MEASUREMENT THEORY

Nama Anggota Kelompok : Marcellina Cindy Lupita Novrizal Nugroho Ken Anissa Sylfia Sipayung N Renny Larasati Tiffany Adam Nurin Wildania

Teori Akuntansi Keuangan

ASSUMPTIONS 1. Economic entity 2. Going concern 3. Monetary unit 4. Periodicity 5. Accrual

PRINCIPLES 1. Measurement 2. Revenue recognition 3. Expense recognition 4. Full disclosure

CONSTRAINTS 1. Cost 2. Materiality

QUALITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS 1. Fundamental qualities 2. Enhancing qualities

ELEMENTS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Assets Liabilities Equity Income Expenses

OBJECTIVE Provide information about the reporting entity that is useful to present and potential equity investors, lenders, and other creditors in their capacity as capital Providers.

IMPORTANCE OF MEASUREMENT
Pengukuran yang menghasilkan data kuantitatif memberikan informasi lebih besar dibanding data kualitatif. Campbell, assignment of numerals to represent properties of material systems Stevens, assignment of numerals to objects or events according to the rules.

IMPORTANCE OF MEASUREMENT
Stevens, Peraturan yang dipakai adalah semantic rules. Menghubungkan simbol agar dapat menerangkan sebuah objek, ketika objek tersebut dapat dijelaskan dengan persamaan matematika maka pengukuran telah dilakukan

SCALES
Every measurement is made on scale. Menunjukan informasi tentang gambaran angka dan memberikan arti bagi angka tersebut.

Menurut Stevens, skala dibagi menjadi 4: Skala Nominal Skala Ordinal Skala Interval Skala Ratio

NOMINAL SCALE
Used only as labels. Represent Classification Example: Chart of Account

ORDINAL SCALE
Created when an operation ranks the objects in question with respect to a given property. Weakness: tidak menjelaskan perbedaan interval antar ranking. Tongerson berpendapat, skala ordinal mempunyai natural origin, yaitu natural zero point.

INTERVAL SCALE
Interval scale imparts more information than ordinal scale, not only ranking, but the distance between the intervals on the scale is equal and known, and selected zero point also exists. Weakness: zero point is arbitrarily established. Example: varians dalam standar cost accounting.

RATIO SCALE
Ratio Scale is one where: The rank order of the objects or event s The interval between the objects are equal and are known Natural zero point, exists where the distance from it for at least one object is known

PERMISSIBLE OPERATIONS OF SCALE

Beberapa aplikasi matematika tertentu hanya dapat dioperasikan di tipe skala tertentu Nominal & Ordinal Scales Tidak ada operasi aritmatika Interval Scales Pengurangan dan Penambahan Ratio Scales Semua operasi aritmatika

PERMISSIBLE OPERATIONS OF SCALE

Invariant Skala ratio jika dikalikan dengan konstanta, maka akan menghasilkan skala ratio yang sama

Skala Rasio
X = cX Hal ini karena Peringkatnya tidak berubah Rasionya tidak berubah Titik nol tidak berubah

PERMISSIBLE OPERATIONS OF SCALE

Varian Pengukuran dengan dua skala yang berbeda Skala Interval

X = cX + b
Karena variant maka kita tidak bisa mengatakan A X kali lebih .... dari B

PERMISSIBLE OPERATIONS OF SCALE

Rasio A

X= cx X=10.2
X= cx X=10.6

x=2 X=20
x=6 X=60 6 =3 x 2 60 =3 x 20 B = 3 x A

Inter val A X= cx+b X=10.2+10 B X= cx+b X=10.6+10

x=2 X =30 x=6 X =70 6 =3 x 2 70 =3 x 30 B 3 x A

T YPE OF MEASUREMENT
Menurut Campbell, dalam melakukan pengukuran, harus ada teori yang mendasarinya. Type of measurement menurut Campbell : Fundamental Measurement dan Derived Measurement

FUNDAMENTAL MEASUREMENT
Pengukuran terhadap sesuatu sesuai dengan teori dasar dan tidak terhantung pada pengukuran atas variabel lain Contoh : panjang, jumlah, volume

DERIVED MEASUREMENT
Merupakan pengukuran yang bergantung pada pengukuran dua atau lebih variabel Contoh : pengukuran profit

FIAT MEASUREMENT
Dalam akuntansi, tidak ada teori yang mendasarinya, hanya berdasarkan asumsi Teori pengukuran yang dibuat merupakan hasil pemikiran Contoh : Pengukuran laba akuntansi

REALIBILIT Y AND ACCURACY

Tidak ada measurement yang bebas dari error. Sumber-sumber error dalam melakukan measurement, yaitu : 1. Measurement operations stated imprecisely 2. Measurer (si pengukur) 3. Instrument (contoh : grafik dan tabel atas sejumlah angka dan indeks harga) 4. Environment 5. Attribute unclear 6. Risk and uncertainty

REALIABLE MEASUREMENT
Apa yang dimaksud dengan realiable measurement? 1. Proven consistency 2. Repeatable or reproductable 3. Precision Ada 2 aspek realibility, yaitu : 1. Accuracy and certainty of measurement 2. Representative of faithfulness

ACCURATE MEASUREMENT
Hasil yang konsisten, ketelitian, dan realibility seharusnya mengarah pada keakuratan (accuracy). Keakuratan dapat dicapai dengan melakukan pengukuran yang benar dan menunjukkan nilai yang benar (true value) dari ukuran tersebut. Untuk melakukan perhitungan yang akurat diperlukan standar yang menunjukkan nilai yang sebenarnya.

DA M PAK DA RI P E N GG UNAAN FA I R VA LUE DA LA M P E LA P ORAN LK T E RH A DAP P ROF E SI A KUN TANSI I N T E RVI EW DE N G A N T H E RE SA A BLSTORM , LON G I SLA N D OF F I C E M A NAG I NG PA RT NER, KP M G LLP

Dampak perhitungan FV pada realibility dan relevancy dari laporan keuangan. Tujuan digunakannya FV adalah agar dapat menyediakan LK yang lebih relevan dan mencerminkan keadaan ekonomi yang sebenarnya sehingga lebih relevan terhadap keadaan pasar. Subjektivitas dan proses estimasi menimbulkan keraguan atas keandalan informasi. Tetapi perhitungan FV dianggap lebih realiable dibandingkan dengan historical cost.

PA NDANG AN A B LS T RO M PA DA P E NG G U NAAN P E NG UK U RAN FA I R VA LU E T E R HADAP P E NING KATAN ATAU P E NU RU NAN KO M P LEK SITAS DA N K UA LI TAS DA RI L A PO RAN K E UANG AN .

Subjektivitas dan kompleksitas yang melekat pada penilaian fair value yang memungkinkan mudah untuk dimanipulasi, sehingga hal ini tergantung dari ketelitian dan kompetensi teknis dari si pembuat LK

DAMPAK SFAS 157 FAIR VALUE MEASUREMENT TERHADAP STANDAR AKUNTANSI FV MEASUREMENT. SFAS 157 menjadi salah satu guidelines atau kerangka untuk menghitung FV yang diharapkan mampu meningkatkan konsistensi dan transparansi dalam penilaian FV.

DAMPAK PENGGUNAAN FV MEASUREMENT TERHADAP AUDIT PROCEDURE DARI AUDITOR INDEPENDENT. Hal ini berdampak pada audit risk dan cost dari audit. Karena kalkulasi FV tidak terlepas dari subjektivitas dan komplektitas sehingga berdampak pada resiko audit.

MEASUREMENT IN ACCOUNTING
Ada 2 fundamental measure dalam akuntansi : - Capital - Profit Sebelum diperkenalkannya IAS Profit was not earned until initial opening historical cost capital was maintained and profit realized Capital was always stated at historical cost and changes in net assets were not considered as profit

MEASUREMENT IN ACCOUNTING
Setelah diperkenalkannya IAS Profit derived from the change in capital ovet the period from all activities including decrease/increase in fair value of net assets, excl. transaction with owners Capital is derived from the net of fair value measure of assets and liabilities.

MEASUREMENT IN ACCOUNTING
Sejarah perkembangan konsep capital valuation in accounting First thousand years AD : The purpose of accounting was to count & safeguard the assets of the steward using single-entry accounting Dimulainya jalur perdagangan di Timur Tengah dan Asia setelah perang salib abad ke 11, profit dihitung tiap satu kali perjalanan. Sedangkan ending capital diukur sebagai accumuluation of wealth from individual ventures plus original capital, profit represented an increase in wealth.

MEASUREMENT IN ACCOUNTING
The use of Arabic numbering system together with the concept of returnable capital led to the evolution of double-entry accounting was used by Italian merchants from the 12 th 16 th centuries and first documented by Luca Pacioli as The System of Venice in 1494

Pada abad ke 18 di Inggris berkembang perusahaan dengan kepemilikan saham ditandai dengan adanya limited liability, separate management class, & transferability of shares . Namun karena banyaknya perusahaan yang bangkrut, disusunlah Joint Stock Companies Regulation Act pada 1844. This act emphesized creditor protection and conservative accounting valuation. Serta mulai menggunakan metode LOCOM (lower of cost and market value) sebagai prinsip pengukuran capital.

MEASUREMENT IN ACCOUNTING
Dikenalnya konsep depresiasi (depreciation method) di Amerika Serikat pada abad ke -19 Paton & Littleton in 1940 produced the first definitive statement on the concept of capital and profit. Profit as being derived from the matching or allocation of historical costs against revenue earned. The balance sheet was simply the repository of all yet-to-be allocated historical cost and not seen as a measurement of net market value (or a fair value) of a bussiness

MEASUREMENT IN ACCOUNTING
Kritikan atas prinsip valuation historical cost mulai berkembang pada tahun 1960an. Para pakar berpendapat bahwa valuation yang didasarkan pada historical cost sudah tidak lagi tepat untuk pengambilan keputusan. The profit did not measure contemporary resource usage . IASB memperkenalkan standar akuntansi pada tahun 2005: profit measurement and revenue recognition should be linked to timely recognition the fair value approach should be adopted as the working measurement principle

THEORY IN ACTION 5.2 CAPITAL OR INCOME?

1. Why is the measurement distinction between capital and income important? 2. Why do you think is real financial capital maintenance and what is physical capital maintenance? 3. Is the increase in the value of a house you live in income or capital ? Provide explanation.

4.

Does your answer to question 3 change if your house is an

invesment property? Give reasons for your answer.

T H E FA S B / I A S B J O I N T P R O J E C T O N F I N A N C I A L S TAT E M E N T P R E S E N TAT I O N H I G H L I G H T S T H E I A S B S T H I N K I N G O N I N C O M E A N D A S S E T M E A S U R E M E N T, PA R T I C U L A R LY T H E A P P L I C AT I O N O F FA I R VA L U E M E A S U R E M E N T. SOME AGREED CONCEPTD INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING :

1.

Accounting information should be aimed at decision makers making economic decisions about the entity

2.

Entities should present a single statement of all

recognised income and expense items as a component of a complete set of financial statements

T H E FA S B / I A S B J O I N T P R O J E C T O N F I N A N C I A L S TAT E M E N T P R E S E N TAT I O N H I G H L I G H T S T H E I A S B S T H I N K I N G O N I N C O M E A N D A S S E T M E A S U R E M E N T, PA R T I C U L A R LY T H E A P P L I C AT I O N O F FA I R VA L U E M E A S U R E M E N T. SOME AGREED CONCEPTD INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING :

3. The statement should be all -inclusive:

a) It should include the ef fects of all changes in net assets and

liabilites during the period, other than transactions with owner s .

b) Assets and liabilities should be valued at fair value which presumes market prices but substitutes such as discounted future cash flow, depreciated market prices but substitutes such as discounted future cash flows, depreciated market prices or asset -prici ng models can be used in the absence of a liquid market .

c) Income determination should be split between profit before remeasurement and remeasurement ef fects.

T H E FA S B / I A S B J O I N T P R O J E C T O N F I N A N C I A L S TAT E M E N T P R E S E N TAT I O N H I G H L I G H T S T H E I A S B S T H I N K I N G O N I N C O M E A N D A S S E T M E A S U R E M E N T, PA R T I C U L A R LY T H E A P P L I C AT I O N O F FA I R VA L U E M E A S U R E M E N T. SOME AGREED CONCEPTD INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING :

4. All income and expenses should be categorised and displayed in a way

that
a) enhances user s under standing of achieved per formance b) assists in forming expectations of future per formance 5. 6. Profit should not be based on a notion of realisation The focus should be on a) greater transparency b) useful information to investor s and relevance of data for decision

making
c) the concept of realibility has been replaced by representational faithfulness

MEASUREMENT ISSUES FOR AUDITORS

Adanya beberapa metode valuasi aset menciptakan isu untuk auditor Jika beberapa valuasi aset tersebut: 1. dapat diaplikasikan dengan benar dan konsisten, 2. menggunakan asusmsi yang masuk akal, 3. dan data yang digunakan valid untuk menghasilkan valuasi, valuasi tersebut dapat diterima auditor

IMPAIRMENT LOSS
Manajemen harus selalu mengecek apakah aset tertentu perlu ada impairment atau tidak Jika ada, maka manajemen harus mengestimasi Recoverable Amount aset Jika RA < CA maka Carrying Amount harus dikurangkan dari RA nya Pengurangan ini disebut impairment loss

HISTORICAL COST
Isu dari historical cost salah satunya standar inventory cost, di mana cost nya dinyatakan secara gamblang, namun ada hal yang mempengaruhi cost tersebut dari perubahan kondisi ekonomi.

12 METODE PENILAIAN ASET TIDAK BERWUJUD

NPV Capital asset pricing model Cost of creation Market-based comparison Royalty relief method Relative value Balanced scorecard Competency models Benchmarking Business Worth Busuness Process Auditing Knowledge Bank