oer Ses Sees (10) barSloniegiatin aloun can be done wih high doses of Si, For Ar before the dopant splataton Tit wil be ce eden Seton 5.6. Soe channeling rection bas also en reported BY imp Se Fegrs i seeen oie to anoize he on vloes before entering the cystal TH as oe ee egaage af unintentionally impanig oxygen de 10 rez or knock-on eet 5.5 Implantation Damage ‘One componet of energy safer when a highnerey fon enters a war calision wth aes on ort se ans re jected rom the tice ding the process. Some dace subs acl Many or eot energy Wo cole wih other sos stoms to prodce sonal paced To ate mplonabon proces procs cosiderable substrate cage that mus be wre Main abet proce, Parherore, tbe impaned specie i ined a 8 re at seaplane cs Tis ross of oving arg action ofthe wei mp For nt knowns 2 purity activation. Bh Garage repair and implant esivaion ae oes presage wafer (amnsing) ater imple, fen he eel accomplishes to aor eal or tha reason te wo processes wil be weated smaeouly. The oc: sa plas nt GaAs will mo be eae ti chapter sae tis ow mos commonly done ty rapid ema! annealing, he subject ofthe next chaps. Fe es spr coltsion by nuclear energy ante i tpcally uch larger han the into apy of th torn he atc, Oe eystl is damaged When iis iplated. Thee ex ie eons de abone whic Ce damages complete 13) That afl: he plant no videns of career ents andthe saree of he ste rendered morptous, The ite ds eee implan ener. impatsspecie target mera, and evbte temperate, SE Se Pagar howe th ial dose flr weer puis in ico eons of one, Aig tempers he subtat self taal an he esha dowe becomes Te tye! dae for abt os te so arg ice a ear aston of the emery se 8 cdeswont or on pases ugh hers pit defects consing offers ad aan cectes ae maton er ugh cals ih rele agt tons The defects create Py Fee npc ve led primary dees (1) Figue 5.14 shows Rutherford Backs ti (RBS) wea fran implanted wafer ab a wafer iano with 210 rey TNS MeV, ROS xs de scaring of He koe during an implant ermine te Src inthe wale The dashed ne represents the comtibucon ofthe anon op re paper, The shaded ara represen he sgn fom the displaced sco lors From, A a eae selon it i estimated tat Ce ines slic concentration is 7 10" ‘en roughly 35 teste implant dose eee def cccur wen an inplste wafers aeaed, As previously enon, PM ete ch cnray ‘nts ey, This caorgy can be edoced by recombination ot a ce ns excnded deft 7) Type tae dle he fom of wal punk dees Eo ean rcomicnse ina highs dipersinal defects ike drain oops Fo Semen eimai don tapes at pcan defects acer when the Sitesi cose aa ed yt plan is 22 = 10" er on sch as Por Sith have mass comple rn can ave larger cial nes concentrators, tpi about $* 10 em Wb eS a plan pn atoms ike B fr wlted defects while Dew os for ae en ra i Phe inertia creed by moderate mas fons are bound is these defect cere pay fre to agglomerate fa Sage extended defers, Seheweamp etal. (16) have ge 12mg ees meres Recomm son dt fer Morehead and Gomer Smog 13 eon a cueaterng yl et) we Figure 5:14 RS spc sowing te hacker He (Deas as tno onery Cire) a (Sipe wae Th carve aed) wafer ae 8 SREB ep: 0010. Toe ded lie eps fie campne oe pero comeing 0 ‘ii cyeiae sna, Tae bade wea repens te eet dopaced ats repnied oy pobasion '7 er Stone, er Schram a. own that secondary defects Jomo form for Bean ions (2> 66) except for MeV implants Even seer const intra! eoncenttion fora Reavy fon lke Sb exceeds 10" cor Heavy ios, {hertore, tend amophie the subst before secondary dua is geerate 124 Sninetin ‘Avoca highcurent implant operates with an on beam of mA. How Tong would take 13 Bipian 2 150-mm meter wafer wits” wa dos of 1 10" em "2 Wiecue aprons te mass of ans 35 ice the stoic charge number. Based on tis Rene Ss uncon of 2 assining tht herpes sicon, Repeat it fora germasiam fbavate an ls bln eurves. Discus the signifeanee. “Tec apa ne jonctin ofthe sourced ion nan MOSFET wus be educd the Te eg ssc is highly exe o produc low-res junction thine han Free es sgaican problem orn mplamaion? Jui your answer for bath Np tin Pfs juasions, What ar the major problems in forming hes sates? ‘TIE SUPREM i implant born nto siteon with dose of 10° em? and an cere of To REY, Reva he cmeal concentration (Pink Boron Cbemica), Pit his profile and Gansta dabuton wing te plant pares found in Figure 59. Discuss ite feces, Pe chapter vou used SUPREM to model doubled NPN bipolar tansitor epmartexetae cow eng on implantation. Assane tht the wer i 2 uifomly doped Repeat Quand the wfer serves the collector. The desired device profi inte a8 a pig soncenraton of TO” cm" «peak base doping of 10" cn, base wid of. Oma, and Gmmel number (Qe lt! ameunt of et Jopant ins base) of boat 10” en ‘Jacek partes would yu efor tetas andthe emer? Use SUPREM to develop aera eet wuld rrdace hs rile, Pa tent atv concentration 0 “eeetante our sulien Why is eve x praile more conto than he corresponding oubledifued prfle? References 2 3 OS aye Basan, sn. Davie fn loan Senn, Sten nd Cm, Retires New Yr, 19, Sere A ican RSM, nd. Sth, ow planion, Now Hid ‘eta i se Coan a Fore Ming Pein on inline ea co pig He Rylan lec. 11 SPM et een Singer vera New Yr, 1987.96 Se na bts Sons ove, Oct Nt” Semcon 90 PD enon patton i Senicotactan-—Pat |, Range Ditton Tenant Cerin: Po IEEE 5625 (96. Or erences rma be Ero SiopingCromecton of TPES mane Nac ore BS 10050. ee es Rage Dar Send Garanam Deve Teco” fe amin Fr re OF 17 Te es Tenn, SM. Sue Mew, New Yo to 7d and M.Sc Pos Ren. 2412836, aa ese Son. "Rang Caer and Hey on Ranges” Ma Fe Ma Vd 38.6096 Me Oe i son an SW Mp, Proje Rng Seas, DON Fidei det, Sabu. PA, 1973. a ar an HG, Vector Mele CaCl ore Wer ree ig onapons Taos IEEE Ya Ee De 30101 (98 w En 21 Feberos 125 'D.S. Gemmell, “Chansling snd Relate Effects in the Moin of Charge Paricles Through Cea” Rev, Mod Phys 46129 (1978). NoLTuret “Efe of Planar Canneling Using Medom fon Implant Equipment.” Stil Shae Technol, 26163 (Febuary 1985), FT. Morehead and BL. Croméer, "A Model or the Formation of Amorphous Silicon by Yon Inmplatation."in Fir Interatonal Conference on fr planation, Fis ad L Chaddrton et, Garon and Breach, New York, I BJ. Soheuttianp, 38, Caster. Licking W. X La, and FW. Sais "Preamorphizaion Damage info inland Sion,” Mat. Se. Rep. 6275 (199). ‘T-Y Tan, “Dislocation Ncleston Model from Point Defect Condensation in Silcon and Germain” terials Res. Soc. Symp. Pro. 2163 (1981. BL Crowder and 8. Tile, "The Destbuton of Damage Produced by lon Imlaration of Silicon a Room Temperate” Radlaion Efects 6:3 (1970 TE. Sede and AU Mack, “The nother Annealing of Boron planed Silicon.” ‘Fit inerntinai Conference on fea nplantatonF Elsen and L- Chadron, i. Gordon sand Breach, New Yor, 17 S'Wotfand RN. Tauber, Sion Processing for the VLSI Era, vl I Lance Pres, Sunset Beach, CA, 1986 MT Gaal andD.K. Sadana, “Materials Characterization fe Ln Implantation.” in VEST Eleconies“tontrsere Sr ence 6.N. C. Einptuc, ed Academe rss, New Yor, 1% 1 Cacperi EF. Kennedy. W, Majer, and TW. Sigmon, "Sabstate Orientation Dependence ofthe pital Growth Rae for Siplaned Amarpous Sica.” J Appt Phys. 9539061978. TVA. Pals, §,D. Broken, A. H.va3 Ommen, an HJ. Lipa, "Recent Developments it Toe implantation in Slcon,” Mat Sc Eng. BA? (1989) 770. Sedgwick, Nac lat Methods BST/38:760 (1989) D_R. Myers and RG. Wilson, “Alignment Efets on Inplantion Profiles i icon Radiation Eifect $1391 (198) MLC. Osh and 1-1. Wortnan,“EetrialProperes of Shallow P+n Janetions Formed by ‘BE om npantion n Germania Preamorphized Sco,” App. Phys. Let 2:21 (1988) Fi lakiwart and. Horta, "Fomation of Shallow P+-s Juntos by B-rplanation in i Sites wih Amorphous Layers.” Jpn. J Appl Phys 24:58 (1988. [THE Seek. Lise, CS. Pa, R.V-Kovell, . M. Mae, and DC Johnson,“ Review of Rapid Thermal Anoesng (RTA) of B, BF, and AS Inland in Silicon,” Nk Instr Methods BTIS25} (1983). ‘TO, Segieh, AE Michal, V.R.Deline and S.A. Coben, “Tarsiet Boron Dison in Toovimplated Cystine nd Amorphous Silicon,” J App. Ps. 61452 (1988) G's chin § A Cohen and T. 0. Sedgwick, “Difinion of Phosphorus During Rapid ‘Thermal Anealog of lon pls Silico,” App Phys. Let 48:41 98S), Hi Metener G.Suler, W. Seclinger,B, Item, H-P. Frank, B Fisher, KH, Egernge, FR. Dippel E Dich HI. Stoockmann, and H. Ackermann, “Bulk-DopigCotrolled Iplent Sic of Boron ie Sica,” Ph. Re. B.42:11419 (1990, es Hoplins TT Seidel, ).S, Willams, and J.C. Bets, “EsncedDifesion in Boron Trplanted Silca,”J. Electrochem. Soc. 1332035 (1985) FB. Fai. J.1, Wot, a I, Lie, "Modelig Rapid Thermal iffison of Arsenic and Boron in Silicon” J. Elecrachom. Soc. LSI: 2387 (198), IE Michal W. Raw, P-A. Ronse, fd R-HL Kall, "Rapid Annealing andthe ‘Avomalos Dison of fn planed Boron” Appt Phys. Lae S016 C1980),125 vn Sirti 3 36 ¥. es 2 2 4s 2. 0. su 2 38 ss K. Oyu ad Togs, “Advantage of Flore Introduction n Boro implanted Shallow Pn ‘unction Formation” Jon J App. Phys. 29(3:457 (1990. Din aad. Rost, "The Impact of Florine on CMOS Chanel Leng and Shallow Jonction Fomatio." IEDM Tech Dis. p43. 1M. Caren, D. Lopes, M. Fou nd W. Boy, “Uta Shallow: Fnction Technology for 100 am (CMOS: akicepiplaner and RTP Centre Raid Thermal Ansar.” Ma. Chem. Ply 54:3 (1998). 'M. Kase, ¥. Kikuchi, H. Niwa, andT. Kina, "Ulta Shallow Junction Formation by B4+B2 Inplantaion at Energy of 0.3 ke,” Ma. es. So. Symp. Proc $32 (1998). RG. Wilson and GR. Brover, on Beams wit Appllcaions 0 ln Dyplanation. Wiley Interscience, New Yor, 1973. MM. Niazmand and. Fresh, “Shallow Junction Fornaio by DopantOuiffasion fora Cosi, and ts Apliction io Sub 05 ym MOS Process.” Mrolect. Brg. 214):427 (1993), dang, C-M, Osburn 7G. Xiao, G. McGuie,G. A. Rozgonyi B. Pata, N, Park, amd 1M. Swansoa, “Ui Shallow Junction Formation Using Difsion from Sieies Il Dison ia Silieies and Evaporation.” J Electrochem. Soc. 1391) 206 (199) S.B FechsB.S. Le, S,L.Datyaat, D.F. Downey. and RJ. My.” Characterization of ‘Gita Shallow Pin Iunctions Forme by Pasa Doing with BF, and N Plasmas.” Mat ‘Chem, Phys 4:37 (1988, BLL Yang. E-Jones, and N. Coeng,"N-+/p Ulea Shallow Junction Formation with Passa {nvserson Tos Implantation,” Ma Chom. Phe. 84139 (1998). J. Reewon,"Parcaton of Buried Layers of SiO, and SiN, Using fon Beam Symes” ‘ack. tetra Methods B1S-20269 (1987). KLzumi,M, Doken sod H, Ayo, “CMOS Devices Fabricated on Buried S10; Layers Formed by Oxygen inplstation in Sten,” Eleiron- Ltt, 14593 (1978). HW. Lam, “SIMOX SOI for Integrated Creat Fabrication," IEEE Cir, eves 6 (1987) P-L. Hemmen, E. Mayel-Ondrusz, KG. Stevens). A Kilner, and J. Butcher, "Oxygen ‘Dstibutions in Sprherzed SiO, Layers Formed by High Dose O° implantation ino Silico.” Vacuum 34203 (1984). Gf. Coles, P. 1. F- Hement, K.W. West and JM Gibson, “Improved SOI Films by High Dose Oxygen Implantacon and Lamp Annealing” in Seicondactor-on Insulator and Thin Film Transtar Tecology, A. Chiang, MW. Gis, and L, Pele, Mat. Res. So. ‘Symp. Pro. 53, Boston, 1986. S Cistlovean,S. Gander, C. Justa. Maga, AJ. Auberton Her and M. Bri, “Silicon on insular Maer Formed by Oxygen Ton lenplanatin and High Temperate Annealing: Carer Transpo. Oxygen Activation, and Interface Properties" J. APL Pips 22793 1987) M1. Caren and W.A. Keenan, “A Performance Survey of Production la implantes” Solid State Techno 28:39 (Febery 1985), 1. Glawischnig and K. Noack, Lon lplamaton System Concept" on Implantation ‘Science and Technology, 1. Zigler, ed, Academic Press, Orlando, 1984, P. Borgeras, “Equipment Geert Parcs: Ton Implantation Semiconductor In. 1410, 78990, E,W. Haas. Giawiocni, G. Lich an A. Bleicher, “Activation Analytical Investigation of CContainaion and Cross Conasination i fon Implantation," J. ectonie Mat 7525 (1978) 1. Rymel and L Rue, fore plontarion. Wiley,New York. 1986 [LP Zeger, Handbook of fon hmplamavion Technology. Nothin, Artem, 1992 o Chapter 6 Rapid Thermal Processing “he last few capes tae discussed th esrbsion of impurities at hgh tgs. Fe smal SELES uatons tn ery wate ands thes ben a reat el fees in SSE Eason nw cere proce ht mins isin. Sone posses, ich a mat ee ee Cfetve tow were Corn ipso pant Gare cook SEIMEI ninth tongs shee Farha some Coan eg etal se eacata ent 10K/C she sonpctely activated. The er avenve ecg isin Cee Cine at timgrsure Sun farace soe il sudo hon ie amneas. The eee Rhyne hea fm tees ward To vad extn openers at ratty Malice he wafer mast be heed and cond sbwly (Asa ren, eeo Bough be car etal be sr clon tegen ramps res sigan ison. Abe sane eenteE hm een au acesng emphasis on proses tat person ene wafer a» Une aber Fe eas ssn wer esses pve best nfrmlyand epi. pa tasers wafers Rap tesa posing OTP) dss a omy ingle war ot a aE hes eel omits he eal Doge of poceasbyedcing he ine ‘Temper in addon too ita redoing th tapers. Be eral Sexcoped fo implant socalcg Alhough ths spplaion 6 il com- pon, eo op ermal appro o proce, es spel 10 otto, cea vapor oe reared etal prow Conall pe mal poeess ise of cmon podem Hearn Sse he water unr, being ble to main a uniform compete ring de ae a ceaing te wae epee, Te fx! ev sets wl dsb the ate of Bese scene and be appoches tha rp thermal rates Have adopt abies he The chager coe ee apcaons of be xciny stting om he wana mpan aacaing TE REUST cy vetpe onlton and tation and conciaing ih te Soman of Sets uo of RYP for cercl vapor dpoiion (RTCVD) aod epi growh wil Be SESE as nh bok once ewe pcr gure an andestanding of gee chemical ‘apo deposon eto Nee mes can te divided in the oad clases by hee of btn thats cared sai el al them |) The rt dena of RT sd en in CEERI iets aprons a pes offi broad beam tet nly theft surface ete elroy of he mates on athe pe length shot conpaed wth he eral ec uihe soe Adu sons ae fen powered Py Woal-eam cbse sues vwv8 ~~ aps Tarr Pressing och as excimer Isers. Although tis ype of aneaing syst allows the shes ie a tener, Tae Wn teveral important drawbacks, These cle dificult n consoling temperatures sd “Gal ns, ge vera temperate gradients, and large capital equipment costs. Thermal Fux isin an iene spot source sch tan leo bao focus Taser hats scanned across ESSE aac scan peda’ mast he short compared othe thermal ie constant rls eral {hal picts wl eu Although this ype of sytem has been wsed for reser, the defects caused TOAEZAr thea nomuaformay ae usally lp eno 1 prevent thi ae for C fabian, TRuthenal heating wees rod beam of radiation o heat he wafer for many seconds. These sysems Ray ve misinal empertre gradients acre and ough the wafer. Typically they are powered CULES Zataources such ar a sry of tngtenhalogen lamps. The wae ets on quar isin athena systems. Quan i selected beens of cherical stability sd i low thera cond ‘Sip. Ths aangerent is sometimes called thermal ion. This ehaper will concentree ‘Rothsal RTP stems since slo al caret geperation commercial syste se his desi. 6.1 Gray Body Radiation, Heat Exchange, and Optical Absorption” “Tere are fur types of eat transfer that sy be of interest to semiconductor processiog: conection, “Tinecton lorcet fo end rahaton. Thermal conduction the difsion of beat hog a soi se ria tow tveugha erosional nes Af aso ora immobile rani is en by an) = kD en suber Kf) i he tbemal conductivity of the mail Dividing both ses by the area press Fei thw inteans of heat was, Since ost of he optical energy in rp thermal eocessing Tabeovted inthe fst few microns ofthe wafer, thermal conduction trough the wafer plays itnponan role in Oe final temperate dsrpaon. When cosiering thermal conduction in 4B, reeela, one mu alo take into acoutt gas Gow stce it can ale the rat of beat wane. oe flow is came by at extemal applied prestare grain! i said tobe forced flow. Examples sictte Hows cased by ga incon o pumping Hows that ae in response to emperature gra (Ris nm tberwit cloned sytem ae called natural flows. The moverent of water heated pt Shur flom. Aneffetiv et wanser canbe defined 33 gomr-To oa ere Te the temperature ofthe gut fr rr the wafer and san fective heat transfer coe EcTuut depend om uth fee and force ow. Fr most geometries is function of tersperatare fd the potion om the water. "rhe amount of power tht can be dtvered by gps ow i Kite. AS a res, most aide ‘nal stem ne ease heat taser asthe rma rethod of heat exchange. One ofthe asc arustn of aaive eat ase he specel ridin’ extance M0 7), te amount of power Sid bya boy im peel abotbing environment ack box) pr ani surface area of he ‘Gmitng cbjet amd per unt wavelength ofthe vadiaton. Panes raion law gives the spect! ‘ae eitore a Mar) = «0 er S yoy aon, a Echo da Repion 129 wher tA) is the waveeng-dependent emissivity of he emiting body and ad cae the fst and SER const piven by 37142 1D Wen abd LANGE x 10"? mK, respectively ‘When e = I-the eming sources sido be aac body "Wen My T) is iegrated overall wovelengh fom Oto, nd its assumed that he nisin wang ge es a eine SAT, ih sey Stefar-Holtzmann equation Mr) = oot 64 “where ois he Stefan Boltzmann constant, $6637 x 10°* Win?-KY, Comparing Equnions 62 end (oa he amount of power rdated bya Object proportional tthe furt power of he temperate, stile he power cence trough thermal condsctan i ropotonal othe temperature difeenee Teivesn i ebt andthe background, Asa esl, ration i the dominant Rest wanfer mech homat hightemperature while themal Condon is ore important at low temperature Since most ‘anid thermal sysoms operate in the highiemperatsre regime edinon exchange i the dominant beat exchange mechs. ‘Ditterststiag Equntion 6.1 and sting the result equal 10 zero, one Can define a 2 waveenginat which he emied powers masiizes. Then 02898 co K Aa, — O28BH EK 69 “This relationship canbe wsed to transite the temperate ofan emiting body ato a coresponding ‘aor tempuratre Mary lampe ate species hs way sine it would be dificult to measure he fa tent temperate diel "Wert inidet on he surface ofthe wafer it muy be reflected, absorbed or tas sited fT) define a the Heton of eased radiation andr, 7) asthe faction ofthe a ‘ied radiation. According to Kichhof lw 10.1) == AT) TY co) or opaque mails 4,7) = On aO.T) 21 oAT) en ‘Once the emissivites of two baie are Known, the net power tunfr between them ean be calculated: We might ake eve two bodes fo be te wafer andthe lamp ary, Fr example. Let 6 ‘Shi be the average emisvts foal wavelengits Being enasidred forthe two bodes, The the ‘et power rane rm bay Ir boy 28 5 fade SGT ATM Fare 68 where A isthe ra of bey 1, and Fa geome constant called the ew factor or configs Mr actor Fyre tha action ofthe oa si tat he rea A ees 6120 Figure 61 Geomery fr calling he vw acts etoeen ores Ay 2 A ‘is Them Pome Fre 62 Pouca pts among re sces ‘eng age tons Tah um omen from the sfc A. and fy are the angles from the surface nomals as shown in Figure 6.1 (4) ‘The view factor canbe cleled deely. Aberatively, he view factors or many simple geome ties bv been abuts (5) ‘Conse what happens i hind sufoce such s a elector i added Pigre 6:2). One might ‘ust cone hee pair-wise interaction, but hat would ony ilo the power radiated bythe ted turaces The elon pricalar may be water cooked, Keping be surface temperate low. Yet he feflccr surface ay transit pew deal of power because it increases the effective view facto ‘Seween Gh wafer atthe lanp. The efletr also allows the wafer trae 0 itsell allpssibe ‘lctos se lncladed, the comple of pain scheme increases sabi. Aiteraiely, 00 Can wea al ofthe srfces sultans, inclading eects, sing mtx metho 6,7 6.2 High-Intensity Optical Sources and Chamber Design Most isotherm systems we eer W-baloge lam o long ac noble as scharg lamps s ower forces (Figure 63). The W-halogen lamp consis of a ghily wound spiral tungsten lament owed ta fsed sea velope. The spa winding increases the surface area of the lamp, hereby {ncresing the rtition efficiency. The apa lament may be linear with x connector on bth ses ‘ofthe bub rte filament may be shaped fr single ened terination, The quarts envelope ofthese {amps costa «halogented gas, One common cmmponetis PNB, (8. Tungsten evapo fom theese fitem an deposts on the walls ofthe envelope. Ashe walls Beat, the halide gas eats 20st Ota Sees snd Cham Dean 198 with the tugsen 40 form voletie tungsten lies that de tothe mach hoter Rlaeat whete they decompose and relepasit the tungsten Ts process as an nisi feedback mechanism, As more tng fen depots on the envelope, the iaccased quart trating inceases the ching reaton rae. Tht fed tick prevents excessive bul of tngszn "Wehaiogen lamps emit at blckbodes, Most of the edition nthe 0.84040 jm rnge. Assume Ua iets asenary 1 be able Wo rie the temperature of 3 Tso.sim wai o TOC. Since the emisuvity of icon approximately 07, he total exitance a hist pre (gation 62) 5s abou 28 KW. Each tungsten timp consumes approximasiy 100. W of electrical hyper centre of lige length. Aba 40% of energy i converted ito igh i a typical amen Taop however that mb varies sical roms Figue63 Turgsertwope'anps( andoeble ges mp to lamp. Since only a fraction of the eited anps rig forse mp toma sens ‘optial power i clleced by the wafer, it would be the water. Long ae noble st ducharge amps conan two refactor metal letrodes sealed in fed ica envelope wih noble gs such a+ kigpon ot Xeno, The electrical popes ofthe dscarge are ‘iced by the elecrde spacing. hefner hacer ofthe envelope, and he gas ccrpositon and ressre When igs with high vlisge pulse roughly 2 KV pec centimeter of lighed Beng he {stoned anda de path is estaba. These lamps emit strongly inthe visible part of the specu. “Tei spe inca & very bigh-temperatre ecton psa Dat looks ikea gay body Wil Aw 200 un along with srt line pets comesponding othe electronic transins of the fil zs ‘Discharge In conse up to TOO Wiem of Fighed lng. Optical conversion efciencis acabout 45% High-power dicharge lamps mat be water cooled be able to witha these ig owe desis, Prieur cre tus be ken fo ens ha the Quattor seals andthe met Elccuodes remain cool Using the sme eters of heating a 2S0-am wafer vo IOC. one would teed only two to four in lamps however, hs avanzg in power density is partly offset by the teed w water cool and let isl the larpe fr ignitiag them. Fuermore the lamp is tera by # more coy regulated de source, wile the Slamcot Imps may operate dei from» mp line Ge. 60-He) sore. ‘Varios chamber peometries have been wed to opinize tbe power collstion efcieney (gure 64), Atte save tine, one mse als ty to design te chamber hat he wafer ean achieve ‘hd ritaie a nieem temperature. Many early RTP system designs ws tbe reflecting cavity proach Inti design the wale resides in» quartz flow tube. Linear W-halogen laps are above And below the flow te, An Ny purge may’ be we to coo! helps and the outer setae of he {ate Row tabe The entire assembly i encased i # gok-ceated ox. The surface ofthe go! Foughoned to ensure difuse election. The purpose ofthis arangement is to randomize th opel lh soa to debt the radiation uniformly aro the wae. “The use of electing cain has bem only partly soceesfl in achieving a uniform temper tare across the wafer The wafer edge tends © be more cool than the center du 1 tree effects {figure 63). Fora inte sized sry of amp, he view Tater fom he outs of the wate seswm 64 Yao cant sss ce A) De Pee oaigharacoel seme = imal Posing Steen “ » © pre6S. Cancel tev cryin A) Fue Cote any aay friep 8). ssh es rsa ani mnior SENN ape come Ife ta asap eee in fs ee Te a he was an ony Hos om ds ues ca i amp Fay fr common geome, te eg ofthe wae i se aca he cma Caines ede ft ay a NPT, Bs Se eof dares igure 64), Tee tenprsoe gradients ead 0 poe ey an acer coo ed stp and wafer ware. nl a res have teen wd 10 mie ema pono “4 comp na Erase dg oes radiant pws eg oh alr mat e cea ae eo by supa the refactor lp tales. changing te wasn ace cn fe eT apace ile ey at ht he amour beeper te cd degen onthe poses temperate, Tbs, De power bation can oy 255 ii a err a ven ol fe imps oon ge. Frhemer, enpea 5 cr uo ait bons. As ae he walt ge ovate! sng rae tp Pe staan to ths problem isto dvi te composition, press nS temperature strong absorption bands can eis anywhere from 21010 ya [15] “The ajc caveat in opicl rome is ul te effective emsiity must be securely deter rind The elles eisivity ices both ainsi and extrac contin. The nisi emis Thins fence of he material the surface Finish, the eriperature and he wavelength a which ts esau: Foal the intinsc emisiviy of bare sion wafers easly wel characterized Theta fiction of tenperature (igure 67), Tiss provided a comprehensive review ofthe ota (pope nt xemicouctrs (171, At ow temperature the emisivity depends onthe doping concen ref toners lens than i bandgap, Aste ermperaueiereascs above GDC, the eric tor tecomer ins Fee caer are preset in suficient numbers produce a nearly wavelength {dcpendentemissiiy. The exinaic emis relates to che amount of riot energy fom othe antes tat edo back ot the spa being measured ands increase the apparent temperate. oa ” wl haviezoaacuseseronoaie + ben ies (um) Verto) —> Figure 68 The icf palsies on ete esis utes, Tee tnd Bor ern by permis, Plena fermion Japon) Ap! Pi ee SsTempancenngrnen 135 Sis are often wed to mininize thi effect (18). As suc, it mst he measured iS and may ‘ange athe chamber relativity changes, Fabemmore, the prsonce of layers such a plysicon fd icon dioxide can dramatically alter the apparent enisvity (Figure 68) a the essere sravelength det nerfrence ees (19) sample 6.1 “The jor source of uncersnty in pyomety isan uncer inthe esi. I the vwaer temperate is 100°C, what wavelengths most sible wo Dinimie the effect ofthis ocenainy? ‘According Equation 63, N= Ay iterentating and assuming that M and A ve Sed nd that ©? _ Ade If te proms operating st Sw, a5 uncerainty inthe emisivity produces a 22°C eror in he temperature. On tbe ober band, pyromaer opera inte 094-096 um range pro aces ony 84°C emperatue err forthe Same Sear in esi, ‘Commercial RTP systems can cot the wafer ester temperature for abae wafer process ch as an implant anneal o about °C; boweve, dhe absolute temperature is geerally Tes well, own doc to emissivity unceranes. Two or more color pyometers mest he cited power at ‘muliple wavelengh o tempt to comet for emissivity changes. Implicit in ther operation is te {sumption thatthe avo ofthe emit af these wavelengbs is Sued. Ts soe wnys a good ‘Ssumption, parculaly when the process involves a lm grow or deposion. Ofcourse, the eit Siig wil change from tht ofthe subst atrial the emissivity ofthe material deposited dur ing the proces. More probleme, however, is the sttion th Ooaus when he fy atlas partalytaasmistve, When the hicknes of he Sm becomes an iotegral rile of one-fourth of the measrement wavelengin desirtiveirfrence taker place a deatially changes the lpparent emis Fr these proceses tempera reproduiiyis severely degraded unless this ect canbe corested in roftware It is posable to messue te emissivity deel by measuring the reflectivity ofthe wafer and using Kisco’ aw (Equation 6.7) 20) Fortis chem to work he ‘rensuement tbe done in the vibe where the wafers opagte [21]. The pyrmety should be tne at wavelength a hse at posible otha of the retecton measurement; however. in practice thi is dificult fo achieve. Most commonly, the pyromer i called agains an istrumented ler, thats, wit hermocoopes embedded in (21 "Another variation cm hs use the fact that he lamps are being powered by an 3 surce and othe ight inecity wil oscillate. Since the temperature of (and s adinton emit fom) the ‘wafer ie esenislycoomant,rmsuring the Hight itenst is largely measuring the reectviy of the wafer. This can, in tor, be ued to calle the emisiviy. Fist developed by Laces, Cis ‘method, called pe pyre, har een sail se (21,136 oxi Tew Paes Teste ihe Figure 69. Acai: tempers esse ied tops (fer Degenin ea tab person, Meenas Rescar Soe) Vatious aonpyrometis tecaiques have besa investigated wo avoid the problems ssocsted with ‘suming an emisiviy. Several autre have demon Sate th eof thea expansion ea diet mex toe of the tempers Diaction gangs pated fom the surface ofthe wafer ean be sed with pectin soit inverteromery (24) o& in a diacion are ‘measuteonn(25)- In ele as, de movement of te ting via thermat expansion cam be measured and fed to inlertemperstire changes. OF cous, these ‘methods require an appropriate pater on dhe surface ‘ofthe wafer thar most be propery aligned with the foptcal probe beam and detec. Furthermore, oie ‘an bet problem thigh temperature dt strong ga flow conditions caused by the large thermal gradients inthe chamber Alternatively. the wafer diameter ill fi be wemured optically [26] The demonsted peau of tis technige is 1% “Anotberintresing approach 1 meating tem pera is he use of acoustic waves. Ihas been ued that the velocity of sound in sian salina function ‘ofthe sabatate temperature [27 Acoustic waves can ‘be lamchedshrough one of equa support ins nd the wave detected slog snober pio (gue 69), Since th taeaducers can act ae both acai ures and temas, there are Gr) posable. ps Because the measured volocty is sveraged over de dhe temperature profile across the wafer can fe Entra by taking tulple merurement long dit fore pats (28). This ioformation is extremely vale is for mltirone heating sangeet Fnaly cer elctance or aasmisson can be ese to measure the optical properties ofthe wafer iit {snot metalized ALJow tetpeatres on can sete wavelength dependence 1 the reflectance 1 infer 2 tempertie. When te energy ofthe photon i egal gree tan the bandgap of silicon, te eetance ix much lower, Sine the bandgap ie temperae Aependen, oe can accurely infer the tomperatre of ‘he scan upto about GOO. At higher temperate {and for heavily doped wafer) the carer concent ‘om is igh enough that caer abserption dominates the refetnce ‘The second technique measures the Inuinsc carer eoacentation by measuring the ans tisson of I ration tough the wafer. Assuming m >= Nn Ny one ca infer the Heperaae fom the measured inverse abunpin length, which canbe related othe nisi caer concen ioe Neither ectnique as Seen widespread comm! use due the resttions on doping ea ‘ition an metlizatons. 6.4 Thermoplastic Stress” “The exivence ofthe thermal graicts in the wafer gives rice to thermoplastic ses. If che sess becomes wo large, defects such as locations ae slip eat result. Asin tba the subezaee ae faerie, that dislocations do ot occur and Ut the temperature gradients vec through the wafer ea be pleco one cam extras the thermal tenes the wafer. Due ora syonaety it Ti tho shear Suess wil be ner. The rail and angular ses component ar ven by ean oun eat[ A freer - 3 [rar no] atl {lnevar free] 619) er where isthe Kear them expansion coefcin, Es Young's mods, and is the rai ofthe er Figure 6.10 hows atypical plot he radia dependence of thee sess fra simple process -soosiing fia arp to tempertre, a anne temperature aod near cap down, Under ‘ead state coetons the wafer edges are sigh cooler an the center. Thea he aia ess has a raslmum ara the contr ofthe wafer and ges Lo ero a the ee. The tangent sess ies Om ro a the enter and is typically net larger han he al stress componee Since this sess 50 lage ad since detects wil mucleate more ready a the wafer ede, mnt rp thera proses indcod sip ie seen the ge of the wafer. The dismond suc tends to yd along the (HO) ‘ial the major fat vetation. Figure 610 _Nomalied ses srs poo on ‘der drngabeing tan fr Lae ©1988 a ‘ietons in the (11 planes and 9 For ype (100) wafers. he slip ins are parallel abd pexpen- ‘The yield strength is the Limit a which @ material wi plasealy deform. For silicon the yield strength esr by the Haake Forma ome= [EO 612) hee & she sim ead irene sin ate oan 10 ae 129) The eat val of ya depeas oe oygen a dona somsttis ntewafor snd he Pevint procening Type acs nce A" 630 Po OTS eVsand n= 245 (30) A gh tain rats be yk sergio MPa sk tom nes ay Sermo ree aw about 83 MPa [Te ie ‘afr ca hte i sans dng sens, the Sr geod rine wansens pera mach pet than gener ee Sen) ste ice mos sie fone RIP sym ae optic fr tay sia er fy Of coune ths fh mach Is of a eh ewer138 >_> ‘fap Ter Petsin 6.5 Rapid Thermal Activation of Impurities "The last chapter ietoduced ion iplantation, Because ofits bility to produce welcomed put fy dones whose concetration may infact exceed the soliésoubily, the teenigue has become ‘Tron univer seeped. As device ans have been redood, the Concentaion gradients bave Jncrasd, sd the manimam allowable dopant edstibson has decreased, The implant dase: i ‘ho wafer man all be emoved by annealing. Depending o he implant species energy tad dose, this may require temperate high a 1100% [32], The asc reason that rapid thermal processing tras deloped was to aocess these igh temperatures while iimizing the Ukr budest by rts (itp he neat emperatre The time requed to anneal out defect cusers drops athe temperature {iso and yeacesmleonecods at 1000°C [33 ‘Gow of i most tractive fetes of RTP is tht he wafer may not reach thermal eso. ‘his means thatthe elecaly active doping profes can actualy exceed the sbi solu. “Are, in parol is found rogue nl very she: anes to achieve a hgh evel of activation {Sur Arsen in paricult can be atvated Yo aboot 3% 10" about 10 times Is soli sobs i ‘Shocaled fora few milisesonds [35]. The arsenic slows bae insite wo form chsters and ‘Ravens ot ito inactive dfecs (36), tte activation is too incomplete, however, the e368 tonic atoms sets to contribute dsep level [371 These levels can be ficient geneatio/esom- tito center leading to eletical Dskage if hey are close to pa junctions Tra generaly Been observed that ow temperature aod sediced time ancals of plas secies produce chert junctions tt ae Jesper than thse predicted by simple difsion theory {Bs 39), Diffsvity eabancements for born ia slcon have been repored wo be as much a8 stor {1 1000, The eign ofthis enacerent fe bsved tobe resiual implant damge. The wafer Tatived to bave a high concentration of Yess and seliestials after ao implant (0), This ‘fers sorties ealed transient effects or transient enhanced diesen. Ithas Ben shown th be {ncrease i he uncon depth of low-dose pans proportional othe square root of he imp cocrgy, Furace anneal proceses fen stempt to allt excess point defects through a2 fxended treatment at teapersures of SOD to 650°C before heating tothe activation tempera, RTP aes may also incode a bri lw temperate sep forthe same reason, “The auvalioneacpis for tame enbanced dfs for the three most commen icon dopants ae shows in Toble 61. Although ‘nally somewhat contovesal, iis now gencraly ed tor vanem effects during the difesion of asec ae observed for ver high-dose implants, tate much les pronounced thn for boeon. These rns elects decay with some characteristic tie conan that relied tote rte of defect snniaton i the substrate. “har aio heen shown that for boron ah BF, 0 alo the chemical impure are activated in REP. The peak conesetons activate more ily at bw temperature or BF due tote sree ‘epee of smorization (42), Furnace aneal always ciate the low concentration implant i bit tra) ot aly activate the region nea he peak concentrations dc to thermodynamic considertons Tae mere team or a ——E_E : ‘orce a Plophors a Skee tharalAcnlanet pee “199 such a he solid soluilty. Ia been obtred, however, tha ler RTP aneas the low concent ‘ion horon tis may nt be fly activated, giving nse to an letricljnction tha smote show ‘than the chemical ene (43,44. Figure 6 shows the dferene etwcen the chemi! profil said lin) and eleeeally ative prot (lesed points) aera 30sec anes t 1000°C fr bath Dore and BF, implants. Both peak an al concentrations are ot fly activated. The nonacivated impurities are believed to be da oe formation of inactive boron itera pals [45] Figure 611 also shows that he ai ofthe B profi ss faster than the peak region. ts found tha inthe peak region the implant leads o disestions and ther exended defect For X> Ry + 15 AR, or Ig. Ihe wafer is ete with144 psa Pose wope- loge inp open ot 200K, what acto of te inet ney stants pte Wools GaAs ta moors of eer? Why 7 ona wt cn rating as arin by fe cari cr 19 Pa ee awe. mesic cnceuatin cess Gee Chap 3) What ae ats have on RT processes? Roughly sketch a plot of temperature vers time for en i eerteued wh acon wenger MIPBEISOP. aan ae feral fs RTP hg ogre wis ncing heros La et waer Dewi the ns fo is sp he ps sn a topo rp wt dots ss yo but te aan per cf wae? : ar ced youenyct yor te SUPREM to moe ri mal seg ests 200 menace lian wale terpenes used a hea 200% * aor ee niaiy ofthe wae 07,2 Equation 64 cache aunt of rer mcs tomas sepa eee ite enperaurea YOPCIS:, what ion noun of owe i ve ys can ame hah wer 10pm ck and ht yu ca whe om aa peaches Sens fron given Append eg cen done ong thea onan na wet eta Ha: What a MDE foo Art ones table for is eppiation’) pte ne renns roan ating m References CES Tena ist and Siac Ces Wes ina Row Dung oneienegy ror rc ee oo ce bam ld erations and Matias Pring FA nT Wigan ce Eh, Noh iad New Yr, 18 yee ee iant Aumaling? Beacon Soe, 13888498), 2 OS ne ma Pre” inCompatial Modeling Seicndaor Point Mey, Atk New Yr. P98 — aon rian Cniuron ater. MeCN Yah | aca Capt on bmn Moin of Tee Dein es Kew a nap Teal Pingo Eg ns Wal” HEE Tre Semon on 26819) Ser eT cea Experineal egation of Thera Unforiy Rept Sa rng Recon Kn Cama! Vapor Desir Di cn Soe PAD, Diseaon, Une RET FB. oe pac, “Tungaen apn Lamps Reger Mechs ia Pro tan ee ae Reason, “Tas Efe ia Rap Tara Posesing TE ens Sean, Ms $3293 10 Emit Soo KC Sara a MM. Moshi Meter Se Som. Pr tao inh : _ eee a kane, Yee, L: Vo H. Nj B. Dos Di and. MM, Mes ee cnl Tega Rapid Tal Pree” Mae Sa Sp, ro BSC es = B rr 16 " 24 2. Fewnos S F Rooraboom, “Temperature Convo and Sytem Design Aspects ia Rapid Theol Processing” Mar. Res See Symp. Proc. 2249 (1991, B. Brown, Proc. th European RTP Users Group Mectng, slo. UK. 1992. ‘ALL LaRocca, a The Infrared Handbook W.L- Wolfe end GJ. Zs ds, Evironment ‘Reseach Inston: of Michigan Ana Arbor. 1989 F Roozehoom. "Rapid Thormal Processing Status, Problems and Options After te Firs 25 Year,” Mat. es, So. Symp. Proc. 303149 (1983, 1. Sao, “Spectral Emissivity of tice,” Jpn J Apel. Phys. 6339 (1967). LJ Tins, “The Radative Popes of Semiconsctors” in Advances in Rapid Thermal ‘nd nie grofed Procening,F Roozeboom, ed, NATO ASI Series E ol 38, Khwer, ‘Amsterdam, 1996, p38. DP. Dewi, FY. Sorel, J K Eliot, “Temperature Measurements sues in Rapid ‘Tenn Processing" integrated Procesing VL, vl. 470, MRS, Pisbugh, 197. p.3 C5 Hill and D. Boys, "Rapid Theral Annealing Thory and Practice." in Reduced Thermal Procesing for ULSI fe A. Lexy. e Plenum, New York, 1989. [AT Fey. C.Sohicinger B. Adams, and FG. Tse, “Opal Fier Pyromery with Tn Sits Detection of Wafer Radiance snd Emitanee—Acouers Ripple Method,” Mat Res. ‘Soe. Symp. Pro. 308-139 (1993, 1-M, Dina, €. Gani, 03 N.Notir, “Situ Wafer Emsvty Variation Measurement in 1 ped Thermo Presson" Mot Res San Symp Poe 2244000) BR. Vanden bel dW. Renken, "Sly of Repeutaiity, Relative Accuracy and Lifetime of ‘Thermocouple Instruments Caliban Wsfers for RIP." Rapid Thermal negated Processing VI, Yo 570, MRS, Pitsburgh, 197, p17 B. Nasyempti, M. Ob, and A. Fy, “Temperatre Monitoring by Ripple Pyro ia Rapid ‘Thermal Pocesing” a Rapid Phra and negated Processing V, vl $2, MRS, Pnsbargh, 1996, 291 SH Zaid, J, Breck, and. R. MeNel, “Noe Conc 1°C Resolution Temperature ‘Measurement by Preto Mae Ierfermetry," J. Vacuum Sc, Teal BIO 166 (192) S.R.J Drvcch, 5, H, Za and M.K. Lang, Temperate Mesrreeat fr RTP.” Mat Re Soc. Symp. Proc. 308417 (1983). B, Feu and A. Rosshrans, “In-Situ Temperate Conta for RTP Via Thermal Expansion Measurement.” Ma. Res. So. Symp. Proc. 383:123 (1993), BLA, Auld, Acoutic Fields and Waves in Solids, vo. 1 ohe Wiley & Sons, New York, 1973, FL Degeriskin, J, Pei, ¥. J, le. BT. Khar-Yalub, and K.C. Sarasa, Toit Tenpertis ‘Monitoring in REP by Accel Techniques” Mat. Re, Soe. Symp. Proc M3133 (1983). AE Widmer and W, Rew, “Thermoplastic Deformation of Slicon Wats.” 4 Btectrochem Soc. 1332405 (198) 1LR Patel and A. R. Chauhan "Macroscopic Pate Poperies of Dislocation Free Geman snd Ober Semcondicior Crys Vek Beha” Japp. Ply. 427851963) HLA Lon, “Therma nd Sess Analysis of Seticomlucor Waf2s ina Rep Thermal Pressing Oven” IEEE Trans, Sem Man 1-108 (1989) 5 Jones and G. A. Rozgor, “Extended Defects rom lon mpanaion and Amelio.” Rapid Thermal Processing Science and Technology, RB. Faire, Academic Press, Boston, 1983, VE Borsenko and PJ. Heshth, Rapid Therme! Processing of Semiconductor, Plena, New York, 197,naan = rip Tne ess TL. VR Bovseko and PI. Hesketh Rapid Thermal Poceting of Semiconductor, Plenum, New ga OO Yee C:Lu,. Prasad, W. Hats FS. Chen, nd H. Zhang, “Elec! and Physical GY ae of TAN Diffiion Bar for Sub Micron Contact Sucre" Mat Rex Soc Simp Proc. 308103 (193) pp. UR Chowsh 5. HL, Woodward, S.J Courtney, G.M. Willams, 0d A. 6. Cui aoe rcn Elecicl Properties of Ge/As Ohmic Contato type GaAs Formed by Ropu Thermal Anealin.” Sli State Electron, 38:1437 (1990) 00, ee SrOteciea CA. Olivier J.C. Galzrani, A A. Pasa. . Cardoso. and F.C. deine, oe ctalon of AuGeNi Onc Contacts 0 9-GaAs Using Betrial Measurements “Rios Speomsenpy. aed Key Difacomeny.” Vacuu 44807 (1990, 1 ce eetion a the Uniformity of Otic Coat to N-ype GaAs Formed by Rapid Thermal Proceting Sold State Eleton, 36295 (1983) Fr Chisncky, "Rapid Thermal Procesing Using a Coatinooss Heat Somes.” Solid Ste Technol 321083 1989) 83, C Lee, US, Patent 4857689 (198 BA. W Delta, Miroeletrnic Mon. Technol. 4)44 (1991). eee Lam R Weaver, and G, Solenon, “The Performance of The Fast Rap Torres, DLA Fhomnal a negrved Processing VIL vl 70, MRS, Pitsbureh 1957, 7193. Part III Unit Processes 2: Pattern Transfer te procedng prof he book presented process reget induce, activate and dase , Equation 7.2 represents the summation of indnte srs of spheocl waves hat exacly reprodces the undsurbed wave, For sucha wave the tntesicy eee ete =e ea ton de other hand, he apetae is of ite tent, te elcrc felts the superposition of lane waves wih diferem phases Inthe simplest cate, where he sperture has been vied into ony ‘wo ements, Bie + BONE 4 Be ELF EL + DEE could ~ #9) 7 “The imerestng pat of the equation, of core, i the crosserm de 1 nterercce between the vrata ger i o Ge osilains that are a charac part of te diated mags. ie prc, the soaion of Euston 72s quite complicated ven for his very simple geom: cary, ln pelithography ene is oly intrested a (wo ating cases, If Equation 7.2 8 slved wu [eto the snpiyng assumption tt weaver as where she radial intene between the center of the iran pate andthe observation oi he Tato nou fk or Frese efracion® The image of hs typeof ditaction is shown in Figure 7.6 The edge ofthe inte rie gradaly from zr, atthe inensiy ofthe image olla about the pet inca. Te onlltions decay stone spproschs the cee ofthe image. The silos sire w comeucive and deerucve inerferece of Huygen's wavelets fom the aperture ithe ‘rack The amplitude and pei of ese iitins depend on he ie ofthe aperture Tfaaty WTA He a eat eg Ld Ves ttn eye ewe. ing Figwe7.7 Typical tr ol ramos age. 2200-187 ‘When W ie sal enough tu the inequality in Bqston 7S i no longer vai, ie escillcons sae large, When Wi very large however, he osclaons rapa die ct, apd one approaches simple ‘my ting. Then, by geomet anguments the wid of the rage atte race of the wafer is Increased by an amount BW given by aww, ee ‘The ober diftocton extreme occurs when Weeave= an “Tis i ale far eld Fraunhofer ditacticn. Equation 7.7 is aed the Fraunhofer erterion “Then Eqation 7-2 can be implied considerably. The ftenst as func af posi onthe su face of the wafer is gvenby f= 40)[ 20} 27 where 140) ie he x eosity(pialyexpesed ia Wie) in he incident eam and a 10) where Lis he length of he ies and spaces. Equa ‘ions 79 ané 710, x andy ae the coon of he ‘bseration pk onthe surface of the wafer A pt of this function and is square in LD is shown io Figure 7.7, Te futon hss sharp maximum atx = 0 and goes though at iter multiples fone bl. Real sjstens se much mote complicated tan these simple expansions, however. The igh source is tot point bt Fite vole. It may abo eit a ‘umber of wavelengths. The ligt is collected tough ‘lenviirer assembly. Each ofthe optical components ‘vill have some imperfection sich lca istorions tnd sberations. The mask ise wil eet abst, Sd phe sift the indent midition, Reltions on these ofthe wafer fer complicate mates. As esl th image reded onthe sae ofthe wafer Paton owerVe 1st Tost nay ve aval image) ca al be approximated numeri. Even ten sepisccted sftwae eed ay Catrclprograe se avallabe to do these calslatios Inthe following sestons, me Sere Groumaroes willbe preset that are frequen sed © tense rslon i place of these more exact calculations of seal ites 7.3 The Modulation Transfer Function and Optical Exposures ‘When dicusing the eesoltion ofa ysem it is customary 10 discuss a series of lines and pues Mier Sigmon srrig rahe the singe pert. I th Praunboer citron is met, one cx euty approximate the acl ieage by the superposon of he individual intense. (Actually, aa see cnncen prs st be ten in account, but Uke peaks ac well separate i i= es Faure 78 shows a constract of te nonmlized inensty fom such a grating 8 8 Fea alpen onthe wafer The ites no lage eaches Lan the minimum ites is 9° saecee dns, dfn foe asthe maximum itnsty ofthe radish pater ad a 56 nim {ataniy. tn Figure? ey ae about 5.0 and 1.0, especie Te main antes fucton (MTF) ofan image can be defined as sor (este) om “The MTF in song fection ofthe period ofthe deacon grating. Aste priad of he rng eC MMTL br doteanc,Pialy one can ik ofthe MTF as measure ofthe opis sont Se venege The lige the MIF. the tr the optical conta, For the rating in Figure 78, the MTP is bout 0.7, Figure 7.9 sows pt of area intensity fr 3 rr tng mask, based 00 sSrple Frese diffraction Siperingoned on is ntensty plot are tw spied ein response indicators. In Figure 79A, the resis st ‘expands edly A singe line exist al am expose ‘outy demity Dj All egions of be photoresist tht feoxiceaparore reatr tun will completely ir atve dig the develop process AIL regions ofthe Wate tat toeiveexpesurcs below Da, will not be a Imacked during the develop poses. As the widths of the lis and spaces are decrease, difiaction mes | ty ee aint it eo om Sper un gn uli bythe expose Kime > Dy Bre mulled by te exposure tne < Da, Figs ‘To shows ance relic rest esponse model THe ‘ean nv has twee exposure energy densities For D'= Dy the resist wil px cise inthe dove nay 0.8) : fo pet For D> Dyn the sis will compete dso + ¥ 2. Wet developer Forte interned shaded rains ess nicen) (Dy D = ya the nage wll pally develop Ian W decreases the MT gocs down, and the al fine 78 Parsing oes taciongaing, __iteniy ely ener azine wher the ration ben TASovm Ses sSora ree 15 I Fete o Faw 79. Pst one vets postion on ewe Dos sien by icy of eit he ara (Emer wotid ty ccnp oe Tye unt re ml sng san no Songer he petty reproduced om the wafer. The point at whi his eeu depends Fee es of Dy and Dan, tetors om the esi being used. In common es ystems WED the MITE nes than about 0.5, the image can no lnger be repre | 7.4 Source Systems and Spatial Coherence “The zen few sections wil se hose concepts fo dacs actual agers. We wil tar with the comm ‘Fosct corm to all alignes: he sours system. This consis of th ight source Self an! ey areata andlor refacting epics wed io collet, clit ite. and foes th source. From the ‘Hess scene ome ahd have a sense that the wavelength of the exposing radiation a ital Mei ote linography proces All ings being ene the shone the wevlength, the smaller i tear she that an be eaponed. OF coun th exposure regres ta a cestain amount of ER i pica Puntermere, ds enrgy tus be deposited wifey across te wae. To main we eeepls exposure times, one reques an iafense source a these short wavelengths. Tis section ‘will evi some ofthe most popula optical sources. “ra ny yest the most common ipe of opal source for pooithograpty Ras bee the high pecs samp. Ar amps ae tight ncberentwourecs ava, Tey re ao we ae as Long gap ar lamps wetercaioned in Chapt: 6 since they we emetimes wid 10 aera nap heal processors. Are lamps fr libagraphy ave much shorter gaps a sown TEA TID Pe mp coms of to conducting lerodes sealed na fused sia envelope, The art we puted andthe ober round, end in 2 g2p of aout Sm. Mos laps contain me Seco omer coe 1 Tan wher te Lamp cold To get the lamp, ivoage Sie aid goons he pp. The spike voltage mus te sft tee the gat Several i aa ae rite pacals The minor of partly toned fa, clectrocs, abd energetic ne TENSES aie he woe scaled plasma ot glow dcharge. Ts topic wil be deus Sefer For now, epprecine ta the plas il condact comes. Most ate lap power sup Pisces acta eon supp opal a apa carged to sever Runed vols, hat neues reesei the memes afer she. The fried gan he arp very ot as hePoe wey ‘pressure inthe bulb daring operation may reach 40 atm. Typical electrical wer {isspatin bye photliopraphy ac Lamp Dll i 500-1000 W. The ented op ‘al poweriea il less ha al of ht. ‘Daring operation the lip cosine two apical sources. The hgh-empera ture electrons the ae act aa very ot pray ody source, cadlaing power 3 (€quuion63) ANC, MO) = Sara sg where M,(T) isthe ere density csribation, nd Cy sod Cy are the fist and ‘pd optical constants a defined in Chapter 6. The eleceons in the ae lamp pasa ‘ppiily have temperatres of ode 40,000 K, This coesponds toa peak enissica tavwaneengih of am, which every deep the lait Since this energy is ‘hove the Bandgap ofthe fined ica emselop, muck oft wil be absorbed before itteaves the lamp hosing. Lamp manufacturers sometimes add impurities fo the Fesed sis to emance hs sbsorption, sine ns highly energetic emiston resus ‘none rodustion in he amp ase "The second optical source in the mp isthe mercury atoms theses. Cole lshons wih the energetic eectrons push the electrons ofthe meray atoms 10 oud hishsncray sates. When thy decay ito lower energy sates, they eit ‘pally the wavelength comespoing tbe enrzy aston. These lin pe {th are so sharp tha hey can be wed to ey he primary species inthe plasm Figure 7.11 shows th in soca of wpa mercury lamp (Te lines ave teen mired according to theirenegy- Align fin fier ot ll bt a single i. [At preset the eer optal exposure equipment is g-liae (496 wn) and ine {G65 ny systems ae very commen To ele the use of ar lamps deep ino te L UV, xenon can be ed 8 he fil gs, Xenoo has a ston lie at 290 mm, with ‘much weaker ies at 280, 265, and 248 nm, however, excimer lasers have proven tobe more poplar rouse for wavelengths es than 365 rm. Figue7410. roger ‘uri operation, eersic merci ions bora he egative elccale AS Myatt nets they do so ey eet smal mounts ofthe elect terial ough physic! Shatin meson imp” process Known a sputerng, (Soe Chapter 12) Some ofthe speed electade (mre im Soest Coote thei wall te fed sia Busing. Fanbersoc, the high emperaie Seen by the inside srfce ofthe lamp way also cause a slo deviefcaton of he fuse slice, leaving cloudy white eppearance. The combination of sputering ed deviation ‘eces the opt mini, The adtinal absorbed energy also eases the lamp envelope to get ot (er. Ultiately the Lamp wil fl ofen by exploding severly damaging the lignes opts. For Ui ‘aso, ligne limps are usally cone with fans daring opertion and are replaced after a set nm Dera out of we. "The simple opel design ofthe source in Figue 7. is, of curs, mot very practical. Only 8 ‘very snl acon of te ration from hemp will ac Se wafer. Unless the wafer is spherical {oot anally dest condo) the poser dest a the surface will be aomuiforn. Tete ae therefore, four primary objectives forthe dexgn af he optical sure system. The fist is to collet Imuch ofthe radiation ss posible. Without sch collection, exposure tines are iepeactically ong ‘The second jective is ta make te raed nes uniform over the Geld f exposure, preventing tome pars of the wate frm being averexpond wile others are underexposed. The hi objective 14SoucSptreandspsalCeene 161 WeENGTH Gn) gure 7.11 Line sec fr mercy ad enon amps (cure of Orie Corporation isto collate anche the radistion to the extent needed, Nomally perfect clliation f ot desired: nsead afew degres of cvergence is often usd. Finally the sree tt tlc he expos ‘ue wavelenpin). Figee 7.12 shows schematic of source asembly for 2 smple But practical aligoes. ‘Clit is ost often donc by thease of parole efector By pacing the area the Focal Point ofthe elect, all ofthe radiation so captred i collated. Arc lamps do et radiate Om formiy. The psa acts as x difse, semitansparet score. The electrodes and bulb shape the pasa so as 10 maximize the pial intensity perpen othe ar direction. For propery ‘exignod rele ie radiation is ost from te botlom of helm Te dk pot the top othe lamp allows os wo have ole in he reflector to bring nthe poser ads ad exhaust cooling ait ‘The inte etn ofthe ae prevents sich an arrangement rom being perfectly collimated ess col limaton is desired. the amp can be moved ny rom the Foca point “To increase the usformity of he ope! Source, some type of optical inepratr mus be used. ‘One common coeiponen is 28) ye Jen. Ths age fed sia lens containing may Hall lenses The lent decolimate the icseat igh ands tecond abyesive recollect the ght end reshapes itt the dsieed dimonsocs. A second approach that alesse bot collection and neg tion she use offer opi bundles. One ed ofthe bers ite aro the are source oi used immedtly ster the parabolic refs The Hers are mixed so a5 provide auf source at@ seers pres mre 09 Qarmanemennns @ Fate @ toto one @) Seatnime witar—(Q) one @ @ pryore ene @ ata Figute 712 Schema of ype source sen ors ecvpesiny ptr fe fa). ln mot excimer, one of the precusers is 3 the othe end ofthe bundle. Optic! bers ae some {dnc sed wih te lamps but ae commonly used for ne er somo. "The wovelengh selection x done though ase cof ne eis coma to wie a col mort absorb the infared radiation from the Tam. This prevens Unitemoml expose and eating ofthe components farther downstea, The wavelenph section canbe ‘one though the we of epical noch ters oF 9 eis ‘Combination of high pas and Tow pass ters A ‘pottunizal ster completes he source assembly ‘Since most ac lamps ar efcientemiers the near UV and sible wavelength, they are ieficen, The docp UY. Excimer ers ar the rights optical recs nis pac ofthe specrum. The word exer BT contention of the words exited and dine: “ruc excimer thcfor,comain excited dimers ea ules wth two atoms ofthe same element ike Fo. A Itolcvle that hone o¢ oe electrons in excited ‘nergy levels wil be despnted sing an asters 25 FF Bacimer lsers are me property ead exper lever since most modern eters conan high-9e> nv nites of to or ote element: These elements ‘Sono react whee they are i he ground sta, bu f ‘ne or Doth is exc, chemical ection wil rend ‘alogen or halogen containing compound sich 8 NF, ‘Ae serra ase aA commen example fs XeCl where the eaton Hist ead lasing * Ker + Ch,» Rec + ea ‘Te exited molecl emi inthe deep UV, retuming itt he ground sae where timmy Te i enough soeegy is suppbed to maintain large population ofthe noble species 8 he ected se, lasing ll comtinoe 10 ooo. [rvs wo a pte leeds sped foo 1 ‘ral andre He “The encry is sally supplied by 10-0 20V ars {oem apart Theat canbe soe a ras up 0 6% ‘Some common escimer se sources are given in Table 7.310]. F primacy terest she ing wavetengh an he power Atypical sist expose dose i 10 to $0 mem A taser mast be Tle 73 Fash cman ewose oe le anemia PENS @ +r So Syed xmoce 163 ableto produce about 1 at the surface of the wafer so that fel several centimeters se can tecapmsed in no moe than 1 se. To achive Gi, the ace shuld pat ot elas to 20 W, Athoush ect pout considerable power it snot much futer into the deep UV than ac Trp. The com ‘ination of high power and decp UV acs wake Ar and Ke tuacive source oe advanced pial Iihography Fetes have aso bon sed at 157 For coma tography [11], be the low out ‘ut power makes them impractical fr production use. ‘Eecimers cont strongly ina multimode fashion wih #eaively poor spatial cberene. That 'sexcime ass beams are or verges than beams from argon on lasers. This sung daw bck to many laser appliaions uti actually an sdvarage for Tipsy. Lasers with Nigh pul coherence inde pele which occurs when pase variations ae ince ini wavefionts by mace efectos [12] For omparton an Arion Isr has 2 tandwi of <0.0001 am, while 3 [ec ruming excimer ha tanith of abou | rt. labogrphy application, excimer sures are ‘fer lie narrowed fo less tan a pometer, Du ar all uch troadr than ax argon on ae. Figure 7.13 shows atypical speckle pte foca nar ine laser exposure, “Toe continent ofa hgh-peware halogen, alg Wid high vllge sometimes wid to pump the tser make sfey a concern. Early excimer ayers were considered exo, dangerous, a Cieliale, Furthermore. the very high-energy deny pulses (10 kWn?) tended to degrade the algal of te lose fey excinet stems by devising the sic. The laser pulses so ‘Max Ostet Mata Wavelength om) __ Ae 13 Fgura 713. spcte pater ebeie fomexposing _— fer inp too wih mero ope Figure 7.14 opal in oa ence se stepper easier (her daaemi the fused sie optics This gall increses the cstorion in be system. Alle a sucent ‘umber o pulses the opis must be replaced. This image of excimer lithography hs improved cow Sidently, ad caren exposie tls sed on Ke excimer sources are widely sed in manufactur ing line a most TC manufacturers, Advanced RAD labortones are beviniag to experiment [potugpe Arf systems Figure 7-14 shows the optical ain of an excimer based 10:1 reduction sep- Fre (Seton 76) Excinets mst sil be serviced aller abou 10" plies and replaced ater about 10 uli, For 157m exposures, its generally believed thst SiO, wil oc be a suitable Kens rat Frsead CaF, or Mg, may be required {14 Nees 1 sy, hs will be am extremely challenging proposition, One of te primary remining probs for decp UV exit lihograpy ste devel ‘pment f suitable commercial phoresis Typical optical ret are almost opaque a these wae Tenet. Al ofthe exciner energy te depot inte tp layers of conventional tine resists 1151, resin n poor mage formation This ope wil be eae Farber ihe next chap. 7.5 Contact /Proximity Printers “The simplest typeof lige ea contact printer. Im comact rig, he mas i pressed aga the Frascntl wafer during expose, The primary arantnge of const pita isha these salle tures can be mae ing comparatively inexpensive equpmea. Figure 7.15 shows a type eanact taponre sytem. The ask led chrome side Jowa a rae jst ow te microscope objectives ‘Vemir ares ae tom ged aunt war with expect tothe mak: Once the wae saben 1 the mask the two are clanped together, the mirscopeebjectives se reacted. amd the wafefnask Issey ir wheld no the exposure sation. Here tdton fom 2 higvitensty lamp Gewsed in (be blac toe, Figure 7.15, ape right)is ed 0 expose the wae. Afr expose, the camiage is tetumed othe inspection station for nloaing. THe figure inset shows the wafer ready for nding desl he ene wafer isn ovat withthe mask, Beraua of is cont the gp between the wafer and be opal disturbance (potash) goes o zero and faction effects ae minimizes “Ths the MIF ahold be =. foretell ny fesse size. Actually, du the fine resist thik res, gap canot be zero Furthermore in el const pritr, thems coma varies css the Wtoersrfce. This cccus since nether the wafer oe the ask Is pefecly fa. Preswes ranging From 0.08 1 0.3 stm ae wed wo push the musk into move ite eomact with the wafer. Tis Called the hard comic made of espovre Inthe rant exree cass, thin fl mass re somes Shed to help promote te vont Then the resolution eine prin by Ligh scattering in he Fest. Features a sll 10 A [16,17] hve bee proce asin tis tod, wit extremely thin resists as demonstration vehicle. In more wel fst features as sll 3s .1 yum have been monte using contact printing and deep subercron sree [8,19]. His ease tose these Sree acon! fining sce the optic are so simple. Resolution using more Common sources i shout 05 4m "The inajr disadvantage of hard contact ography 4 dfet generation de to the contact ‘between the esis-oned war and the photomask Detects ae generated both on the wafer and on the mask on every contact eel, For ds reason, comact peters are typically finited 0 device ‘escach tote aplication tat ca oleae high defect eves Proximity priotng was developed to avoid defect generation. n this ype of exporbe took tbe ask oats off dhe surface ofthe war, ‘ppicaly ona chin of mitogen pa. THe gp between the wafer and mask is conte bythe How ‘tigen ino this Spece: Separations of 10-30 um are pica Since the is mo longer any Gate ional eovtat between the wafer and the mask eect enero s sharply reduced. ‘The problem with proxy peeing i a eduction i he respon. Consier a mask co Figure 7.15. Typha cmt expnare stem omen of Kar Se sining of a singe aperture of Width Hin dak Hel. Assume a this mask is exposed using = eeNes TostoiLiay igre 7.18 Inns 8 freon of poston ote Spee capone ining system we eB TRecsesiney omg = Oro = Spm fier Cotas abe, monochvomatie,nondvergent Hight sow, sich 8 ‘rend beam Ise, Fgure 716 shows the area inten iy of ach an image a #fagcton of the 99 (2 ‘When ges sch that rerstt mH ‘he system isin the nor fl region of Frese i fraction, The aca image produced by sic an at fore fra well Kaowr fonction of Ag. and W: aod ‘ely approximates the eal image The small inte: [Sy ovation near he eges ofthe pate is called Spiced vinging, Ina 70a opica system i ft the ‘Ea wi no have perfet spatial coberence and 30 hen the modes ringing pictared here wil ol exis ‘Ks the paps incremed, however, evenly eX as) “Ten he insgeapreaches tht of fred Fravnbofer Aiton, a shown in Figore 73. ‘Wen the gap 1 very Tage, the image is severely degraded: Re ale, oe can sty tha features Tesehan Won VBE 18 caaot be sore a hp of open iting whe i & constant a depen one st ee ne toe raga ofa wn anden expe wash of 36 poe pa ee re anor prin ping sou 30 jum, Ts wee, wed ee ns rece Amn ae Se wi ote os ao wo a as br To fre ingen he eon, rece ec he win aa ees th tps conc. A second oben wi smal Tania TA warn tin ont a and deo rs ace Pe ee sora DH Whores Sumrenameaa xp ste ‘Maimer Gop for ‘Near Sens ~~ Mando Gap for Deep Uv Souter 33 te 8 oe rorojstonFrews 147 Is thatthe vasitions in the gap that ay be cased by wafer o mask nonplanaty, dit prices, ‘ess Beads and uninenonl i ead fo Hnewiehvarstons across the Wate. Amore atractive {hematve ist rice the wavelength. Sysiems used wo expose fine Features, therefore, typically ‘perte dec nthe UV. This proces ited primary by high rghines sources and compadble ‘optical materi for refractive optes. Table 74 shows the maximum allowable gap as 3 fenton of ‘etre size for near and dep UV souces [21] fra 10% image distorion. 7.6 Projection Printers Projection printers wore developed to obtain the high reolton of contact printing without the tna focaexposure atu, Stat ofthe aie seppers con repestably paler features les han (05 pm over fel of moc than 25 cm on a side [28 Ke based oper re widely believed 0 be paleo prdaton othe 0.18 rm evel [29] and may be capable of 0.13 jm IC prodution.0s ta SY emmane semen meen oh ea pe 9, snopes: pn oy mn of In addition to wing shorter wavelength redton high resolution in a stepper can aio be chewed trough the ue of high merical spear lens. The techies chaenge so prodice + “eae lene wt ie beraton that i igh wansissve in the dep UY. Thishas bee a TPMar progress. Stat ofthe at lenses ave evolved fom NAS of 0.28 in 1978, 100.28 n 1985, ie oan, A he same time, the image eld see has ineeasd from Sm on side toot Sham on aie. Next gencroh seppers promise to have is of about 25 mm by M sm wih ‘nial apertires approaching 0. Te Berne ved lab ignnent and focusing. In wh a syste, the focus and ali peat we ot tone te for he entice wale, Newer sjtes ce capable of sight by sight cont of a ics Te cyte can automaticaly aust the agarent and focos a very om te wae “thas cy ae zl to avoid many ofthe depthf-focus problems noomally essoited with TEN Na spun greatly reducing the effets of wafer warpage and distortion. This also makes a A Oetgametcr wars mich more feasible To accomodate very lage momen sper we tintaith shar wavelets in new rline and exciner ssi, the newest generation of sare (te beginning to ase fel by fel-levling syste (90) tha automaticaly ast Feit of te wale for ack eld to Kep the image in Fs fo pinay iadranage of steppers stouphpul Although scanning projection itr can sectiene thought af nearly 100 wale, steppers (7s operate at 20-50 wafers. The — 28jcon Pima 171 gure 720 Prog of «1% nino gece span: ot view (Aon ie vew (8) wih op hematc merge phe cones Conor 054) ee ‘troughpat ofthe system is dteined by oo — FRET MTS FAT az sere msthe numberof ie or wafer, the expo ine, Mie stage overeat tne et Cart ig me An eb ean ed et time Gi ee} and O's be over oun! wi ladon wafer, eling hen tring the wafer urea a prefrming the gal ligament. Some oh can be done “Chcurem wit the previous nae expose ordi relia the O tm. Sai common fee to be 90-10, te tao he es ide the Backs Is cea the commer sos Stepper mut besos ls forthe fol oe pact fl ge 7.21 shows a commer Sepand peat 28m ingraph oks72 rope sano Ma omg 178 Fre 72, Ste 26 syn ray er Te tect a he io ar gtr nn nl re oe lof igure 7.20 cot, Forged sc vos ee Tae 7S Sma Bae oY IS to imulanenaty ene NA sn fl i iting ols hve hpi ae ep - o5im_ cia cen ec ons a Aston Tae 75; ox ence SHE He Titaaay Fassonssao pas sre ise omnis pe of hob. Mao 246 em NA 050,36 Rktten: tam cme xb wxuaiise Fe 7.7 Advanced Mask Concepts* = rattan aha Nah an nsf cing foe fees vr tig denis conn chang oa sin ASST SSF sem st ete i cae ea novi ye ted of ak mace Sacco mala see ta ey pee lesan th we fs esi svoumenty Mera pL sewn Seon, Several eps yee pce on age ee mth eat 28 Eien EGE REE ection a css ae cusent or potenti mask improverien.Pelises ae already io wie ra ee ote covagy no pase conast asks a in ied macfacting 2 — aera ‘eet Bonet eae . .4 igre 7.22 Bac concep of se i a Fei Leeman ee BS) TOvieatiorahy “The widespread acceptance of eduction seper systems hat made mask making mach ese Instead of making mask with 0S-ym Hines,» 5% steppe only requires a mask with 2.50 wi are Gaes Pastcemore sll defects sch a prices probably would ot be imaged on the wave ofthe wer, tthe pals a large eoough wo be printed however unlike a scanning pho ‘Sitmopapty spe he sper il repeat he defect in evry il acon the wafer. ve cas, carat lange enogh tat ony one die canbe pind er expose area. defect on sik 3 MMs wil make every de onthe weer nonfunctional. Very careful atenton to peta fet i Therefore een in pp plats “fhe stops lecerque for defect detection on phoromasks is otal inspection, This is a cxremel eons poste ts nlitel tobe effective. The types of deecs tobe detected te cee GHiora leh ar pote, niches and missing geome, and opaque defects sch as bridges and atte Oter mank dices inlade techs and chips fom improper nding and rnouthnin carnibeation emors. Vinulispecton may also iaoduce defects due to che banding nd he eng promt ofthe mack with elavely particle ron Rams, Pre eof suomated nak insetion systems have been develope The ssi of he two to imprest the doe corptizon technic. To his syslem, the mask is mspecte st wo ey Lani Jalon y thr the boter while ninaning two ispectonabjces te ty tht atesctat a Gud intra The system then gs the lotions fal positions for wish hy imemiesmemared tthe two objectives ae ot suicinly similar. OF couse, soch asym hopper plates tet have only ne ce on the tush fy tt station, the mak ‘FEtasutcemant be dry compared fe database fom which the mask was mde. This method seat enmote many mre false enor ten & ret compare, but sla good seren for asthe ‘een vil speton Th recs sep ae often used oem that he stepper pate ee of des it eaves she mast shop. To mitimig he impact of particles tbe a, sper plates ze ften peicaizd. Ia ‘has proves tin celng of teanspeene mata similar 10 Mylar i stretched over WM. Morea, Semiconductor Lihography, Principles, Practices, and Material, Petr, New Yor, 198, ', Nanogaki,T Heno, and. Ho, Micolithography Fundamental in Semiconductor Dvies ‘and Fabrication Tecaoloy, Mace! Deke, New Yotk, 1998. . Bargrat "Lithography Leading ae, Par 2: Hin and Beyond” Semicondor It 156):52 1992, “The National Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors 197 Eton, Semiconductor ls Assocation, San Jone, 1997 For example M.V. Kin, Opis, Wily. New York, 1970. MM. Bowden an. Thompson, Iiodiction to Miralithography, M. Bowden, L. Tompsoa, and M. Lacombe, American Chemical Soc, 1983 Kain, Etcimer Laver Lithography, SPIE Optical Engnetig Press, lingam, WA, 1990. H. Craghead, J.C. Whit, RE Howard, L.D. Jackel, RE. Bbyinge.J-. Sweeney and [RLW- Epworth, "Contac Lithography at 157 nm witha F Eine Laser." Vac Se Technol B 11185 (98) Considine, “Effects of Coberence on Imaging Systems” J. Op. Soe. Am $6:1001 (1966, R. Patel, "Exciner Lasers fr Opal Lithography,” Vaca Thin Film 30 (March 1995). AL Bromine, “Optica Lithography below 100 ny” Sl ate Telh A111)99 (1098. M.S. Hibbs, “Opicel Lihopraphy ot 48am" J Elerochem. So. 138199 (199) {. Vorcenko sd H, Herrman, “Submicron Resolution Deep UV Photograph. tecirn. Lett $701 (1980. [A Yoakam, Hirt, ©. Ochi, A. Takeda, nd Y. Mizushima, “Angatoms Resolution in ‘Se-Ge Inorganic Resists" Jpe Appl. Ply. 2081 (198). 1H. Smith, “PabicationTecigues fr Surface: Acoustic Wave and Thin-Film Optic! Devices," Proc, IEEE 62:1361 (1979, B. Li, “Deep UV Liography,” J Vacuum Sc. Tecnol 12:1317 (1975) {G. Geias and B. Abies, Kodak Phtoresist Seminar, 1968.2. B Lin in Fie Line Lithography, R Newnan, el, Norb-Hlland, Amsterdam, 1980p. 1B. Rouse. "Submicron Opal Littography” SPIE Proc. 278, Semicond ‘Micothoeanhy, 1981. 9.9, DLA. Marke, Sold State Tech 22:0 (une 1979. [M.C. King "New Generation of Optical 1 Projection Aligers Semiconductor Miroithography IV, Proc. SPIE 14:70 1919). RT. Ket K Juin and M. Lata, "Excimer Laser Projection Lithography on a Full-Feld ‘Scanning Projection System,” IEEE Bec. Dev. Let. EDL-7, 1986, p99 Burret, “Wafer Steppers and Lens Options” Semicendor In. 36 (March 1986), KK. Heanings and H, Schueze, SCP Solid Sate Techno. 31 Gul 1968. M.A. van den Brink, B.A. Kat, ad S. Witehoek, "A New 0:54 Aperture ine Wafer ‘Stepper with eld by Feld Leveling Combined with Global Alignment." in Opical/Laser _MicolehograpyIV.V. Po, eh, Proc. SPIE 1463:709 (199). Unger, Sparkes, P.DiSes, and DJ. Ello, Design and Performance of Production: ‘Worthy Excimer Laser Based Stepper." Opca/Later Mcrlihagrapky IV, VPol ed, Proc. SPIE 1674708 (1992) [Unger and P,DiSesa, ‘New ine and Dep-UY Optical Wafer Stepper" in OptcaULaser Micralhography VV Pole, Proc. SPIE 1463-703 (19) try in Developmentsoa uno au 2. 2. 1» = -arggran, “Opa Lithography to 2000 and Beyond.” Soi State Teco 42°23 99). Teche, “Pec Protection of Iterated Circuit Mass" in Smicondctor Microlihopropy Vi, Pro. SPIE 27523 (198). Hee ea Saemsh,“Featue Sie Coat} in IC Manas.” 18M J Res Der. 26561 (1982), er ree Space Siting and ter Challenges in Opa Mask Technolgy.” 100, ‘aan. Symp. Miralithography, SP7E 146.54 (1990 Soe ae non N.S, Viswoahan, and R, A. Simpson, "meroving Resostion in a cca witha Phe Shing Mask.” IEEE Trans. Ele. Der. ED 26, 1982p. 1828. a erg. Kikpatic, “Opts! Lihograpy Stalls X-ray." IEEE Spectrom 28(10524 (1991). aera WG. Oudam, od A. R. Nearer, “Exploration of FabsicaionTecigues or x ting Maka” Opial/Laser Miroitgraphy IV. V, Po, Proc. SPIE 14635124 1990. eoyen,Y Sato K Hashimoto, FShigemts, and M.Nalas, New Phase biting A. Nara Aliped Pas Safes fc & Quarter Micon Photoltogrphy.” Tech. Is EDM, 1989. p33. Fearn ies Ntekwta, Y. Tabata, K- Nakagawa, and K.Shigemast, Phase Shing Fiera tty applicable Real Pater in Opicalaser scrounegrarty 1. Pol edsProe. SPIE 1863:124 (199). eee ere Swanaon, A Wall and S.A, Campbell "Mil Layer Tecigus in ‘Gpstal Lidgrpty. Appcations Fie Line MOS Production fo Opie Sreeanoprephy I: Techoloyy forthe Nxt Decade, Proc. SPIE 4708S (1983). Chapter 8 Photoresists “The ast chapter ssused he poducion fhe eis imag, he ptr of aati produce atthe ice et uence “Toemafet pouch te olan ates pt ‘the ach ln chee ory mah yn ‘nuk fon he ure of he wale ater photlhogapy poses compete. The pot “Shite compound sen mcecectones cal photres oinpy, ress This apr will ‘Sus te ede of ation on he prope poten wil ence on novolc-bsed ‘Suems sine thy ae mst common wed n Cian, 8.1 Photoresist Types (ne uf the must basic ctor foto whi photoresist canbe iid is its ply Fol eee rs ea nat en Fane somes ‘Send th iit in och ayo ke exon reins soe moe qe ring he eer ree i ons mes wil oman acon Negus Paes ‘Spots inthe opposite mane: Unexposdreios ofthe esi mill solve im he developer, “Tile expne elon remain ind Poste tsi nd ote best retin and we hee Tere much more popula fore aban. Tcy wil be covered in oe del however, pega ‘resists will also be briefly discussed, ee “he photos oI aio normally have ee ye tee component sia ras mt {na plovastne compound (PAC), anda slvet th onto the mecha ropes, sich she ‘Shou ef he bse Levpng iin + hud sate Ip postive ress fe PAC acs a ior ‘ioe expr slowing fe fe a wich rer wil alte why place in deeoping ok tn po cre cha pe oy ich nes Intent the daslaion ra ofthe eat Kal, tenor woul completely pent ary dal scant val ence en na rte Of co sk tovochived space. “Te two moat itaran metic forthe perfrmance of rei a senviy an elton Sesty refer the ao ig cay aly eee ia er) centr oa he ‘Soma hang Jsebed above Theme snstve photoresist, he ae te process wil be, 183ee we Pret: tie wil be necessary. Resolution eer 0 since fora given expose otnsty, a sorter exposure Fane arr that canbe refoducsd ina pbotocsn As explained in dhe last chapter, his Aah dopend on th exper ool sad the pots process But even in a Sed expose (Gor i msi in parila ares wih it a considerable weer. §.2 Organic Materials and Polymers” ‘Many of he compounds ht wil be conser inthis caper ae conse ogaie meus Ma te coy cd th aca experi of ay of theses who might we dhs Sr alice ie: mats an view afew of i ean popes. Like sco a ee eevee el eqs fot sonal eecns f compete te a eects fowener carbon ail nds wi ef allowing 1 form complex chains ste Da ou ole Life cn Ean ened on is iy Carbon ao eal bonds wih ae lathe rip of in he Prod Table, Te oecles disused ni cp- a an re. expen, hope and nzogn, nh small ant of ior lem ean oo det nbs have eso ben veloped 1 combine hykocarbos with hy ca ts pndee a cise of ers Anown as ornooealies, These sad ma eo Ean compouris wil be dsc sepa in ante che. Tis eto wil a Creo dn eafon compound: aromatic ings ad lng cai ame Se at can toms raged a pbtar hexagonal oc. Ta he 0g er nang, benene 2g byogen so, taco teach carbon tom Fg ETP Ghent poem fh cen se obey The xno a nen tay boning to to net aighor cron alms, sis one etn eo hpdrpes The a upared cso rm ech stor paris na delocaied aa te iter of «dough round the eazae molecule si igly mobile eed pclecron at ghee ata er nape Opes. , Of O _ ‘yt Oo ® Fgure82 sone womaichned ‘eps ado (sige ‘Sete (bdo se stan Sal (@aomatc condensin Figure 83. Dingo sine even rma ins Te ERS pnd ison nie sud ‘chek a elas bec ae Fureas ample «sere ply, {8} Bresch chain ge, (Gras tekng 220are Mares aneFohmes 185 A wide vay of compounds canbe made by making simple variations ofthe Demers show ie Figure 82, out, a commen stent Tocred by replacing one ofthe aydoges by a mest (CH) soup. Si lay, singe hydrogen substions can prodce phenol (OH), anne (NH), chiortervene (Cy and syrene (HC-CH) (An "sgn Inthe molecu oma cae that tw electrons ae patcipating inthe bond) Ar gan acid ced eabonyic acd can be formed by ating cuboxy group (COOH), This compound in parila wil be imperat in he aceon of poative purest. The xylene las of solvents sorta by repacag Fydragen aor th ey! groups. Folly. arom rng can attack dll each oer. The spe noch combustion, nape, shown inFiure 82. Mich ger molecules can be ord i ina and 2-D args of omate rags Graphite an example of sich a compound. Many of the supe caviogees negate smoke ae anal condensed somatic. Fnslly, not all aromatic rigs have sx caro stom. Rings can alo frm ‘wt ve sos alough they ar lex common, Often thee ve stm as [tach oor ore Benen ings, lyme are very large molecules formed hy linking Yogster many male repeating units called monomers. & polymer ca contain a fw at ties, uber, ad ein, Because ferbas eae of bonding to elf, ay oye are carbon based. The simplest polymer is polyethylene (igre £53. tengo ong cain of arom to each Done fo wo Ryo- 4 genatom. The monomer for polyethylene then i CH A polymer may also Be branch chained a show in gure 83, These cles ae songz and tae a higher density. Final, polymers may cuelink, hat bond wih Demseves or wih ther polymers. AEN this nereses the sen and store impor for hs appiestion ke redices the ability ofthese role cules to dole la type solvents. On ke oer haf polymers re bo- eo span ito & numberof shorter chains, the molecules are more realy saved 'A with he Benzene rag, many common compounds ae spe vai= ations of he bas polyethylene sin one ytrogen on every te xbon ie repliced bya chlorine at. ths vest materi poly eAaide {VE), wich ix commonly used to make plastic pipes fr pbing: PVC ‘an suo We softened to mae sulted lear and aco If benasoe Ting is subtited for the hydrogen, he sant mae i seg ome ‘oon pst. (ne ca now imagine se ress. WF exposure of a ong chin polymer eds primal to cain scsi, he polymer doles mor realy i he developer. Thus he polymer ats ke a pos {ive tone resis I expomire ofthe polymer leas primal to eros linking tbe exposed sis ds- sole mor slowly inh develope. Te polyer Stab 4 negate tne ress. One ofthe problems ‘whispers i that Hy be BCut to eos at only one of hese processes oxfu. ‘Chemists then can alter the baekbone of te polynert intese teeing of ft isolation or they can a reactive side chains promote ees inking. nth Former case however, ity be i caw use he esis as an ch misksoe te resist ay also be atacked by etch proces, 9 Papethene an“oO Fe apis The ES pce sy Be epee oe 310 30 cba, O Figure 85 iar. spec OQ, emt fap ansine pica These Sete 8.3 Typical Reactions of DON Positive Photoresist Ccurremly the most poplar postive resists are refered 1 8 DON, coespon the pho active compound (DQ) ahd rtrix rasa (), respectively As will be {Tscued ae abe chapter, these esis canotbe wed for verysbat-waelenath ‘epmure As emlt many alemave ie curenly being developed. For ie ad png exposures, however, DQN fs te dominant formation, These rei ‘rave om matte used to make Bloeprins (J. The matrix material iw DQN eas 4 hick resin called novolac. Ax howe in Figur 8.4, covolac i polymer ‘Those monomers an aromatic ing with wo meth oups and an OH poop. Most ‘ovola sued a a adbesive when making phwood. By isl i dasoves easy [an ayacous solution, Solvents are 2d the esi o aos the viscosity. This ih lpevtant pramet forte aplication ofthe eit to he wae. Most of te sh ‘arty evaporated fom th esi before he exposure is Jone ands pay ite part Inthe scl phoochemisey. The solvems used in postive resist are generally Cerio of aromatic compounds such a xjlene and various acts, although ‘ower rosin aged foward deep UV applications are moving away fom thee compounds “The most commonly wed PACS in these esis ae the diaoguinones (OQ), atch artho one shown in Figure RS The pot of the molecule frm SO, ow, ‘Thi fctoer the two lower aromatic ing, specifi to articular eit weanwfac {ares and ploy oly secondary role ia Ge exposure proves. We wil therefore ‘Smythe DQ moleule by representing i wi enei Rn thi sate the PAC [evar inhib, redoing te solution rac ofthe resist inte developer by {actor of 10 or mor. This occas by chemical Bonding ofthe PAC and th vol the surface f tc resist where I is exposed tothe developer (2), altough the rat mechanism i tl the subject of debate [3). Recent work has ao sogeesd {bat forthe inhi mechanism tobe operative, henmal cycles sch ste sibake ase necessary ater aplication (4 “Te nitrogen lecle (3) nthe PAC i weakly bonded, As shown in Figure £6, adon of UV light wil fre the nitogen molecule from te carbon ng Teovng behind highly reactive carbon se, One way 10 tablize the store 1 ‘ove oe ofthe erbos outside tering The oxygen som then covalent bond to tis enteral carbo sor Tas proces is know as 2 Wolff earangement. THe renin olecle shown i Figure 86 5 called heen. Inthe presence of wats, {nal earangemoatencurs in wbich he doable bond othe exer aoa ator is replaced with single bond nd an OM group. This ma rodut x ebooyic ae. "Tin process works asa PAC becase the sag mtr wil not dsole it tas ston (ne wth a pH <7). the PAC isa to the matrix i aoe 9 TT mitre the potest alot isoub in base olor. Carole ac Cn ther as eal rts wih and disoles in base solutions [5]. Tis din Jon oor fortwo reasons The esifaboxye ald mixture wil apy ake uP Cete, The nitrogen cased inthe rationals fous the eit, fer assiing the dinaluton (6 The chemical reaction Hat ecu ring his islusion se {akon othe carbosy lc ai into woe soluble amie’ sucha anne a sais [TK (or Na, depending onthe developer. AS already mentioned, the vole resin elf is aeady water soluble and 0 soles ea. This process cootincs wnt eAconestounee 187 a | So OD" =< Oo. Figure 86 Pts and sequen ects of DQ sp UV expt al of he exposed resi i removed. 0 tal othe ston ae of the poe 10 Sheet iret rl wat nd eh feoove Ge lropen pre oe ode te ca ever eos ae KOH oF Now divcdwabwsce nme x ‘On of te pen eanages of DQN pots sha he wneapsed ara ae xen amchange by tn pen of eevee. ce doesn pence i eit. T+ pate of Sales ov cl ld hain nage ton postive they wah nd shape. Aner Slvanage st ovine ia longer ng pole th fry extant fo cea ‘ack Te pneu pat fe tfore 2 Goo mas fo sbsooet plana eng. Max wep {reves wey cn plyeion 2 pos a whic i age en moc sta a eh ‘er tobecome ls able Atypical gave et ian sented abba 8 eehied {olysopen Nepaveponeenhave vey hgh pts an adhere wel he wafer wit Frovestncnt The pny dasa of hese ras ecg Swing lero» boeing Sf te new ding te evelopment, whch aks lace fn opal save rae hah Stocos slain. An fer deny ake wil pel esse he nes rtf he esl dimension, butts swelling and sing procs afen cuts thee 0 Be diced. Cosy Spc inc my cone cette Peli se As el hepsi a ene {By ot sate ets ess tan 20 panos vry saggy ae we a3 yer process: Pes are ao seus concer nuh ao apenon, 8.4 Contrast Curves chm ‘As memo above, salto i ery sl tie fo rit perforce, a highly Spend tno the export A funn Eres cnr yt haste te ee Sia). The conta fares is marred by ft coating & was wth layer of potesta —- ro soe te i a J a Lt i Eul te te a ete oe pene einen) ay ronrse ten’) gy gure 87 Conus cares or tase (4) piven aan “Anvume for nw tt a postive one rest ewe, The eis thickness is measured and the resist hen ee am cup of igh fr 8 sal pedo ine, The ese ee thes as he A Ben Wiens) mohipied bythe expnae tne. Next he wafer is immersed io x develoet inten ud period of tne, Finally, te wafer is removed from the developer, cia of solution ff aing rat hicks sessed the Ht itensty wasnt oo lags, ie of ea a sed om an inhibitor osm enhancer. s0 the thickness sould be about he same we EAS thickness Te espermen sien repeated for nreasingylrget dose f ne norma ae nine set cts and pst versus the logit ft ice dose a orc a ena reenin Figure 87 wl be obtained. The curve asthe regan: Jw exposure were ras ee ra romans, high exposire whee all ofthe rest emoved, ae he wanes region between ese two exes. oe a ical wae for the cont of «photoes, frst spproximate the sees slope potion ofthe crv by sight tin. The ite extends fro he lowest ney dow fo: WG} Set pes removed, Tis cosy density i called Dy, The dose at which the fine Nas 3 approval te Towen energy ended to begin to deve the photochemistry. THe ‘oery isle Dy Ten he contrasts fied as Y a fegdDIED hich simply the slope of the ie. a eet of asa reasre ofthe aby of eit 0 ctinguishbsewsc Lit ard dal ions ofthe mus. Forte momen the sigifiane of coors may tbe aPRnE See Pere spoaue of aifiaction ging, iscused in Chapter 7, the radian intensity ves oi pe nges ofthe lines tad wpe The ger the conas of he esi the shaper Ne “Table 1 Gras esl ome fr inne aan a Te ea oe Ea SHA Moms 189 a azo ibn mt @ eee 3 % u fa 8 % a } tine edge. Typical opis photoresist have a conta of 2104. This meas tht Din 10" o 10" ts eperdhen Dy Farhermore,conrast carves are tie fora gven esis. Tey depend onthe pocpmant poses th iba ad poteposure bake process, he wavelength af the exposing setae thevurfoe rect ofthe wafer and several oe actors, One a ofthe fibographer ‘Sto eat th photoes procesing fo amie the const wile mintaning a acceptable ph Coupee. Table 81 shows type cones fr several eis for vsious wavelents Consider te corrst curve obtained from a commercially availabe ress, show in Figure #8, Assume ta th ae! image can b approximated by two aright ies. The nensiy voaconstnt fom = O16 = 10 mand varies sery fom x= 1.0.x 28 wm (Figure aD), Theo, we eax lily this exposure energy by the te to tana prof of dose a8 8 + non ef postion (nt showa) ill, we an map the dose plot ont the cons carve and fescnine te resin profile show in Figure BC. Nowe that hse carves ar only ver appro {te roles. They ignore 2 sna 3-D development ofthe resist and the veri exposure a= Tun Gee ke Figure 8 8C acd extact plot of fear ize W verses exposure dose, These ‘Rives are fen sel to meavre the sent ofthe rita mension fo the exposure dose For typical esis fw exposure dosages ae less than $0 lf A these energies, the resist wotle Seen pamarly on te low expoute and wanton exons of the coast cure, Test Pte prado lion agl eit poles that are les Spend on the qulity of the ae carga re does grew than about 150 mem, he exposed eons ae typically well above Dia “Taek a ream robles depend pritaily one opal image and gh scatering and abvorption io ‘Reet and he probes a fay sharp. Although sharper image i usualy desirable, it comes a sete looper etpore de and therfore slower Uroughp. Most exposures ar doe inthe mod ‘Tucor high exposure regimes, Sabscqent comment shall be confined to hese regimes. ‘Goethe igh bins to pete the Fst is ney wil decease as he 0 “were she opal sbsopion coetcient inthe potoreis. baving units fiver Hength. I gem Fee EE, Inupendent ofthe resist ches. Di overcely propria to the absorbance A,90 Phi Ua 7 +e ce dee a) a © sat tof 2 . a ae sm oj pre 88 (Meare sot cre for cone BRULEE, chung Sedime (C Arwesnne oy Seep eioceepos resolved itis restr, its posible wo resolve the image. Like the whore aa sere Ts eres hicks. Then one a show tet am en ne tere is «dimensiones constant, AS one mi Wirnahy expec yncremes othe ike of he te dere Ie rit oo Rowe Tey have poor ep coverage as eotrs De po va yas be unblet win the eof atv nye, Some compromise mast ero See een abel elution snd more pat Sex pares. 85 The Critical Modulation Transfer Function Aout esi figure of merit ht can be determined fom De contest i te eal modalain taser foction CMTE) It approsiaely tbe sium focal modaion trenfer fonction necessary 10 Bain a pate, The critcal modulation taser {hntion is define by =P MTF = Dig FD, 89 ream te foond using he coms 8 cM, 68 04. Te fie vical le fart CMT is abot 08 Lor Ua cto pve a simple et fo te ‘Shao os pre te MF os ET ne Eo igs wil ie ‘contrast, it gives us @ single number for the ‘ample 02 ‘Aon andeeeo mg ooesst 19 ‘Anew phoresis is being developed for use in» Ki stepper: Ifthe stepper hs NA = 06 sada spatial eaerence of 05, wat ithe minima feat sic wen y = 2.07 I the eit bas 17> A what wil he minimum faire ie be? Using Bguton 8.6, the CMTF ofthe two resists ae 0.356 sd 0.205. Sing these 140 pers equal othe MTF in Figure 7.18, te resolutions are 032 and 0.63 lines per unit ena ‘ormalized othe cao frequency. Fura Ke stepper with 30.6 NA lens, the ct frequency ix 1397 ya. Then the esoltion of the exposure tool using these two ress woul he 2.06 aad 2.50 ne pis per micron or minima feature sizes of 0.28 and 0.20 “pn age Fire 89 Typical proces tons liberty sep ha 8.6 Applying and Developing Photoresist The steps in a photltogrphie process arise in Figure 89. For posive cess, the wafer must typically be presented before reset, Sppicaion in oner obs sot, ifr coverage ofthe Po teres with good adhesion of the eit o he wafer. The Ht top a the preveoment is typically a dehydration bake. Dane at 150-200, in eiter vacuum of dry siteger, thik sep i intended to die off rot ofthe sorbed water on te srfce of te wafer. At het eran, dbus ove minoler of water remains onthe sface. Deby Saton bakes can be doe at mich higher weperaures to Taree remove all of the adsorbs water, but these high temperature bakes {ae much ss comme, Timely following the bake the wafer is often primed with exam iilazane (HMDS), which at aan adhesion promoter par priming is done by supendig the water above a container of the high vapor peste HMDS lou and allowing the vapor to est the surface of he wafer Liquid HMDS can also be applied dretly om the wafer by dispensing axed volume an sping th wafer 0 prea out the Heid to very thin unflor coun. Using ether setbd, ove mocolayer of HMDS bonds realy with he surface of the wafer, even i parialyhydoxyaed. Theater sie of he ‘molecule bonds eaily wth he esis. ‘The wafer is coated with photoresist afer it is pried. The ost common apeatin neta i spin coating. The wafer te fist ‘mouried on vac chuck which is fa, hllow metal ie con the surface. When ¢ wafers paced on sae te acu draws the wafer into timate const withthe chick. A predetermined mount of resists hen dspensod on the sue ofthe wafer. Trgue is applied to te chuck to raply accelerate tat a controled rate up to maxinum rotational sped, astally 2000-6000 apm. The [atceleraion sage i crac to obsining good uniformity since thewe arrows sotvents begin evaporating fom the eis a soon a8 itis dispensed. The wafer is pun at his sped Be Moped of time then deslerated a conlled manner to a sop. A variation ofthis meth cated a dymamie pense so apply some oc aloft eit we he wafer is spinning ak Tow speed Thi lows the ei ore taste wate before the high ped spi. Peel ikacse and nckoess nomi areal parts n developing a ood pli: raphy pocean Thickness sno a song futon ofthe dispense amouot. Typical, less than 1% of Ber med yes ein on ne wale tr spinning The ret es ff ring sin. To aida ‘eSpenon of tis mater spioners hive splash pads around he chock. The icknes ofthe rest ren dcermine by te vseouly andthe spi speed. Higher viscaes an lowe in speeds ‘Srymee cher yen of pouresis Te esi kes found ovary wi pi speed [9] tee nes an ‘Atypical proses nigh bea 305 spin a ODD rp to produce a esis hcknes of shout 1.0 um. [Aes pola te esis fe tacky consistency sine Jess an one-third ofthe solvent reais Sher sping the wafers mast undergo a sfbate oc pecbake. Te fncion ofthis ep is to die lt ton of the solvent inte eit and o establish he expose characteris 10}. The ‘Fassia nthe developer willbe highly dependet oa te solvent concentration i the fina pemseta,Genealy shoe ines o tower perature stinks Kad to a crac ration re nthe developer and ot higher seat bu at tbe cost of lower contrast High tmperate ‘Btates can acnaly begin to deve the phaochemisry af the PAC, leading 0 resis sso of ‘ittpesed regione inthe develope Ia practice te sofiaks eycie sempitcally determined throug eee cot ty opting the conan ile taining an accepable photosensitivity. Typical sot ene enporsares are 90-100. Times range from 30 sec ona botplate 1 30 i nan oven, The ‘Siren Coacenatonwemasing aie softbake is sual about 5% ofthe crigineconcetaion "fer cftbke the wafers expowed This process was descebed in sme detain the previous hap After exponue the wafer mst be developed. Nearly all postive resists we allie deve ‘am tach KOH dined in water. Daring te develop cycle, the carboxy acid eats wih qEecape form snines and malic salt. tn doing 80 scons the KOH, Cae mt be sen to somal eps the developer if cowssem process to be maintained In spe smersion ‘fvcloping is is done by peviially doming and refine tank, fr example, afer a certit santero wafes have been processed. To mainzn re consistent develop process, the veiop Te fe fen increased between ink efi A method more commonly wed a manufsctring is © EOS apply of eh developer for exch wafer by dispensing ton tack equipment na process Shwe a ple develop (1) e by losing a teh of wafers into spray developer system (12 ‘During the develop proves the develope solution penetrates the surface ofthe exposed est reaing +p The depo the el alld the penetration depths neil sail n nova ‘ein Tu i ot te for many neptve tne resis, where the selling of the peneraton rion TENEAdtoe datonlon ot ret fenuses. Hanabata et i Br proposed the xo-caled stone wal made er nvals baud postive tone resins (13). this del the carbonylc acid solves very quickly tne developer increasing the elective are between the developer andthe ovale mati. In ne atta reiows co acoupling faction between the mauix andthe PAC retards te disolution cae That Taibo depenis onthe chemical srctre ofthe novalae max (15. The dissolution Ineshanism key to obtaining high-contrast ress Tike many chemical reactions he develop proces is very temperature sense is import oeretore, 1 comin! te develop tepertre eat if acute como of tnewiths i 1 BS Tpumalsed, Developer tempertre often must be coeuled 0 beter than °C Tote ease of sy bAeiien ening Prabess 199 7 Tey. Aoymu 100m Pad I i | “emne A y | i —~ A a 0 1 ‘8 = fgmait our ocestn yan ne vu J Am Seems tnt and err the rit profes Eigse 810 howe be cvs curves for Mezapst™ SPRSOO™ Tet phert dovtpd wing MF CD26 The {hee or thc a HS yn and he exo Se nodone with ann sure The sofke w {ve fof sc sng PC bie a3 60s THOT hatte bate was doe aftr exon. When sig a eee sgl sry psi apteaion oe Sever, conve wr 8 es Honever two spy Senses a doce, cach of which 3 see tong. he ont eee o 412 Obie pooobography proces 2 alidienson ‘prc and pivot procs an ipa and changin ‘he satan MOS aa ed ochre worm cong betes he pots ad he sate Src may abo be aed fe developer con, Ding the devon proces will Tisiew sure twee ening sel wiht pic oon of ema wa {eres and opti toward the deve Ti eis srs eso nd inpeses the ality ofthe vkpr owe he sic he wafer 17 te ur apt sch mi sey es ct we gm econ 9) a crt mays seve st dsauion ib aking te deve fo he wooed eas. Scheuecrat west nme icone Sn easy aftr es 2 Tigh tempera bles ay abo be cone sr develop. Sometimes led a are, sis svcd fare he wes aunt rte emerge prec sch a Hanaon and psn cing Pg 81 shows [Dyan od paces ape ee es poe for Sac apne aA Figure 811 Reset prot of oe aioe sn are ere a SPC ZX es terest bru topes crest Shite198 kes of varying temperaones. The esi Shipley Megaposi SPR-IFX, which is wed for w- Tinton pling caponres At sfendybigh iemperatres, the sis pre Begins o reflow. Tis can Teildts produce 1 sao” poi so that during a sbsequet ech te angle can be eprodced in the undriing Rm ‘The sew temperature depends onthe resis oe vied. Some resis, form Tied for use peng processes, donot ow blow 200°C. "Thee ave several pes of syste avsble forrest processing, The simplest andthe one nos kl tobe encouniered ina ueiverty nboratoy, 2 psi of convection ovens for processing Tash of watering had nd softbakes and single wafer spinner. Oflen resists applied wing (Pijtmge, Even ti rude and inapensve cqaipeat canbe used to fabsicle wubmicron fears, ‘rr cafermay and repeduebliy ave macht be desied. Atte oher exten, tastil fabic- ti fetes normaly ese stoned poorest processing esems (Figure #2) somtimes called treks In these systems wafers sone from aslrage caste 1 a botlate or infrared tmp oven ‘The a detyeation ake it doe. Next, they are maved to a dispense tation where HMDS is ‘Ppted an spun then photoresisssdapesed and spon. Next they move tx second top ‘Rcd lors sotbake Filly, hy atest o second storage caste rom which they are ‘Mkcn for exposure. Cool pass are cften used afer the hyplaes wo ensure a repeatable temperate “Song dopene sad avoid cotanaion of hs wafers by the receving cass Figure 812 Top vcw of mance! prs posing em lang ae an gee apc aan cecey tas sce obey oe Vly £7 Sore doe Soran ets 195 Some wath ate lnk 4 the expose ton 9 chiterarangement for automatic exposure “These tools he he highest overall consistency and eprodacibity. In this application, the auooated Jess procesing equipment need no be iatgrated inte 2 tad shone un Instead, separate bake, cost, “In develop modbles ay be arranged neal ation long wi the exposure tol Ate center “te her amos arm ean pick and place the wafers tthe appropiate sation. Such systems =n Shedul the wafer for est prcetsing in 8 comin rant to ake the tre between Cat 205 {xpos andthe me between expose and develop the sae for ech wafer. Ths canbe acral factor inthe success of new resins designed for exposures at 248 tm and below. They can ao rede he prisulabon sociated withthe belt ransportnechrisms typical found in wack [21] nether [ppeofamonated system, photresi ticks variations of ss than SUA (10%) across wafer and Tens than 100 A wafer to wale are commonly tine. Due oe nature of photoresist and the man- ter of mechanical part ia hese sysems however uly tomate systems requ freuen tenon. 8.7 Second-Order Exposure Effects as I“ de Fue 413. To sberbanc fe ayer of SPRSILA i ‘An imporan parameter when selcing resis is its absotion spectrum. If the wafer is to be ‘xpowalwnng sn lignes with «particular He sauce, one mas know the of he eit at hat a ¥e- tempt Kato large (sey tore than one over the ieknes f the ss) ony the op of he ress. wna eteely be exposed. Upon develo. the ower par ofthe est wil be left behing, and he Clits wil spear meiveloped. If too lrg, Kile ofthe lg il be absorbed during the epowure and long exposure times wil be ered An advasage ofthe diazoqinones sda hey ‘Shor sonly at both ge and tne of mercury but do wot sor very well inthe mid-UV ad the ‘ibe ranges [2] This allows the we of room ih nthe ithography area. as fong asthe dep UV ‘Compocents have been tered oat. Types! DQ sensitizers lo do ot absorb wellin ihe deep UY. ‘Onc sts ke ino aecout the sbsorance of the esa orton of he resis. Light absorbed ty the vesin des not ec the PAC ad so does 0 dive the photochemistry. Pure novolac wale ‘white. Due i an onan step in the resis faricaon proces, urs an orange brow (23). All ‘oval compounds abr srnply nthe deep UV, Novae ase esis ae therefore not prep ae for exposures he deep UV, since De resin ise ‘ill aber wast ofthe light, Modified novla. how: ‘ver, canbe ured dow 19 about 250 a [2]. As wll be diseased leer in this chapter, fi esd oe the DON rest aan opaque ayer fr planarizing a stb sequent resi ayer, # ghempercue postbake will Increase he eso of he ayer the id UV. "Tofurbar compat sts or most esis he absorbance cmpes on exposure. Typically decreases. The atin absrbance defined as the dference between the amexpnsed ad te exposed abvortance (Gee Figure 8 13). Tis eect i ls haown as beac f ing. The advatage of aching isha it can provide 2 ia er ea aoe ifr exposure. AS the top ayes ofthe eit te expned hey become pay rsparnl, ai inga fle expoae of te lower Iyer. ‘When exposing. photoresist over wopology aa a oe eng Rostictatanlaterenre The difcac betwee te 86 staf problems ares. The lst chapter deserted ‘Nocaver te at cane cones Sie aha. the effets of sevice elections on the areal imageFigure 814 roa nep > ‘second problem thi exit in he presence of topo ay istinewidth variations du ores hikes ar ‘Faw Since the photoresist sa iscous fl, ic does ‘ot cout conformally. Instead, it wil end 10 sooth Oot the surface topology (Figure 8.14). On tp of = Step it wll be ther han te soil thickness Trmedinly next to » sep t wil Be thicker than the rominglhickness Since the sep height i oten abou Te same asthe resist icknes, ese varios canbe fnbetntal The resist thickness changes wil Fed 10 linewidth variations: bulging of the photoresist oe jt off te rep and 4 acekiog atthe sep. These Tinewith vc-aon ate ced yan ffectiv overex pure onthe sep and an effective underexposue just of he sep. the case of mesa ntsconnes, these variations can be a serious relly eae, Since the Hoewidth necking nea the slep often oocurs near poor rion of sep coverage nthe ‘Epos and near out wheve a large gradient ent ia he teal Conductivity to he subatt ‘Alorthee effects tend to make ily hata metal ie wil i in operation. ‘One icluton to ths peblem st pantie the Lye if possible. This wil be dicussed in Cepicr 15 since planarzation as nny tore specs than jst ography ses Deng gre ‘Sly persed spr of on advanced interconnet stacgy. Another solation she wc of mater eur Ina pict applic, a thick plnariingpoler Is Rist applica. The polymer is called. Toeallyplnaeing since ican sooth tp inte topology ba oes no affect changes in height tht ‘Sour overlong distances ach as the wafer bow. Te lower level may also be opaque obs exposing ‘ado to grevent surface reflections (08 Seton 7.8). The uper Iyer of photoresist may be gic ‘hinto unpre We cost andmininie light saterng. In some cases thin material soe 8 SiO ‘tay be depo between the two polymers o prevent ot interaction and to at as an cick mask {be sree pate anf, Thies parc uel if the lower level fs PMMA or sia polymer witha low etch sistance. "Sher application and sofas the upper eit s exposed snd developed. The photoresist is then va a mack to ech the undetyng polymer whic in ur is used a the proving sk ‘Tis il the upper ox imaging ptosis to be gute thin and therefore have high contrast Is Tow ser ie feates ave proce in contact ography. The drawback of such approaches, of ‘Course, process complcny. In applications in whieh sll eases are equred, however pla ‘Zion of tsar a ent some ofthe groes tps is almost mandatory. Csssctons view rest at tcovers2 8.8 Advanced Photoresists and Photoresist Processes” ‘his section will view nw fess echloges ha show promise for future dep sabre hog ‘iy. The categorise somewhat wba. All fhe opcs covered are inten same Frm fr BP UV application, aough they are no Tied svc, Sicon-coaning resis ca be wed 3 ‘onrst enfancement yer, o they cae bea esis themselves “i lat chper acoso! the tity of deep UV sources such as xsimeraser and indicated tha ene expose ste re now bing sed y 2 neber of TC manutactoes, One ofthe major tiicutes wit tis aplication fhe ack of good dep UV exists, Novola compounds bea 0 “Strongly ahr ust blow 250 nm, making Kr 28 nm) exposures marginally acceptable, but pe ‘hing the much more desirable ArF (193 nm). Furthermore DQ does ot beach very effectively at Abtoond RowessssrdrommitPucse 197 248 nm. This leads to highly aoauofonm exposires trough the depth ofthe resist and therefore sloping sidewalls for sll featores. Generally stp aceepid hat DON cannot be sed for fess, teow 0.25 yun, and that both new ark mater ead a new photoactive mate must be found for 193-1m exposes When DON resists ar ved at short wavelengths, here are typically chemically amplified In ‘hemiealy amplified resist (CAR) systems, an aden phoaecive compound is ade to the Inatrx and potsensizer. Upon exporoe to ight the chemical wpliation agent actin such ‘aay ast peal nese the poay photochemical process. A key to this proces is that i fe phtocrentcaayaes many subsequent bod breaking cvems. A typical example s the use ofa Polocid generator (PAG). Once i absorbs a photon, te PAG becomes chemically reactive dsc ‘ing de maori mate Eatly CARs contained cnizm sls (25] such a some carly TBM resis {Bah Exponure derages as low as 10 lfm have ben repo sing CARS with conventional DON fess, This ress system fas heen sod inthe early manufaciae of I-Mbic DRAM [27] and in TeeMbit DRAM pilot ine operation [81, One Habily of hese sass the metalic contaminants Ieft nthe resi. Ober worker have demonstrated CARs sing ronmcualc components (29,30) [ater CARS have wsed halogens (31), slfnse nei esters [32 o suf compoonds [33]. In many faces protection aget sued o ensue thal the unexposed PAG does no ack the ess before it ‘supped “Alvough the use of chemical smplicaion in mid-UV applications can be thought of 53 afar eaboncerment ih pla a ac mors val fanetion inthe deep UV revise crn ‘cing develope. "Te high energy ofthe phoons makes mats absorption almost unavoidable. All ‘sis curetly being developed for deep UV (238 om and belo?) applications therefore we some {ype of chemical amplification [34 a he polosetive compound. Typical DUY resis consi of 1 min thats somewhat photosensitive, PAG, protective ager, and modes woch 2 so ‘ent: None ofthese mater well established for deep UV appbicatons. Table 82 shows poe {a 193-2 components and considerations for single-layer ress, Polymatiy methacrylate (PMMA) is a prototype deep UV resist ria matrix in ore sophis- tiesed yess Thisis aes nich favored by hoger tet on displaying the lima in 0 Toon but has initedvatlty a an imaping ler edberwise. Since PMMA is most commonly sed {sam e-beam ests sirtre wil be disconsed in more deta a the nest chapter. Bey, how ‘crits alng-hsin polymer consisting of lomatas segments of H-C-H and CH,-C-COOCH, ‘On his ehls i compressed or “ulled up.” Under deep UV exposure the long chains ean be bro- en and one or more ofthe atbon atoms let wih 2 unsaisied bond o ether the methyl (CH) ‘rou othe ester (COOCH, sie chain ean be affected. [the main cain beaks, teresting sot frolecules ate mare easy desolved in a developing solution. Microfouming by the Gssocaled Easeous prods (CH, CH,OH, a0 HCOOCH,) also creases the isolation rte (95). Tah ermine Polymer PAG Considerations Protection Agents Ades “acne Bice “Bute ‘Gis wars oop moder Mecacryne ——Acaiy ‘Aligelic oer Resohsion ease Gets Yeitly 'takeverpersine Costing id98 Table 83 Conc nalte dp es Rag aay re aE [PMMA has two primary drabscks, The ist ¢ dat he plasma cc coerce ofthe resists ‘ery lon lower in fc thn mst fis tobe echod. Therefore unless avery tick ayer of PMMA Ts use toprteet avery thn inde res wil disappear during te etch before the fm cs. This is generally not feasts, however, sincerest features with aspect rls larger han 4 are not geer- {19 conidted tobe mechanically wable, Parhermore the dissociation ofthe PMMA changes the ‘hems of the plas etch ad frequently leads polymere depois onthe surface ofthe wa ‘The other primay limitation of PMMA i a low sensi. Typeal optical exposure doses re ‘reer than 200 rdf while required sestvies ae ically 510 10 rllem. As described “hove. various PAGs bave been ded [37] o PMMA-Like compounds to make more practi! ‘evn some cases these actives abo cin increase the etch vessiance. A second approach 0 Tncrene the sestvity sto expose the wafer a an elevated temperature. This has the adios AMvaniage of inceasing he const. Coasts of T have Been pried for exposes a F4I°C [38 "Although the scot enty be Haproved, the poo ech vlerance sa short abe He of PMMAcpased reise have forced the development of alemative deep UV maui mates ‘Atoogh aerate nacrals sch as poly (&-ydroxy-syrene are much ce rnsperent han Me Commonly used noveac compounds, they are extremly dieu to iaibit toa safcent degree 1%, “The sbelation of dimethyl groops has reduced he dsslution re of hs mati meri by x Se (61 S00, clone to whats novensary fora ipiperformance ress (4), An alermatve imaging shore for deep UV resins io ute a completly iflerent comical pth, Some ofthe mos! promising prao- Ippe IJ-am rete use a PAG, a protection ages and vanos acre based mates (1), Awe 2h improvement compared # imple PMMA, aerylic-based resists shar he problem fetch ei tance To improve the ech resistane, vars groups have ben rfid ono the side chains af he ‘monomer. The we of pendat groups such a orbony/ elas or adumany! mete) at teen found to improve the ech resistance clove wo that of nvalac, but degre the sensitivity ane ‘hon 42). Arles lo ypially show por adbesion daring developmen ‘Common problems with CARS include a deterioration ofthe image during the time betweet exposure and posexponure Bake and a deterication ofthe surface of the ress afer coating when ‘xpose to room ai Inthe former cae, diffusion of the PAG from exposed vo unexposed regions an fad too deration ofthe nage [43], In he ate case slated ies appear in a characteristic “TP shape upon developing. Many CARS ar als sensive to shelf life: Demonstrations of 193-00 single layer resists have been performed with CARs (Table 83 Fists ely-sime effects fr sv rl resiss. Contrast enhancement layers (CEL) allow the use of an optical ithograpy expose tol er svllerfeares than would oterwse be atainabe, They have been deers! primarily wih [DON resis The bale proces nvoves a mateal Dati spun ono eist-coated wafer after be Delay The Bets ‘eco camp “Anes in ca Aree ‘heise Seats Noe ep oe Stine P2198 rans bas st Depenie ce sot ake - teserin etn oni i ten Figure 85 Procesng quence for AySe-Ge ress {ibe Yost etal reprised by perms AP) Sabon Poi ad tes Poss 199 softs sep (45), This maar must be nominally paote Io he exposing wavelength, but undergoes a ‘leaching reaction upon exposure ta renders ens pen foctvely the we of» CEL wanes the mask fo i uper layer, which i in ard contact wih he rest Aer exposure, he conta enhancemt ayers ‘Siped before develop. CEL is pariculaly important for doep UV resists since the opel sourcs may be lesions and he mati terials may te bua the radation, Inorg rests fl into a las f esis known as charge waster compounts. In these stems isla tay Brought aboot by change inthe play af the rest molecule. The prtsypca inorgane rests [Agoped Ge-Se, In tis process, 2 2000-4 Iyer of. (Ge-Se is it deposited by spring or evapersion ‘Next 2 OOD layer of AB is plated on tp of the Go-Selayerin an AgNO,-comtieg bah Upon exp0- ef ight fom 20010460 (26). 2 potdoping {potassium solide aid solution [47]. fier the excess ‘iver removal, the image can be dry develsoped in 2 (Cr, or ofher Murie-comainieg. paso (AS shown in Figure 8.15, both postive and negative tones ‘am be achieved. Inorganic rei have the sltatage ‘of very high convat (y= 7), suing inthe ability To roduc fine lines even in line exposure systems [491 Duet their hin ln nate, hey requis atic Plbnanizing underlayer. Tho deposted Ge-Se lyer Tends to have pinholes, Many more defecs may be died ding the plating press. As a res these Inorgaas esis have not et found och acceptance The second category of new ist materia scaled dry developable. The mos ees clas of these atrial the lcoeconsning esis, Organalanes were fst proposed resist, Souses by Hofer and co-vorkers(S,Their metvation was as follows since the matix material ‘Sicha novolac end oabuor in the dep UV, ene must tocar an aging proces that wll focur ina very tin resi layer, bu can be Uarsered into 2 thicker underayer trough 30 Sninorpie plasm ech (se Chapter 1). The eirerent forthe tp layers that it mast be bigly Testun to sch plasma proceses, Siicomconsining resists ae atuacve sce they for SiOs, ‘ich protets the nderying reas (51) imam oxygen plasma. “fe ld of slion-conaining rests gined considerable omentum when it was discovered that polymere sion materials called posts could be fabricated [52], Upon exposure o deep ‘UV edition. significant bleaching was cbrered due othe reiacement of he Si netwxk With 3 ‘rss lad silosane network [53], Te exposed eit can be developed a gave resis i no Polar solvents suc ax toluene or xen, ehich will dsseve the onesposed ares. Wet developed eats reser than 7 ae oainod i thi system, Figure 8.16 shows O2- and QiSsm lies linagod n'a 300-A poly-buysiyne) seit on wp af a novlac resi. After 110 mba expose Pete pee pee eae]Problems at “ Figore 8.16. (A)02 um apd (6) 0.5 pines image ia 30 A pub) ss ve one Paar eo ay prmiin SPI lac rest wae etched in an oxygen plasm roped ina eetive pom etch syser. he Trnge wil nut, f the th is sekctive for toa 15sec toluene development, the undying 90 “sianed nctch veal. The resists can so be de sesPacce for eof ion xe, afore cae ee ac ana ne wl ee. The mot erly ed oe, which Scher cm tect scons an HBr en, Np ern Sos st Siiccd much sry has so een found tht 2 sepa poysiyne ress ayer need wt Be SES tne, he sree of he resist canbe sited by gaseous (54 x Hui [55 expos Seen temperance, or by expose to siabl pasa envionment (6) As with se bye roves high contrasts and deep submicron images can be obtained. 8.9 Summary he tne resists called DON “This tptereviwed the base chemin of the most popups bs DON Rates hve pod paged or EUV apt, bt the tool ba rite a= ‘Rett dip UV apc: On oe ox ingot rs Se fms coat Seer es were cxplre (odtermning te manu fer ze one he SESCinc and he ge seme own An ston 1 Be es owen HE iy new types of red a he igh conta ipa ent pccestngeqipsst war ven. Fal ne fe of is ms aoe eee er bxp UV appcaons wore dscssed. These wl udon tala mt for expnues low 248 2m lcolate the CAT for AZ-1450 at he foe aveengs Te in Table 8.1, Assuming NA = Gra use Fagare 718 wo deveined iin feat size fran aligner wih = 0. wing thirst ate varioes wavelengths. 2. AOGpom-ick layer ofa parca photoresist es Go) Catette heres coma. Dy = 40 er and Di = 85 ie. ovine 201 ©) Caleta he CMTE (6) leis found if he eit hickeess cin al, Dg edaces to 70 mle? while Dis unchanged. What isthe higher const posible in his eit without changing he ress processing? Discuss why the resist conrast might decease at shor wavelengths (high photon energies). Include in his discussion the elects ofthese photons on bot the mat and the PAC. Derive Equation 8. ‘ [eis pind out in Chapter 8 hat ena eit have coma as arg 7. postive tone ‘esis has Dy = 10 nlf, ad hak 7 = 7, ind Dy Is described for some eplications to make a tapered ess pile, that esate ht emt verte, trator ses mone ‘lowly frm the exposed region. To do this would you eu high dove Muminaton ota ow ose iuination? sti your answer ‘What ints the exposure? Esplin why resist Meaching sa desible effec. : ‘Weald you expect the ily norganiefnovolse method dscosed in the chapter to work well over moderate (<500 A) ‘opograpny?Jsiy your answer. I surface rections ar a problem how cou that be arena? ‘Asuteutdear expose oo es 11248-am exposing wavelength wi {spat coherence of 75. thas a umercl aperture of 6. this ‘ool is ued with resist with ‘ost of 35, ellen icons init ine sz that canbe “The Ege shows the optics! intnay at the surface ofthe wafer ew expeiagsdifractionpraing ina projection printing ster. Calelate the modo transfer anton fortis image Ihe image it exposed in a esist that has a contst of 3.0, woud you expee tt be eslve? You tat js you answer. Eatimate othe closet eth theses contrast Fr which is Image wil be reslved. “The minimum feature size using te gine 436) teper in university's aboatry és (08 un. The stepper aa NA of O45, (a) Ifthe spatial eoherece (5) is 05, cael the CMT ofthe ress process. (b) tthe library need to produce 0.5m ines and paces, CMT required? ‘What orrat would ha be? Assame hata rein spn wh poy pir ne fr el nt ian ety (itt = 100/28] 0 where (0) she linear fu deity in he incon beam tthe center ofthe aperture ae is ‘ven by Equation 7.9, Assume tat we ar using 2 Lye positive tone resis withead prt, BS mc Pn a hn auto I a ho samme Fk om FN agen stag Gite rade tasaniaer sama ine re ere Your ipa an para cacy nense Torco an a eo tg Ber enema 1b, = 30 mile? ae Dy References » 4. Brg, W389, NCES aso, "Unconventional Pntogaghle Systems.” Ptr. Se Brg M8 Seat yanTanehcoea Sasson Subsiaed Nephalene 2, {Buu Broken So. 14862057) Se seeecnd A You, Mecham of Dsoto of Novela dzone aa nia esar Trolley ond Procite VI, Hk, 9 SPIE PP ran rT aan. W frank: nat RP W Bese, “Te ist Sess Spt Aoeesiob os Dastnio tion n NnocDaroaporsinoe Res Oa eo an Proesing VI Hien SPE Pro. 1409 Goon 5 oe son “onic Rexx MatesalThor sd Cent a aeduson CoE Thompeon Wisc, a8}. Bowden cs Advonce it setts Aer Com, Sx, Washngtn, DCI 6 San wn and K Kanne, “Use of Query Micon Rate Foes Posed ect om Resi Disha” in Proc. SPIE Resist Tea $955 1585) Fen ooo of iercat Ress for Deep UV-Expour” Sold uae Teh. 1 tach 0. - 4. Win era Semicondcor Ligraphy, Prine, recs nd Mater Pesan, New Yor 18h p31 3 tenet Chreerns of Ret ls Proce by Spann.” Apel: Ph. ‘3905 0978) . 10. oe nee aacioy snd Modan fe Sin Costing Pes” BM J. Res De. 31:90 oom, a 11. eon nd JA. MeFasen, Pale Development of Poste Reis.” in SPE I SemconducrMicrothogrohy ¥1 (881 12. Dibatmar ant A hon “Coos! Or Cet, Pon” Sl se Tech, 125 (Oy 198 1 eek Ua and A uur, "Dosen Cocet fo High-performance ose Phot 2 Vaca St Pech. 5740989 va eRe unl crlaograpty Fendamanals i Semicon Dv SDteRtaio rectly, Mace Deer, New York 958 errr Nene, vom, ons Mia “Novel Novae Rens Ug: Tore Tt fo High Petonnancs Poli Photos” Proc SPIE 166161 ( 16. Mezapn ad SPRSOO ae tademans of Siley Corton Mood Spray Development of Positive 2 BB 2%, n. 2 8B et 2. 2 feensos 208 6.5. lores and J.B. Lofts, “Liopraphic perforce snd Dissolton Behavior of Novae [esis for Various Developer Surfactant Sytem," Pro. SPIE 16723171992). HL Shimada Teahiguki, dS, Shimomure, “High Accursy Resist Development Process swith Wide Margas by Quick Removal of Reson Products,” SPIE 2198813 (998), Tarot H. Shimada, .Shimomra, M. Omedera, nd. Ohmi, High-Relibity Lithography Performed by UNasoni and Surfactant Added Developing Stern,” 2. Agpl. Pi. 38451 1999, D.R. Mekean, TP. Rass, nd AF. Rena, “Thick Film Phtoresist Resolution Enhancer wit Surfactant Surtace Testment.” Proc SPIE 2438673 (1995) Clifford, B, Hayes, and R, Brae, "Ress of Potolithographic Caster Cells in Actus Production." in Pro. SPIE 1468-5 OpticadLaser Mirathoprpin IV (198). {G.Willon, R Miller D MeKean,T Thomphins, N Ceca. and D. Hofer, Am. Chem. Soe 9:54 (1983). ‘A Koop. ia Applications of Phenolic Resins, Springer-Verlag, Retin, 1979 E.Gipntcin, A. Dono, and, Thompins, “Evolution of Pare Novoloe Cresol-Formalehye Resin for Deep U.V. LaegrephyJ Electrochem Soc. 129-201 (98) 3.V. Crivel,"Possility of Potsirapig Using Oniu Salts" Polym. Eng Sci. 28953, (9s). B.D. Alle, G. M. Wall, D-C. Hofer and RR. Kun, "Phares for 193-nm iden” 2297 Rex. Bev. 4.99 0999) 1.G. Malas, 1 Holes, R. Mertow, RL, Bar, M. Hakey 0, Reyols, W.R. Brunsvold,C-G. Wilson, NJ. Clecak, S.A. MacDonald H. tn Advances n Resist Technology and Pocening VI, MP. C. Wats, Proc SPIE 12622 (1930) 5. Holmes, Levy A Brgendal, K- Holland J. Malubes, 5. Keight K.C. Kors and D.Potey, “OpicaULaser Mleolihography Il” V. Pl, Proc. SPIE 126861 (195) (Renner, US, Pao 4 371608 (1983. W-Brunsvold, W. Montgomery and B. Hwang, “Non-netlic Acid Generators for ne and feline Chemically Amplited Resi" in Advances in Resist Techoolgy and Processing Vil HL. la ein SPIE Proc. 1966-368 (1991). (G-Bui, R Dammel nC. Lindley. "Non oni Photouci Genering Compouns” {ACS Pol Mot, Se. Eng. 61269 (198. FM Houlan, A Schgurd,R-Goodeo, and. Reichs, "Nivobenzy Este Chemistry for Polymer Piceses Involving Chemical Amplification." Macromolecules 212001, 1988) (G-Pavlowskl, R Darmel,C. Lindley, HJ. Mere, H.Roschen,anJ Ling, “Chemically ‘Arpliied DUY Photoreists Using 4 New Class of Phtsaid Geeraing Cormpounds" Proc ‘SPIE 1262.16 1950, Baga, "Wha's Aven Doge UV Reis” Semicon. ni p36 Speer 1359), Alle, “Progress ia 193 am Phtoesiss” Semiconductor a. 2010372 (1997. . Van Pe, "Processing of Decp-Uleavolt (UV) Rests,” SPIE Proc 275150 (198. U.S. Patent 440,708 (1983) U.S Philips 1. Harada and S. Sugnwars, "Temperature Eets on Posie Electron Resists Irae with Electron Beam sod Derp-UV Ligh” Appl Polym Sc. 27:1481 (1982) Pawlowski, Saver, R. Dine. D.J- Gordon, W Hinsherg,D. MeKean..R. Vie, and C.G, Wilsoo,“ModiodPolynykoxystyrenes st Max Ria for Disoluton Iniitor ‘Type Photoresiste” Proc SPIE 1262391 (1990)206 Pm 40. K.Prybilla H. Rosch, W. Spi Ch, Ble, S. Chats, Khana .Pevowali and R Dann, “Progrsin Deep UV Ren hoes in Rest Technology and Processing Vi. ho, SPIE Proc, 118 (1991) 41, RD Ale, G.M, Walla, W.. Hiser, and LL Simp, “High Peomance Aerie Polymer fr Chemically Ampiied Photons Apcaon 7 Var Se Ted 8 95397 93 2. GM. Wala RD, Ales, W.D. Hier. CF Laon .D. Johnson, RDP Bry and N. Hacer, Single Layer Cheney ArpliedFhtoelss fo 193 oa Litany J. Vaca Se Technol 8 1NO)273 1999 FJ. Pants Rio, B. Mound, nF Vin, “Onn of Delay Times in Chemie Ampiied Positive DUV Ress,” Poe SPE 2198.14 (980 4 RR Kz RD. Alen, W.D. tinier, nd, M Wala “Acid Caer Sage Layer Resor AP Lithography.” Op. Eg 32(10)2363 (198). 45. 1 Golig and Wet “Coma Eanes Lien” Sold Se Teas, 152 (May 1985) 46, 6 Beret US. Pane 571.375 (1986, 47. ¥. Yohkava, 0, Oct H Nea and Y- Mish, “A Novel opie Potresist Ussing Ae Phoodopng in Se-Ge Gs Fl,” Ap Phy Let 29067 97D). 48 Japanese Pte 82,5060. Chom Abt, 978331 (198) 49. BOngand EL Hu, "Matuiayer Reif Fie Line Opi! Lithography.” Sl Sue Teel ane i948) 50. D.C Hotes RD. Miler, and. 6. Wilko, Peysiane Bilayer UV Lithography” SPIE Pree 48161988) 31. G.N.Tayln M,¥. Hlinan TM, Wot s641. M. Zig, “Litorapic, Phtehei and O; RIE Properties of Thee Pll Copy” SPIE Pr, 950298 (1988). 52 BA Blaacon and. W, Weidman "Ply ey alas: Syethcis and Popes fhe Fit ‘Aly Silicon Ri, Network Payne” Am: Che Soe. 10-2342 (1988), 53. RLR Kany FA, Blancon MW. Hom, RR Paldigy, D.C: Shaver B.A. Smith nd A. Freed, “Pepi Rests fr 193 Excimer ater Lidge” ia Avante ot ‘Resi Techno and Proce VIL, SPIE Pr 1466.28 1981) 34 Ki#lo Baik L. Van den Hove, AM. Cotas M Op de Best, and R Borland, “Gas Pe | Sinan he Datsion Ean Sia Ret Pros Appa Sub0S pm | Optical ines.” Vacuum Set Technol 88 1$81 (980 58. Kilo Bulk L Va en Hove, and R, Bolan, "Comparstive Sto Between Gas-snd got Pe Spain othe Diflsoe aha Syed Ren Process" Vasu Sl Tehnol. 89:399 (1990. 5S. K Kalo, K. Tai, T, Tesi. Takai and K, Yaga, “Effective Parameters of DESIRE Process to Cntolng Resist Performances S-half to Quarter Micon Rule a | ‘Ress Technology and Processing 1X. loc, SPIE Proc. 672215 (1992). | _ Chapter 9 Nonoptical Lithographic Techniques* The st two chapters discussed opal lithography asthe primary tol for maging paterson the ate nunc. Has pom xt ht esl lin re scons cance fro eee Poke ing the location of hese mts as proven io bean exec in frastton for Ine ake neck ene Ate ptersing ts holies, Optical tography has ben extended howph te ane of ceprecs nah icity elle oni! oe next-pnerann topics ACLS) A ase emia ee ten deepal hovere lfc srion nates fr wipe aca ede anne scam Chaper7 tate Rag nt of wlan veal pope een ‘A sen fan of soul logics hens he me vey shore ney Tee ma scue comin hs caper Ky andchnvou soem lane he ae {2 sal at iason no ger dees the hhoeanie mln The Ly pts is er et wasn sd tro: ery hgh ogy, ect me Ne ae) {tt wl ow ms fs resto go ath sc mecha a nae eae esi or ota We il ein fom technica ue egg one dee imoklas team de wine enbrne mass wel n pots ey al ‘te hogy. cn etn mans wd Tat pe ye 9.1. Interactions of High-Energy Beams with Matter? ‘The two most Hey expose sources fra nonopia ihogrph short-wavelength sym ate short-wavelength po ‘os (xray) a gh energy electrons (e-ean). The intesstions that evar te plone ee 205206 wf AE Figure 9.1 Tho domi neacton feceoe for ipogyphotns wi mater Eom cateeng she ee tle, ‘shoal Linge Tess two sources, This setoa wil even the physics ofthese imeratos before going on othe proces isl. “Typical ray sources sed for Uahography emit phtens vith energies of | to 10 keV. Whea hase photons ae fciest ‘ona soll there are many posible imeractions bu the Wo host ikly ones re potoleetic abserption andthe Compton Cec. Av shown in Fue 9.1, both procesesinvolv® an fntracion tesween pons snd elecuons. Pr energies och Tess han 10 Le, phtoelace emission dominates 1] a the ete leer cares with tlm all of he nee photon ‘Chery, The cape cos Secon forthe photoceetric process epends on he mas ofthe large mater. At hake eerie the Compton process danas. The ‘Coop paces can be thought ofa collision between sx elecoa inital at res anda phon of ‘Smy Roh and momentum MA A portion fe incident photon energy Is oso the electron diag the saeringevem,Soce the every need o ierate an lero fram the sli (work anton) is ‘ppl wo tote odes of agi lower in energy than the incident photon energy the ee {tone in the tage can apposite a fce and therefore he cross section for the Compton eet ‘pends ony om the elect density. By conserving both ment ad energy. ne cam show tat / the underlying ayes ze sally somewbat simi fr the Ok na on ina ee amon et Ay Ay = Act = 080 an wher, is be Compton wavelength (0.0243 A) snd @ iste angle between the fcident an fst Tina once Foray wavelengths o 1X only asl fraction ofthe energy os ding» Fiapk Compton scateing event Att seul high enegy rays will entate #coosideabi is {ance nt many soli ‘Mawr ithography is done at energies well below 10 keV (A >> 1 A) where photoes tortion dominates, As wl be scssed in Oe nex secon, the majority ofthe indent photo nergy wil lima be disipated by secondary electrons gecrated by impact ionization, Yo dt ‘apes ay tihopaphy and e-beam Uihorephy se sear exposure mechanisms ia the ress ‘oes the inl photoelectron event curs. At portant ference beoween te two process 6 (hat the sozudary estrone generated i the Fest during ray Tiography ae wuay about st ‘nice of magni lowee in eney that thoes fom e-beam stems. Asa resul the distance ove Svc the energy is spread in Xr lidhography i och es. ‘Duco te fine sae ofthe Cptue cron seton, the incident photon te not sorbed ae suuface ofthe resist Instead they wil penetrate to some depth anil absortion occurs. resonable Spproximitia iso consider te est to be an rorphows slid, with a single cape eos ection. ‘eal fom Chap that aA) i etn as the wavelng-dependent absorption coffin Then 10) = othe 02 whet fn isthe mamber density ofthe target mati The absorption coefficient is a function fe [ton energy, Desire ales ae of order} ym or most esis If 0 age the eit expos tr wl fe omunfon. If its a0 small, he photo sped wil be low. The absorption ceticient bo fs dcontnuiescorespoading to the energies of the core levels ofthe atoms (Figure 9:2). ley fhe lower energy > 10 wm) photons aed in prlection x=ay litography will have mach Ize ‘acs of. This wl be problem for ess exponoes wes Suong bleaching mechani ar sed soon stat) Figure 92. Anorpin cot for ane conc ‘neta a tnel pooner ie (4 Cer reprise by person Noyes Paton ‘twas stig Bans wins 207 ay intersioy wihe neyigmateins sia peti aye danger coe Sonora Ncts esse tn nae soy wl ps ngh ee an a oe Sacer Ie chomtew agp te inci of cco nd sf a peace, Whee Sout ceston hs ar yom po iy Suto sate clay o caer ela. stag esp a ove on 90 Te pee icon ea teal saty os Retoted ang fo ‘Stered cout pete rao ie sored Smt mocng crc gen 1 Vim meP 2 ee A athe wavelength af he electron ad ti the ‘omic rads which canbe approximated by ‘whore, the Bohr radia (0529 A) and Z isthe ‘me oumbe ofthe tare "There ae 2 numberof poset inelastic eves loss mechanisms nluing law energy (<0 eV) See- ‘ondary lecrn generat, ier shell excitations lead- ing to try and Auger slectonemisio, electron-hole pir creation followed by recombination apd photon fission (ahodoluminesence, ant phonon exci tion. Finding he pth electrons in he sold theere 'ssiiar fo finding foplamation proies (Chapter 5) (One can do a Mont Caro eaulsion where a fed number of eles ae aanched ovr Some fie spt Size. The ph ofeach elect wil be ue. ln his Technique each type of possible traction mus be ‘modeled. Oe ca build up a distibutin afer siulal- Ing the passage ofa age nomber of eletons. Arn tively the process cam be Weed sasiclly using te Bethe equation (2 [eS]bedlens] @ e9pe apt ee bey pre 3 Depset cde fan ey Feet ise onan cin whee «is the distance ito the target. Na it AV: [oo's nue, Zi te atomic numberof te trp ‘isthe atomic weigh, ps tbe mass dens ofthe a fe and isthe an onzation poteta, which can ‘fe approxinted by Mev) 115-2 as Thee the projected ange R, cn be found according to fre a= (eye an Figue 9.3 shows a plot of deposited coeey eos for various energy electron beans ince Sicoe, At yea ect write e-beam enxpes 2S 10 0 EeV) ost of fhe energy i deposited at depths ree han | pi, Asa esl great eal of he da age is inthe subst, When igh nergy elecuons ste a surface, thy may als induce chemi SER Tic naps pet by ti cand of lvl fw energy sera electrons This ‘willbe dsewssed ner inthe chap. boat 9.2 Direct Write Electron Beam Lithography Systems Hzcon tem agp (EBL) systems my Ye lorie mask pert orto ay wie eae tt un Caren) EBC nthe ecology of cic ras oerion dco a ca ine wal eas Deca of i ook oss n ep fabian Se tt we wl imi tnt det We EL. Mos et wee sens a ee gut tuis moved wa epee wafer exp te pater ne ia SEU anecdote, vera veros of rojo amd poi l- Sey lncennty te ve a ben developed [3 The shot penton eg of ee a eae ar sll aunts sah = gut for te atk howe A very bia ee ated eee sel nk tts though wich he Dam a ps) a an En sues con be clase ser ea of wer sean, wie ed sae Se pei Ech yp ofc a lange. Te stn depends ce FE fring ade Shc cm er ave it orn cd oa ceo sa wih igh siya uot al pets gp bi an ong Me, Bins me se rec of npue pc unt ime eens. eens canbe rene om he eae Sree ane te Cane imi mn) pling ge te Bl (el aed fg ee a tea hal fd dco). wt He Gtr Faas reee um eel cecton gn the might ead for EBL The es co a etre dst fo igh sehne The Mamet rail ms coca aoe ants cae nu poe the Ingest ie se Ove fe ay ree pater nus nen concent des, which a arene en aT Four 94 ‘hed enim td besmoms ema aceon 20 ite crn Bae ite Sens 208 where is Risharsons constant fo the material (ypicaly 10 {0 100 Alen?-K) and, ise effective meal work function, “Thee electors are accreted and sore fraction ofthe are called. The east ofthe collected elecuon energy isthe Uwighiness, 8. Although an increase inthe emited current den iy ako generally increases. ifthe ineeas in decreases {be coletion efficiency the percentage increase in he Wight ts sot as ge athe percentage increase in he cues Sensi Most thermionic wares ase ithe tngsten, thre tungsten, onda Rexaborde(LaBy) Tungsten Mle lo operon a presses a igh a 0.1 mio, butter er Feat denty ily aout 0 Alor A esl i brig [less than 2% IG! Alm Tors ungstn cathodes have romevhat lower brightness at the same lament crest an ‘equi igher evn (01 mt, bl Deir amu caent deni can be ts lrge at 3 Af Lanthanum hexaberide ‘ab, cathodes rth mom popula (], with acuen: density ‘over 20 Alem! and righ of nea 10° Alcs, LaDy, flames requie x vacuum of est 10, boweves, and that be wel pote asin Sen vacuum Ls. ‘A concer with al lamest sources is te apparat source size essover diameter. Becuse alge volume of tr is eat, the tannic elecuonsoures produce broad teams. The energy datibation from wach touce is ako Aut broad. The leads to focusing problens similar those found in lrg optical pasta incoherent sources, For peal ay sources te crossover ciametr i about 10 wr. To get (© a'01 jum spo, demotion of 100 >is reired. Eyen thot be ours as large cen easy, the ibe ent source brightness realy reduced inorder to achieve ‘Sep sitmizon resolution It has been shown [6] that tps ead fom ZePW/O annealed i forming gs GOR Ny and 10614) can be wed in heal eld eed emission gins wo produce crossover Gatetes as small 200 AAsa rel lithography systems using suc gun] can proce spots of 100 Aw coment enstes 8] a high a 1000 Ale To obtain cceptable Hild abiliy,bowever, his type of Bu9| ‘eiuites a conta vacuum ofa eat 1% 10 tela spite ofthis itaton tis pe of gu hows Sidrable promise for high relation, igh noughpu EBL systems. ‘Once an election seam te generat, must be formed ino 3 prow beam, This done in ‘os practical EBL systems through to o thes electostae enes a arey of epetires and SenfeedgesFigate 95 shows a type lens arranger. The fil spe dumeter on he surface of (he wafers gveaby secguraig pes Radedt ed e9) heeds the sper aberration, di the chromic beacon due tothe nonzero energy dist thom, ad ds ste pofet lene diameter, which is Hime bythe ite sue ize and space charge0 SNe Lepne aes scan ene ssn te saver! Sym tte { wana =n s0 ‘etic ‘Srectan a wt st09 Fre 8 sysemschetic of on ety FEES ‘ocmton EBLywem hr Hern eta pred by reason ©1975 EEE) facture mos iterated ccs To toed with shaped beams hat comt gure 96 Toe wc of stencil masts wih EBL (one sysensbp Ts yeo expo # ‘SEG cay when cg Ny epeaive dee fects, In commer EBL systems dy and ca be made ‘epily soll and inal sp sles clos 100.01 am canbe Sy schieved. ‘et BBL. ster axe Cassin bears, ht a bea nose tensity vars approximately 8 Gatssan wi hs Fete cme f the enn, As wil Be describe ater i is hpttste pinay Gsavantage of econ beam lihogeP) {S rocgbpatThe proces to slow wo economically ms improve Oruhpel spa purpose EBL spe have Been ine det wt md pcjeten iboapy (In oe vaviaon» aed i caca aove te wer (Pigue96) wih» wall ub of preemie’ geome Ser Fic any tines (as na DRAM or abubble memory) Alsons sa bank et a chin eam ea be diced for noes pees, When he Beam sent rh tHisare ian be canered as in standard EBL, i a ch more poplar method of producing a varile-shaped bam ised pues Intense he ea paral iced aur pete (10), By cha Oe aap the wid an length ofthe ne can be ward, Aeratvey «30 ny shaping canbe d® 30 A) [54] whore the ret i age (95). Ts ‘ada i sometimes called extreme altavokt (EUV), Noel pulsed plasma source i sed ‘Since these canbe quite chin hese Sot x-rays. This pe of system has aeady demostted fe (are izes of 0.1 ur [41 and scaling osm sizes pears tobe feasible, Figute 9.2 shows 339s ‘er designed rou his principle. The man scanned from let ight whe the wafer Scand row ight let Projection xy systems have sever shortcomings, generally revolving around the mie! maak suture Since many ayers are equ, he defet density per ler mt be exteely sal ‘Tae spetalbanviath ely 213% imtng the power rammaslon ules a highly monet ‘matic souee i ued. The stabi of the mors and costing afer loner tray exposes i 9 once. Perhaps the mst vexing problem or projection xy isthe egos fr machining ad polishing olrances nthe ei fasion proces (36). This has vo pars: eam bashes Figwe 926 0 sy option toga syem sing ay ran a alltel Zope ‘pied permtaon'6 1900 et) Peck or BaenLtesty 225, of he layer sce, which can severly impuct the elecvity of themiron, and the subst hic de irr ed mass ar bul ‘The mos widely used pi of mates for projection xa is Si athe low-2 ayer and Mo us the high-Z Iyer. This combination ean achieve aout D5 rtetvty xt wavelengths greater an 124 A which is he siicon Lshuopionege [57 This requires abrupt 3 A soups lnc. {aces These minors contin hundreds of repeats ofthe two mci. To minimie mcd, the sputtering must be done at ow temperate RF est putes Fat te the mira soa wef i this appication (38) NUC kas been explored usa stray pit for shrer weve ‘eng Sources. Movs petit tha it shouldbe wetol dwn 4950 A, however, oktaning south Inetaces has been extremely aii, wit ical roughness valves of 10 8 A. Tabensh ee tue abit amir with a foughnes af 2A by RF spurring t 20° giving a eect of shot 208 59 The second problem with xy pojtlon pics isthe substrate on which the minoximss i ‘uit Early systems used 130-A radiation with Sehwarzschila microscope sjetves cmshting of to sphere iors [60]. To obtain asubtnily lager expose ate, oe Mt We phen ‘mrs, Several designs have Bese proposed, bul ei mor machining telcrances of kee a Ato aceve difinton lined ests (6. Ths i appeosimetely 2 odes of apne beter ‘han uments of the in asphens miso fabrication tehaigues. The i sore hoe ht ifs ‘ion ratings could be used on speriel mrs [62]. This would signify lmyeove the mano. ‘unlit oF a projection xy oa 9.8 Projection Electron-Beam Lithography (SCALPEL) Direct wie cbeam lithography i to slow to Bea vabe production technique excep ihe ape ‘ators Ione ook! combine the igh Uwoughput of projection optical Ichopapty wih the Rew Jain of e-beam, the result would be very ative. The dificuly is Ring sutble masking ‘materi tat woukd have adaquite conan and trangeney to allow easnable exposies ads Inve the mechanical ability needed for repeated we Typical sell masks thr hick plates have very imited apie ‘One ofthe mest promising techniques come ott of «heum logy is called SCALPEL {SCatering with Angular Limitation Projection Elevnbam Liharaphy) 69, 6), The back es bind SCALPEL, ws ts introduced by Berger Gio at Bell Lorton in 1989 (6S) ue of saterng contrat verso absorption conto erate eh age. Tht he system sends road colimsedelctoe bea troop 3 mask, whose “lear” oreas consist fa thin eta low ato number (2) ter. The dark aes, which ate paternd In High mater ae nt ‘designed to absov he electrons, rather they Seale: them aa siicetly large angle to prevent tern fiom going trough an orifice to reach the wafer (Figure 9.25). One ofthe primary probe with membrane mass th heating caused by team sheonion, The SCALPEL. techn competly !oids the problem as th beam is only Seatere, ot absorbed inthe mask. This slr tne se very high energies, typially abou 100 Ka, at wich mos meres re simost completely transparent The cecrons are crested using a cate a teat timed (i themone esion} ‘mods. cay versions of he SCALPEL gun, age Alt single erst of Lal, wan heed oan 1250, procing& 10 wA caren, which = high wifrm over Iron dancer with bigs ‘of 1000 Alem [66}.‘Due wo uifonity and sity aves asin with Lay Ht has sor replaced with e Task cathode wih a tighines of only 250 Amst. Nee hath is ge aif ferontthan direct wie sources. Roe SCALPEL ope want age se, hls nif, lm bgaessNort Logi Ttians Figure 925 SCALPEL pri of prion source with» very high tal eitunee. Magnetic lenses ate then uted ofthe electrons. Since lowabenation, large field page lenses are preci, SCALPEL systems have smal exposure areas, typically of order | mm on aside. The mack and wafer amber andthe bem pth are Kept ‘vacuums of oder 10” tor while th gn is aitsned pease below 1% 10" oe The ptern {3 exposed by scanning the mask and wafer syncrooosaly through the iumiaton, with sage ‘elociesratoed 41 wo given a redaction fo the exposure, ‘The SCALPEL mask comprises @ ~0.1 yun low-Z membrane, often a sion sch silicon aide, nd © 0.5m high pate lye, spealy WiCr. Notice this smc es thatthe to tam tic layers type wed for dark regions in proniity ray mas, The bigh 2 mitral ca "ere election bean io high angles, wil the scaring in he low-Z material pres a negligible angular change inthe velocity. An aperture inthe back fal pane of the projection stem blocks {he sctred electrons, generating a high conan aia mage. To improve te mechanical aly ofthe membrane mask the images dvided ato ~1 mm rows tht ae sitchedtogetber inthe fal Image. A skit regio comtaning th detecting highZ massa round each expan sr em the edge ofthe image “The SCALPEL process, slibough a leading contender a8 an NGL, hs several ificuties hat ‘mast be resolved 67}, Nataly o source of commercial SCALPEL, mcs eit no wil as ‘epaic be via, Afr» 4 redaction, the image size onthe wafer of ane xan are 0.25 ma 5mm. The small eld ize means at acta puters most be iced ogetr This i serious com ‘em, since mainsining tical dinension contol over stiched features s extemely fea ‘SCALPEL has oped a semblened approach in which eaues pear he ee eis bad one where pail expats are done fom each side. This east nuh es sigan ttching ees Peshaps the mos dificult problem wits SCALPEL isthe throwphput! image gual rade ff, High Uhroughput ina SCALPEL system requires 3 high econ fee ast a was dscnsed for ew S9Esanaex-wy Ros 227 energy ion implantation, space charge effets fed oa blooming o spreading of te beam: (on implantation the energy’ at which ths is impotant i =1 keV compared withthe 100 keV ual ‘sed here, But the aus are -1000% ore msi thatthe electrons ase i SCALPEL) Excelent image gusty can be obtsined at low electron cece an reasonsbletrowghpa an be cased at high fence. Ht resis o be sen wheter high thoughpat systems canbe ui for sO. feats. 9.9 E-Beam and X-Ray Resists Fue 928. Crossing fa bam it ‘ee bss PHMA rare hae rn In oh enti of «OC me Image production in the resist is very differen in xray and e-beam Tthogeaphy than for traditional ‘optical libopaphy. In an optical process the energy of the sbwrbing photon well deine. The ‘Photon energy i give by mie Enis em Foran Hine source the photon energy i 34 eV. contrast, high concentration of secondary gc- trons wi a wide rngeof energies produced spon export 10 eter eletton booms of Cs Rather than designing the rsist otha singe ctl yeacin is event te expose the est must be designed so tha th dese rection our preferentially bu ecpize tht may eatin wil oscar. Because the encrpetic Beams pena the eit wel inf he suburate, andes eae "ons (Gamage) inthe substrate mast lo be considered. Thi section wil ics inten cher isa rections in the reat The neat seth nll sees pace damages The secon, Wil ‘concert on xy damage, bt the eifes are Slr or -bea expose wel In resists two types of chemical changes are of particular interes. Te photoresist ta re ‘ten uscd nonopical lithography cus of long chin a bon polymers (Se Seton 8.2). Upon aan sts on aj ‘ent chains may be displaced and the carbonate wil bond ‘Geely. This process is Known a cos inking Highly ros linked molecules disave more showy in a developer solution ‘A material in which ross ning i the dominant reaction wp fexponue i 2 negative resis, As dias in Chater ra thon can als dsr the polymer chins, rendering thm mote Soluble fa he developer A asian which chain Sesion s ‘he dminat reaction upon exposure is postive resi. The mot importa eit ee cons a Sst Sy forthe exposure type and energy Table 93) and sitar to damage daring plasma cxching. On ofthe most comely used pase plo resis for high resolution work i pelyetyl ‘mehacyate (PMMA). The monomer or PIMA is ACH, CCH YCOOKCH))— ar 1 as fr semstvn, but good contrat (iypialy 20 4). In PMMA both cro tiking ad by fragmenting the polymere ‘ins cur Figure 926 shows cross linking in 8 modied PMMA), bt the rate of sisson is much lager Uni tit of ros inking The fiagments ar abot 100 A ong. Like maya 228 Nore Lesh eines “Table 93 Lear aon cnet oa nd REO — EL Semivty xe. Rest ‘Tone (ation! conta en . 10 20 0 ta as : : 2 0 i CoP e os os 10 ‘ Rovlartwed 20-500 a 702000 i | "oreo pal en fra oumon opaeinae Gnas Ar Rice a RES ; Sen simple hydrocarbon polymer, however, i stands up very poly in gins ‘ching environments. Ava restt maly PMMA. rete ae i “ CD) res Sevabincieyriaanecrrem tect sees a mean the imaging resist for a INoff process. A variety of derivatives of PML. Toe Srucacnned Greae asccane casa! " ‘polymer structure has been replaced by HAN Mey -CNOIEHER = = Sent Mindray Toy in BR st ae He etn ‘A umber of pegatve resists have aso been faecal. These ws have component the polymer chai hat enhanc hs iki of sm inking. Typical rss inking component incl chioromethy! sie epoxies, and vinyl groups (se igure 9.27). Durog exposure the po realy cross ik atthe poss, rein the sob ofthe tess | developer, The negative ress generally Rave semsvies at 2000 | be than the eat poi resins, Bt have fw contrasts an are pom swelling durog the develop eye eRay exposures ee ipicaly done in thik eit ayers and ins vertical sidewalls wit wel contol este sizes, Tn coir | ming resists are often used in eeu libopapy to mininescatering effects. The pt» transfered i «had musk by ita a etching When he eit mst be dre wedi an ck vroamet, eter &novoloc-ased opal piers or nlafslfone taper ‘Teese resis sr eve less sensitive thin PMMA. As en exemple, Shipley AZ-1390. «coma sed postive tone optical esis. acts ta negative resi under e-beam expose with cost an regis a done sbou Ones hat rogue for PNA, 9.10 Radiation Damage in MOS Devices ‘One ofthe consequences ofthe use of energetic Beams such 8 xsays and e-bams fr libognks is thatthe beam snot cued othe resist layer, ithe he beam o the secondary elt ANN Figure 827 Canin gmpe sie ‘Sperm cs eg Roto senMOSDais 229 or high energy ration gonerted bythe beam will ead 1 unintentional and ofa undesirable ‘chemical changes inthe undelying layers 68). The most eenstive of dhe coon IC srt hese effects are oxides and oxdehemiconductr interfaces, Tis section will eview some of the wimary ess of radiation exposure and ica he repr of tee eflecs. Pra comprehensive "sie the reader i fered to Ma and Dresendore (6), Was ben observed that ial eases the fied oxide charge dent, the new rap den- iy. and the inrfae Mate dens of MOS devious to ncreate (ee Chpte fore discon of those defers). The ted charge sits te threshold vole ofthe MOS transistor The terface states shift the threshold and reduce the carrier mobility. Neal taps inthe onde can case the device to degrade more rapidly under electrical tess, Trapped charg changes the local edi the ‘vide and way ultimately leat to destruction, As sbown in Figure 928, the pce by which these trae effects arise is quite comples. It muy involve a det bond bsg mechanism during he sorption event, or the damage maybe cased by the absorption of ear ere in the ed. ing the exposure. From Figure 928 Ht aparet tha the cari In the oxi fall into rps 0 they may create tops through bon beaking. An example af he bod Bcsking mechan beleved i cur during the radiation of MOS devices i shown in Figure 9.29 In this example am oxygen ‘acancy leds to a sained S-Si bond. Holes crested during epowae are captred casing the iO, mosene | Cant ete treo fe api seen | Figure 928. sinon dig tm put er Ma and reser, eprne y perwsion Wey a SS‘Moni io eis Fire 929 nue een res ee SSetide de nla tygen Dac oan oxygen ay. ‘wore some asta Roned sete teres wo lat tck avin a permanely ented tod 70. AL ke nace iis eve srl apne lore bys wich aga pase defer es sanctum of orig eves in th ue nese wo one kes, he anaes ns pronneced nk nes This epoca canbe pon by Ney Ht am ers cna and Ny ae he fed cage nd nertace i dey, pete, nd iesprosimacly 2, 12)-Ar opie eben eso Ue (210 Co st To" Cectum et) a MOSPET wih 300A ge ene wllexpeence a ed charge ieee oo of he incase in Gd charge demand ier te density can Be epi y 40" evel in fring 73) Ths sign esl since Bal ame f to si cobs is dane at enperates alent hat fgh, Row taps, onthe fe hand req Sic nyors of en TO Tae ae mos ee ape ec nil ese enprt apoaies TOOT. Ass ely tek nd ecg ah frocss sch osc ptrung ay ve ete ap at cnet fe removed nd ele esc tchnapcs wl te moe scepter age. : ‘When ding dcp srr ees wit eying ond ht bees sown oxide pon thy oxygen tow terete ate rion he (5) bt some a hes aman nie vanes ene evs wih 0A pa ne wr food en Stet in ena devices kr ec sing Teeny ea pao of ta tins od endo i ong wt (7 wth pa > fr stowing fod ec sven 30% Av ae, oe damage emt exgete ob Sos Kereta hoa of ep sabi does 9.11 Summary Because of faction efx cl nga isnt exp oe apa of rng entre 2 eat sizes moc es than 0.0 a; however, co for oil patering at these dimensions the sup. Sone of eps canes fr mone Hon gph eet te ad PF tin electron beam (EL) snd proximity and projection xray CXR} ttboprahy. iret write Problems Potroess 201 has demonstrated he silty w peduce Feature sas of shout 10 nn, ar excseing device requ mens for he foreseeable fur The proces is oo shi, however. to make Man tegned chee !msraficring vale. Proximity x ithography fas the peat or volume pdtion since ke ‘optical ibogrephy. is parallel rar than a seta proces. The ben ay sours ached tye hions and lasers plasms. Poviniy xray ithograpty ses shoes wavelength poses ‘Masks mus be fenced ona thin membrane, Dsurtion ofthe mak uc to meme emel effects, and exposure aging ar all senous concern. Peto xray panty use eectag asks and sof xrays, avoiding some ofthe problems with proximity spt ut pests Ro 2et of iicutes. Finally, SCALPEL, ajrojetion eben system, wax prected SCALPEL loo ses membrane asks but avoids many ofthe problems ound in the postal try tect, 1. Consrc table of he wavelength and cer af line ne and Ar laser opti sources JOA xray photons ate deBroigle wavelength of 10 keV elect, Use Equation 717 te pedi he proxinty pining diactin Lied minimum feae sine foreach nie if te [oximicygxp is 10 um and = 2 Ione examines tie Monte Caro resus for a e-beam expose shown ia Figure 9.11 some of the scaring events ivolve sctering angles (he sgl Between the ince eugene ‘locity vectors of rete than SO Explain rly why this cen far ore oti Dea Titnogaphy than non implant, ‘1. Esimat the parameters in Caution 9.10 i the bean broadening inate i he oper hal of Figure 9.10. Use the isera seal on he lower par ofthe diagram wil be atray) 44 Referto Figue 95 focan e-beam column. Where migh you expect observe ay om his ‘oluna? Wheve would they be partly incense? {5A proximity ay mash is made ip of tngsten absorbing pliers on silicon nde membrane, Ifthe membrane els 10°C during exposure and the ll si is 23cm 0 side, how puch ca the eld be distorted det thermal expunion? Using apronimaion the ‘maximum allowabe isaton js about one-fourth he minimum Feature sz. whats he ‘maximum temperature ise allowable onthe mask the minima festure sz 0.1 pa? % (@) Penumbra bor (ee Equation 9.16) canbe peal reduced in xy lho by wing ‘sontac rather tan proximity priming. Why this comical done? (©) What ar the relative advantages of hemonic nd eid emission outs foe high-esouion ciccewrit electron been ithopraphy? (©) Atypical proximity conection i appli to an leon beam expose. Which pater wouhd eeive longer exposure ime sla line cine na Sse pte of Features? Fai your ane 7 How thin mas sco nitride mesbeane befor 905 transson a the wavcng ne in ‘Tale 92. 8 According o Equation 916, the poearbral bar can be minimized if he aperieo he gap is reduced. Explain he wae. nvoived for each of he two pareete, References 1. F.B. MeLean. HE. Boesch, Je and T,R. Oldham, “Elton Hoke Generation, Tsp, ad ‘rapping in SiO2" in onng Radiation fete in MOS Devices and Cea TP. Maa .V: Dessenorfer, eds, Wiley ntrscence, New York 1989,Chapter 10 Vacuum Science and Plasmas Uni now most ofthe nit processes that have been discussed are runs atmosphere pessure. The rcrclectonis process Ua wl be covered the nex our capers, however are un acta humers, The fs al of hs chapter wil review vacuum since and technology wl ist i {us the fandamental psi of molcules and som i vacuum chamber. Ie wl tee go hag Sein uf te bse sapien wed to produc, conan and meaare vacuum Forte informaion an be obtained in several ferences [1-4 The second bao he caper i devoted othe physics tnd technology of plasmas or glow cachrges. Tis typeof system used fr tbe phys aod ‘heical deposionof hin and foretctng Ssoquentchapers wil discuss the dtl fea ‘these proses, bt thi chapter wil ly the foundations for understand plea process. 10.1 The Kinetic Theory of Gasses° (One ofthe topics hat wil aie throvgh the nex section of tbe Book i the behavior of gasses in 3 ‘asuum chamber, To apple he behavior of gat pase reactions, gaseous beams, Pet fv. Ind srface bombacdnen, we ned to develop 2 ode f gas mcecules. One ofthe mos common, tte Kine theory of gates, teas gascous molecules as hard spheres. Then the pobablity dn thon of veloc is even bythe Maxell sped distbuton (Figure 10. Fora spe minotak 28s he probabil ofa molecule ving a cern saad is sven by aon wre m i the mas ofthe molecule, Ai Bolumsna's conan, vis the magnitude ofthe vel. nthe temperate i vi, The sped, o average magitde of Ue velocity is ise by (1023 Yor MeNete ean ois 257 The average component ofthe velocity in any dseton Isahven by woh (03) ‘8 8 far : me fe oa) “Tee temal vy soften hg. For example ooeclentogen tm mes as a neg {compare of te Berna Seon of abot 280 us | tasceso7 S30 mite The dso o the eal: {yi andor, and therfore it tee po extraly ‘poi foes he average vlc fe sal resus wan hpi te ass il ters net macroncopc ow fom high ow res Oe a micencop lee hs induced ow vlc ee to is aed ono the mc larger thermal eli Teil see maybe ang sais the press seat ay mat ots ba on average the ow Sil mae rm high oo presser. ‘One fhe rimay chan by which gusses 1 amos peste lange veloc We ps Ys ‘olson, Comiera ole of dsmetr doving fanny ine gan anther e Same gps within anced th projected pa ofthe st stom, clinon ocr The ak Gale tc has liso cow vest of ih which nts had per pono, fear lines the acta ress secon o snl mole. he pcb tas clin il esa vert distance Li given by Figure 101. 4 Macwatin spe dnsibton ot ‘al hve the mapntne of vei. NE Patan 05) where is the numer of gas molecules per unit volume. For spe toc molecu like Ny ad x discommonly taken as 3A. west P= 1 the average ditance between clisins commonly called the mean ee pth A am be epproimated as awh 08) ‘Amore sigoros sai testnet wil show that ast (107) Since mis nt commonly known, must he calculated from & macrncopic equation of sate, ‘The ides! paw adek rr)Tile 10) vaste ane ac en Be aT Yao Sent and ames wher isthe pressure ofthe chamber, x commonly used. Combining equations, ar Vind" . Atos of use equatins can be derived frm his simple mode. Table 1. iss afew 2 harris ax derived rom Knee tay. ns table, C5 he beat eapty per ent an the gus species andthe average sped as defined in Equation 102. These formulas are api ‘only when A=="Ly where tsa carci length ofthe chamber (or example the chi ‘laneten Tiss called the vicous ow regime. We will forthe ms being, conte our reas this pressure rime: ‘ial. atopic must be introduced tht nay seem a bit abstrat but uma lps ef Real from Chapter 3 tht fx donaty Jean be dete the net fox of ‘rough ui are pe amine. J can also be thought of asthe mumber of moles hat ‘sf of ont re er uit time. is given by ant aS. fer. [a a1 1-2 bem ~ V Zaki ‘Once agin tis can be a very lage number For example Jy fo tm of nitopen trom at tures outs 10" msec "Score ishing this sectoe & words requited about unis of pressure. Table 10.2 Tiss ofthe most common uit and tir meanings ‘The uni of toe (Ue pressure tht woud Parenter Symbol Viscosity 3 romlconaciviy “ible 102 Carer hone a ee _ = Usit Conversion Factor ‘Sanda amos a> 133310 Found per ee Hoa to Towrer mig xrer se) ‘m0 Pascal er em 5). isa some of He un) 1090 = 18 isn mar | 10005 1° “ohg ani don va Tong el wat F102 single cium sytem showing eiorn 26:sFoeanicovee 239 ‘olumn of mercury | mem) hasbeen commonly ised in destibingvaciury equipment. We have opted this convention in this book However, i tan MS uni To ane the eqpatons dese pein this ayer you mus coaver toa consent unit set 10.2 Gas Flow and Conductance ‘This section wil desctibe he equations used to caculee pumping spots snd upg 5 ow. In mess ing te flow of snp Tigi Tike water. conan ent might be te volume Row ete sy i saloes per hour Although volumeze flow rai setimes used in deserting Bans ance yn bing uping See, the pole fn tps ow nhs ramet gcse rmich more compre than Inui. To avoid tis problem thoughpa fs wed to eeerbe he ‘moun of gas lowe Uwough a sytem. The mass of gunn some vlone Vis Gay oy where pis the mass dest (m Xm, Ten the mass ow rt is : a a qo The trouphpu ofa pas , which hay units of pressure-volume, given by onut casa (as flows are ofen measured in tes of a standard volun, tha i, volume that an equiv ‘cuanto gas would ocupy a O° and Ian of presse. For example on anand tre the smvount of gs tat would aceopy air ata 273K, Since! mae of gus ocupes 24 Lat tan. ‘ard conditions, one Sandal er is 122-4 moles Alteretvely. one standard bier per minute i " Canter Atrouphpst of 760 torte por mint. A ow of 8, then, is oflen measured in stdin ers oe L Standard cubic centimeters per minute, Now cosier sale vacum syste showa in Figure 102. Gas fous through the chamber, ‘ube connects te chamber tom pump a the inlet ofthe pump is ta pressure? The conductance C | ‘wae stcntwiner shi is assumed to Be ta uniform pessre Pe A ‘fe vacuum componeat is given by J ms 019) ‘echt win tow 0 eerie ‘Te condscances cane calelated for a vaiety of seomaics or they can be found ia tables Like ecu pps240 1DWoxm Sees wanes tect conictnoss, condita all sn iy PLLA LOR ea et in L niin fa — fom 6 a Aho deed conductance satin gaan Ineyond the ope ofthis book, we note in psi : Ahrconsstace of ibe of Samer Dan ent the vscoun Gow epine ‘ co 18 x tt eer eR, (10m \ er Pte eg of al own mow eo al se Be snd, (fa syrcm. Flowing large amount of gs though 4 vacuam system while Keeping the chan Frese cow othe pp presse eves a Yacoun sysem wth very lange erica. Ss. ‘ste: mst therefore be deigned with pede: abe, and he parp must be placed ch the chumbe ‘fin its dese to contol dhe pressue in a vasuom chanher dring a process. The win ti low ate of ypicl pump esanot he independently conoid. Siace or mst pups HPs {eal (volumetric displacement i esl constant over abroad range of int pressure, dhe Ov Pt cbs mt the nt pesese Te poser othe chamber ean be St by adjsting he Bo 5" the gas inthe char but ths vacnble is normaly served for optimizing eter proces puso ech as oniformity. The peste a vacuum chamber can he easy cooled, hows ing vaiablecunductace valve (Figure 103) into the papi Une. This cn be dove by 20 ‘Simple vane thet cam be oad paral block the ue, o in rp disse vacuum plone ‘onwiin blind rangement can be used. A pesire monitor tached to dhe caber Sm Feedback loop canbe we to maintain the presse athe chanber Fora road range of pump ndine Bows Pars at ually spite in trms of pumping spe. o.% corn Roa ‘ & ‘where, the nk par presi. Fo example, parted oe 1000 Umi sm, will pa ‘ln a tm inet preseere On the ther and eine pressure i 0.1 atm and the pups fis pesure main 1000 Vina ehe maint as fw that hs same pur cool ce = Sim. Furteme he pormpng sped generally i mt const 1 depends on the gs ing Sn te ill yresre The mex section wll scan the pew angen commonly usd 0 wd the types of pugs wed fr these sens. 10.3 Pressure Ranges and Vacuum Pumps “wo renute anges coresponding fo the mean fee ph ofthe gas mous Hae ts nly iesed. Te division between viscous fow and mcecalar ow occurs abot 1m ‘lns forthe fekavior ofthe asin thee two ranges ae enily diferent. Tis dvson 9 Do 103PesueAems ox Pimps 241 co he physics of the mokele-mccle ad mecle-wll itercons. Av prc te, vas tun pons a ako ofr dined by the echnolgy required to ae Wet The dios ae fates exile bu et pproniatly ine them fl 5 Rough sewn a or 10 tr Modi ac 1000-10" High vc 10ton-10-*toe orci Utraigh vacuum <1 <10""Ps Most of he prossing equipment used second favicon operas inthe gh mtr ‘axum regi. To emt a pure chamber. however, thy ar fen ppd ato eo rs Wig-vactim regime before iodine he poses gnc, Fr tha tema wl se these Feodetin of ih acu The rection of wlrahgh vas i ical ah hares neon ‘heal at nicest sed pal for meleclar am eilany Chap) Rough vacur prps al icvolve the povedlapaceren off tough the hana boven of piso, vane png or pap Allof ese pans vale Ue stp: cape a volume of, compresion of the capnred volne and gas tapas. Ths snpn ene fice of sch a arp i pen pu Figure 104 The ga be pumped saw tobe coi Gee hough 3 valve the piso eden back to he eine, Daring Be nea pat tools beth valves se cise and he gs compres. Neste ed ofthe ke te acd as sand he gs expe athe ihe ese oun, Olen ese vale fe staal spn fps ditferees 2 de gas c,h peas i jute ate of he Tilly expanded fly compresod voles. for example xt pres nad achieved in this simple pur is 0.01 atm (76 torn) These Steps maybe rnin ase of ges to on higher pears frets between nt and oul, “This simpe pon pu nt widely ed fo mio leone processing scheatialy. stead ery common ur for ough a wes oc. te) ane ye fem shown i Fgue 10S A met ends atached oan ope-10°Pa 10" Pa-t0 Pa Covent ait Renter yey ace AIBA temas 90 a a242 soYioum eno re Pans lecic motor is outed ina eyindcal charter about a ans that saps fom the cbnber ‘te. Spring load vanes side alo th wal of th chamber, sah of fret areas of th ump. Otis used to seal the vane and alban obelp with thin sliding action Te ial els to eol th pump, dissipating te st pert y friction and bythe compression ofthe gi AS ‘th he piston pp, the rotary vane syatern wes by coxnprening the gu the pp rots The ‘irl motion of th punp elias tered or cremate hal trans the rtatonl mation of the marino the up apd down meuon :equred for te piston pomp. Furthermore, as the ene secps pst che oul, the compressed volume Becomes very snl. These pumps ae commonly ‘sed m bh single-andwostge model, with variety of hough. The timate vasaam of the Single sage rotary vane pump i about 29 mic, while tworage pump en proce a acu of lees than | mor. ‘One ofthe problems associated with compression type pars the potent for the cnc i of vapors. AC the gas is compressed the paral pressure of gucous Yap eee the ¥apor pressure ofthe corespndiag ini at th gas emperatie it wil esi to sondens, fring ples {Ful These iui mix wit the pup ol sad ay ead to coroson, Ava se cxampie on ‘Side watt. The vapor presse water room emer is abut 20 tr tenet gas com ressed hy a factor of 10%, wae wll condense he parti pes of water nthe chaser moe (an 2 ro.r. The probe s mos acute when pumping emasve condonsbesroch a Cl andthe Chloroslaes. To voi ts problem, sal ow (or bleed fan inet gs auch aN ca be esd int the chamber, The use ofthese as ballasts Tits the lite presse ofthe pump. Fire 108 Shows the pumping characteris of we typical ary vane pump win and witht the we offs Salle pumping peed neal consent over brad ange ofa pram sol ling 2 the inlet pressure approaches the wltete vac, Silty the throats heey proportional tote inlet pevsure over mos othe rng ‘ample 101 Assume that he desired chamber for puri proces i 0.) torr and that dere is 20 presue drop between the pump tad the chamber. Also assume Hat aps flow of fim i eaded to obtain suitable recess els. Would the DSS pump whose chaceitics ae shown Jn Figure 106 be acceptable if mo Dalst is se? What ithe maxima Sow hat could be sd ‘ith his pump? According to Figure 106, pumping speed of he D6S pun at 0.1 toes aot 40 cf (150 Vin, This would alow a maximum flow rate of about 150% D178) o& (015 si. Therefore this pnp emt adequte fortis soptication ‘There are to ways fo obtain higher throughputs iacease the volame pumped on each stoke oF Increase the routonl speed. Th former i expensive, Ths Iter subject ions of het is tion i the vanes, This limits rary vane pumps i aboot 2000 rpm. Alematvey, ove cut con Struct «pump without ing seal. Tie allows vey high rotation speeds. Compression acheived by wing a narow clearance etcen the aig pices and the wal Ia the spe cae ths cat be used as precompressor fra conventional rlry vane pump. Purp tha have been designed or this aplication ae elle bowers. The mos! coma blower in micocectgni fabrication i Ros blower. AS shown in Figure 107. the Root bower isa postive dapacemest pur tha co sists of two figure eight rotors that revolve at high spesd in opposite directions an Rave Very sal leaances(<011 mn wit espect each ote and the pep wills. There fx 50 mache sl 83Presue fins en Yaaun Pugs 249 Dt supe runes Moe ete Preset — woo tet a= wate ae Faure 108 The ning raisin of Leyold D6 and DET wo sper vane vaca pw ‘ot an lings LydFigure 107 sctemic dng fa Rots Nowe. we qu 103. Coneesor rosa ante et peter fr piel Row onc comey Lent exucen the suces As 2 result the compression rai ofthese pomp is only sbuut 30:1 sal epee o he inet pressure Figure 10, bt due to ee rapid otto tke pumping Speed is le ‘Alowances er themalexpunson to prevent serng thal redices pump fe psd higher com preston aie Two-stage blowers an alia be wed for lrger compression aie "Th inlet presse ofthe roughing pap an Be aie by placing Roots Nowe efor he rary vate pump. The increase inthe pumping sped of a Roos blower with a 2ro flow compres sion ai off and pumping sped nd a oary vane pump wih pumping sped Sq cen be cal Ine wing he expesion = S50 Sa> SuSn gE (a9) ‘Thus the combination ofa 40cm tary vane pm an s 20 lower with a compression rao of 20 will rovige a effective pumping ped of T6D fm Taking the previous example where te ‘amber presse was tr the Inet pressure of th oughing pup alr te blower now ses © 20 0.1 o€ 2 rs. According to Figure 106 ifthe Mower is ocked with & DS rear vate pump, ‘hisincreases the anima permissible chamber ow ae fom. smo about 3 “The use ofan net purge or ier before the roughing pun also common practice. As he mp operates he pump pts bo The van presi of pump at this temperature quite ih Unless tere is «How of es nto the pap, thee vapor Row re the pump a he chamber cess know as Becksteaing. A common example the ate of a roughing pump to eva 2 Seale chara As Ue pressure i th camber falls, so oes he Bow of gases to the pug. Eve tually the Bow dope low enogh allow barkstreming. The pump ll por condenses on snd coo tates he old chambr wl. Am ie page fw in ont of he pp wil ede aches. ut wil ls ines he spprer timate Presse ofthe pump. Cheeta ar alo avallbe © solve his poste, Figure 109 Casvay view of citann pep Fae 1010 cue iw sal ‘peso ge ton behiseeon oy + 02Pesceoms aVeunPures 248 Altematively ne can use a les of” pump. This spe of pump uses a numberof Bower sags in teres {oipump chambers mtorr presses and exhaunt he gat to "rte Dry pumps ate more expensive an lige than a ary ane pump of comparable trehpur. bt thie aenconta Inaing wat ake tem pope Forbigh-prty and fr cor rosie sppiations. "Hig vacuum pumps for micrelestroic fabian ft ito two categories hone that pump the gas by transfering ‘momentum to gaseous molecules am! those Wa ap gaseous molecules. OF thes, the former are prefered when pumping ‘conosve and lore gasses or when putping Wigh flows of fuses, andthe later are refered by porping smal ows of ier gasses or when only wing the high-vacsum pump for purping down the chamber before processing. Valves re mos alway uscd to foal Niehvacwum topping pap, allowing the chamber tobe pumped by medium and rough ‘acuum pp when ra pumping cow fom an stnsphe ni once the proces eas Bin to fom “The two most popular types of momentum tater pumps ate diusion pump al turbomoleclar pumps: Dif om pumps (Viguc10) are exemcly simple ain tbs They operise by heating an athe bolo othe ump. The oop ei vapors ise trough the ctr sack and are jected through vents at very highspeed. They then sike cooled Wells atthe top of the pump. condense, and rm down the wells. Gases are pian parped by momencun water Detseen the vapor stam sad fhe #38 moles. mal ceils may also be wansportel by disolving i the vapor ‘ropes. Ashe ils hated gin te Boom f the pa, ‘he gas even ofl and removed through a eoughing pup hich is comected the fing sbown athe ght of Figure TO. poss t oben compression ais of 10 in thee ups Ditfsioe pump have high pumping speeds os log as (helt presse im the lecular orgie, Mos if ‘son pumps my 2a be exposed 1 an atmosphere, oF chem Seal eacton called cracking may eeu between the ho pug land the oxygen i the a Eten more suis re concerts ‘at sme of the pump ol vapor sill oe condense Hn the ‘up aod wil backteun in tbe vacuum ster ending fo onamiation.Difsin pup stems nay use bales or Sold tape to eens most the Beckers pomp cl Because ofthis concern, fasion punps are panel sot Asset when exremely high pry i roquie. 'A sbomoleulr (or iro} pur as shown in Figure 10.10 has 2 large numberof sages in series. Back stage246 {0a Sine Psa TUROUNE THPSID Pag pede Damasio = pW cow i [ee 7 a pie br rem twit eon pre Figure 1011 Piping speed and compresion rain op bo py Secon int rss for seve consists of fm Dade tht rotates a extremely high sped >20.000 rp) and stationary se bade called stato, The spacing Between te alr and rotors af order fm. Each stage Innes modest compreston rat, but because ofthe large sunber of ges the toll pump his cor ‘reson ratios lage at 10". The high gressue side ofthe pup mut be tached to ought pump sace the owe pressure most he maintsined at lw pressure. Since the moment tans ‘pends on the mare ofthe ascous moleule, the compression eto depends strongly on gs bing pumped. Atypical pump tht has a compression rato of 10 for N, wil havea compression aie [Es than 10 for H, (Figure 10.1), Asa res, ubopumped cbanbers can have high concent flight gasss such as Hand He. Because pump oil vapors have high mas, however, ubopanpe! ystems are very clan "When the ukimate in purity is require, names pps are ed. One ofthe mast co mon in ase in mucecroic rocessing the crypt. Ae sw in Figure 1.12. yoru ois of loved cyte refigeratr, Te cold hand of the efigracr, which is nano ass 120 Kis contained ina purnp body that ataces tothe vac system, The cal head s gene ‘onstrated of caper ot slver and may ave coatings of active charcoal wo ure ap gasses. A ‘dition shied i fn wed o minim the thermal load onthe Read. Al of the chamber gases ‘excep He wil condense onthe cal head, lbogh gases wih high boling points are pumped mse ‘liciealy than thowe with low boiling points Evel, he cold head becomes saturated ‘Mood gases whose low thormal condbetvity prevents ures adsorption. At this poi he <> orp ast be sated fom the chamber, Heated and purged io devo the exlected gasses, and he eed downto ek tt service. Cryopumps may ht be turned on Un he chambers ta ‘acum, oc their paring capacity willbe peal diminishes. “Aroteciype of gas enainment pup sed fr high vacuum is he sorption pump. Spe rps operat by chemically physically ssoring the gas molecules. Early vorption pumps Srbon, bel the Matera in modem parmps is comeony some Frm of aetvted ALO, The ‘nAewn Seanad fee Meson 247 = slum sicues aolies ste peamated by tema ‘aves mereonected by utsform aster pes. The ran aes ore size vais withthe mite haf chosen if ‘play between 3 and 1S A Ths type of pump i ako calles molculr steve eto the tebe re: cassie il. Sorption pumps ae often operated by cooling theo iid nitrogen exper and allowig the {58 moleciles to ppaly adr on the pore wall [Pry masog ‘The pumping efficiency dep onthe sve ofthe as, molecules relative tothe size ofthe pos. N;, COs HO, and heavy hydocarns ae pomped ell by ‘most Sesion pps, but Kit wable gases SOEh a He aren. AS with ryopumps, sorption pumps an be recycled by eatiag he while under a yeaa ‘Tre third typeof enranment pun wes rl ‘shale coatings of esctive mal remove gaseous ‘molecules In tnitnsabination pups a ana onan Glament heed to deposit tine of Iighly racine metal on the Inide surface of the mp. As the imer surfaces Become coated ith 228 molecules. the pumping speed falls. To regenerate the ‘Tis pu down. Spur ion pups operate in a ¥ery “ilar manner, bu the thin reactive layers ae ele iste by sparing Gee Chap 12) stead of subiaion. The ier sua of sper on pumps may be shaped to masinize th ares being coated. As wilh stimation pumps, the mom comma macral deposed 10 pump the gas is tanium. Both subimatioe and sputer ion pups are ‘extremely cee, robust 0d simple f operate. 10.4 Vacuum Seals and Pressure Measurement Je the rough and medin-vacwumeegon elastomers, commonly in the form of Ones ar we 0 ‘ol the vacuum chaser. O-ings have the advantages of low cost and ease of reuse A commen plication isthe wafer introduction and exit dors of he vacuum sytem. The choice ofthe elt ier depeods primary om be chemist’ ofthe chaser and on he terete that the elstomee ‘mus withstand. One ofthe most popula lasiomer materials is viton, a vueesized rer. Some sort ft mechanical support mast be Bilt tothe joi o prevent the Orrin from being ple no the ‘habe by the vacuum. One pup choice i to set the Oring in groove, Common practic i 0 teers the O-ring grove o TOR ofthe diameter of te Oxing and o make the groove wide enough to prevent the compressed O-ring rom ling he groove; 140% of he diameter of he Oring is often sed. Tis ensures 2 metabiomea conuct betteen te joining suze in te sealed conion, reducing any vibration at the seal and thereby improving the reibiliy. Two common types of ‘O-ngisealed Barges ae shown in Figure 10.13, Because of olabty concens sega O-Fng ‘als ighly toxic gasses maybe contained by 2 double Osing arangeect where he space betweed ‘he Orsings is sample for the presence of he one some tals begin leak at esses below 10". For high an lahigh-vacoum sys ‘er, etl eal tbe we Te ths tp of seal, he sealing mater mst be plasty248 oven Sveeasrasnes efrmed during the sealing proces. Early igh acwum ‘ystems weds mullesble wie ich goin mach he Same manner aan elstomer Orig. One ofthe mos ‘orion high-vacuum Seals ia umes we the Conti ‘hangs shown a Figure 1013, sl 2a hich meta fing is pinched between fo sans steel ee ‘edges. The st common gasket ters copper cr a ‘oppeiver alloy. Aur cloning force mest be ‘Spied to cose aight seal Tis uvaly provid by Closely spaced bolts around the edge of the Mags To rosiain igh reialiy, the sealing shes tnt be replaced afer every use and the hfe ges mst De {I tested agus damage when he sac exposes. Eo ech mmm scr Sect te Tp = Son ges eaten nea secace analy gree oe aoe pap Spt ene Eis vata Soe ‘ecard ont ne eet es Eiki anoed rset we ooe ‘mh ais Ce ee se SES hte ann tee Ly Pecan Seaceetis se al Site matoa mds fone ane Semin Satins te ay ee ope ox, nap Schule hy nips as oe weet oe Figure 10:13, Two ype of Oring sale fr wen ‘asa andthe Cana age ne fo ag i 2 tary of popular vacuum gauges opestes by measuring the herbal conductivity ofthe git snd om ‘ha, ifn a pressure, Ths tye of cane tes back 1 1906 [3,6] They porate by passing cute! thragh {we and measuring te eerste ofthe wire. Wie peting temperatures ace Hope low (few bund epee cenipde) to peotong wire if, maximize srs tivity. and ensre tat mos of he heat anstr i heal condation tog the gas rather th ‘adatve het los. Pra gangs, the esitance ft wiz i alll teased by 2 Wheaton ‘widge. Te power fo the ments adjust aac the bridge an thofore main a conse ‘wt emperate. In thermocouple gauges, themmacoupl pot weld othe hetero mes te the wire temperature. Themmecouplescosit of two disarm and they prodse 2 all ‘compete depencet voltage Tae mensreren ofthis vl is cai han lecing « Whessne lode, bute techie asf semi than Pre gnige. Etro page has tesa (of sbou Lomo: Cae must he taken in using stp of fags, weve, thatthe thes on sctiviy depends on he ga inthe charter, "Neither mectnicaldefetion northern conduct gues ue uslelin messing esses mich low I mio. The ypes of gauges ment common wed bigh- al ahh vaca pies "eae onzation gangs, They opete by wing an cecton sunt nie nc anne ge ed sm electkal it olect he one. The on crt roduc this way is felon ofthe plese usTeoodorDuaane 249 he chamber, The elects steam can be ected by esting # amen ha ato) or by a pase {col exthode). OF vee, hot cathode gauges ae moth simple to Operate, bl my present problem hl conosiveenbvens or utaccan chambers whore limon: teasing i concern, Furth ‘mor, ot aren gouges sully cannoc be operated at presses aban U-test Semen Ii. The uhimatepesne for eter typeof gauge is uiretly mid by the ait Yo ease very sal jon cues but soe tps of toniaion gages can detent presses a ow a 0 tr 10.5 The DC Glow Discharge” | =| gue 10:18 imple paral pte psn rea, ee ‘Many of the fw pressre process that ae dssrbed nthe nest ev9 shapers wl involve the se of 4 glow discharge or plasma. These clue various ch poceses. chemical por deposition, am Satering, Even the bul in many lidhogrphy tools ae psa vosees. The term “low discharge ‘erst he Hight ven ff by the plasma, Pesos can head in place of bigh einperatre to cack ‘molecules ad so ive some veaction chemistry Ir sho be wed to rete and aes fons. ‘ome aplication bth fot may e npn, ‘A plasma isa putly ionized gus. Assume tha he net flow of gs omtins molecule AB ‘mae fom ators Aan B. The types of processes that nay cca inthe glo dacharge cn be eir- teterized a (71 Distciation ‘Nome iontation ‘Molecule inition Molesliexitation CLAB EAR te vshere the supescpt "sles to species who energy is much larger han the ground sate ite Stxised toms oF molecular frgrnents we called radials. Rates's hae at incomplete bonding ‘Sue and ae extemaly eatve In Ar or other elemental plasms, tere oe no eacal. Hos a8 ‘charged loms or molecals such as A" and AB" They may Hate mote thas one postive ches oF Ima even be noptively charged. In simple capcvedscarge plasmas the alls nay conta 11 ofthe toa pass charged species maybe les than QO1%. Although mt speciflly ere send, ene nied gece repose a well Figure HLU4 shows a snp paso ecto. ‘Two perl pas ae contained ma vacuo sytem snd atached tox de supply through vacuur power feedtroaps. A pial presue fora plasma process 1S 1 tom A high voluge source (ten a charged ‘apeitor) connected momentarily to the ee fo far the pasa, Te inductor protects the de supply from the high volage ar Ar I tr the gue va age fora em sktroce spacing i abot 800 V, ‘hile aout S00 V is equived or -cm spacing, Uni the ar srk, the ges wil mo const urrnt sine Hf acs as an intr, Comidr hat happens 35 the plasma forms. Ifthe vole s high ntuple actor wil exceed the break ‘down Gl ofthe gas and a high voltae ar will ash tween the two lectodes. This are wll crete lange numberof ove and fee cleo, Becsise of CPABA Hehe CPABEAB Fete vote jk250 {2am Sms ant Peers tho ected inthe chaser, the electrons wi he ‘ecelerscd foward the postvely charged nm nd the ions will be seceeed Toward the ep carga cathode, Due totes as, he elton ‘wl be acslerted mach more ply thao ie soul) ‘moving om. Te ions wovel sos the fabs alse rite We cathe. When they dost case :Llod of secoady eles from the mitral inthe Cadede. Tse cles age aceeated tack towed ‘he anode. Ifthe voltage soos te elects i ae enough, when these high-energy electons sole Inelsically with neural aon they create more ns ‘Tis pcs of saconday electron fleas al on = thon Sots tbe pema, Even nhs simple 1-D case the ston forte {moet ofiin te ams iye e e | han anew questa smc : s Nene bel and charge dataton ae cot al rs fe A 1" Shelia: Pew 04S oe pcan ive and negative charge denses and he elec Sekt Four 1015 Ponca acguive tage densities and_St%Eth a functions of poston inthe pase, a the lest ed ann Figure 1018 Sracre of : plme a paene ul of the pura, the ots of law ad eats tre equal Since the cletons ave rapidly sceleee from te cathode the econ density ea the sade ‘smuch less han the jon density, and the region hv 9 net postive chap Newt the edge ofthis postive, charged region, tbe ceczons have giined enoeh ‘tery to cre ions, and so the on day increas ‘wih distance ito the pason, This postive char shields the renin ofthe plas fon the ethos, ‘edocing the Bld and therefore the Kazan ae AS ret the fn density peaks and hen ilo aca Stan value hugh he retnds ofthe psa When a moderate energy elec scars ineltclly eff of &revralotom,ittayexcte coe eve electron tox high-energy state, This state i vor short Hive (oer 10" se) and soe eid atom or molecule docs not move an apreisble distance between exelation ond 852 ‘Whe ie electron decays beck to is ground stati gives oF Ue energy inthe form of able a ston, The light fom the glow discharge arises because of thi optical ems process, Fortis rcess oor, high concentration of meee enerey elections is ered. Elects with eh ‘Bes greater than 15 eV pearl ionize the gs lel rater than exc en ‘The requirement for modeate-energyelecvons precludes optical emision near each ofthe fesurodes. These regions ae called dart space. The region jst above te cathode where mest of ‘he cecons have very low enrpes is ale he Crookes dark pace (Figur 10.16). The anode is sink for electrons and othe electon density jot shove the aoe sto small for appeal emi sion. This dak space is calle! the anode dark space. Finally hee ts 2 region above the cade where the elects have bee accelerated to very high egies, ening wo lomration, and hee at few electrons with nevis appropiate or emission Tis region ical the Farad dark pace cnatesonapce rete eome Figwe 1017, Schemaic of nF pms sysem 1058F Dsomoes 281 (One of the most rpurant aspects ofthe glow Uacharge for fabrication purpose ste large ewe eld in he Crooke's dir space Tors tht it and iffise 10 the edge this fcgton ate ‘2ccelerated pill toward th cade. I the cathode i coverd wi wafers or ther teil of Interest we car use this on torardnent Io deve varios pocees, The with ofthe dark space ‘epencs an the cher pes. At Tow press, the man ep of elects incase, an the width of the dark space creases. By controling the cher presse, eae can eet the ‘eneray wih which one strike the surface. The effet limits Se plasmas fo pesues greater an shout mor 10.6 RF Discharges Inmany cass, hematin on one or me of he estdes is sling, Take as an example 29 2ppbeaon at wil be coved he next cuter, he cing Osco nde, te eves ‘ator wih on wpe eof 10; acne! Mopac and en placed on 2 pases "ease. The eed ats nthe top he war pei od ene re beth nla Asis site he suas of he war and ssomy toa std hse yes become 10" em layer of silicon i about 15 ties lager than the etch rate of| lightly doped layers [25] An eliylene-iamine-pyroatehol-watr nature, however, ects iy oped son, bt dos not ack avy doped pipe yer [26 Defect selstie etching i done decor (highligh defen the waer, Defect ray be Invisible before eching ae ofen realy Observable by simple opt mrosony after pee] (000) See (27 IG FROKT ot) Codie Moliles 43:2, N8ML0160,(t mele) Wars wl on en oped Shwe £27 “ie SeinFAmgoe 8] ELPA ISmd) ane nonin cay sat 2 HOO (Si Regis Stain ase 30 SSHEHPRNOGCH;COOH Hikes we sow aed comers dependete117 Che nese poi te Maori pncaniocer Sea ngh The formato nd deh he per eee y 8g ect stsning. By counting tne dfs afer staining, defect eos can be derived. AM gh sore ‘dec stan etches have bee develop for GaAs, the mou common (sammazed n Tale 1) ne been aed nse, 11.2 Chemical Mechanical Polishing ‘One way to achieve global planation is wit chemical mechanical polishing (CMP). ‘The sles ot these unis pled fom 19901 1994 and more tan guard fon 1994 101997 [32], Ahowgh ‘rgnally developed for Ltewomectedplanatzalion, itis now aso being apled to foe eat processes such as device islaon as wel Inthe ealet snd most common ofthese proees, thik deci, commonly a spin-on or CVD gla i fist appli. The we is then mechanically bode in an ialine slay comaiing colloidal ica a sispension of abasive SiO, prices) and ‘etching agent [33] such 25a ute HF (ae Figure 17 for simple schematk). KOH sed NNH,OH are comsnon ari soltons fr de suspension, The pl, winch = typical around 10, ‘maintained o as to hep the sea prices negatvly che to svi the oration of large pe rstwork. A pH buffering agent seneimes ase wo ensure the stall of the process. The se of the partes that ae used dopends on he cesied emsval rae, with icatre report fanging fo (0.08 wo 0.14 jum. Typeally sted parle (~1.05 jm) aggkmorte to fern closers of oat 025 um dame [34 The sol content in he try ithe fo 12-80%, ‘The CMP pross is dsigned wo price a globally Re surface, eof srtches and conan ination. Gross mechanics! damage is prevented by the fact hat the Si prices beng wed the ‘Shar arent Rarer than th fi that ic being pla (35. Surface angle an CMP wales ee ‘pyrxinately 1° compared o 0" on flow pas, Duct the at serace ts formed, CMP wales «am have fur fewer defets suchas metal stages an opens, oth af wih comsaunly occur teat te tdge of severe topology. The smoothness ht cn be aan afer CMP can be pointe by he eran penetration dept fn Ko PDK] er ihe dae fe step te plthing pots uo 7 otto oe nt facet lad : econo dey R= recy a 4 taal Fr ee of pitino a 4 Pies vind = OOo nds owe 3 ISM R= 03 an nd ton cea Soa ti nba Ts Beeston Ti oor me tn he rt sh pl pa ce eye tas an wae py es ae Fa enon to y wheand mc pr ni] em mn ‘Ricco fon rie yas che ert sb eyo wae a pressure, Some typical CMP proce parame a N20 emcainereia Rtg 265 2 pal OW pce ae i cepa an “aero emoval te ‘hoy ‘a0 Depots ose ema Kno) 10-1800 Poise ne ‘un at) Paton ‘o~ * Pale Gm 0 ven in Table 1.2. cessing hepa pres incresses the removal ae ney, ut fs ees the sep gh rao of the piste feats [8] aswell a Intedsing the esi onde damage ‘nc conamietion ofthe rates lyr [39 (CMP has also been extended to the paouiation of tls sah as copper 42] end ung sen, For metal plinarization ache (pH <3) lures are sod. Thee slid hot frm coll "uspecions and so some agitation mus be uscd to maitsneovormiy [43]. Alisa tthe mor commonly used abrasive for tungsten CMP tesaie I is closer in tardess to tamgsen an most ‘ther abrasives. Tungsten is removed by continous, iting oxdtion of th tungsten surface ‘and sabsequent mechaneal abrasion 44, 45]. The slay fom 3 hyatd tungsten oxide hati Selectively removed by alumina parce af erder 200 nm. I hs Be sown ta fo peal CVD fungsze the removal ate increases a6 the fil gets thinner Tis hasbeen elie to he cane fe ‘gaan grin sie [6 Canrlly the tngaen CMP pronase wei ange see ity for W over SiO electives approaching 30are commonly schewsd ‘Chemical mechanical polishing of coppers pariculy teresting du othe low resistivity of copper and because coppers exremely difficult etch ina plz Thus cpp ct be steed by {CMP echiguc calla dsmancene processing. This willbe discased in Chace 15. Copper pole ished in an agacous Solon contiting pies several hundred nanomceria dane Type Sluis include ammonium hysroxice ie aid. and hyrogen peroxide [47 Posh ssp 10 1600 nmin have been achieved [8], Unk angsen copper soft tal Mechanica effete fave a significa’ effect onthe plish process. The polish rite has ben found tobe proporonal applied presire and eave near veloc. The pa condition and presare application mechan Se found woe pariculal span: for copper CMP. ‘Since CMP processes donot generally have ay end of proces indice, one must develop processes witha high selectivy or seve for very reproducible env res. The condom ofthe paishing po Key decrminne ofthe removal rate ine the port of the pad termes the Sty arial ate atthe sara ofthe wafer lai af he pa end o osc afer sever rs an Slows the polishing ae 9), The sition nhs probleme reqant condoning ofthe pa toa consistent roughress. This must be ade off pat lot deny, however, sine poe CMP were ‘fen sow grea aceased parle cout if plished inst aftr pd codon 38), Posipolsh cleaning isan importa se inthe CMP eit process, Gesesaly one mis te of lishing goats (anifarmity planarity, dewthput) saint clcanng fouls (paices. sce, ond er uric dae eid nie an mate cman Msgs gtaton maybe wel ornbinstion witha ef pad scrubber ora cleaning waliion oasis nthe removal ofthe calla ‘spemion tee he wafer [0] Usly Te wafer ened wo a second pd hts ese for ‘ean This ante must be tne Wo proven the eying ofthe ssspenion on the surfs ofthe Wafer, ale which edu romovals comicrably mane dieu, Fartermores cathe et behind er CMP may collect mt that i hard fo tenmve in stand pasa etches. Theseee ee 286 a9 ‘meta scratches ae sometimes calla isan wil short at suber wt s, Rais ar commonly prdocedin tungsten CMP processes in which he sara npc s emoned dan oy meager oxide, faving tingsten ony inthe Uwough oes. Such a process i doe sea he selective angen and the deposition atl ecthack processes deeibed i Seton 157 Te sd ane mina particles often severely scratch the oxide surface once alo the tangten had Bee ee Cleanup after tungsten COMP may also e signcanly more dificult cu to the lage eles potential of tngsenpatcls under spies prose condos (511. cite (1001) HE sep ay ‘ncloded tt off many of he smaller met! puis and to reduce esi surface dae 11.3 Basic Regimes of Plasma Etching Etching pisma environment ha sever gift advantages when compared with we ching. Plasmas ae re casir str apd stop than simple imimesen wet ech. Farhene, pl sich proceses ate ich les senitve ro small changes inthe temperate of the wafer Those factors make pls etching more repeatable tan wet etching. Most port for stl fats, Diss ches may have high anisovopcs. Plsin envionment ray also ave far fewer ptt ton tigid media, Fall, x plasma ech process podices less chem! wast thn Wet ang, As shown io Figure 112 there isa wide varity of dy eich poceses with fring sce ‘of psa and chemical tick Overadon this the variety of etch chemistries fed in type of ch system, Table 11.3 lists some ofthe mou coon. Clea. complete tev of hs topic would be complicsted and lengthy. The semainer ofthe chapter Wl eview a repecestae sample af hee processes. A few of he peal ch chemise fe the most common th poe willalso be presented. For farber infomation of pasa caching the feaer a refered tay a os ral releences (52-55) ‘The preceding chap inode the concept af glow dsharge, For a plasma ech proceso rosea, st stops mas our A feed gas induced into the chamber mus be broken Sows emily eactve species bythe plasms. These species mast ile wo the surtace of the wae a be adsrted. Once on he surTce, thy ay move about wrface diffi} an they tect wih exposed fim. The reaction product must be desorbed, difed sway fre the walt, nd be te Doe by te gas steam out of th eich eharber A with wet thing the cch rate is determine by the slowest ofthese tps. 1 tpical pasa ech processes, he surface ofthe il 1 be etched is sujet oa ent fox of fons, radials, elcitons, and neta. Athowgh the muta axis by far the lage “Title 113 Tea ein comes Ss (F/O, CR, CHL SF/050%, CLINIC ROC, CA, By SLD. NF Gir CCL, Ochs, COR St, CRE CLEE CIB, so, eat Cheech eros Six Chobits CRE, fps 5.8/0, 500, ca Bel Beier cuivewa, sieve, hs0. Nr SIyCh,CEUCh, Retareres Sepec ne Game Bciyar CUO.al CCF OJAM ty CHA, CONE, i Chui Chote Bae a eee, ec, ee ~ 14vigrPwssrerasratiiog 267 physical damage sree te she Son Ru. Chemical tac depend a bth on fax and the cai! fax Often hs bombard ses up a odio src layer ta sever! ney thick 11.4 High-Pressure Plasma Etching ‘The eae plesma ech equipment ntoaucd i C ction ates inthe erty 1970, was ‘esd on high presure,ow-power pss, where the mean fre pth ofthe seven he plasma Inch ss ha chamber se. The puna in sich roe aed ota ado the chemical Fraction or eching I dvs this by producing a eine specie oman ct pecs, Sie he nergy of on in the plata site ow. eching proces depends pinay on the hea the plasma Phos chemistry i extenely compe. To begin to understand he cherisy ofthe glow ds charge. itis sll oat frm protest The et wey sid pasa eh chemisty is tim produce ty cation tatnride (CRD. Asie that fo of Chas established ind hunter where a press F500 mi (a high presse pls is mailing Silicon wafer with heen ma rein contact wth hepa Te roe ieee occ hese ico “Tis choie docs ot mean tht nly CF, or ever rnd plist can at hgh ressre Che tin sd other sees may aso be isd in high-pressce paras, Bt Pie Is mote common. By te sae token Ean pees re ometines ued for pvr rate sm cc ‘One ca begin with a snp energy bale argue dscesedw Morgan [$3 This del soxgess that etching can osu ia ebm ection tat roduc a ascons or high-vapr peste ‘ny sion with x aloes rues the plane of 3) tnd wih Srhaogen bands, The eunt of engy eesy fo break a C-F bond in CF, i 10S kelimle. The sont oferty ‘eure ek an S-Si bond is 42.2 kealmol, For Co cic lic th sn these wo ce Be (dealin) ms ess han tener ofthe SF bond 30 Katine). C LPS SiYSi=Si—F+ (Theale my were represen bond breaking event. Site thers nt postive egy rete fo the reaction, CF, wil tach silicon det. Ina puso bowever, collins with high energy elections wil iso ae (rch some a the CF moles, pring fee Aoi soe and ole acl Te et term of Equation 115i now ignored tam an energy bance point of view. The fcaton of SF coo oun is then energetically favre. Furthemoe by haosng the fend ga, chamber pes, td lass power ome can increas the density of species ta ae enerpetcal favored ech he Hil Ina typie plasma, most of te species ate uzeacted pe molecule, The dey ofthese oak ‘cues the rotiype chamber presse ie thout 3% 1D" en™ Alter the uel fed Bas the ‘next most commen (510 10%) specie nthe psn are neta acl rn the prc. CF. (CE, C. and F willbe owe in tis CF, pass. These acl wpcies ae exten teactv. su ing simple kinetic theory ga ope cam use Equation 10.10 (a roughly estimate the fx of rales Sting soc: a9 Assuming radial species temperate of $00 K, the acl bomberdnent ate ut ipl il ons of ender 10 see Also assuming that every raha! hal ries the sae chee one +268 11estng 1 ‘UtighsvePaum Big 268 slam stm, and thatthe ual Bu the e-iting ep th esti Ich ate Wook! e chur 1000 Amin, Ths. one could coneive of sucha arly chemical proses hat would pve a etch rates. In pace, ot allo the radical species wil etch ll ofthe subtrte mesh, Soo ‘of te rection by-products seh seat do ot reat wi scan or donot ot late spe, ‘As these materials coat the surface ofthe Wafer they hw he etching reaction, Farther we ‘eaetnt species thar ike he surace ofthe wafer wil stick Typical plasma power densities in hs prototype rector crest an on concerton of ak 10 cor Ina CF plasma, the most abuncaat ion specks fs CF," Besa ofthe sal neo, wat We ” AY Figure 118, roped meaner aan ing ot Sr, A Te alk Si er so the Soe Ascent on hue et & bade es Stic ar Sty cher hey, however oa Inte ams boda he sen som at Si ome sd Astor ater as Fas nite pemon tration mest ofthe etching ll note drys {0 ons in the plas. Rater, te constant bom meat of oes icin othe sre eres dan Tin the form of unsatisfied Bras hat are ex te race rca, The seta radical il the surface duet te concentation gradient in te plasma. On the suace they quicly ret, fr ‘volatile products, aad are pumped away, Rei tack © Equation 11.5, fon borbardnent of th face eines most ofthe enrey penalty ass ith the SE-St bond beakeg event. Thin makes Forward reaction even moce energy favo ‘CE, pass canbe us selectively ci ‘con om sion dose or slioon dow ohn, To understand ow, start with» pcre of wht pens athe surface ofthe wafer. Itiseeve ht uosne piso, the surface slic aoe ce bass! to to F ats, ong 4 Doin skin be sever aos tick Both SF and SF, a vole species, bat SI, will no readily des sn 4 chemically bonded wo he wafer. As show in is 11.8 the aval factional F atm will rh number of bonds between the sfc scan 380 andthe subsate unl eventually the sion fn ‘molecule cam be rieaed a 4 minima of ex ‘The primary sures ofthese les ae atm Iie and aticals ofthe form CF, where x= 3 ‘Wideut fon bombarimen, Frail wx SiO, very slowly since thee et energy os FUP ESI LO=Si—F + ~SKealmoie (17) ile CF, rials wil teh SiO, much mse a sively. Ina pare Arie team at low exe Selcivity ef St of S10, is almost SO when te Wealer i held at room scapesare an abt a1 =30°C. Asa et pins process forest ‘ition selectively overscan done ace Ce ht Figure 1140 Sciemat sag of ihrer Snsotop ch shige of seal pve ne me % 0, ee fipne 19 Species coemraton ia CF, sama se hesout a xypen ih ed Baer wna Flamm repre iy perms Al rode high atomic Borne concetasins Although its posible owe Fa th fed sts ot “eszable du wo hs pacalay high oxy. The pled species ste CF, Cy and SE which Prolaces very lrg concenatios of fre F. Ii ound expeientaly that the atom of al ‘soneentraions of oxyzsn toa CF od swine the echt of bth siom an sium do ‘e156 1s elev tha he oxygen fects With te carbon atoms to price COy This removes (Geavenges) some ofthe carbon fm he plan, hereby increasing the F conection, These pla ma re called urine rch Figoe 11:9 shows plot of some ofthe species comentatons in CP, Plasma as function of the aunt of oxygen inthe fed ges [57]. The F concetration can be lueessed by an onder of magnitude bythe ablion of 12% O, toa CF, plasma preacng bout an de of magnite nee inthe Sitch te, il he cease nthe echt of Sis come. ably lest. A higher exygen conceatatins, the selectivity of sco wo onde ops seapy the molecular and atomic oxygen chemisor on the silicon race making it sppese mare lik SiO. (58) ‘Atypical applica of selective cch of Sito Si, i pateming a plylco gat for sn MOS ‘enssior ver thin gate oxide. Alheugh he ation of Oto CF, es esis the sect of he ‘ich the processes ar at necxsiy ans. is posite to ech scan ankatpisy n= tigh-presure Morie plasma by encouraging the formation f aoavclaiefroarbons at Sapo ‘onthe src ofthe wafer. Te deposit can only be remove by phys collars wth nid os Figure 1110 shova a stemaie o ap ansotope high ese plasma ech proces, Hacrcarbon fms deposit onal races [5], ut he on Velocity, wth ols the eet fel. snearly vere GAL Asaesl as the elcing proces there ite on bombed of the sides th oro atom fil accumoles(Dve to cellists wah th ons, nail eves ay als ste te see ofthe wafer, bu they are at shown i hs Rue) Te nate ofthe fl is seni fonction of ae270 naANy ‘laa condor [60 If i nt reactive. on Hombres f he horizontal sues diese ‘ion wih the andelyng substrate [6,62], Under seay-stte conto a9 approxima 19 ‘ayer of formated ico is formed under the Horoearbon [63]. The process prodacng om ‘ot species tht rece the ech ate x Koon a polymerzaton The ion ssi ops he ideal preventing literal icing This is neo wo techniques fr praducinganotropy, The cos potion of hs Sm as been studied fora varity of chemise [4-68 (One way 10 encourage the fomation of these is 10a Hydogen tothe plasma. The !aydogensenvenges Quorine, creating a carbonich plana. The exces carbon can then fer ise oavolile products. The sane hing happens if C.F usad as the feed gas insted of CF Te my ‘aes, the etch prodts from the resist which ce as ydrosrbce, may abo patciat inthe pl. ime formation proces. Seavenging Bovine. bowever, ds the opposite of whit was done whee ‘oxygen was added to the plasma. Asa ree, the sic to aide selectivity Oops in such a ec process. One ean therefore oan aisouopy o telectivity of Si 0 Si, in sachs plasma, baw bot silanooe The gasses ina plasma react, however, canbe changed ding the ech proces. Inthe case of [MOS technologies. obiin good dimensional coil of pylon gate electron, oe mig st lhe ech proces n'a CF, pasa with Ha. Whon the fc emt the ea teow the pyc one coul shut othe Hand insead add ©, Thre may be sme wndecting during his pr of roses, but before undeteuting ca begin de plasma mast it erode the sccumted polynet. AS rest, these hybrid etch processes, while using very simple equipment and rlitvely inns feed gases, can produce adegunte etch pois for features down fo wut | jun. ena rah) a fo » aw a Peet non (2 i Figur 1.11 ch te and SO, nA CE/Oy pasa afer Mog a, epinid y ermvon AIP (@ CEM, pe pirat ond Pera, ernie ype of peer Te Elche Sy I) gue 11.12 1 rote Si, wih insrsing concen 5% NFs 20% NF fer Donate pin perio, MPs te esse Pera Beg 271 ‘As just esrbed, ng asl amouot 1 ta CF pasa cause he ech rac of both silicon ard Seon dioxide to decree in goed sgreemest withthe sowoltile species mode! eseried ove. AI moderate Hy concets toms, the ech rate of Si0y exceed that of Si ‘The chemisry can theteloe be ase to sleet Ivey teh S10, oF Si athe eat, the hyde ge eas wih she Morne rial fay 1 Which etter siicen doce but not sce, [69] The plas inthis stacion I aid to be Avovne decent. At moderate H; concent ios, he nemelaie Suorcsibon fl depos ion process tht increases anistopy further increases the selectivity. On the sae of the S10, te oxygen praca during the on ba ardent wil reac with the carbom ofan CO and CO., bath of which ate vl and so ce Pumped sway. No such eaton occurs over the Siicon and 0 he ech selectivity of SiO, over Si increases sharply withthe addton of Hy to the plasma (gute 11-1). Eventually, the ear bon deposition ate swamps the aby of the plas etch proces Temone and instead oF Etching. re may be et poston, ‘Cobar and Kay recognized tat fr foo carbon systems Ge onset of polymerization ‘depends onthe uorne wo ctor ro [70,71 ‘Alter taking iat account the formation of HF. (CO, CO, and ober scavenging compounds, pein proceed when the fain er bon concensaton in the fd gas mire i reer that lf of the urine cencetaion, Examples of gasses tthe point of polymerization include CF, CHE, aa 1:1 mist of CF, and Hy Highly slesive pla ech posses ope aM clas o his poi and an achiove ath select. ints of over 2 to for etching S10, onc 8 ‘The hycrogen can be sopplied ae Hg ten sto be incorporate ino the rived prec ‘or as CHF, or even CHF It can alan be wed inthe foro of netane (CH, ethane (CH) oF te sine hydrcabons. ln he ater case one rons ake im account tht tis oot oly as yogen othe pasa tearm a wel 'AS as jst pointed out the concept of deposi 2 honolale polymer fm dating‘example 114 pea0 the plana ch pest aan iportanapplition in producing eh levy. As was the ase fo ‘ion ching, dwallpsivaton can produce highly ansoopi exh poles when etching S10. Iowever, thet is no tae off of selectivity rere. AS ares tis elatvely easy to we Hind psames fo podnce ney veticl etching of SiO, ove Si igure 11.12 shows ech profiles of SO, With inresngconcenton of NF 73. Ath highest oncesuations ere age ech rs, bat the plymeic oration spree adhe ech s Souope wit sebstatial unret of he ‘Scie ching of slcon nde obo silicon dioxide ad slion eannot be achieved sim taney duet is incre positon ner of boc stregt an lectonegaivity. For select ‘ny of lng to oxide, licon nite ca be the in plasma process iia to hose sed ech ‘ton rs plasas ich nati orn. A types example is «CF, O, plasms (74). ching ‘tsilcon nite selective to slicom canbe dope typical sien oxide eiching process auch at CEH phar nome applications. the plas ech rt (or a process is eased fora given st of press condos, td te tite o ech is ffered. Such eches provide poor repedoebity since ube ‘hanger he cc process or the Elin properies ca result in uracceptable under or ove ech ‘Ope such sbuetysloeding elect the teneney Tor he th tee many plsma etches wo decease ‘itv an increase he ze ofthe exposed ln being ech Usually this caused by depletion of the reactive species in the pls. Loading effect can be described by the equation whore Rts the empty chamber ech eA Is he are de expne Gio be the and in om Test [7H I can often be relied by fixing the eater presse an increasing the flow of te ch ass, tu thi approach abject to pumping ints [A plas ech process four to proce an etch ate of 30 Ain when etching singe wafer When a soca wale edt the reason the ech rate falls t9 240 Amin, What ee Fats woul you expt fr te and four wae? Denote the aca to be etched on cach wafer at Ayan the etch aes aR, where ms the mer cof wafers Then fom Equa 118, Li 2, THA, an) Solving his equation forthe kt prodct gives vale of 1/3. Then inserting back ato Equation Twang either ofthe vo Known exh ie ives B= 400 Ami. Fall, for three and four wees fy = 200 Alin and R= 171 Ali 12 mae tepeuble proce I oquied, some metbod of detecting ithe the remain thik ses ofthe film be etched or the presence of etch by-pass canbe we to dete tine the ech end poin Hike fen being cicol i bansparet iti posible 40 ase the sane otc and deste itrerenoe elect deseibed ia Chapter 4 for messing oxide tices, nr Tile 4 Gwinn Fim si SiN, 80, chant on, 0, cH, er ee 14h Pes eredonng 270 retengs A miter 7 x o 3 gure 11.13 Proxogaph of congue cond decane, paral teas eh tenV % 10g he sw of the eect and transite aia beans wil aie wth fil thckses tl te Acanparent layer is removed. Thi end point metho, however, rue a subst a8 Of op tered i focus an aig hetero, ‘Altemaively one can tonior the chest ofthe plasma eter by using mass ypsctromsy ofthe etch font or by uring the peaks ofthe apical tsnon spect. In eile ete ceca ok {orth extinction ofthe etch prod of he ceied to he emergence ofan ech produc ol subset. Iti aso posible to detect changes in he reactive speoes I sbstnil pet ofthe gs 8 ‘consumed bythe reaction, the end point wil be sen ava sudden lrease in dhe eoaceaation oe ‘Gah. Tale tists some of be mst common ech processes alte esociated detection ware Teng Figure 1.13 shows # comms pall plate pasa ether. Te system consis two ech Ghee fe by 3 cena lod lck nd tbe, Windows ae provided at he fon of each chaste for posible spectal analysis ofthe plow discharge. 11.5 Ion Milling ton mln th pps ene of he spc ch races cong to high este Pace. Pr fat ming era sing aves heme atin wth tee ‘gc nic tones oe gate sch ron Ia aby mechanical oes sot the miromechanl ag of taming The py of eh proses iene slots ‘putrng. The ede selec o Serine [2 Fan 12.8 fer aoe of epee {Srvonachctin an ld rst on iling hs oscar avanages opar ih Stic os inthe hema este by 9 ton eral et el dhe ham a isso lw thts casos ae extreme ily. hon eo a hey tn Gn he sae of he wafer sit empesyveea. Ano ching pole fra ‘ul snes its cheat inden, Te sted advantage ef en ili i arc be ak patent wie vary of nls cag compoins an ly ven re on aie ‘ole ch du The eon re fe ws ne vary by ch ean sr te rom malo matral Thon il pop or pateing YBSCuO, NAGA ote errand eutemary systems “oes ofoe ming panos we rng mat iat on oft sts at tig, The pots seviy to pure and nyng tess paca chew Tl low Chel comport iad fpr. Ths dev wih mag tap Nx ‘Shes a momen 20 nde Ths args wales nig Scour jonas, Cone with ow cia mit so be we a hgh acta {ais liegt fe tpvlane manic incor tad copes Be ‘Soolagen bovever i ae waar scan mde ibe of wae perk lo alee asia “he mos poplar soe fo in milig i the Kanan source (Fe 1.1 Thi bic source wa ergy devel ov ipsce bel fake engine (73) Unie single pane fro iar it and independent on oer bah he on mbar ee ana Fi 7 A Retin sure coi facto ane! ests wing soppy Te ane Ihld aca votageV below te nove tal lesbo of Samet a sce! {toad teu gmt beh nth soa ce mkt ters inp he ot {son wth eosgh ey tions hen fypaly iat 40. Mack higher ogee fot dambe ue nprenay ton tis he made he mtr wa wil one he ch ‘raat wrcntminte yom, Tomininhpasna owe rbd at soa 10 Fique 1.18 Crow secion seats Kanan on rangle 11.2 ‘Station 275 The source boy is peered on one vie A arid hed aa wale ¥, teow the target jan Below this side ofthe source bady ucolrts the ejected ons toward he target. Typical accelerating poten ‘ne 5001 1000 V- Los ive at the target surface wisn energy given by 5, We Vib al¥ Vos Yal N80) here Vi the plasma voltage with respect o ground tow Vis the plasma volage with respect (0 the foes ater number ie dstermiaed by the fan Aux an te geometry ofthe eacharge. As discusses in Chapter 10, Vai porte, ocatse ofthe lage anode area, however, iis only few vols. The fentocted ion energy thes i spy controled by hanging VV "To itcrease the ion dest 4 magnetic Feld 4s apled othe source aswell. Fk stengths are shout 100 G {78). (The se of magnetic fede 0 enhance the ion density in plasma was discised in Section 10.) Typical Kanan sources can produce ion carat of slawnt an snpere se atest at 200s nner sma Eurrent sited by the electric eld produced by « hiv ensy ion seam, The maxim coment is approximately man ‘where Xs constant for a given chamber, fm i the charge to mass ria ofthe fons, Ve pote tal iferene between the Seca and accelerator fs, andthe distance Between he eid 79) “Typical values oa 102mm. These ayes prodace bess wih divergence of Sto Calculate the mation fix from 2 Kaufman argon source, the pte ifereace between the gid is SO V. the grid spacing ix Imm, and K= 2% 10" ae/fem, Assume ‘logy ionize argon Subsitaing 9 = 16% 10° C and m= 40% 167 X 10-7 ie ino Eqton 11.10, Jou is ize clelted st 35 mA This omespond 02.2% 10” tna se Recently elacon oycitron rxonane (ECR) and cher advance plas sources have been seveloped fr echng, Te basic operation of a8 ECR plasm is dexeied in Sestion UL. An aan tage of ech a sous for ion ring she elimination ofthe Maret (80) This duces Source ea. ing and therefore cootamisaton, at inproves system realy, This advantage is mst notable bom6 sing Pro eit reactive species is wed ater than argon (66 CAIBE, belo, gue 11.15. Potems ht my ocer Bi HF ean Unlike plasms or reactive fo etching, ab ECR plasma hs ery independent cota ion x and om eer. Sich stem ma) fave less sabsrte damage than reactive fon echers [81], Thee _svanges ofthese systems inlade increased cot ad comply {orth sure and te nee fo lage and expensive purges) ters Siose he fx darsty in anton mil i ited by Eqn LH, substantial igher erosion ts ar ot obtained wih sources [821 Uses modified extraction methods are we. aepation “The ios that ae let fron the source ener the tet ‘amber. To mainaina igh deetonal eth, he ag chamber is pumped tos ow esse asthe incident purping speed wil alow. This iniaizescalfisions betwee the fon nd ‘esa gas molecules Coopampe or turbomoleclar pumps ‘ypialy wed evant the arget chamber tis rma a twins a presse 100 100 tines fower tat the source Nel ing space charge effec, ons ave! ins stag lin othe tet tr) ee plas contacts and ose contac with he walls. RIE, however. donea8 te0 erode oh RIE pte Fur 11.17 Top an se ws of rel oa eee ‘patent ier 3s a SW. or arenes ‘Rt ne wpe ie ee roe per bern J test of eter ims a stow esr ass, whee he sn oe pt he as ernie qametaS fete so ona with muha rete apa the lae ane pore clase aaa ne ‘hea! mare ny we wal hn, te nd simu ico ath cree om pre nh CE PC eC eth ape esrb prc nl ec price dh vert Reread Prints suns sna be wed de IE ‘fio stn il eave 3m fo tow eee iis muy cyt sevcp + one etaning of he ants ng oft bon np tn ce tony Cle Clete in Seen yee ar rn tween ar ‘rou bomtermet ne pete of bt mtn eps Cl ‘eco htttan ech fr of, degen nh cart ocean ne ky tr a ‘Mota dy oft dp.) —— er ay pound doping ie ii ft th cine ehing poses inte constr be sae. Tact ata ered poses tht neler pt src ee Eaten con ut nes notte unin SS Bows. Te arabe Fae 1.18 Ones manlie of cRcne som akin esate impede myc ton. 6matetetseg 279 mote chlorine atoms ie impeded by searic hindanee (Figure 11-1, Once he race hltins becomes nee ‘vey caged, bowever, ican hon ocally wi he Sable. This frees additonal chemisorption sites an eal icremes the prbubly tha the chorne noms il pence the surface and proce vl icon hors. Clornepeneution ofthe surface so drat icy ineeased y fon bebe. As a el, those Surfes subjet 10 fon bombardinent etch much nee ‘apily than those ha ae tn particular, he vera sidewalls receive very ite on borbardmet. Becase ofthese effets the ech profile of undoped plysicon or single ry sticon fa a Cl, RIE ts altst co Pletely anistopic. Unfotontly th charge waster rechnism described above poaces isotope ech po ‘les in Reaily doped layers suchas polysicon gale? (83) and aluminum mecalzations, In eve rote Js necessary to obiineizoropi etch fies rough slewall polymerization schemes, Tht jx commonly done by adjusting the eave concentration of Ca can alo be doe by combining Avorinsied precursors and Ci A sro intr s 90% Cay with 7% Ci, By contol the ato of Cito Fone can conto he gre of unre and bale ange of ech profiles (88). This is paticualy wefan thing mpc lye lis sx sleds ok poyslcon wit acceptable pois [89] AS wich many other passivation schemes, th etch ate mu be raed off agains the ech sels ‘Tee lower alo Figure 11.1 shows a sicon line etd with BC, Cly and Os in a siewal ‘passivation ehnigue (90 a his eirograph the sidewall lm has Begun to pel off of the ne Notice thatthe top ofthe sidewall ticker than the ott beets ofthe eferece ia the deposition tne, This produces sight tape in he eth profile. The sigewall fim, which mone clearly shown inthe oper fim, is alot pure Si, The ther features inthe amet eitogrpt ae Sometimes called gras Back silicon (91) They are de he unintentional deposiion of tom ‘lal species ard incorple removal by ion bonibadyent. Grass appears ia toncope or shened area and often occurs when opering a sidewall pas aign RIE proces unde heat) ‘Sepositon conto. Grass formation is suppressed by reducing the oly formaion hy decreas ing te flow of BC, inctesing the O, concentration, oe by inten the foe bombucdmeat by ‘edecing the pressure o creasing the power, Reliable and repeatable etching of lumioum sod alumimam:- bse compounds requis consid ‘sable attention to deta. Alumiaur realy oxidizes to font AO, which eches vey slowly fa "most I plismas. To void problems with etch uniformity and matin proper exch ming stor pute eth in Ar oc an appropriate cecal RIE canbe used before boeing the Chased RIE. At he endof the eth its als necessary 0 remove any adsorbed chlorinated species fom the sures ‘ofthe waft. When te wafers are removed frm the vac chamber, hese compounds ean sea wit moisture in the at form hgoshorc nei, leading to rca corso, Sera mets Rave bec deveioped 1 woid this probit The simplest i 3 dip in deionized water inmediely afer ‘he ct. Other posit urate ean be done inside Ue vacuum chamber These inode aiewo Hoey Few 11.19 SEM micrsraps ssw pean fiscal ne HCVOJBCL, nna eye ‘rot he nrc sd ein pests cn iste tne eth The et swe (er Oeteein ta, reprited by permission AP Spur chan oxygen plasm os Morn passa U0 space the sabe chine sams [92 It an infin clan ici ou ctl lines wl ane sal voi, called mse bes, along elie ees, 2 problem slated techn alumina Son sounds te volition of hem ar capper est the mei. Copper edocs se eee Sica remove diet be low veer pears f these copper cides at oom tempat. Fath oe the coper eis a even note poe foes than thir alemioum seuterpart Bling Compounds with presi than 2% copper geal ‘ee ices on bombarinen ans hate sb Ses, Avaier way 10 ech these compounds he Useof serial shminum ine etch cher pr Sige ascent aust of AIC, a eh pdt a ep oitize capper cores Falls seus problem in corned RIE is rest erosion det Cl ack. Ths puiculay ogra in lamin RIE bean of Be ches ‘pial ieromect ayer, he severe apology tha ‘may oui andthe esc of tee duct AC ‘hic also acct reat sack. Soe ea se cov supply choi rstant eo ads Prebem, bat even ih heeft, eran remo Mos ais etching of GaAS sao done in sorted feacve ton teers Ply shea Frocope tcing cca nigh presse plana, Whe astonishing ou for amber pres ss tan 10 mirror ston Dobe [BBL ts betved ta he pinay grap by od vet GaCh, accom othe rte Othe wal (98 even though th compound epee 2 igh vapor presre. Due fo direc inthe ech feof group I and group V Dain, GaAs ccs tore rally slong some ery ples than ers In ow-powee. high-res Ci, plasms, ipa facetng eat occur To ai this ron compounds iy fae rm pine an dpe ‘Suet slots Anoter seit tt cn Be ued for anio- scopy etching Geass yep based Anca of couse, fos several yds, the most cable of hich At To volte glum, 3025 methane Pst be aed 105) The nim ch ae eca a 17Dempinfeatisbreweg 281 shout $0 K (96), As willbe discussed in Section 14.8, both he ong ive ral mance! ga lig athe stabie compound timetyl gallo (Ga(CH),] are vlail products. At high mete concentrations, however, eacesive polyerzation occre and eching ops. Anistopic ech ‘ith er bigh ech rats ha lz been demonstnd wih chromethnes 7 ie ovigted RIE asi chlorieted RIE, ech niscropy may be ie cer sidewall pss ston, physical damage ofthe Rarizonal surties, o seme cambiation ofthe wo. The physial fama mechanism is believe to be describe bythe chemical spatial (98) In his mad the son bombardment suplies energy, incteaing te roby an reactivity of surface peer Te evelopment of anisoupic etch proiles due fo skdcwall pasion was dicused ina preieus section. Inch a prces, some foe hosbarnent ofthe scfces ried wo allow any ching ‘al [99] reactive fon eching, there i 4 substan Jon Dower. suggesting Th these tools may aso be used with Uoorinated chemise. The higheeraytombardnea in IE however, damages the substrate, pariculasly when etching SO, over Si This wil be cis i the ext 11.7 Damage in Reactive lon Etching’ One of he Timitions of escive ion exhing is residual damage Ie inthe subrat afe the ech ‘Typical ion fuenes of 10° tons are delivered energies sf 30) 0 70 eV in RIE. Bodh sb state damage {100 a ehenica contamina ae serogs ass. The aero pariulary a cow em in polymerization eches, which are known to leave behind reivalflns. Gas phase pile ‘xposton Is as0 a sigiicant problem {10 turers. one can often ie tai pies Jnclsing Fe, Ni Na, Cs, K. and Zn on he sure ofthe wafer afer the ech [102 de to stein ofthe eles, chamber, and fixtures in comace wih the plasmin. Tecbigus developed forthe removal of these imps laladeO, plasma tet ‘mens followed by wet aid clesing (103, 10) abd ceo, Hy plata eames [10S]. The drawback ofthese ‘ia prsech treatments the increase! comply of Figure 14.20 | cos cin schematic te ees ot test 0 doo ing CPM er Geen the proces. Physical damage and dive in of puri are a secon cat of problem with RIE. After 4 (ea ech ina car cooling RIF, the top 30 A is heavily damaged with a exonsive concntatin of SHC tone, ile sipreant damage fs des 3 300A [10]. RIEproesis done ina hyrogcn com taining ambient ao have SH defects that ean be serve elcccally a dep as 00 A [107] anda ‘ery difclt remove [108], Hydgen my ate sly penetrate several microns nt he srace where ic cam deacivate dopants 1a the shate [109 Figure 1120 shows eros section scene ot sents of 2 typeal eh of Si, down to Si 50} Removal o his damage equtes an ital len a Iowed by ameaing at tmperaures of over 80°C THOL i sso posible to deign RIE processes ‘without hyérogentted pce [111a2 ing 11.8 High-Density Plasma (HDP) Etching Some ofthe fst wie of high deus plasma msiems, which were etoduce ia Chapter 10, wee for ciching Pera this is becae the benefit of using an HDP system were more obvious than for other plasma process. Highdenity sources ne crowed matic and eectre Feld o dre rmatalyinerease the distance that fee electro i the psc Wave Tis, ie, sera the ‘ae of disseciation and ionization compared with a simple diode plasma operating at the sume pressure. Thi high desl of oat and racial can eu to inereae the etch Ft othe can be traded off aginst oer advantages. For examples, one can cai aceptabl on and rail des tis at very low preses.Thieallows one to decouple the bias on the wafe-conaning lets from the on density. Often this done in HDP etch systems by attaching the powered elect ‘leccond RF source. Because ofthe long oes fee path nthe yom st lw presse, seta Blass of 10-30 V are often enough to procace anisotropic etching. This low energy mean arg= selectivities and ie residual damage, Ts is extenely wef when etching down to very tn ayers (a in he gate eich for CMOS) or for tcng catsets down to very thin joretions or for ciching downto active layers such asthe poly ech process fora dole poly bipolr proces. Fi thermere, etching at ower pressures ensures move vertical incidence of the fons and therefor less reduction of the eich rate for bigh-aspet cai feacures [112] This effet is sometimes called tmcrloudieg (113). The HDP source provides 4 bigh concentration uf these 1 energy dons essing accepable etch rates. A cisadvanage of HDP etching is thatthe bigh ion Mueace ean ‘hage lowing suucturs, ke MOS gates, excesively. This cn lead o exces leakage nthe ga Tnaisie cant resided ich damage [Vid] An cvercinw af camernional and HDP shin i siven by Sognvara 15} Whes seg sidwall pssvaion wo produce an anistropic eh, the lowe pressure used in most HP etches severely restricts th production f te onvote species. This may simply bea mer oF inceaing the Bo rat ofthe BCI to Ci, or CHF, CF for example, At these high tos of Polymer formation, bowever, svelte species wil bid apn the chamber walls Evel sis build fake of depositing dst on the wafers. O plasma cleans along wth wall being is com ‘monly we to contd polymere build in HDP syste (116. Wall enperaire can also be we 1 fine tone the etc selstivtes enor the etc rate unifority. Aeratively some gomeies an be employed that preven the psa fom reaching the walls of the chamber o minimize contamina. “The fst HDP sowces applied to etching were electron eyeloton resonance (ECR) stems 1) Bosh magnetic coi ae permanent magets [118 ave beet wed onthe wall fhe ett {chiewe the resanance condition, The eal conser i obtsning suficent wiferity vera broad {710 get infor ech races. Coil sysems allow fal ime chaages i the magne el, while pr ‘manent magnets oflen provide more Ioeaze Slt. Typical ECR etch sysoms dee a 245-GH Source. This requires a Eel of 875 wo achieve resonance. The psa praca anspor thesriaceof he wafer wi diverge magnetic Bel [119], Typical ECR ech pesues ae. 10 mucr Typial plasma powers ae 100 100 W. ‘Asan example of the use of an ECR plsis, consider agate etc, This requis etching 300 1m of pysticon down to 3 nm of SiO, Obviny, a very high selectivity wil be rquice for ‘ching scan over oxide. high selectivity to the rest ls desiabe to improve the tinewid ‘onto. From te previous discussion we ktow tat Cc be used t selectively ech icon oer ‘SiO, but anisotropy can be achieved only in undoped filme or with a sidewall pasivation tech nie Since silicon ionie does not reac chemielly wilh Cl aicl, teeth es negligible if 0 sputtering ofthe fm occurs. The C1” spur threstold fr Sis about 20 eV, wil tht of SiO; {5 about 50 eV (120) Thus an ECR operating with chlorine ion energies of 201080 eV should nigtan 29 ctain extremely high sletvitis for Si over SiO anit a. demonstrated a slectiviy of 200 low power insoch sytem [121 Pehaos ove of the most pope types of HDP ‘teh stems tne inductively couple reactor, HOP Systems canbe divided ino fe yin elo vee ‘ial are! iype of system, a the planar ci sytem ‘The omer show in Figane 1121, One ofthe cha lenges of designing planer cl system ensuring ¢ uno pln deity, since the reactor tends to have a peak undo he cer ofthe esi This problem pas progressively more dificult he wafer se increase, ‘The wp coito-wafer spacing i 30 8 em. Indu: ‘ively coupled systems donot wean extemal sppticd magetc fed. Instead, RF curent tough te soi produces an osciling. magnetic fell that crete: electric field an seid hy Faraday’s tow This Inde! magnetic Fel ahers he pth of the eecons ‘te pla, neeasing the pasa dens JCP sytems are widely used for ge etching de to thei alt oon high slion o-oide select iy at tow power Typist EP pms fx pate ecg approximately 30 W. Fr sic tench eching higher ge 1.2, et ie nn me ‘crates ate desirable since teach depts canbe of the order of 10 um foe DRAM technoogies. AC 2019 one decreases 300 W the sletviy of sion ov signieanty 122]. At high pomer densities the ais Uopy can decree duc the high concentration ‘of eactve radicals This canbe countered by inreing the svat bis andlor wing sidewellpas ‘Alle ype of hieh-densiy sources hive ben plied to etching. A hee produc sitar tc rales and ech profiles fer maroc chemistries (123). Often the choice comes downto pr ames sch as uniformity, repeatability cas of te, saring eet, and src compat wih the cher geometry 11.9 Liftoff Most GaAs teinolages were developed around lil er than ching. The proces i sil op Jar asa alemtive wo on milling or psterning ifieu to etch terns. The sequen or itis shun in Figure 1122. A thick layer of resi span and pred. Nex hi loyer of tel s ‘deposited sing evaporation (Chapter 12)- One chaceritic of evaporation is dihealty incover ing hip spect ato fears. Irena profiles bined in he rei ak inthe me tual assured. Next, the wafers sered ina solution capable of dissolving the photoreis. The ‘meal ines at wee deposited ie on the semiconduco remain wile the meal deposed on theres ifs off oF the water asthe rest dasoles. ich datas tothe sobst yaoi sad the lines paered with inte selecuvgy wit no andere Since the process in is simplest fxm aque nly owes bench ea perhaps lasnic aioe iis wey used in reserch laboratories,204 118g Pobens 285 anne medttin pts Lin pce ‘4 DQN resston PMMA, Afer PMMA cating, the upp lye frei sspen, ake expsed, and “—_ seveloped as ormal with UV source. The pater upper lye an ten be ie ara mk ora deep {UV exposure ofthe PMMA, whichis he overdevelopedaningssolton that does no aac he oper resis The real i proaounced ledge that very sifcuk to cover, Duet the complexity of ml layer resist processing, be mot populr mead of podcing re-srnt poles king single layer DON resis afer sone in chlrobezene [124125] or sia compan Typ ek es ‘30 51015 mia The sak proces eae thedsltion rte ofthe per surtac of the ress 1120) ‘Mer developing the patem, therfore, lige appcars (Figure 11.23. The thickness ofthe ledge If lo sine tht he oping ofthe crcl ae fa ame co ‘Example 12.1 S sen SOS to tne per chink fe sphere di ante apenas re ong, eacla hc We ‘ake to evaporate the drop. Assume r, = 1 mm, = " The mer ofr mcs int ps en y Pya8 12? gst, Enon Sutin Phe tine ite of cane of as Using ution 122 rerrananions [FE ~ Var: Se "Rad Vader? B [Be « constant a” Viatn ~ Since dls comm = rt rate fat RY AL2TC, P for HO is 2 tom = 36 X 10°F ‘Thea 10°" 239 x 0g? fie box TPH MOE Bee Digest Vea 66% 10-4secm x 58.7 mee = 35ma0 In reality, wate wil be cole during the evaporation, reducing P Alo, the st foe layers of wae wil be teld a the surface by laces forces me "To find he deposition ate onthe surface ofthe wafer, ne neds to determine he Fst ‘hat atv eavng the eel hat necolteson the sure ofthe wafer. The lai acu amber makes tbe determination of his costae of proprtonliyrelively easy. The peste ow eoouph so that materia ejected from te eruible waves i a Seapine to the sre of he war IF is asued ta ll of he materi that aves a te wafer sticks und remains he, the arival ate then is goveaed by simple geometry. Tha the constant of proportionality the faction af the tl sot angle wblendt bythe wafer a sce rom the cube This pops ality constr the same vow actor dicused in Copter 6 ie given by U4] esses sete (128) where Ris the distance between the surface ofthe erable and he surface ofthe wafer and @ 2d ae the angles between Rand the surface nora ofthe srvible and wafer, respectively (ce Figue 234). auaton 12.6 suggest thatthe deposition tein the evapo wll depend onthe action tn eriematon ofthe wafer im the carer, Wafers dirty above the erie wil be costed more heavily tha wafers of wo the sie. Purharmore, 8, nd Racal vary acon the sraces of De sone gem 2dgustantses 299 Sota ee (2 6) 0 o Figure 123 the geome of dpoiin fr a war !At imo aay pon an (Bom hace a Fe 124 ais epson, he ide (eatin vcs fom seating tal suc ope ‘Dem above ep le crave susie andthe wae: so that film nifomiy isa concem. One methad commonly used to ota 00d uaiformity so place the cacble and wafers on he satface oF sphere (gue 1238) Teen e018 = cos aan where rs the radius ofthe sphere. Combining Equations 125,126, and 127, and ecogizing Hat ‘the deposition ust the mas aval fate er nite vided by the mse densi of he So, (imine Vint Vi ber? & (29) | tis equation, the fist term depends oaly onthe mata be evaporated, the second tem ‘spends on the temperature (and therefore the eauiriam vapor presse). andthe ie tr ih Figure 1222 The eager of tts futon ‘fe sina unc fora oe RE psn wth ot 0s (ae Wasa Hawn repel perm, Nes Pilon) igh aspect ratio structures The scp coverage offline deposited by magneton sper hasbeen éatelted by many authors ($3, 4) Figre 12.21 shows the developmen ofa toss selon over "ypeal igh aspect aio coat On te top surface anda the upper core the Sapnition et igh. ore wna poston cate ecu he ews. Te enewal ane pes and {tn boom. Ate boom comer of the step a pronounces notch or erck yan Ts tendency ‘oereases with the aspect too he eae unos sb heuing i dane [45 Compre oe ‘rated Gs, however even lwtempertue coos speed ls hate bir sep cover, bat becuase ofthe higher posse and cause of he ince ney ofthe depsited pein. Sp ‘sed ilo also ted to frm 3 cusp, oF posin. the edge fan laedsep. do ote ceased view Factor at ths positon As wih vapoation, te applicalon of sabre at wll dramatically improve the sep cover age du 0 surface difesion. The wafer-containing eecrode is ofen wate cooled a wel 3 eis vey bewed to provide a wide range of available temperatures, This sa ver atv are of le epost research. Very hot real can conpltly fil contacts whose aspet taf eter than onc but if aluminum is used, very robust tarrcr mast be usd betwee tesco andthe a ‘nium to avoid undesirable interning (Se Chapter 1S on contact spiking). Furthermore he ent erature ofthe surface ofthe wafer ring plsma deposition i ditt to cniol.Raae eso rom the tet and bomarinen’ by high-ecrgy sectdiy eleioa pen a large he: ed othe wate RF sptering systems ae the most prone to uncool subsrte hosting Figure 1222 shows tpi plot of subst epee versus lasna poet fran $0, gst i) Step coverage tentins a serous problem for high-density intercon in purely sputred ‘econ ecologies. Sufficient heating ofthe subtae dng deposition in ede oes ie sired sep coverage may prodbe uncceptaly Large grains or ier fusion effec (see AISHCH “eposton below) A second technique for improving the sep overage in sputrig so apply an RF bias othe wafers I te bass satiety large, the wafer wil yin tobe bombarded by ener tics. This wil te edeposit he pred materia some improving sp conerags, New sputring techniguos have been devclopod in an eff to improv the Sop eOverage of spare ins ito nao, high spect ao coms and vias, We hive trendy discus the we fo alumioun metal a echngue for vis iing andthe consems of eaton wh he ume inga 12 ya Dpestn.Eapatn an Sting slico ad he fos fhe temperate othe slmioum gan src, The eX hig ht was Jevlope fortis pplication was ale force i, Th fre il techkue intentionally Spates he Bm in sch away a produce a prononed cusp te top comer of the cont. As te depoiton conics, te deponiion Honea the tp he contact converge, ptcing of any furthes poron {eto the contac. This seals the ion-prestre pterng gas (wus Ar ina voi ae te Comat, "The stp coverage ofthe kn othe contac ienremely por a this pot. To ety t- ion, te wafers ae pot into am autoclave wher they ate hse and prssrzd Yo ana smosphares This puta fore om the tp ofthe metal bridges that sal the coms the foe this point encod the yeild strength of the eae eal the seals collapse ear posing the metal down into te cota, Force il works wll only for a etn rnge of contact dos mt Improve the coverage of metal Bis ove ned ens “The next fvel i improving the step of high aspect rio comtcts is climate spats (igure 12.2) This elnig inser plat wth highest rio bol js ove the wer, If ve spots at lo pessure (afew ull), te sean path wl belong enowgh tit few clon wl ‘ecur between the collinatr andthe wafer. Duct the hgh-spect rato holes tough ihe eal tor, only species wit elocies nary perpencaln tothe race ofthe wales wil pats hog hc es. This damatcelly reduces the Jepostn fue bat acepabe rates are obtain for depositing sion bars hs ave cossmonly 25 to 40 am hick. Although widely used. collins uve» ruber of problems. Higher aspet rio const ere higher apet ratio collinos and cone Sondiagy lower depouton rates The riser tat dopsis on he collimators bude up wet becomes so hick that Makes fd may fallon he arace ofthe wafer, As ares isang se eoliatas fr contact with epee toe rasta The cure sto of teat for sptering, piel vapor depston a it is now corey calle isthe ionized real plas deposition (Figue 122, Ejected metal str ps though & Second pasna tha ionize the panna meal. The angulation of tell sing os te Srfsce of the safer is comedy the de Has ew the aler and he ionization of the spared ‘species. The deree of ionization inthe second pla depends ani tite, which i am ‘&pends onthe enreyof i ejected waters To pin scien iontation, IMP stems oe op ‘H€ ces 010 mir. where colisioes slow the ected stra. Besse the IMP process pro ‘carvers depstion the coverage on horizontal surfaes is much beter tha Or he sewal, ee nana teen 1 Figure 1223 te camtedsptesng cinpotlcolia place ne en Spatig obese 18 Applied Materia as demonstrated contact bor flim hickses fa cuca the 8% of he Ma rea poston thickness but sia coverage depen rally om th tapers i commonly ean 25, 12.11 Sputtering Methods . ‘Alt expose secs in an R plas develo negative potential with respet othe plasma die the higher moby of electrons than ion. In ype puterng sytem, moto the sells op ‘on Be rset eztrode, but the bias or te sustate letade lead oa bombed on ns ofthe wales aswell, The Bombardment ads oa removal of mater from the surface of the wer. THs cffet ean be conlled by adjusting the de bison the electra with rxpct othe para This has {wo major applications in mreeectoic:suter clearing a be spring, The removal fst ‘trface contaminant from the wafer before ln depos as bse stale extensively for low ten ‘rtu eplatalgromth. Tat ope willbe cover na ltr chapter. This section will tit ts Figure 12.24 the Eats yen by Aid Mrs we note of PUD ¢ CVD ‘spear Two oper charbers ae shoei hi phoioetagh song wid he aa Tock ra Aplied ee ee ee eee316 gure 1225 tn ie surg te os niet Sahe ta ofthe wafer sub Se {2 ysl epson: Fagen a Sptirg sstemton toa purely pays method of cleaning: spun exching ofthe sohsrates A ype example fof the use of tspeter deposition procs ete deposition of tlt frm sa ohm eo heavily doped silcon. The contra are ptr ad etcod Hough a thick naling lyer of Si. Immediately before lating no the spring system. the wafers re dpe in adie mare of yaroiure aed and water (1:10) 0 remove any ode tat has regrow onthe silicon ae the contact ch. The wales ae ise i ionized water spun dy. and loaded det into the var tystom for deposition, Te bre expose to «water rine and te ai however cx allow retouts ofa thi, plchy native oxide. To dais a rlable Yow ress. tance contact, itis desiable to remove this very thin xkle layer before metal deposition, By reversing the eli cometons, it spose spe rom the seas rater than from te tage. Tis ffequeraly dove for a sho tine before depoidon To reve the native oxide and any residual comaitans fom tes face ofthe wafer [7], Sputer esting es serous problem, however Sputered mutrilrom ho subsite elec or fom the oxide coated regions of he wafer may deposit o the ‘face, leading to more coctaminaon rather Ua Jess. The ‘cootamicaton may hive serious cosequences ii cone heavy metal impries tit eatse jncton leakage [4 (Organic contaminants, sich as thte obisned fom conde pump cil vapors maybe polymerized, making them very i Feat rernove [9 50 Spates etched silicon ayers show damage exemling 0 o 110 Alto te wafer [51 Te {ace of he sion may contain op lo 20 atomic percent Ar, pending onthe Pas coniton [5 Mate poral fom fhe surface ofthe Wafer my aso be nonfarm, aig to the formation steep cos and etch valley (53k: however, for atypia puter lc the desde ep ies than 10 A. which is typical estan 20% of he jntion depth The development of spur pecesn step, however, must be optimized expeimentl fr each sputeriag st by nearing the eles (ofthe spater cleaning ep on the contac resistance, contact eliabity, nd the junto leak. For simple magne systems is possible to aj te bias he substrate with expect © the plasma if the substrate nd the deposited Els are conductive By placing x negative bas on te substrate the ion bombardment of the subst inteaed, By eonrling the bias, one ca cae the ate of deposition independent ofthe rate of puter cchng of te proving lm. Since Le sptle™ tichod in may redepost on he wafer i epterd at low bas, ane mprovenent in the ep cove tage may be achieved (Fgute 1225) Vowen hs show tat his ecque can be wed o actly rdces higher deposition rats on te sewale of «contact than onthe srtce (54. High spar, [HEh rales, however, may lead to damage ofthe underlying sbsate and faceing of the Sep layes. At Tower bias vllges, he lace ion eneray may alo impeove ssp coverage by ints the ada nail 35} Wis aso possible and often desirable wo clean the target before beponing the depsion. To presputer, the plasm is ignited heore opening the shure that he material onthe wp ofthe ta 'S deposited ote back sd ofthe ster ntad of onthe ehtates. A common aplication fp uttering isthe removal ofthe naive oxides formed on mal ues. For ths appa, the thange i the glow dicharge curenl can be wied to determine the removal ofthe oxic 156. ‘The surface oxides generally have high secondary eleton emission rates and so te ischarge e- rent falls to x sedate valve once she lrgetscleun. Prespterig ofthese reacve specs 20 1212spaninge Suess 347 eters Ue residual reactive gasses such 28 Os, 1,0, and N; from the chambes, bt by gas phase ‘actos and by coat the back sarface of the shir wih Nighy eae Rls 12.12 Sputtering of Specific Materials ‘Many reports have ben given regarding the uit of slminum-basedspated metalation: for sla ised ICs [57,56] Pur alumnus hasbeen replaced by aluminum lca allay oictesse the reliably of chun contact ormed to sallow jmctons, Typical licen concertaions ar 0.5 {020 atone peccet. The addiion of 05 to 1.0 some percem copper alsa tees the ndeaey 9 ‘he etl li to fre hillocks [39] and deamatclly improves he ast of lines fore xn these lms wo pass high cutent without elesromigrtion degradation or steaitice’ ving. Each of tse effets wil be Jiscusid in Chapt 1S. The fis part ofthis section wil review he sper deposi of aurinum alloy fil. "To bain lrg sper deposition rates, mest amin i epost in planar de rgnetron systems Since all of tse sae loys conrol of hs tlclomety of the fim primary con ‘cen. As dscuse previously, the deposited im compostion sway closet the alk age cop pion, At moderate substte emperture whore revapoation ofthe deported maria abe neglected, ie exact composition ofthe Sion is comvoled by te transport properties of the con Stiuers i the lasoa [0], A low charber pressures. or example, spterig from an ANCL age ‘wil esl in sigh higher Cx conerrations in he lin haa nthe rpet. Te igh copper compo sion slated oth ability ofthe Ar gst heats te very igh lumizum atoms whe col Home sith the mach Rewer copper stoma have ile ffot (61) Th ral called ski ‘enmatzatin (62, mon pronounced wth puteriag materials suchas AIC cy Ti which ne ‘material has ch ager atomic ass heer. ‘One way to chai beter contol of the seichiomety iso Mave mulpe target By adjsing the power teach target te compastion of the deported layer canbe aired, A secoad tod of > 1, Te disci a sample ha epeseattive process We tse the decompostion of slze gas (SiH) Yo frm polyrytaline siicon. Assume ta the gs ‘hough the te fom le org Since the lane wil opin lo decompose wey i appraaches figure 121. A mpl prcype thermal CVD esto o_o 81ASip Cv SotnloheDratinelSin 927 bot suscep the conection of silane, and there fore the depotion ate, wil decreas along the length ‘ofthe be. To improve the urifrmay ofthe dep “= sae tion, he sia canbe mised inane are pas A Tan common dite! fr sae «molecular hydrogen i) “Assume the chamber is fed a mitre of 1 Sit ‘wae Not only i the we of diluent cirmon protic n ‘eal tens, it zho evel fartercomplctoes athe hams of tbe reaction since at ypc depot onions Very litle ofthe ydogen can decompose Fly assure tht the temperate of the ga rer he tube isthe same a the wall empersne. "Te veacton products and ay uareced ne Mow out ofthe tate athe righ. The lows the chmber wl be slow eno se Seton 93) hat ‘he pressure i he cbabor canbe consist wife. "The overall ection that must occurs SiMJa) +830) + 2442) (a) where he quay in paresis for gs phase for sd The tailed process by which is ‘veal ection acu s mich more complex One oh distintions dso wegading CVD tn ca om of he eaton tht ier a oi low rcaer of atoms fom a gecous ue that reaction generally udesible if they proce sos Uking the deposition of ls 4s example, exc Sneteous ection wil etn ge sco price in the gas pha Untgallyacurito the wale. The resus a dept wi por surace monly al income properties. In fl tens, auch posts hae a poorly contol cmpostion an may hve signin contamination fom residual gases in the chara. Ts chapter wil erefore emg roeses that are beleopenas That is process that ope insu a manner 1 prety favor the Fomtion of ony tu fees. Een for processes ta ern this 3, emogencos ean ae stil importa. Pr arp, ine depotion of san. the homogeneous proton of lene (St is acral proses bec is penenlly believed hat over some fangs of ayers an presets thesia rate than sn self ht drs o he tae th wafer and pres the sh icon Te dsiction heres "hte ormagenows reaton produc ages, ot sol. pod. The chp wl fee aially om theses! type of heterogeneous ection, which nu ina col wl chamber ike re one sho in Figue 3.), where all deposition reactions secur at th surface ofthe wale, Generally. the tps that occur ring chemical vapo deposton proces inca) the uans or of the precursors fom the chamber it fo the pny ofthe wale, 2) reacio hese ses to form a range of daugber molecules, (3) anspor of these reactants tothe suave ofthe wale, (4) surface reaction 10 reese the silicon, (3) desorption of the gaeenu by-products, (Sy rnepn of the by-products vay fom the surface fee wafer and (7) espt te by poe et from the reactor Even ifthe dscusson iinet thea! CVD in this very simple depos on sym, undestanding cach ofthese steps i formidable us, To simply mater the ple tften divided in il. The nex seein wil foes on he chaticalreactions that ost the ects, brah nthe gas pase and at We sriace ofthe waft. The flowing section wil discus the Dow of _ases nthe reece. Choosing o sud 2 ysem i onan only a small concent ofthe react ‘gas (15 Sify in alos his sepa De aly cel, The thermal and mschaaiat po ‘ates ofthe gas re elatveyunalfected by any chemical ection nthe lle compe eaea8 emia 13.2 Chemical Equilibrium and the Law of Mass Action’ aA, pie 182 A volume ener Va ne in ie Focusing for the moment on CVD process that involve lng times and many clsions between ‘oleols, the chemical composton at each poi in he reactor approaches eiliam, To unde and chemical exulvim considera unit volume ofthe gas weer the char CPpure 132, Assumed the value is small nough that he empeature and chem eal composi its ‘volume are usforn. One ofthe escton tht cei think os SiH) = SiH 49) + 21K) (33 “The double anow infctes tha the reaction process in but drctions, Chemie equim x ‘roche wien the eonceniation ofeach species s consan, even ithe gusses tke tn ata ong, ‘ime traversing this it volume Actly is esction i nie, bt ts msc) “Asume fr de moment at this ithe nly reaction that cours. Te lw of mass ation says hot Pou an = ene (39 shee ref othe part pressue a he scripted species, and (7) i resto equ constant at depends ely on the eprate. The atomic hyoges er gure boca of i 2 infront ofthe atomic hycrogen te ofthe species bance equation (Eqution 132) The squid Kary = Keer oy) where Gis the change inthe Gib fe energy nthe eton K, maybe postive negative a is independent oF pressure, nlaing int gases sch He Asse tha (7) s knows for his proces. Tee ar tree unknowns he tne pana pes: sores) and ony one exon. Solving for thm requires ture exuaton, Te tal pret he fessor Pisa constant whose vane fe nermaly Know Ii he som ofthe pas presure P= Pay + Pan + Pt Pe 35) ante Assuming, (0 example thatthe chamber is ran a al Dic pres, he pai pessue fH i the same ne aril pressure(0.99P since is cued tobe inet ‘The fal equation comes fm the net Row. One canst the SuH rows SS ata marae Oe BSAC SESE where he frm we belt ows, ho aed 1 be “his expeson hs taken ay eter acon to secon For tape, al CVD, see 1320hereFisremandpeLenctts Alin 328 from the gs se In that case, the par pressure of ilicon cant be completely detemined by the inlet flows. Trica, ome must cider the inl Hw tobe a source of icon sential ‘ues and the deposition surface to bo nk. Then, the wiece-continng maleeule Out, wich ‘depen onde fw eid and fasion, mast be celts, To begin to develop « more realistic Pct, some of the Athos th ould have 1 be cade oe (3) Sigs) = Sita) + Hite) «37, Silo) + Sila) = SiO) (39) SiHuig) = BSS) + Hg) (39) Otter reactions ar, of cous, posible, an prot ne cannot decide which reactions to inti, Tasca, one must find tie eit constant for etch poxshe reaction a gmoney tho eae: ‘ion for which the KF) valos ate negligibly small Finding the equiv par! presaress therefore, requires an equilbinm constant fr ean ofthe tee teactons sed above andthe sol tio of of coupled ssa sustions Example 131 [Aucme that he gas AB is invoduce into tector an ha the cay chemical reaction ‘hat cues hte chamber i ABSA+E (319 Ae process is run at | atm (760 tor) ss tspeatre of 1000 K and the process reaches herical equim, calcul the pat presse of each specie. Te eglitiom conan for ths rection is given by KET) = 18% 10% mre 2807 astn) 1000 he vam ost cnc he St. Then as =P ras anth alrstre Pi thes of pti press: Peon rat Pe assy Weave ee vows bl aly woaion Sa As Bare th rey the disc ation of teil gas, there most be an equal amber of echt would be resonable ase tha be paral pressures ae equal. Then P+ 03p,— 015-70 (314 Seng P= 760 wr an solving ives p= py ~ 105 tr a ag = 739{Pe dacs ths fr mates crcl yoximatn: at al pce ae in ceil eah wie unerand the iixion of hs eproxnain sie thal harps ee SE games rece, Atal cough presi. the mea fe pao the Paes ee ie ih ft cher Seco 101): thew spac do seer a PE,RB olen do nt sich hema equrem apd hefore canna chee chon eng Fanheore, snc te git molecules havea distibtion of cnetpes alge minis ote ius ut in ea ct volume fore ae pel tach chemical clings a ‘Bact chamber length such the distance bine he ss inet ane secon iss few ones of magne er tha he mca ce ph Depending on. pe sionentations involved some process say reach equliriom, oder will nes Preteen dein, sexh hema equliviom ae calle Kina conraled process. Type ae ee 'skinetcaly controle, while atmospheric CVD maybe cjueen ar tino undertand tiscls of depoon, constr Reaction 13.7. This proeypit "ssconinslicon CVD. When the reaction it inlay comtollet ite wena Side) Esitige) + He) ns here and are the forward and reverse reaction rate nelicints. By wring sina expression for ech ofthe chil factions, is poasibewoconu erential uation forthe ime rate of change of the concentration or pti prseres of a oc themical specie. er example, if only Reactns 13.) trough 189 ae conse he seen hange of anes given by Suh haCahEntn then ‘hse te subserp Ion the fst two cms fers othe reaction given in Exton 13.7, andthe bh ‘cp 2 efers othe reston lsted in Equation 138, Equation 139 docstoc ene nee a {eet eter into uation 73.16. One can onset i cuatons fr theo oon Dee brow, we ate let with st of coupled es order diferent nao nee {oie rate of change of cach chemical species inthe unit volume Ione aso takes in eon ag {acon of chemical species du wo concetation graticns, te residence ine of We tener ‘olume is known (through the How velvites), and the vale of he enponre oo a anes is known, one could begin to solve foe & map of the eerie specs ine etea Although tis pote to solve forthe species balance In very single yams eal CVD nsec ae imagine dozens of cies and banded of acts [4h Furthermore, many ae ingencct tan ‘puciens even the most common we chemical epee aaa ae ot pescmly Kenwe oe ‘el cnosh produce meaningtl information. Forth reason, we wil et sade ators non {net quantcativeeicssion of the CVD reactions and te this introduction ss ba fos sce ‘alae discon, Alitogh the chemical reactions inthe gas phase ae tat qultativey undersood he sit stem atthe surface is ch les clear. Prof the pblem the ots can be ed ones {Pee sample ove some fit volume. When tes sare ecnigsar pple ee aetna ‘Sinmaficiat na. Methods hat tvs teen used odevclap a aid wernt ie asc ‘Ati high vacuum growth cant eased in chars os pal CVD conten Alleah oa ‘ess have emerped in he post few years, the pictere hl we hve in sl etre aed eae Fe 183, Asie oil of etic wr Sony Moen andeylaes 39 qnnninretes ees {Sher commie pn ee oma armed ekg coe fe whch vfs tom oe cae at ae oe oh ie 1 ay ‘erm tote ato nie eo snl wi hat he ke = 056e 0807 sin eaceaem ust occur to remove the silicon atom Tra mts, ei it ct Sig) = Site) 0315 “The ove surface eaton mus ake de form siya) 2840) + 8) a9 etd oro int tes er ts ltd gern io ston bem te iS fect np igre he bene ht eH rim pam) or cement The ite tks mat tare wallow ie vasor dete! Eguin 1319 proc coat of Ais bi, so at tear wil ave Sermon nese is A ese Semaiy ces wh resin svat st short, ales uniform deposit will est, AS with physical cru tas nea 43,3 Gas Flow and Boundary Layers” ‘The second sfc tit need 19 he undestod for CVD ‘8 gas Bow dynam, The gus Bow in the rear33 ‘ciel enclped par ow 3.0m ap cpstion = = 2, print became demines the anspor of th varius Sa Sica species i he chamber, a plays signin SS oleate temperate esti nthe psn many rae too. Futemor, the temperaive distin wil affect the flow. If he mea fee pth ofthe Bu sch Saletan the chamber scones th git con be eas {sa wseous Mid. Futermore, ithe flow velcies ae ‘much xs than he speed of sound ow Mac umber the ‘35 can be considered ncormpesible, Neaty si CVD ‘ers opera in pressure ae fw ragines tht make tee approximations valid Fall as tring it sso tht he es vel i fow enough ht the ga lows amg the ott of Ue hams "The flow ssid be liar and it canbe wel descbed by he mechanical prope of he gs {ithe reactor is eirtolr ube an al! surtaes ae athe same temperature, he proba em be ‘mpd considerably. Assume that he gas i introduced with a iform velosy Us at he level ‘ofthe tbe (Figure 134. One important eure of gat Rows ithe gs veloc mst be 29a allsurfaes.Beemse of theft as viscosity, the ow velocity mut aly southy fom zeo a he ‘alls to some maximum value athe cevter. This change fom uniform or pig ow, Fly developed tbe flow cca over a dances, is iw on tis adn 325 nett rats oe ube, ands dmensoness quantity known athe Reyaokls number, ‘The Reynolds munber (given by ae y= Ue k=, sz) ‘where Lisa characterise length the chamber aoc as the au) iste kinmai isco, p 's toe mass densiy ofthe as, and mis he dynamic vnc of the ga (6. When Ny i low. he ow inte oe i minted by the ite visconty elects and sos parbole aero the chabes “Te velocity dh i given by wo- p27 az ana where di the presse grtint across the tube, which is assumed tobe smal. AL ery lage Ny, ‘he gas can support he ange vehocty gradients required fr fly developed laminae Mow 50 ‘he flow becomes tule. The tastion betwee lana sn rvlemt ews depen on he fs For example, wea Ny > 2300 Hy he ow is wcblen (7), jamie 132 ‘An LECVD tube operating st 10 tras a inet ga dow of 1000 scem (sand etic ‘cenimeters per mine of mig, AC ihe react emperatareof 1000 K, the dypamie isco ‘ot mizogen 8.04 psec, The reactors 20 mm amt Exim the feng eed fot fully develope Row and calelte ae be Now say evel. 296 Ftn anton Las 380 According o 1320 and (3.21, ~fu,8 nase “Temas density canbe calculated sing the is! ge la p= my Bon $5 10% pom 0 istaken ashe plas ow velit sin 100K 780 tne = 1000 emia co sec 73K WDion widen? aaa Since the otal fw mst he ona, amma? f ‘one can rely show hat so=ieaef 3) ‘To begin wo understand the Bow Hels of« more complied chamber etic to Figure 13.1, ‘but forthe momen keep the tem aa ifr temperate. The wafer wil rest on the Beton su face ofthe chaber, The previous discussion sugests thatthe es Dow vlan mast g0 10 zr at the srfae ofthe wafer. The standard tentbook picture hs the height f the chamber large enough 0 ve a are Ny and soa broad region of niform gs sky apposinutly equ to Uo urbe ‘Simplify the behavior of flow. iti casters to approximate the prac fl ofl f the gat veloiy {inthe vii ofthe wate asa boundary lye of ad) whee fora at surfoe whose normal perpendicular the Now dietion cS vi Je his mode eas Bow ie Boundary bye ea, while od the tou rhe ow seloiy me igre 15). If depositions occuring the surface ofthe wafer, the deposion gases ust difnetrgh ne ‘he sugnam boundary yer. The bard layer thickness estore way pity a fie oe bes 1323)304180 vg ton Figue 135A) ae ow apres by 2 pate flow moss nin te sage pin os (35 Sagan ayer hn eas eronsaming ‘hg ow ar Eszrmining the deposition re. Notice tat econ 10 Equation 1323, for f surtace the bounty layer hikes increases as "To main form boundary layer thickness, CVD systems ia Which gos wansport plays a sigscant role in Ge deposition ate often tit he deposition sufae with respect othe Gow direction The wafers then et on 2 wedge-shaped suseptoe. The titangl ofthe wedge ts: Be optized o aba the best uniformity fr pirielar CVD process, Ga pe dfsivies ae mach fas epee ‘ure censidve than bl ffi. One common Foams gven by Hammond (8) ner am where Py and Par the patil presse ofthe di ing species and the total pes, cespetvely a figs ofthe sagnaat ager, One oft ays wo din fush CVD processes that are limited by lifisn "rough the gasIst eass te temperate depen! ‘ence of the deposition rate. If Pan be consid Sicyeatene of terperatt, te deposion tte ot ‘cha mass wensport nied reaction would cee only Weakly with ocean temperate “The gat Gow in CVD rears can be nolan Ina and may involve recilations ne ral exh (One of se mont common sours ofthese Ao = ‘natural convection. AS the ps ows past ot uta. expands The expansion i describe by anes of stash as hele la safe (1325) where m isthe molecular mass. Ja so dong, the mass density decreases. (Recall ht the pees is fixed) The ot gas tendo Heat of ie inte raor with respect a cooler gasses Tse sale anual conection, as also be considered whea calculating he ow of pss in cel chant ‘er deposionconitns [The ele are most pronounced when heary molecules at st near aucphericpressies. Convers ambien. tual convection has almost fe For lw pres Figure I36A shows the calculated ow fis for «hei eat with a square co tion Te ceealaons were done by disrtizing to reactor nD ad alvin or monet co ‘ation inthe form the Navier-Stokes equation ver hi gt: Gases injec at he ack Jef) ead oft box and fo toward de tont Gamer righ) end oF te bot The lower suiae «BX susceptor The ho susceptor causes the gaa the Centr of the face es leant ane AGwRinanseneylans 335 o (lcs it develo song te leg afte reason Asin quiaive duno fe exe onan obey pe hn, hes piper cad ec sulin andentinting of trey of chanier gometts ad CUD eee Pe ae Sve NOs psa eres hy dw th seme hoe Te eae ao iw thes fo The tan gee tons war tn an eS Ime show ow 10 tr 19, Ovi elec gray dren eee ow SAE IS al one sows wp a ancl Gh ee hep feytanssenteanveiy cam mde oe cance meet te ‘eieiton ls yah ac wen te mec sa te Sans ae Hv cell an tape ponent at woul ere be ve shi pon a386 one Ogee vf IN en eng pcs | =| Figure 137 Baoyancy nc een aie onto ay Figure 13.8. Tia depenion acs CVD os 8 elect can fed tan incomplete Bushing ofthe tan tar. the composition af the depot ches th hangs willbe much les abrupt than if he rea nd procs are spray ecaculaion sel 13.4 Evaluation of the Simple CVD system ‘Now examine whot happen ithe deposition rain cur example CVD resto nese fi a temperature. The prediction of the growth ae aay othe wifrmity requis exenive Bad dyna and chemical concentation calculation, Istend we will werk Backward by developing a gihtane ndersianding of experimenta aus The depion {ate ofthe ston coetasing pra (sane wl ied as a growth parc Figure 8 chow he ‘els. AtTow wafer tempest the deposition tre inercises exponentially wah dectesing ince tne ere. nhs regime the Kiting sep of he prc ' some reaction rte This my be nie at ple on ‘the surface. The information povided tae {© determine whethes the gs sin chemical gi ‘um o is intial contol. Process this tegion ae called reaction rae Toned CVD oye tems that operat in is regime must have ckceon Semper: coat and tsegeraare wifey. Tse Systems ae prinaniy age belch systems ia whe stay wafers are processed relatively low rte Fl dynamics this chamber ae fs of sconce cae to the een tht they contiete lo tempaatoe ‘monniormiy across the wafer For tha reson th |9pe of eciorofen heals mot ely the wa bs ts walls as wel therefore clled herwal l CVD resto, Athi wae temperate, he growth time by the rival rate ofthe growth speci kb fe assumed tht te lication ie difuion acne te Boundary layer. As already pind out, the open lute dependence o the gan pase dusty ie mask ower thin he Stator energy of the chemical ex tion Prceses operating i ths ene a eee 8 mass transport Limited Then the comet the dapostion gan O gnses contol the depnton Tae. Remener ta the te of production ots aes fm the Pecos may ako hive a temgerauredepsniene CVD syns aac (nas atepr Lined gine mast hve exc! con ofthe sows, an ine chante eet RSAmespte OBoIvoHENs 397 ca orang 20 Se aur tampon wl an fl a, An hte pe ‘ems often a ingle-waer oe smack yen, dncmaloniodposton and unify CVD le mus be exsnind with gard ose, rooney compost. Stasis cae or sured fins CVD pen wah neon Say Seat EN mY cach parca when they cover sap The nepeoeaaes ee nome SBE aes even or ishaspect aio fears Plomcreed Cel comer ad Coat eta. Ts wil be used ae i te eapcr Go one Sear an it he Speed slcon may bv a high consecration of ngs The eae Soap tay ch mre quick tan pr sicon Hine Rei! gaee tne cn ae SOSPERL Ya taper may abo reat wit te icon o frm SO,tayex wah gh aa et remain eames cha SOs or SN are esi ak tlieteaes ence aoe cap peat. bt ao he iki of the deposited nw ayer oma et es sean A Semen ote a CVD oxen onsen high temperate ocean ee tine pean noes hein claw schiomete SOs Hamecaanced vb eens ere acuatly prone to sichonety concer One comin aud cay mene yeah PECVD ti et ke to meas te wet hence indie HE selene Ae ec PECVD fs feguemly hive cchraes 10 ties the of thearehe 13.5 Atmospheric CVD of Dielectrics FW 128. sinpe coctmion ed sooghe pee ‘aera Ser ane Taal \esiable 0 deposit sicon donde Rs wth oo 12% phosphors. These phuspinicae gles (SG) saten ad relow etme te smoot wafer topoiay and tering many impa ‘is PSG can be formed ina smoephere pres king phosphine (PH) Figure [310 shows apd pot of the depeston re o PSG versus enpseaine ad oxyes to hye Now sates. For igh eoreee mncention ambiente eI). the dpuetion aac increas sharply with temperature and produce TOT lone phase, resulting in poor morpholog ‘8{sbton ae Did Senet LM Sums 399 ‘edu she problem: Dut to he high deposition rate, APCVD of BPSG ha bess sud asa pemetl ‘eerie foe DRAM a ele cont-enitive commodity omens 13.6 Low-Pressure CVD of Dielectrics and Semiconductors in Hot Wail Systems. {A wsiy of sytom geometries have Been ase fr fow-presure CVD (LPCVD). igure 13.12 shows J ple f some ofthe ros comunen. We can divide the ect noha and ca wal pr ficts. Cold wail systems are abe to wedace deposison onthe wale These apne can eee dition ofthe deposi species an the forton of patie, wich wey fallow the waters, Deposits om te walls also ea to memory eilects the penton one acon terial previously deposited on the walls. For hl reason ho wall ears ate dedicat rowth of parca im, \ Fame 13.10, Deposition mic oC FSG naa ARCVD syst te Kem and Rue, *197 AP 1 roses mtb designed so ao haep the reaction sic untold by the dep kaon ah Instead of unt gs. the ue of low presses (to I tom) fees sas theca Process is commonly ealled LPCVD. Figure 13.13 shows a photograph of haviootai LCVD sytem, Like faces lubes tn tis ban, the appr abe es be ‘emovcd io show the tsar col The phos se conrolied atthe bask of the tae aaing ‘action rt limited. For low onygex-contining ambi is (2.5:1) the growth rate aay decreases gy Wit ieressng tempore. The pbaspon cose ‘ofthe i canbe controled by changing the photog to sine sto. De to te txkciy of poping sad Siam, APCVD syeme dvignd for PBC Bevin se generly owed ina vented cart To fapeone ufornty and sep coverage, tan PSO and tone Phosptonicate gst (BPSG)proceses now we ‘tzanomtialic soiees such at THOS feacnyfouna lane o Si(OC: Ha). TOS and ozone can tio fe seed © deposit SiG at abot 400°C (11) TEOS in sped 4388 Salo, ier, high-vpoe pes lig tha ed abate ie Sesion 38 Ons hendmeagrel | it ‘sng TEOS isthe clinton ofthe nee for seo (eat) fe taardows chemical handling. The ins fons te buboler mast be feted wo prevent deposition the Fares eign sedtemiinize walt of te luting. Vain areas eg SXeentinams YManneesinetaran have alo bee ves fees tetwee esc [C1,)-Si-0-Si the spin rate a CVD peers Since the deposi a sling lyn spans interes ony RF horse sed lob coriored “There ae thee bc types of PECVD spn 1 shown it Figure 13.18 In cach syste, te Re ‘gency chosen is normally estan | Miz ao PECVD oxide can e depois 1356 Mie The fist PECVD systems wore coll wall palpi reactors. Gases ae ier ijt tthe ew "ough an upper cece showered ad exe shh pr athe cet o the gas jee ie Cenlerand extaned around the edges. As the wt lanetr ts inceased he Hs huge ad tial nore a these syns he eed th te for sizon IC prahctn, Due ote aml ae darters We bt rarber of wales pr however, this sje of reat fen peters) fe Gans echnloges For sticon IC mamaficturng wi ge snc ter wafers he curently prefered ectie fe ‘eins! PECVD is» poral pte bo Wal se Sila i appearance to a2 LACV tbe, he meee ne wounted vorcaly on conductive graphs si trodes of alerting poly. The sate lempe te i contd ain ary Tuma, elhough ‘mach cooler than it would be for comport LPCVD process. Albough the tregpet ef ts ‘ype of restr is hr thr he paral lat ph aco, is rch ess han to saad LPCVD wal ach PECVD systems ule same pe of gas depltioiifemy aod patch robles asthe thera counters) For tle vall PECVD systems. To increase the Uru umber of deposi spc may Def nas BrP CM UDelres 45 ‘coum tem, ever singe wale chante maybe un Inprale! wit sro arma eed the chase Oxs ean fcr docs he doin seule Soe Rs {rly does tis improve tehp,unfomiy of ceca ie iBeconss wef) To depos: bighaliy lays a ow suburte enpe sts hihi DP ve ese tc ee deed Ths reason we 3 taney of pacer pes GTN + 248CIand “Typically th deposition is ran a¢ 700 to 80°C. The Aloe an chlorine conetation ba cp ‘he deposition temperature nee (67, Lower dep son Temperate can be aed et me city ‘sed by PECVD, bt crroston due esse chine remains a concer. Ateraively, one Gen wi OgaNO rretalie tau sources sith. at cake. Teminctunisn, TINICH,CHyI, of TDEAT. wi ‘etakisdimehyizminotianion,, (N(CH) le oF TTDMAT. at trpperaues of les than SOO (6). Esher posts can proce nh Gis with xc en sep coverage over severe oporepics Figs 182. ‘The TOEATINH, proces renerlyprefaed ow ‘ver. snce tis eae poe o prc contannation ‘AS wll be dieu in aor chop, ptr alimianom alysis being replace by Tower resi ity copper Inal work ts feud on plating. ve, he dest dest of plated fine se prblems seoviated wid conslling the eurent demty and theretore nor of srpiatng ae seus co cers. At present sa ea how copper wl lt tmaely be deposited in bighoime, podaton Sputlerngiatacive tc cover very-hiprapees ‘ao stacurcs. Allsugh egsten plugs can be wd his ads several adsona steps ta he prea Hw. ‘8 conformat CVD fof Cut Barer tye sch {TIN would be prefered: Bares re rye ine Gu fe reply ough both Sad SiO At pe Ss however copper CVD is a ature proces Viewaly al CVD copper is done with cxgaowetalics. A typieal sour copper hes raceplcuonte, (CF —=CO=CH—CO—CP), Ca ‘oF Cuthah, for shot. Typically Cuts, eeduced350 13emi ne in an Me able temeities of 250 44rc ie heme ae at ein toon amospere or wher the Hy cater epg bya et 1, wth ey al ere i sours, carton cn be enn the deposed br pues of 955 can be achved i ee the carer (70) Copper resists oly 10% hs than tll cxa ie achioed (1), tod We ton Seceae incay withers ating tal phonon etre a he oman scares Inet These lowest tequte sxe of caer a pon empea cast OPC. Fm esata avo dpe son fim hikes fr fins ee han 300 nn de Tak probly reeset the nto of eran banda fd a ey thle, the rekon of conn may 13.9 Summary Tis caper ied te bse emis and Ich of cheep dsp fg ‘uric quate Scop of ty econ Ny pon nd ets pean ise {cy rue can tec develop he eagerness Amo dreste CVD (APCVE) ony wy sl 0 epost Theo oben it hse pies spice mai er ste oso $5 or raph me gecns mca, Lm pe CVD UPCVD} pts tin wy wedi sen clog Sunda face magento eb ‘emi en eh tropipt To inpne te tlamiy fete ces ton tars te es Ccslpd, Te seo foe an done wih aca ape seas ee “sty pete eed she es empoiine TEOS. ona ctarsed CO ose Ps se enti en oe The As te ne poo {sas os high hrc nes ssuet amet Te sos hens FECUD tm ser gh exo tne ec. The CVD mel se snp ‘saat allows the fabrication of igh density fotertonnect. Cael, ungsien i the mos ope (C¥D metal syst, Is the mos pop Pain an oY yee 1429 unmctote sas poletby Problems 1.” Repeat the calculations done i Example 13.1 he eacton of ime AB =A +28 Ase hsv conan umhnged 2. Rept cats Sor ale 9 eg at he si yen (n= 30 glem-sec). . — References ferns 351 Biel decribethesdvanages an earanags f APCVD. 3. ‘Anume you waned to Spl NACI als) on the water Wha recs mig you 5 Rural procs recon inte et 0° athe avalon nergy 26V. A i Epes he epson e100 Amin Wha woul you pes hat wool sa S0°Cr ft ext dopo ee 0° ec esa eden, ha gh yourcrecinn bt How dd you pave? 6 Ryness na strand ronal LPCVD he, wher the wales ar ned gn ‘Mandar sod teat Wao ight expla alone pat om frat of te tbe toe back rom te ce of ach wafer oh ene” What wuld ou doo try tnprore the unfomay cach exe? 1. Rposepontion mca clea dnaiaton sep x fen sed ra thee te of CVD ‘iby The deniaton py unt 00-100. Te step et eamly de fe PECVD tes stooge wees ent or ean, pln wy the poss st one foc eis we 1. A. Sterman, Chemical Vopor Deposion for Microelectronics: Principles, Technolog, ond Applications Noyes, Pack Ridge. NI, 1987 4 2S. Sivaram, Chemical Vapor Deposition, Van Nostrand Reiahok, New York. 1995 3. Daupoat, SF -Richhors HE. O'Neal and M.A. Rig, "Shock Induced Kees of the Diane Decomposition an Silene Reaction wth Trinetaylnlane and Butdene Orxancmetales 11217 (1982). 4. ALK Molt, Numerical Modeling of Chemie! Vapor Deposition Procestesin Horio) Reactors, Tess, Univers of Minnest,1992 5. MLE: Cate, RJ. Len an. A. Mile, "A Matheratcal Model of Scan Vapor Depsion unter Refinement andthe Efe of Thema Difsion,” J. Electrochem So 1581206: 1986, 1. Forthe viscosities of common caer gasses, se. ilng in Cryst! Grom of Betronic Matera, Kal, Elsevier Scene Publ, Anse, 1985. 7. 6.B Suinstellos, Organomet Vopor-Phase Epitaxy Theory an Practice, Academic Frew Benton, 189, MLL Hammond, "hxodction to Chemicel Vapor Deposition,” Solid Stat Tectia. 22:61 (December 1939), 9. R. Takahashi, Y, Koga an K,Sugawars, “Gas Flow Patlers and Mass Transfer Anais ‘na Heel Flow Real for Chemical Vapor Deposition,” J. Elecrocem, So 1191406 197. 10, W. Ker and RS. Role. “Adtances in Deposition Processes for Passivation Fs." acon Sc. Techno, 141082 (1977, 1H. tanta, “Thermal CVD Equipment: Competition Heats Up.” Soli Stare Teco Api 1981p. a7 12, Ki Fuji, ¥.Nishinedo,N.Tokumasu and K, Macs, “Low Tempencue, Atmospheric Pressre CVD Using Hexsmuhyliane and Ozone," Electrochem Soe. 1302282, 93) 3. S.B Dew, C. HL Peng, T-Si and. A. Agastar, “Low Temperate CVD of iO; Fins Using Nowe Precursors." letrochem, Soe. 1382682 (192). ==as er ap ss ane 3aR a Jot E. Schmit, Chemica! Vapor Depo of Tungsten and Tusen Sicidesfor VLSIRVES! Applications, Noyes Pak Rage N, 192, EK. Broahent an C1. Rar, “Sletve Law Presse Chemical Vapor Depesion “Tungsten. J Eectrochem Soe Wi 1427 (984) YY Palen and P. Lami, "Kits snd Mechanem of Selective Tungsten Deposition y LPCVD. Electrochem, Soe 1822799 (1983), LE.L.Sehmisz, Choma! Vopor Deposition of Pani am Turton Sides, Noy, (CEM, Meling-Smith AC Adams, RK. Kaiser aR. A, Kushner, “Chemical Vapor Deposion af Tunsien oc Semiconductor Matalizations” J. Elcrotem So. 12298 1994), 1 Hashnwso and Y. Koga, “The SLWSt, Si pital Staci” J. Elecachene. Ste; 1141189 (1957) LL Replan and F< Heue. "The Depsiton of Molyenur and Tungsten Flim rom Vapour Decomposition af Carbonyl" Blcichem. Sc, MT.O3 (970 [M-Diem, M. Fisk, and J. Golan, "Properties of Chemealy Vapor Deposited Targa ‘Thin Films on Silicon Wafer,” Thin Soa Films 10739 (1983), Holand K. Acheson, Tungron Workahp 1988 9.25, SR. Kurt and RG. Gordo, “Chemical Vapor Deposition of Tani Nii st Low Teenperatres,” Thi Sold Fala 140277 (1986), A. Sherman, "Growth and Popes of LFCVD Titaniom Nine a» Diffsion ari fr Silicon Device Tecaolog." J. Elecrochr Soc 1871892 (1990). [Mak Hoh T, Katayama, K Tashan, and Y. Akasaka, Tengien Workshop ¥, 990 p87. 4. BJs, KC: blgee and A.J. M. van Dok, Tungsten Workshop Hl 18.88 5 Sivaram Chemical Vapor Deposition, Van Nasrand Reals, New York. 15S. 1 Yotayams, K-Hinode snd ¥- Hon, “LPCVD Tiaium Niide fr ULSI" J Biotherm Soe 1801901931) 4. Baliga, "Depostng Dillion Bair” Semiconductor in. 28(3).76 (Merch 19H. 1: Rods and M. Harpeth, The Chests of Metal CVD, VCH, Weinbei,1938. [ALE Kaloyeros, A. Feng, 1- Guat. KC. Brooks S.K- Goo AN Sevens and J tuches, iectrnic Mat 19271 (190) (COenrandH, Su. “Thin Copper Fn fy Plsms CVD Using Coppe-Hevalloro- Acelacsomie” Appl. Phe A851 (188) W.G. La, Y- Xie, and GL Goi, “Atmospheric Pesure Chemical Vapor Deposition 0F Copper Thin Fins Hesizntl Ht Wal Reason” Electrochem Soe, AME3499 (1991 Chapter 14 Epitaxial Growth “Many ebniqus ave been used 9 deposi singles sion and GaAs {1A pts woud ‘tele a sumer of CVD variations, including plana enhanced, rp thera, tallorgacic ie igh vactum ond lsc. optical, and ay assed. No CVD mtd clade molecular ber, ion ra, an clisred ion bem pny ome ast a few. Allo these methods have he capability prow single-crystal ayer. Very fom, However, hive dense te capably to gow mail of ‘uictent quality to cconomicalyfabicae hbrdensity ICs. Tvs chapter wil rt concentte on thermal emis poe postin or vapoe phase epoxy [VPE}, ie mos commonly ved appa {orsticon epitaxy in HC production, In thie proves, ea provides the energy neces w eve the thenical process. Laer the chapee will dese 2 VPE meted for growing etal layers of (GaAs as Wel as advanced forms of VPE, cling metalorganic VPE (MOCVD) and epi thea \VPE RTC). The chapter wil conlade with cuson of meet bea epitaxy (MBE) ard 'Aprotaype VPE system is shown ia Figure H.. Mach ike a ow presse CVD reactor, the fer isin a vacuum chan eating on s heed since. This heating usally done itr by ‘aati fr larent amps or By inductively heating the prt sacopor- The sytem i "ally amp although sere ion pital powth systems ave no vac apa al. The fs flows are conte with mas ow controllers std pacumue valves “Atcommeril VPE temperate the dopant ine significa, aking very hin yer and strap ansitons posable As the temperate is redicer the iinery doveascs moe apy than te growth ra, making lower tempera epiany very desirable. A great dal of progres as eon mace inthe pst ow yea in rducing the eerste of sco epitay. These improvements have grcrally involved reduclag te iputyconcenuation ia te growth chamber. Sal aling haber ale oa lack that areata to, a em Be pred indepen of the main chim ter allow the introduction of new waters without vetag the growth chumber afr each ru. Also, eer pamps and sexs ae now Being acd ta nprove the qaly of the vacusm inthe chamber aly tere are being wed to remove chemal contaminant hm the gi feed. Some production (ow snow done a terperaures below TOK. Research ha demonstrated highly goth Snsinele wafer syaeme at emperors of shoe KC [2 Uhrahigh vacuum growth om the apo hae been done ut mich lower temperate. Cven ts progres an the high defect dems ofthe sheratine growth esiniqs the flee of these VPE apache lank ery aratve forthe prot ick ner Tei gest Tait For growing ery hn seuss atc of nt eine pow dagostes 1). 355