2010

Computed Tomography
A case-study
Presented by Group 5, AEIE, 4th year of Guru Nanak Institute of Technology

Avik Mukherjee Sritama Das Abhishek Nath 29//2010

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Acknowledgement
We are grateful to all our team members and teachers whose immense help and support has contributed to making this report a success. This project is an effort to put forward one of the most widely used forms of medical imaging in the field of biomedical engineering, Computed Tomography scan.

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Contents
Introduction..3 Limitations of conventional Radiography.7 CT scanning procedure9 X-Ray Generator and Detector10 The main components of CAT scan11 Image formation on the monitor15 Spiral CAT scan.17 Multislice CAT scan18 Helical CAT scan..20 Advances in CAT scan..23 CAT based Data Acquisition System..24 Comparison between MRI and CAT scan28 Conclusion..30 References..31

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Introduction
Medical imaging is the technique and process used to create images of the human body (or parts and function thereof) for clinical purposes (medical procedures seeking to reveal, diagnose or examine disease) or medical science (including the study of normal anatomy and physiology). Although imaging of removed organs and tissues can be performed for medical reasons, such procedures are not usually referred to as medical imaging, but rather are a part of pathology. As a discipline and in its widest sense, it is part of biological imaging and incorporates radiology (in the wider sense), nuclear medicine, investigative radiological sciences, endoscopy, (medical) thermography, medical photography and microscopy (e.g. for human pathological investigations). Measurement and recording techniques which are not primarily designed to produce images, such as electroencephalography (EEG), magneto encephalography (MEG), Electrocardiography (EKG) and others, but which produce data susceptible to be represented as maps (i.e. containing positional information), can be seen as forms of medical imaging. Tomography is the method of imaging a single plane, or slice, of an object resulting in a tomogram. There are several forms of tomography:

Linear tomography: This is the most basic form of tomography. The X-ray tube moved from point "A" to point "B" above the patient, while the cassette holder (or "Bucky") moves simultaneously under the patient from point "B" to point "A." The fulcrum, or pivot point, is set to the area of interest. In this manner, the points above and below the focal plane are blurred out, just as the background is blurred when panning a camera

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during exposure. No longer carried out and replaced by computed tomography. Poly tomography: This was a complex form of tomography. With this technique, a number of geometrical movements were programmed, such as hypocycloidal, circular, figure 8, and elliptical. Philips Medical Systems produced one such device called the 'Polytome.' This unit was still in use into the 1990s, as its resulting images for small or difficult physiology, such as the inner ear, was still difficult to image with CTs at that time. As the resolution of CTs got better, this procedure was taken over by the CT. Zonography: This is a variant of linear tomography, where a limited arc of movement is used. It is still used in some centers for visualizing the kidney during an intravenous urogram (IVU). Orthopantomography (OPT or OPG): The only common tomographic examination in use. This makes use of a complex movement to allow the radiographic examination of the mandible, as if it were a flat bone. It is often referred to as a "Panorex", but this is incorrect, as it is a trademark of a specific company. Computed Tomography (CT), or Computed Axial Tomography (CAT: A CT scan, also known as a CAT scan), is a helical tomography (latest generation), which traditionally produces a 2D image of the structures in a thin section of the body. It uses Xrays. It has a greater ionizing radiation dose burden than projection radiography; repeated scans must be limited to avoid health effects. CT is based on the same principles as X-Ray projections but in this case, the patient is enclosed in a surrounding ring of detectors assigned with 500-1000 scintillation detectors.

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Computed tomography (CT) is a medical imaging method employing tomography created by computer processing. Digital geometry processing is used to generate a three-dimensional image of the inside of an object from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken around a single axis of rotation. CT produces a volume of data which can be manipulated, through a process known as "windowing", in order to demonstrate various bodily structures based on their ability to block the X-ray beam. Although historically the images generated were in the axial or transverse plane, orthogonal to the long axis of the body, modern scanners allow this volume of data to be reformatted in various planes or even as volumetric (3D) representations of structures. Although most commonly used in medicine, CT is also used in other fields, such as nondestructive materials testing. Another example is archaeological uses such as imaging the contents of sarcophagi or the DigiMorph project at the University of Texas at Austin which uses a CT scanner to study biological and paleontological specimens. Industrial CT (Computed Tomography) scanning is a process which utilizes x-ray equipment to produce 3D representations of components both externally and internally. Industrial CT scanning has been utilized in many areas of industry for internal inspection of components. Some of the key uses for CT scanning have been flaw detection, failure analysis, metrology, assembly analysis and reverse engineering applications. Usage of CT has increased dramatically over the last two decades. An estimated 72 million scans were performed in the United States in 2007.

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Limitations of conventional Radiography

Film/screen radiography has several drawbacks that limit its ability to visualize low-contrast tissues and structures with acceptable levels of patient radiation exposure. These limitations include the following. Inefficient X-Ray Absorption Before the introduction of rare earthintensifying screens 2025 y ago, the x-ray absorption efficiency of typical par-speed/calcium tungstate film/screen cassettes was only about 25%. Thus, 75% of the available xray beam as well as 75% of the information was wasted. High ScattertoPrimary X-Ray Ratios Because of large beam areas, scattered photons represented 50% or more of the x-rays absorbed by the screens, even with a grid able to remove high levels of scatter. Scatter effectively reduces subject contrast by creating a background intensity unrelated to the overlying anatomy. The amount of lost subject contrast is given by the contrast reduction factor, 1/ [1 + (S/P)], where S and P are the scatter and the primary x-ray intensities at the receptor, respectively (1). If 50% of the detected x-rays are scatter (so that S = P), then subject contrast is reduced by a contrast reduction factor of 0.5. Superimposition and Conspicuity Conspicuity is the ease of finding an image feature during a visual search. A feature may be visible if one knows where to look but may be missedthat is, it may be inconspicuousif the image is complex. Radiography renders a 3-dimensional volume onto a 2-dimensional image; as a consequence, over- and underlying tissues and structures are superimposed, generally resulting in reduced conspicuity as well as subject contrast.

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Receptor Contrast versus Latitude Clinically useful radiographic films must provide sufficient exposure latitude (i.e., a range of exposures yielding clinically acceptable film densities) to record as much of the range of x-ray intensities exiting the patient as possible; this feature necessarily limits receptor contrast. For example, for a typical radiographic film with an average gradient (i.e., film contrast) of 2.5, an intensity (I) difference of 1.0% would yield a film optical density (OD) difference and (in the usual absence of welldefined edges) would not be visible.

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C.T. Scanning Procedure

X-ray slice data is generated using an X-ray source that rotates around the object; X-ray sensors are positioned on the opposite side of the circle from the X-ray source. In conventional CT machines, an X-ray tube and detector are physically rotated behind a circular shroud. The electron beam is deflected in a hollow funnel-shaped vacuum chamber. X-rays are generated when the beam hits the stationary target. The detector is also stationary. This arrangement can result in very fast scans, but is extremely expensive. Once the scan data has been acquired, the data must be processed using a form of tomographic reconstruction, which produces a series of cross-sectional images.

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X-Ray Generator and Detector

A high-resolution X-ray apparatus and a high-resolution X-ray detecting apparatus includes a plurality of multi-slice X-ray detection packs held on the pair of guide rails by detachable tight fitting members. A detachable pressing board is provided on the pair of guide rails for fixing the plurality of detection packs so that edges of adjacent detection packs contact each other. A slip ring passes electrical power to the rotating components (e.g., x-ray tube and detectors) without fixed connections. The idea is similar to that used by bumper cars; power is passed to the cars through a metal brush that slides along a conductive ceiling. Similarly, a slip ring is a drum or annulus with grooves along which electrical contactor brushes slide (supplemental Fig. 14). Data are transmitted from detectors via various high-capacity wireless technologies, thus allowing continuous rotation to occur. A slip ring allows the complete elimination of interscan delays, except for the time required to move the table to the next slice position. However, the scanmovescan sequence (known as axial step-and-shoot CT) is still somewhat inefficient. For example, if scanning and moving the table each take 1 s, only 50% of the time is spent acquiring data. Furthermore, rapid table movements may introduce "tissue jiggle" motion artifacts into the images.

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The main components of CAT scan:

COMPUTER OPERATOR MONITORS IMAGE STORAGES Manufacturing Process CAT scanner manufacture is typically an assembly of various components that are supplied by outside manufacturers. The following process discusses how the major components are produced. Gantry assembly components

CONTROLS

The x-ray tube is made much like other types of electrical diodes. The individual components, including the cathode and anode, are placed inside the tube envelope and vacuum sealed. The tube is then situated into the protective housing, which can then be attached to the rotating portion of the scanner frame. Various detector arrays are available for CAT scanners. One type of detector array is the ideal gas-filled detector. This is made by placing strips of tungsten 0.04 inch (1 mm) apart around a large metallic frame. A ceramic substrate holds the strips in place. The entire assembly is hermetically sealed and pressure filled with an inert gas such as xenon. Each of the tiny chambers formed by the gaps between the tungsten plates are individual detectors. The finished detector is also attached to the scanner frame. To create the large amount of voltage needed to produce x rays, an autotransformer is used. This power supply device is made by winding wire around a core. Electric tap connections are made at various points along the coil and connected to the main power source. With this device, output voltage can be increased to approximately twice the input voltage.

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Control console and computer

The control consol and computer are specially designed and supplied by computer manufacturers. The primary model building computer is specifically programmed with the reconstruction algorithms needed to manipulate the x-ray data from the gantry assembly. The control consoles are also programmed with software to control the administration of the CAT scan.

Final assembly

The final assembly of the CAT scanner is a custom process which often takes place in the radiologic imaging facility. Rooms are specially designed to house each component and minimize the potential for excessive radiation exposure or electric shock. By following specific plans, equipment installation and wiring of the entire CAT scanner system is completed.

Quality Control As with all electronic equipment, quality control tests are an important part of CAT scanner manufacturing. The scanner manufacturers typically rely on their suppliers to perform basic quality tests on the incoming components. When sections of the scanner are assembled, visual and electrical inspections are performed throughout the entire process to detect flaws. In addition to the quality specifications set by the manufacturers, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have regulations that require manufacturers to perform specific quality control tests. Examples of these tests include calibration tests of the x-ray tube, mechanical tests of the patient table, and standardization tests of the visual output.

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The Future Research for future CAT scanners is focused on four basic goals, including the production of better quality images, reducing the amount of patient radiation exposure, optimizing computer reconstruction algorithms, and improving CAT scanner design. Various methods of achieving these aims have already been attempted. To improve image quality, some scanners incorporate unique movements of the x-ray tube, the detector, or both. Others change the position of the patient. Faster scanners are being developed to reduce patient exposure time. Different kinds of computer algorithms have been developed for a variety of examinations. Future CAT scanners will likely incorporate most of these new developments, along with a continuously rotating xray tube and detectors to provide the clearest and safest imaging procedure possible. System Overview: The X-ray Tube and High-Voltage Generator The X-ray Detector and Data-Acquisition Electronics The Gantry and Slip Ring Collimation and Filtration The Reconstruction Engine Before giving a detailed analysis and description of major components in a CT scanner, this will present a system overview to explain how the different components work together to produce CT images. The actual system architecture for different commercial scanners may deviate from this diagram, but the general functionalities of all CT scanners are more or less the same.

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For a typical CT operation, an operator positions a patient on the CT table and prescribes a scanogram or scout view. The purpose of this scan is to determine the patient's anatomical landmarks and the exact location and range of CT scans. In this scan mode, both the x-ray tube and the detector remain stationary while the patient table travels at a constant speed. The scan is similar to a conventional x ray taken either at an A-P position (with the tube located in the 6 or 12 o'clock position) or a lateral position (with the tube located in the 3 or 9 o'clock position). Once such a scan is initiated, an operational control computer instructs the gantry to rotate to the desired orientation as prescribed by the operator. The computer then sends instructions to the patient table, the x-ray generation system, the x-ray detection system, and the image generation system to perform a scan. The table subsequently reaches the starting scan location and maintains a constant speed during the entire scanning process. The high-voltage generator quickly reaches the desired voltage and keeps both the voltage and the current to the x-ray tube at the prescribed level during the scan. The x-ray tube produces x-ray flux, and the x-ray photons are detected by an x-ray detector to produce electrical signals. At the same time, the data acquisition system samples the detector outputs at a uniform sampling rate and converts analog signals to digital signals. The sampled data are then sent to the image generation system for processing. Typically, the system contains high-speed computers and digital signal processing (DSP) chips. The acquired data are preprocessed and enhanced before being sent to the display device for operator viewing and to the data storage device for archiving.

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Image Formation on the monitor

The definition of an image artifact is not as clearly defined as one might expect. Theoretically, an image artifact can be defined as any discrepancy between the reconstructed values in an image and the true attenuation coefficients of the object. Although this definition is broad enough to cover nearly all types of non-ideal images, it has little practical value since nearly every image produced by a CT scanner contains an artifact by this definition. In fact, most pixels in a CT image are artifacts in some shape or form. In practice, we have to limit our discussion to the discrepancies that are clinically significant or relevant as judged by the radiologists. We want to examine only the discrepancies that impact the radiologists' performance. Compared to conventional radiography, CT systems are inherently more prone to artifacts. Recall the discussion in Chapter 3 that explained how a CT image is generated with a larger number of projections (about 1000). In a typical CT system, each projection contains roughly 1000 separate measurements. (In the case of a multislice CT scanner, which will be discussed in Chapter 10, the number of measurements in a single projection can easily be quadrupled.) As a result, nearly 106 independent readings or measurements are used to form an image. Because the nature of the back projection process is to map a point in a projection to a straight line in an image, an error in the projection reading is no longer localized, as is the case for conventional radiography. Since inaccuracies in the measurements usually manifest themselves as errors in the reconstructed images, the probability of producing an image artifact is much higher for CT. The high performance video display of the

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microcomputer is connected to the system via an interface board. The video display is a form of cathode ray tube sometimes referred to as a raster display. The term raster describes the technique of producing the picture or text which is formed by a beam of electrons that repeatedly scans across the screen to form a uniform pattern of closely spaced, horizontal lines (the raster), covering the entire screen. The screen consists of a phosphor that converts the energy of the electron beam into visible light. A picture is formed by "turning on and off" the electron beam at appropriate points in the scanning of the screen surface.

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Spiral CAT scan

A conventional computerized axial tomography scan (CAT scan or CT scan) is an x-ray procedure which combines many x-ray images with the aid of a computer to generate cross-sectional views and, if needed, three-dimensional images of the internal organs and structures of the body. A CAT scan is used to define normal and abnormal structures in the body and/or assist in procedures by helping to accurately guide the Placement of instruments or treatments. A spiral CAT scan is a new specialized CAT scan technique that involves continuous movement of the patient through the scanner with the ability to scan faster and with higher definition of internal structures. Spiral CAT scanning can permit greater visualization of blood vessels and internal tissues, such as those within the chest cavity. This form of scanner may be particularly helpful in the rapid evaluation of severe trauma injuries, such as those sustained in automobile accidents. A spiral CAT scan is also referred to as helical CAT scan.

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Multislice CAT scan

Over the past few years, however, CT technology has advanced significantly. Today, CT imaging machines have been updated to allow much better visual resolution of the coronary arteries. These modern CT scans - called multislice CT scans, or MSCT scans - can not only quantify calcium scores, but also can allow remarkably accurate imaging of the coronary arteries themselves, and often, blockages in the coronary arteries can be seen quite clearly. The quality of the image with MSCT scans is partially related to the number of "slices" taken by the camera. Currently, 16-slice and 64-slice CT imagers are commercially available. How good are multislice CT scans? It depends on what you're looking for. If you want to know whether coronary artery disease is present or not, the test is very good. If the test says it cannot find coronary artery disease, then there is a 98 - 99% chance that, in fact, no coronary artery disease is present. (That is, the MSCT scan has a very high negative predictive value, similar to the calcium scans.) If a person has significant blockages in the coronary arteries, there is over a 90% chance the MSCT scan will detect one or more. However, the MSCT scan cannot visualize the entire coronary artery tree. A recent multi-center study showed that only 71% of the important segments of the coronary arteries could be evaluated by MSCT scan. Other studies have claimed that up to 88% of segments can

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be evaluated. In any case, if a blockage exists in a coronary artery there is a 12 - 29% chance that the MSCT will miss it. Limitations of multislice CT scans To have a MSCT scan, a patient needs to have a resting heart rate that is regular (so, among other things, no atrial fibrillation allowed) and no faster than 60 - 70 beats per minute. The patient must be able to hold his/her breath for at least 15 seconds, and cannot be allergic to contrast dye. Furthermore, the visual resolution of the coronary arteries with MSCT scans will be relatively poor in patients with significant calcium deposits. With today's technology, MSCT scans expose the patient to quite a bit of radiation. Radiation doses with MSCT scans are 30 - 50 times higher than with a chest x-ray, 5 - 10 times higher than with simple calcium scans, and approximately the same as with a cardiac catheterization.

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Helical CAT scan

Introduction Helical CT (also called spiral CT) was introduced commercially in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Helical CT has expanded the traditional CT capability by enabling the scan of an entire organ in a single breathhold. It is safe to state that helical CT is one of the key steps that moved CT from a slice-oriented imaging modality to an organ-oriented modality. The difference in the naming convention between helical and spiral CT is due mainly to different CT manufacturers. For all practical and technical purposes, there is no difference between the two. To avoid confusion, we will use the term helical throughout this chapter. Clinical needs All previous chapters have focused on a single scanning protocol: the step-and-shoot mode. This scanning protocol contains both a data acquisition period and non-data-acquisition period. During the data acquisition period, the patient remains stationary while the x-ray tube and detector rotates about the patient at a constant speed. Once a complete projection dataset is acquired for the slice, the non-dataacquisition period starts. The x-ray tube is turned off and the patient is indexed to the next scanning location. For typical CT scanners, the minimum non-data-acquisition period is on the order of seconds as a result of both mechanical and patient constraints. The mechanical constraint is due to the fact that a typical patient weighs over 45 kg, and the patient table requires a certain amount of time to move a large

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mass from one location to another. The cause of the patient constraint may not be as obvious. From the law of physics we know that to move a resting object over a short distance, first we must accelerate the object up to a certain speed and decelerate the object when it is near the target location. Since the distance between adjacent scanning locations is typically a few millimeters, the amount of acceleration and deceleration is fairly large. A human body is not rigid (the internal organs can move and deform), so the acceleration and deceleration will likely induce motion in the patient. As a result, a certain amount of time must elapse to minimize motion artifacts. In the late 1980s, the CT scan speed approached one second per revolution. Tomotherapy Tomotherapy or Helical Tomotherapy, is a form of computed tomography (CT) guided IMRT or Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy, which is a relatively new type of radiation therapy delivery system. The system was developed at the University of Wisconsin Madison by Professor Thomas Rockwell Mackie, Ph.D. and Paul Reckwerdt. A small megavoltage x-ray source was mounted in a similar fashion to a CT x-ray source, and the geometry provided the opportunity to provide CT images of the body in the treatment setup position. Although original plans were to include kilo voltage CT imaging, current models use megavoltage energies. With this combination, the unit was one of the first devices capable of providing modern image-guided radiation therapy (IGRT). The first patients were treated in 2002, at the University of Wisconsin under the guidance of Professor Minesh Mehta, M.D., under the auspices of an NIH-funded Program Project Grant.

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General Principles In general, radiation therapy has developed with a strong reliance on homogeneity of dose throughout the tumor. Tomotherapy embodies the sequential delivery of radiation to different parts of the tumor which raises two important issues. First, this method is known as "field matching" and brings with it the possibility of a less-than-perfect match between two adjacent fields with a resultant hot and/or cold spot within the tumor. The second issue is that if the patient or tumor moves during this sequential delivery, then again, a hot or cold spot will result. The first problem can be overcome, or at least minimized, by careful construction of the beam delivery system. The second requires close attention to the position of the target throughout treatment delivery. The Corvous Tomotherapy system achieved great popularity because it provided a mass market solution to IMRT very early compared to other vendors' systems. Generally speaking, dose homogeneity is less in IMRT than in 3D conformal radiation therapy which may account for the relative lack of concern regarding the field matching issue.

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Advances in CAT scan

Original CT scanners (1974 to 1987) would spin 360 in one direction and make an image (or slice), then spin 360 in the other direction to make a second slice. Between each slice, the machine would stop completely and reverse directions while the patient table was moved forward by an increment equal to the thickness of a slice. In the mid1980s, an innovation called the "power slip ring" allowed scanners to rotate continuously. This development led to a new type of CT called "spiral" or "helical" scanning. "Virtual Reality" Imaging and Advanced 3D CT New computer software and advanced computer systems combine with spiral CT to produce three-dimensional images that enable a growing number of non-invasive "virtual endoscopy" procedures to be performed. Endoscopy involves the use of an endoscope--a tiny camera at the end of a thin tube--to visualize the inside of certain organs, such as the colon. Virtual endoscopy performed with CT allows visualization of these same organ interiors without using an invasive endoscope. Some virtual endoscopy procedures, like the placing of a stent inside a major blood vessel, were not possible with conventional endoscopy. Endoscopes could not be used to visualize the inside of blood vessels, but spiral CT scan. Multi-slice CT, combined with 3D reconstruction, is the newest technology for the management of heart disease and stroke.

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CT scan based Data Acquisition System

Use of CT (computed tomography) scanning is increasing as technology improvements provide clearer, more detailed pictures of the human body for physician analysis and diagnosis. At the same time, healthcare facilities are faced with a growing need for better quality, faster, and more affordable diagnostic imaging equipment. Analog Devices, Inc., (NYSE: ADI) the leading provider of data conversion technology and longtime collaborator to the medical imaging industry, is addressing these needs with a new current-to-digital converter chip that enables high slice count CT systems to capture real-time moving images such as a beating heart with a high degree of accuracy and detail. The ADAS1128 is a 24-bit current-to-digital converter that changes photodiode array signals into digital signals. The product offers 128 data conversion channels, provides an unparalleled increase in speed from 6kSPS (kilo samples per second) to 20kSPS, and supports four times more channels (128 versus 32) than any other integrated converter solution available on the market today. This level of performance and integration means a 50 percent reduction of a CT detection systems electronics cost versus older designs. Higher slice count CT systems require an increase in the number of data acquisition channels necessary to process images. The level of integration of ADIs ADAS1128 chip will enable lower cost CT systems by reducing the cost per channel of the data acquisition circuits," said Bernard Gordon, chairman of NeuroLogica Corporation, a provider of medical imaging equipment for healthcare facilities and private practices worldwide. A prominent pioneer in the medical imaging industry, Gordon is also the founder and former CEO of Analogic Corporation, a leading designer and manufacturer of advanced health and security systems and subsystems sold primarily to Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs).

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CT imaging combines special X-ray equipment with sophisticated computers to produce internal 2D and 3D images of the human body. CT scans of internal organs, bone, soft tissue, and blood vessels provide more detailed images than X-ray exams, enabling physicians to more easily diagnose problems that include cancer, cardiovascular disease, and musculoskeletal disorders. Today, it is estimated that more than 62 million medical CT scans are done in the United States annually, compared to three million in 1980. A higher slice count is one of the principal factors that enable current CT scanners to provide more detailed images, said Patrick ODoherty, healthcare segment director, Analog Devices. With the ADAS1128, diagnostic system designers can develop CT scanners that produce clearer images while reducing overall scan time compared with older machines. This is invaluable in critical care areas, such as cardiology, neurology, and angiography. The dramatic system-level cost, size, and power savings resulting from the ADAS1128 means that world-class CT scan diagnostics will become more affordable and practical in medical and security-sensitive environments throughout the world. Advancements in CT scan imaging will fundamentally change the practice and economics of diagnostic imaging, said Susie Inouye, research director, Databeans, Inc., a leading semiconductor research firm. Current-to-digital converters that offer higher levels of channel integration will play a vital role in the design of next-generation CT scanners. By quadrupling the number of data conversion channels, ADIs new current-to-digital converter is setting a new performance benchmark for CT detection system designs. Current-to-Digital Converter Features 24-Bit Resolution, 128 Channels, Lower Power. The ADAS1128 replaces previous converter-based technology having low levels of channel integration. The product integrates a 24-bit resolution ADC (analog-to-digital converter) with 128 simultaneously

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sampled data converter channels, selectable sample rates up to 20 kSPS, and on-chip temperature sensor and reference buffer into a 1 cm2 single-chip solution. Along with supporting four times more channels, the product delivers over three times the throughput of any other solution available on the market. The ADAS1128 consumes less than half the power of other solutions (4.5 mW/channel versus 10 mW/channel at full speed). It also offers superior overall performance specs, such as no charge loss, more choices of full scale ranges, and ultra-low noise (down to 0.4 fC for lowdose X-ray systems). Other recent medical announcements from ADI include the awardwining AD927x family of eight-channel (octal) receivers for ultrasound systems. These products, along with other ADI offerings, represent todays broadest IC product portfolio geared specifically toward the healthcare imaging market. Recommended Complementary Components Complementary components for the ADAS1128 include the ADR440 XFET voltage reference and ADP1708 linear regulator. Pricing and Availability The ADAS1128 current-to-digital converter is available now in volume production. The ADAS1128 is housed in a compact 10-mm 10-mm mini BGA (ball grid array) package. Along with CT systems, the ADAS1128 also enables the design of X-ray-based security imaging systems used in shipping yards, harbors, and airports.
Product Resolution Channel Count 128 Price Channel $1.50 Per Unit Price in 250-piece quantities $192

ADAS1128 24-bit

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Industrys Leading Converter Portfolio. More designers turn to Analog Devices than any other supplier for the high-performance conversion technology required to bridge the analog and digital worlds in todays myriad electronic systems. With the industrys leading portfolio of analog-to-digital converters and digitalto-analog converters, Analog Devices converter products feature the right combination of sampling rates, accuracy and reduced noise, power dissipation, price and package size required in industrial and instrumentation, healthcare equipment, automotive systems, communications infrastructure, and consumer electronics. Evaluation tools help customers quickly validate, select, and design in the optimal data converters to reduce design complexity, development schedules, and bill-of-material costs. About Analog Devices Innovation, performance, and excellence are the cultural pillars on which Analog Devices has built one of the longest standing, highest growth companies within the technology sector. Acknowledged industry-wide as the world leader in data conversion and signal conditioning technology, Analog Devices serves over 60,000 customers, representing virtually all types of electronic equipment. Celebrating over 40 years as a leading global manufacturer of high-performance integrated circuits used in analog and digital signal processing applications, Analog Devices is headquartered in Norwood, Massachusetts, with design and manufacturing facilities throughout the world. Analog Devices' common stock is listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker ADI and is included in the S&P 500 Index.

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COMPARISON OF CT SCAN AND MRI Parameter Radiation exposure: CT Scan Moderate - high radiation MRI None

MRI costs range from $1200 to $4000 (with CT Scan costs range from contrast); which is Cost: $1,200 to $3,200; they usually more than CT usually cost less than MRIs. scans and X-rays, and most examining methods. Details of bony Provides good details about Less detailed compared structures: bony structures to CT scan Ability to change the MRI machines can imaging plane Not present produce images in any without moving plane the patient: Time taken for Usually completed within 5 Scanning typically run for complete scan: minutes about 30 minutes. Details of soft Less detailed compared to Much higher detail in the tissues: MRI soft tissues Magnetic Resonance Acronym for: Computer tomography Imaging No biological hazards Effects on the Despite being small, CT can have been reported with body: pose the risk of irradiation. the use of the MRI. MRI is more versatile Scope of CT scan outline bone inside than the X-Ray and is application: the body very accurately. used to examine a large variety of medical

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Parameter

CT Scan

MRI conditions.

About:

CT Scan or Computed Magnetic resonance tomography is a medical imaging (MRI) is a imaging obtained using Xmedical imaging rays. The radiation is passed technique most through the body and commonly used in received by a detector and radiology to visualize then integrated by a detailed internal computer to obtain a cross structure and limited sectional image that is function of the body. displayed on the screen.

Principal used Uses X-rays for imaging for imaging: Principle: MRI makes use of magnetic fields. Demonstrates subtle differences between the different kinds of soft tissues. MRI produces detailed images of tissues and the brain.

Image specifics:

Application:

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Conclusion
X-ray computed tomography (CT), introduced into clinical practice in 1972, and was the first of the modern slice-imaging modalities. To reconstruct images mathematically from measured data and to display and to archive them in digital form was a novelty then and is commonplace today. CT has shown a steady upward trend with respect to technology, performance and clinical use independent of predictions and expert assessments which forecast in the 1980s that it would be completely replaced by magnetic resonance imaging. CT not only survived but exhibited a true renaissance due to the introduction of spiral scanning which meant the transition from slice-by-slice imaging to true volume imaging. Complemented by the introduction of array detector technology in the 1990s, CT today allows imaging of whole organs or the whole body in 5 to 20 s with sub-millimeter isotropic resolution. This review of CT will proceed in chronological order focusing on technology, image quality and clinical applications. In its final part it will also briefly allude to novel uses of CT such as dualsource CT, C-arm flat-panel-detector CT and micro-CT. At present CT possibly exhibits a higher innovation rate than ever before. In consequence the topical and most recent developments will receive the greatest attention.

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References
www.thefreedictionary.com scintigraphy Dhawan P, A. (2003). Medical Imaging Analysis. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience Publication. http://wikipedia.org/wiki/computedtomography/ Novelline, Robert. Squire's Fundamentals of Radiology. Harvard University Press. 5th edition. 1997. ISBN 0-674-83339-2 Simpson, Graham (2009). Thoracic computed tomography: principles and practice (PDF). Australian Prescriber, 32:4. Retrieved September 25, 2009. Journal of Nuclear Medicine Technology Volume 35, Number 3, 2007 115-128 2007 by Society of Nuclear Medicine. L. W. Goldman Principles of CT: Multislice CT J. Nucl. Med. Technol., June 1, 2008.